Englaland

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    <title>Englaland</title>
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|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:125%; padding:0.3em;&quot; | Englaland
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; padding:0.4em;&quot; | [[File:Flag of England.svg|125px|border|alt=Englalandes bēacn]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Flag of England|Bēacn]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ddd;&quot; | Sang
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[National anthem of England|Nān ambihtlic]];&lt;br /&gt;mǣst „[[God Save the King]]“
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; padding:0.4em;&quot; | [[File:England in the UK and Europe.svg|250px|alt=Englaland on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynerīċe and on Europa]]&lt;br /&gt;Englaland (dēop grēne) on Europa (grēne and dēop grēne) and on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynerīċe (grēne)
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Hād
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Countries of the United Kingdom|Land]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Hēafodburg&lt;br /&gt;and mǣste burg
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[London|Lunden]]&lt;br /&gt;{{coord|51|30|26|N|0|07|39|W|type:city_region:GB-ENG|display=inline}}
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Þēodlic sprǣc
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[English language in England|Englisc]], [[British Sign Language|BSL]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Landlice sprǣca
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Cornish language|Cornwalisc]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Folccynn ([[2021 United Kingdom census|2021]])
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 81.0% [[White people in the United Kingdom|Hwīt]]&lt;br /&gt;9.6% [[British Asians|Asiatisc]]&lt;br /&gt;4.2% [[Black British people|Sweart]]&lt;br /&gt;3.0% [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Ġemengd]]&lt;br /&gt;2.2% [[Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom|ōðer]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Ġelēafa (2021)
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 46.3% [[Religion in England#Christianity|Crīstendōm]]&lt;br /&gt;36.7% [[Irreligion in the United Kingdom|nān ġelēafa]]&lt;br /&gt;6.7% [[Islam in England|Islāmdōm]]&lt;br /&gt;1.8% [[Hinduism in England|Hindūdōm]]&lt;br /&gt;0.9% [[Sikhism in England|Sikhdōm]]&lt;br /&gt;0.5% [[History of the Jews in England|Iūdēadōm]]&lt;br /&gt;0.5% [[Buddhism in England|Buddhadōm]]&lt;br /&gt;0.6% [[Religion in England|ōðer]]&lt;br /&gt;6.0% nā ġecȳþed
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Landfolces nama
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[English people|Englisc]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Frēo rīċe
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[United Kingdom|Ġeānode Cynerīċe]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Rihtġeweald
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[England and Wales|Englaland and Wēalas]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Ealdorscipe
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Direct rule|Þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes ġeweald]] on þǣm [[Westminster parliamentary system|witenaġemōtlicum ġemetfæstum cynerīċe]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Cyning
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Charles III|Carl sē 3a]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Witenaġemōt þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|Þǣra Ġemǣnra Hūs]]: 543 of 650 witena
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ddd;&quot; | Ġestaþelung
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Ġeānung Engla, Seaxna, and Dena
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Æthelstan#King of the English|Oþ 12 Iūlius 927]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Ġeānung mid Scotlande
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Acts of Union 1707|1 Māius 1707]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ddd;&quot; | Landes mǣþ
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Eall
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 132,932 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (51,325 sq mi)&lt;ref name=&quot;ONS Standard Area Measurement&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |title=Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK |date=31 May 2024 |website=[[ONS Open Geography Portal|Open Geography Portal]] |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=7 June 2024 |archive-date=7 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607052407/https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Land
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 130,310 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (50,310 sq mi)
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ddd;&quot; | Folc
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • ġemet 2025
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 58,834,812
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • folcġerīm 2021
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 56,490,048
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Þicnes
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | 451/km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (1,168.1/sq mi)
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ddd;&quot; | Ġeweorces wæstm (GVA)
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Eall (2023)
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | £2,113,000,000,000
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • ǣlċes mannes
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | £36,632&lt;ref name=&quot;ONS GVA&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Regional gross value added (balanced) per head and income components |date=24 April 2024 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/nominalregionalgrossvalueaddedbalancedperheadandincomecomponents |access-date=15 May 2024 |website=Office for National Statistics |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605110645/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/nominalregionalgrossvalueaddedbalancedperheadandincomecomponents |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#ddd;&quot; | Wæstm (GDP, nominal)
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Eall (2023)
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | £2,330,000,000,000
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • ǣlċes mannes
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | £40,382&lt;ref name=&quot;ONS GDP&quot; /&gt;
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Feoh
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Pound sterling|Pund sterling]] (GBP; £)
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Tīdsċīr
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[UTC+00:00|UTC+0]] ([[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]])
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | • Sumor ([[British Summer Time|BST]])
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[UTC+01:00|UTC+1]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Dæġrīmes hīw
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | Fēorrsprǣce rīm
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom|+44]]
|-
! style=&quot;vertical-align:top; padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[ISO 3166]] rīm
| style=&quot;padding:0.2em 0.5em;&quot; | [[ISO 3166-2:GB|GB-ENG]]
|}

'''Englaland''' is ān [[Countries of the United Kingdom|land]], þæt dǣl is þæs [[United Kingdom|Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]]. Hit is on þǣm īeglande [[Great Britain|Grēate Bryten]], þæs nēah 62% Englaland is, and on [[List of islands of England|mā þonne 100 smalum ġehendum īeglandum]]. Englaland hæfþ [[Anglo-Scottish border|landġemǣre]] mid Scotlande on norþdǣle and [[England–Wales border|ōðer landġemǣre]] mid Wēalum on westdǣle, and hit is ymbfangen mid þǣre [[North Sea|Norþsǣ]] on ēastdǣle, þǣre [[English Channel|Engliscan sǣ]] on sūþdǣle, þǣre [[Celtic Sea|Celtiscan sǣ]] on sūþwestdǣle, and þǣre [[Irish Sea|Īriscan sǣ]] on westdǣle. Þæt [[Continental Europe|Europisce fæstland]] is on sūþēastdǣle, and [[Ireland|Īrland]] on westdǣle. Þǣr wunodon 56,490,048 manna be þǣm [[2021 United Kingdom census|folcġerīme þæs ġēares 2021]], and 9 þūsend þūsenda on þǣre [[List of urban areas in the United Kingdom|mǣstan byrig]], [[London|Lunden]].

Þæt land, þe nū Englaland is ġenemned, wæs ǣrest on þǣre [[Upper Paleolithic|Ufran Ealdstānælde]] fram andweardum mannum ġeeardod. Hit nimeþ his naman fram þǣm [[Angles (tribe)|Englum]], þe wǣron ān [[Germanic peoples|Ġermānisc]] cynn, þe on þǣm 5an and 6an ġēarhundredum þæt land eardodon. Englaland wearþ on þǣm 10an ġēarhundrede ān ġeānod rīċe, and siþþan sēo [[Age of Discovery|ġemētednesse ælde]], þe on þǣm 15an ġēarhundrede ongann, hæfþ hit miċel ġeweald [[Anglicisation|þēawa and ǣwa]] ofer þā wīdran weorold.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=England&amp;nbsp;– Culture |url=http://www.britainusa.com/sections/index_nt1.asp?i=41105&amp;L1=41105&amp;L2=41105&amp;D=0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516162153/http://www.britainusa.com/sections/index_nt1.asp?i=41105&amp;L1=41105&amp;L2=41105&amp;D=0 |archive-date=16 May 2008 |access-date=1 February 2009 |website=britainusa.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þæt [[Kingdom of England|Englisce cynerīċe]], þe ēac Wēalas æfter 1535 ymbhæfde, wæs nā mā āsundrod [[sovereign state|frēo rīċe]] on 1 Māius 1707, þā þā þā [[Acts of Union 1707|Ǣ þǣre Ġeānunge 1707]] ġeānunge on ealdorscipe mid þǣm [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotlandes cynerīċe]] ġefremedon, and þæt [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Grēate Brytene cynerīċe]] ġeworhton.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=William E. |last=Burns |title=A Brief History of Great Britain |page=[{{GBurl |id=Fjf4YynnC90C |pg=PT21}} xxi]}}; {{Cite web |title=Acts of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny |access-date=27 January 2011 |website=parliament.uk |archive-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227033859/http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Englaland is sē fruma þǣre Engliscan sprǣce, þǣre [[English law|Engliscan ǣ]] (þe wæs grund þǣra [[common law|ġemǣnra ǣ]] manegra ōðra landa), þæs [[association football|fōtbealles]], and þæs [[Anglicanism|Anglicisces]] dǣles þæs crīstendōmes; his [[Westminster system|witenaġemōtlic ealdorscipe]] is wīde fram ōðrum þēodum ġenumen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=26 October 2009 |title=Country profile: United Kingdom |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1038758.stm |access-date=1 February 2009 |archive-date=9 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209181956/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1038758.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sē [[Industrial Revolution|Weorccræftes Ymbhwyrft]] ongann on Englalande on þǣm 18an ġēarhundrede, and hē þæt land tō þǣre forman weorcþēode on weorulde ġewende.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Industrial Revolution |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Global_Warming/Older/Industrial_Revolution.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427080826/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Global_warming/older/Industrial_Revolution.html |archive-date=27 April 2008 |access-date=1 February 2009 |website=Ace.mmu.ac.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427080826/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Global_Warming/Older/Industrial_Revolution.html |archivedate=27 April 2008 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; On Englalande sind þā twā ieldestan [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|hēahscōla]] on þǣre [[English-speaking world|Englisc sprecendan weorulde]]: [[University of Oxford|Oxnafordes hēahscōl]], þe wæs ġestaþelod on þǣm ġēare 1096, and [[University of Cambridge|Grantabrycges hēahscōl]], þe wæs ġestaþelod on þǣm ġēare 1209.

Mǣst þæs landes Englalandes is lāgum dūnum and [[plain|fēldum]] ġeworht, swīþost on þǣm [[Midlands|middele]] and [[Southern England|sūþdǣle]]. Hēahland and beorgig land is mǣst ġefunden on þǣm [[Northern England|norþdǣle]] and westdǣle, þǣr sind [[Dartmoor|Dartmōr]], þæt [[Lake District|Mere-landscīr]], þā [[Pennines|Pennīnas]], and þā [[Shropshire Hills|Scrobbesbyrig dūna]]. Þæt [[London metropolitan area|Lundenes ymbland]] hæfþ ofer 15 þūsend þūsenda manna on þǣm ġēare 2025, and is þæt mǣste ymbland þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes. Þæt folc Englalandes, þæt is 56.3 þūsend þūsenda manna, is 84% þæs folces þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes, and hit is mǣst ymb Lunden, þone [[South East England|Sūþēastdǣl]], and þā burgdǣlas on þǣm [[Midlands|Middele]], þǣm [[North West England|Norþwestdǣle]], þǣm [[North East England|Norþēastdǣle]], and [[Yorkshire|Eoforwīcscīre]], of þǣm ǣlċ on þǣm 19an ġēarhundrede tō micelum weorclande wēox.&lt;ref name=&quot;2011 census&quot;&gt;[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_270487.pdf 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_270487.pdf |date=5 January 2016 }}. Accessed 31 May 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Landes nama{{Anchor|Etymology}}==
{{See also|Toponymy of England}}

Sē nama Englaland tācnaþ &quot;land þǣra [[Angles (tribe)|Engla]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |title=England |encyclopedia=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=England |access-date=21 July 2010 |archive-date=4 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404095642/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=England |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā Engle wǣron ān þǣra [[Germanic peoples|Ġermāniscra þēoda]], þe on Grēate Brytene on þǣm [[Early Middle Ages|ǣrum Middelieldum]] eardodon. Hīe cōmon of þǣm landscīre [[Angeln]], þe nū is dǣl þæs [[Schleswig-Holstein|Sleswīc-Holsetan]] on Ġermānia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ripley |first=George |title=The New American Cyclopædia |url=https://archive.org/details/newamericancycl25danagoog |publisher=D. Appleton |date=1869 |author-link=George Ripley (transcendentalist) |page=[https://archive.org/details/newamericancycl25danagoog/page/570 570]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sēo ǣreste āwriten brūcung þæs wordes, swā &quot;{{Lang|ang|Engla londe}}&quot;, is on þǣre Engliscan āwendunge, þe on þǣm ende þæs 9an ġēarhundredes ġeworht wæs, þǣre bēc ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People|Ċiriċan stǣr þǣre Engliscan þēode]]'' fram [[Bede|Bǣdan]]. Þæt word wæs þā ġebrūcen tō tācnienne &quot;þæt land, þe þā Englisce ġeeardodon&quot;, and hit ēac þā Englisce on þǣm dǣle, þe nū is sūþēastdǣl Scotlandes, ac þā wæs dǣl þæs Englisces cynerīċes [[Northumbria|Norþhymbra]], ymbhæfde. Sēo [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle|Ġēarbōc]] āwrāt, þæt sēo [[Domesday Book|Dōmesdæġbōc]] þæs ġēares 1086 eall Englaland ymbfēng, þæt is, þæt Englisce cynerīċe, ac siþþan fēawum ġēarum cwæþ sēo Ġēarbōc, þæt [[Malcolm III|Malcolm sē 3a]] cyning &quot;out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland&quot; fōr, and swā brēac sēo Ġēarbōc þæs wordes on þǣre ieldran tācnunge.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Molyneaux |first=George |title=The Formation of the English Kingdom in the Tenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/formationofengli0000moly |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-871791-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/formationofengli0000moly/page/6 6]–7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sēo ǣreste ġewitnes be þǣm Englum is on þǣm weorce [[Tacitus|Tacites]] þæs 1an ġēarhundredes, ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', þǣr þæt [[Latin|Lǣden]]word {{Lang|la|Anglii}} brūcen is.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fordham&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Germania |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/tacitus-germanygord.html |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=[[Tacitus]] |archive-date=16 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916075339/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/tacitus-germanygord.html |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā lārēowas sind unġeþwǣre ymb þæs þēodnaman sylfes fruman; hit is ġeseġd, þæt hē cymeþ of þǣre hīwe þæs landes Angeln, þe ''hōcig'' is.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cresswell |first=Julia |title=Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_p6k3 |publisher=OUP Oxford |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-954793-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_p6k3/page/16 16]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hū and for hwī þæt word, þe of þǣre þēode naman cōm, nā of ōðrum, swā þǣm [[Saxons|Seaxum]], tō ealles landes naman ġeworden is, nis cūþ, ac hit þynceþ, þæt hit ġewunan is, þā Ġermāniscan folc on Brytene ''Angli Saxones'' oþþe Engliscan Seaxan tō hātenne, þæt hīe fram þǣm fæstlandiscum Seaxum (Eald-Seaxe) þæs ealdan Seaxlandes on [[Germany|Ġermānia]] tōscēadene wǣron.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Stories of English |url=https://archive.org/details/storiesofenglish00crys |publisher=The Overlook Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-58567-601-9 |author-link=David Crystal |pages=[https://archive.org/details/storiesofenglish00crys/page/26 26]–27}}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣre [[Scottish Gaelic|Scottiscan Gaeliscan]] sprǣce sealde sēo Seaxna þēod hire naman þǣm worde, þe Englaland tācnaþ ({{lang|gd|Sasunn}});&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=John |title=The Principles of Gaelic Grammar |publisher=Oliver, Boyd and Tweeddale |year=1848 |location=Edinburgh}}&lt;/ref&gt; swā ġelīċe is þæt [[Welsh language|Wēalisce]] word, þe &quot;Englisce sprǣce&quot; tācnaþ, {{lang|cy|Saesneg}}. Ān lēoþlic nama Englalandes is [[Lloegyr|Loegria]], þe ġesibb is þǣm Wēaliscan worde, þe Englaland tācnaþ, {{lang|cy|Lloegr}}, and wearþ ġemǣrsod þurh his brūcunge on [[Arthurian legend|Arþures spellum]]. ''[[Albion]]'' is ēac on scoplicre wīsan tō Englalande ġebrūcen,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Damon |first=S. Foster |title=A Blake Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/blakedictionaryi0000damo |publisher=UPNE |date=1988 |isbn=978-0-87451-436-0 |author-link=S. Foster Damon |page=[https://archive.org/details/blakedictionaryi0000damo/page/11 9]}}&lt;/ref&gt; þēah his frumlic tācnung sīe eall þæt īegland Bryten.

==Ġerecednes==
{{Main|History of England}}

{{For timeline|Timeline of English history}}

===Ǣrġerecednes===
{{Main|Prehistoric Britain}}

[[File:Stonehenge, Condado de Wiltshire, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 18.JPG|alt=Sunne scīnende þurh rǣwe ūpstandendra stāna mid ōðrum stānum ofer þǣm licgendum.|thumb|[[Stonehenge]], ān ġeweorc þǣre [[Neolithic|Nīwan Stānælde]]]]

[[File:London - British Museum - 2453.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|Sē [[Battersea Shield|Battersea Scyld]] is ān þǣra mǣrostena ealdra ġeweorca [[Celtic art|Celtiscre cræfte]], þe on Brytene ġefundene sind.]]
Sēo ǣreste cūþe ġewitnes mennisces andweardnesse on þǣm lande, þe nū Englaland is, wæs ''[[Homo antecessor]]'', þe nēah 780,000 ġēarum ǣr lifde. Þā ieldestan [[proto-human|fruman-mennisce]] bān, þe on Englalande ġefundene wǣron, sind of þǣre tīde 500,000&amp;nbsp;ġēarum ǣr.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=24 May 2007 |title=500,000 BC&amp;nbsp;– Boxgrove |url=http://www.archaeology.co.uk/the-timeline-of-britain/boxgrove.htm |access-date=20 December 2010 |website=Current Archaeology |publisher=Current Publishing |archive-date=27 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427044005/http://www.archaeology.co.uk/the-timeline-of-britain/boxgrove.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Man wāt, þæt þā andweardan menn þæt land on þǣre [[Upper Paleolithic|Ufran Ealdstānælde]] ġeeardodon, þēah fæste eardunga ǣrest on þǣm nīehstum 6,000&amp;nbsp;ġēarum āsette wǣron.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Palaeolithic Archaeology Teaching Resource Box |url=http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sgs04rh/SWRivers/Palaeolithic%20Archaeology%20Teaching%20Resource%20Box_Lifestyles_Basic.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505012542/http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sgs04rh/SWRivers/Palaeolithic%20Archaeology%20Teaching%20Resource%20Box_Lifestyles_Basic.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=20 December 2010 |publisher=Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britain Project (2006)}}; {{Cite web |title=Chalk east |url=http://www.geo-east.org.uk/special_projects/eco_culture.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305032854/http://www.geo-east.org.uk/special_projects/eco_culture.htm |archive-date=5 March 2011 |access-date=20 December 2010 |publisher=A Geo East Project |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305032854/http://www.geo-east.org.uk/special_projects/eco_culture.htm |archivedate=5 March 2011 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Æfter þǣre [[Last glacial period|nīehstan īsǣlde]] belifon ānlīċe micele dēor, swā [[mammoth|mammūtas]], [[bison|wesendas]], and [[woolly rhinoceros|wullige nosehyrnan]]. Nēah 11,000&amp;nbsp;ġēarum ǣr, þā þā þā [[ice sheets|īsfeldas]] ongunnon wīcan, eardodon menn þæt land eft; ġecyndlic sēċung tācnaþ, þæt hīe of þǣm norþdǣle þæs [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberiscan healfīeglandes]] cōmon.{{Sfn|Oppenheimer|2006|p=173}} Sēo sǣ wæs lāgre þonne nū, and Brytenland wæs mid [[land bridge|landbrycge]] tō Īrlande and [[Eurasia|Eurāsia]] ġeānod.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tertiary Rivers: Tectonic and structural background |url=http://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/tertiaryrivers/tectonics.html |access-date=9 September 2009 |publisher=University of Cambridge |archive-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002163021/http://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/tertiaryrivers/tectonics.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
Þā þā sēo sǣ ārās, wearþ Brytenland fram Īrlande tōdǣled nēah 10,000&amp;nbsp;ġēarum ǣr and fram [[Eurasia|Eurāsia]] 2 þūsend ġēara siþþan. [[Early European Farmers|Tilian þǣre Nīwan Stānælde]] of þǣm Iberiscan healfīeglande [[Pre-modern human migration|fōron]] tō þǣm lande nēah 4100 ǣr Crīste.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Brace |first1=Selina |last2=Diekmann |first2=Yoan |display-authors=1 |date=15 April 2019 |title=Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain |journal=[[Nature Ecology and Evolution]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=765–771|doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9 |pmid=30988490 |pmc=6520225 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..765B }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sēo [[Beaker culture|Bicere tilung]] cōm nēah 2,500&amp;nbsp;ǣr Crīste, and hēo brōhte drincfatu and mētfatu of clǣġe ġeworht, and ēac fatu, þe tō smeltenne coperes ōran ġebrūcen wǣron.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Function and significance of Bell Beaker pottery according to data from residue analyses |url=http://tp.revistas.csic.es/index.php/tp/article/viewFile/5/5 |access-date=21 December 2010 |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216001112/http://tp.revistas.csic.es/index.php/tp/article/viewFile/5/5 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣre tīde wurdon micel ġeweorc þǣre [[Neolithic|Nīwan Stānælde]], swā [[Stonehenge]] (dǣl 3) and [[Avebury]], ġetimbrod. Þæt Bicere folc hǣtte tin and coper, þe on þǣm lande genōh wǣron, tōgædere, and ġeworhte [[bronze|brās]], and siþþan īsen of īsenōran. Þurh þæt man īsen smeltan cūþe, mihte man bettre [[plough|plōgas]] macian and þæt tilþ fyrðrian (swā mid [[Celtic field|Celtiscum fēldum]]), and ēac bettre wǣpnu macian.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Struan |last=Reid |url={{GBurl |id=bn88JPk_Fr0C |q=inventions in trade}} |title=Inventions and Trade. P.8 |date=1994 |publisher=James Lorimer &amp; Company |isbn=978-0-921921-30-1 |access-date=23 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Þā þā [[British Iron Age|Īsenælde]] wæs, cōm [[Celts|Celtisc tilung]] of Middel-Europe; hēo of þǣm [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstattiscum]] and [[La Tène culture|La Tèniscum]] tilungum cōm. [[British language (Celtic)|Brytisc]] wæs sēo sprǣc, þe on þǣre tīde man spræc. Sēo landwaru wæs on þēodum ġedǣled; swā [[Ptolemy|Ptolomēus]] on his {{Lang|la|[[Geographia]]}} āwrāt, wǣron nēah 20 þēoda on þǣm lande. Brytenland, swā ōðre land on þæs Rōmāna rīċes ende, hæfde lange cēapunga wið Rōmāne. Iūlius Cāsere of þǣre [[Roman Republic|Rōmāna ġemǣnrīċe]] fandode [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|Brytenland tuwa tō infarenne]] on þǣm ġēare 55&amp;nbsp;ǣr Crīste; þēah hē mǣst nā ġewann, āsette hē [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|cyning, þe him underþēod wæs]], of þǣm [[Trinovantes|Trinovantum]].

===Ealdġerecednes===

[[File:Housesteads Roman Fort aerial.jpg|thumb|[[Housesteads Roman Fort|Housesteads Rōmānisc fæsten]], Norþhymbraland, þæt norþlice landġemǣre þæs Rōmāniscan Englalandes]]
Þā Rōmāne infōron Brytenland on þǣm ġēare 43 æfter Crīste on þæs hēahcāseres [[Claudius|Claudiuses]] rīcsunge, and siþþan [[Roman conquest of Britain|ġewunnon hīe micel þæs Brytenlandes]], and þæt land wearþ ġeānod tō þǣm Rōmāna rīċe swā [[Roman Britain|Britannia mǣġþ]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Jason |date=2 December 2000 |title=Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak |work=The Observer |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/dec/03/jasonburke.theobserver |url-status=live |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031022061846/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0%2C6903%2C406152%2C00.html |archive-date=22 October 2003}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā wīdcūþestan þǣra inlendiscra þēoda, þe fandodon þǣm Rōmānum tō wiþstandenne, wǣron þā [[Catuvellauni|Catuvellaunas]], þe [[Caratacus]] lǣdde. Siþþan ārās [[Boudica]], þǣra [[Iceni]] cwēn, wiþ þā Rōmāne, ac hēo wearþ on þǣm [[Defeat of Boudica|ġefeohte æt Wæclinga strǣte]] oferwunnen, and hēo ācwealde hīe sylfe.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Ann.+14.37&amp;redirect=true |access-date=22 December 2010 |publisher=Alfred John Church, William Jackson Brudribh, Ed |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414232353/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Ann.+14.37&amp;redirect=true |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sē bōcere ānes ġewrites ymb Rōmānisc Brytenland cwæþ, þæt þā Rōmāne, þe on Brytenland infōron, fram 43 tō 84 æfter Crīste betwux 100,000 and 250,000 manna ofslōgon, of landware nēah 2 þūsend þūsenda.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |title=[[Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World]] |date=2016 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=276}}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣre tīde rīcsode [[Greco-Roman|Grēcisc-Rōmānisc]] tilung, and man inlǣdde [[Roman law|Rōmānisce ǣ]], [[Roman architecture|Rōmānisce timbrunge]], [[List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire|wæterbrycga]], [[Sanitation in ancient Rome|fūlwæterġangas]], þing þǣre eorðtilþe, and seolc.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Bedoyere |first=Guy |title=Architecture in Roman Britain |url=http://heritage-key.com/publication/architecture-roman-britain |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703012351/http://heritage-key.com/publication/architecture-roman-britain |archive-date=3 July 2009 |access-date=23 December 2010 |website=Heritage Key}}; {{Cite book |url={{GBurl |id=bylBAAAAIAAJ |q=roman law after roman invasion of britain |p=276}} |title=The History of Progress in Great Britain |volume=2 |first=Robert |last=Philip |access-date=23 December 2010 |date=1860}}; {{Cite book |url={{GBurl |id=1qiFEQ1tAHQC |q=roman occupation brought to britain a sewage system |pg=PT119}} |title=Medicine through time |publisher=Heinemann |first1=Bob |last1=Rees |first2=Paul |last2=Shute |first3=Nigel |last3=Kelly |access-date=24 December 2010 |isbn=978-0-435-30841-4 |year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣm ǣran dǣle þæs 3an ġēarhundredes forðfērde hēahcāsere [[Septimius Severus]] æt [[Eboracum]] (nū [[York|Eoforwīc]]), þǣr [[Constantine the Great|Constantīnus]] on þǣm ġēare 306 æfter Crīste tō hēahcāsere ġecoren wearþ.{{Sfn|Rankov|1994|p=16}}

Is sacu ymb þā tīde, þe sē crīstendōm ǣrest inlǣded wearþ; hit wæs on þǣm 4an ġēarhundrede oþþe ǣr, and hit þynceþ, þæt hit micel ǣr wæs. Æfter [[Bede|Bǣdan]] wǣron bodiend fram [[Pope Eleuterus|Eleutheriuse]] of Rōme āsende on þǣm ġēare 180 æfter Crīste, þā þā sē folctoga [[Lucius of Britain|Lūcius Brytenlandes]] hīe bæd, tō bētenne þā tōdāl on Ēastlicum and Westlicum þēawum, þā þe þā ċiriċan drēfdon. Sind saga, þā þe tō Glæstingabyrig belimpaþ, and cweþaþ, þæt sē crīstendōm þurh [[Joseph of Arimathea|Iōsēp of Arimathīe]] inlǣded wearþ, and ōðre cweþaþ, þæt hē þurh Lūcius Brytenlandes inlǣded wearþ.{{Sfn|Wright|2008|p=143}} Tō þǣm ġēare 410, þā þā þæt Rōmāna rīċe [[decline of the Roman Empire|hnāg]], stōd Brytenland open, for þǣm þe [[end of Roman rule in Britain|sēo Rōmānisce rīcsung on Brytenlande endode]] and þā Rōmāniscan werod of Brytenlande ġewiton, þā landġemǣru on Europe tō bewerienne and dǣl on innanlandes wīgum tō nimenne.&lt;ref name=&quot;james_anglosaxons&quot; /&gt; Celtisc crīstendōm blēow, on mynstrum and þurh bodiend. On þǣre tīde hæfde sēo ealde Celtisce tilung onweald ofer þæs crīstendōmes mōd, rīcsunge, þēawas, and godcundlice lāre. Þā „samnunga“ on ānre stōwe wǣron on þǣm mynstre ġemiddlode, and þā mynsterlican hēafodmenn wǣron mā ġelīċe folctogum, swā ġelīċe, and nā swā on þǣre ċiriċan, þe Rōmāne rīċsodon, þǣr þā hādas hēahran and niðerran wǣron.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lehane&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Lehane |first=Brendan |title=Early Christian Christianity |date=1968 |publisher=John Murray}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Middelieldu===
{{Main|England in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Sutton Hoo replica (face).jpg|thumb|alt=Studded and decorated metallic mask of human face.|Ġelīcnes þæs 7an ġēarhundredes þēawlices [[Sutton Hoo helmet|Sutton Hoo helmes]] of þǣm [[Kingdom of East Anglia|Cynerīċe Ēastengla]]]]

Þā [[Military of ancient Rome|Rōmāniscan werod]] ūt ġewiton, and Brytenland wearþ open þǣm hǣðenum cempum, þe of norþwestdǣle [[Europe]] ofer sǣ cōmon, mǣst þǣm Seaxum, [[Angles (tribe)|Anglum]], [[Jutes|Ēotum]], and Frisum, þe lange þā sǣġemǣru þǣre Rōmāniscan mǣġþe hergodon. Þā folc ongunnon, mā and mā, on þǣm 5um and 6um ġēarhundredum þæt land eardian, ǣrest on þǣm ēastdǣle þæs landes.&lt;ref name=&quot;james_anglosaxons&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=James |first=Edward |title=Overview: Anglo-Saxons, 410 to 800 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/overview_anglo_saxons_01.shtml |access-date=3 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608130648/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/overview_anglo_saxons_01.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā Bryttas ġewunnon þæt [[Battle of Badon|ġefeoht æt Badones beorge]], and for fēawum tīenum ġēara ne fōron hīe furðor, ac siþþan fōron hīe eft, and ofercōmon þā wæstmbǣran niðerlandu Brytenlandes, and on ende þæs 6an ġēarhundredes wæs þæt land under [[Britons (historical)|Brytiscum]] onwealde tō fēawum āsyndrodum landum on þǣm beorgigran lande on westdǣle ġeminsod. Þā ġewritu, þe on þǣre tīde āwritene wǣron, sind swā fēawa, þæt man þā tīd þā [[Dark Ages (historiography)|þēostran ælde]] nemneþ. Þā dǣlas þǣre [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|eardunge þǣra Engliscra Seaxna on Brytenlande]] sind for þǣm micelre sace underþēode; nū mǣst man ġelīċe cweþeþ, þæt hēo micel wæs on sūþdǣle and ēastdǣle, ac lǣsse on norþdǣle and westdǣle, þǣr man Celtiscan tungan ġīet spræc, ēac on landum under Engliscum onwealde.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dark |first=Ken R. |date=2003 |title=Large-scale population movements into and from Britain south of Hadrian's Wall in the fourth to sixth centuries AD |url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/GCMS/RMS-2003-03_K._R._Dark%2C_Large-scale_population_movements_into_and_from_Britan_south_of_Hadrian%27s_Wall_in_the_fourth_to_sixth_centuries_AD.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601080017/https://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/GCMS/RMS-2003-03_K._R._Dark%2C_Large-scale_population_movements_into_and_from_Britan_south_of_Hadrian%27s_Wall_in_the_fourth_to_sixth_centuries_AD.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2021 |access-date=20 June 2020 }}; {{Cite book |first=Toby F. |last=Martin |title=The Cruciform Brooch and Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Boydell and Brewer Press |date=2015 |pages=174–178}}; {{Cite web |last=Coates |first=Richard |title=Celtic whispers: revisiting the problems of the relation between Brittonic and Old English |url=https://ul.qucosa.de/api/qucosa%3A31804/attachment/ATT-0/ |access-date=20 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308132851/https://ul.qucosa.de/api/qucosa:31804/attachment/ATT-0/ |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |year=2018 |title=Relative Chronology |url=https://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art320e.pdf |access-date=20 June 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308144052/https://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art320e.pdf |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |last=Fox |first=Bethany |title=The P-Celtic Place Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland |url=http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html |access-date=20 June 2020 |archive-date=28 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128062639/http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Härke, Heinrich 2011&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Härke |first=Heinrich |date=2011 |title=Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis |journal=Medieval Archaeology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1179/174581711X13103897378311 |s2cid=162331501 |issn=0076-6097}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sē crīstendōm, þe Rōmānum underþēod wæs, wearþ on þǣm ġewunnenum landum mǣst forlǣten, and [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|hǣðendōm þǣra Engliscra Seaxna]] rīcsode, ac hē wearþ eft [[Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England|þurh bodiend inlǣded]] of Rōme, þe [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustīnus]] lǣdde, siþþan 597.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Christian Tradition |url=http://www.picturesofengland.com/history/england-history-p4.html |access-date=5 September 2009 |website=PicturesofEngland.com |archive-date=21 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221134644/http://www.picturesofengland.com/history/england-history-p4.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sacu betwux þǣre Rōmāniscan and þǣre Celtiscan wīsan þæs crīstendōmes endode, þā þā sē Rōmānisca þēaw on þǣm [[Council of Whitby|ġemōte æt Streoneshalh]] (664) ġewann; þæt ġemōt wæs, swā hit þūhte, ymb [[tonsure|þā hǣr þǣra prēosta]] and þā tīd þǣre Ēastran, ac māre ymb þā tōdāl on onwealde, godcundlicre lāre, and þēawum Rōmāniscra and Celtiscra.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lehane&quot; /&gt;

On þǣre tīde þǣre eardunge þyncaþ þā land, þe þā cumenan rīcsodon, tō manigum þēodum ġedǣled wesan, ac tō þǣm 7an ġēarhundrede, þā þā micel ġewitnes eft cūþ is, wǣron þā land tō nēah 12 cynerīċum ġeānode, swā [[Northumbria|Norþhymbra]], [[Mercia|Miercna]], [[Wessex|Westseaxna]], [[Kingdom of East Anglia|Ēastengla]], [[Kingdom of Essex|Ēastseaxna]], [[Kingdom of Kent|Cente]], and [[Kingdom of Sussex|Sūþseaxna]]. On þǣm nīehstum ġēarhundredum ēode þis weorc þǣre þēodlican ġeānunge furðor.{{Sfn|Kirby|2000|p=4}} On þǣm 7an ġēarhundrede wæs sacu ymb þone hēahonweald betwux Norþhymbrum and Miercum, and on þǣm 8an ġēarhundrede ġewunnon Mierce þone hēahonweald.{{Sfn|Lyon|1960|p=23}} On þǣm ǣran dǣle þæs 9an ġēarhundredes ġewann Westseaxna rīċe þone formān stede betwux þǣm cynerīċum, and Mierce þone stede forluron. Siþþan on þǣm ġēarhundrede wǣron þā hergunga þǣra [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Dena]] mā and mā, oþ hīe þone norþdǣl and ēastdǣl Englalandes ġewunnon, and þā cynerīċu Norþhymbra, Miercna, and Ēastengla oferwurpon. Westseaxna rīċe under [[Alfred the Great|Ælfrēde þǣm Miclan]] wæs þæt āne Englisce cynerīċe, þe belāf, and under his æfterfylgendum wēox hit ā furðor on þǣra cynerīċa þǣre [[Danelaw|Denelage]] hearm. Þǣr of cōm þā þēodlice ġeānung Englalandes, þe ǣrest under [[Æthelstan|Æþelstāne]] on þǣm ġēare 927 ġefremed wæs, and æfter māran sacum under [[Eadred|Eadrēde]] on 953 fæstlīċe āsett wæs. Nīwu ȳþ norþlicra hergunga on þǣm ende þæs 10an ġēarhundredes ongann, and hēo endode, þā þā [[Sweyn Forkbeard|Swegen Forcbeard]] on þǣm ġēare 1013 and eft his sunu [[Cnut the Great|Cnūt]] on 1016 þæt ġeānode cynerīċe ġewunnon, and dydon hit tō middele þæs [[North Sea Empire|Norþsǣrīċes]], þe nā lange stōd, and þe ēac [[Kingdom of Denmark|Denemearc]] and [[Norway|Norþweg]] ymbhæfde. Ac þæt inlendisce cynecynn wearþ eft āsett, þā þā [[Edward the Confessor|Eadweard sē Andettere]] on 1042 cyning wearþ.

[[File:King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415.|[[King Henry V of England|Cyning Henrīċ 5a]] æt þǣm [[Battle of Agincourt|ġefeohte æt Agincourt]], þe on [[Saint Crispin's Day|Sancte Crispīnes dæge]] ġefohten wæs and endode, þā þā Engliscan ġewunnon wiþ þā māran Frenciscan fierd on þǣm [[Hundred Years' War|Hundred-ġēara wīge]]]]
Siþþan Eadweard on þǣm Æfterran Gēolan 1066 forðfērde, wearþ sacu ymb þone cynestōl, and þæt wearþ wīg on twā healfa: cyning [[Harold Godwinson|Harold Godwines sunu]] ġewann æt ende Hāligmōnaþes [[Battle of Stamford Bridge|æt Stanforda brycge]] wiþ þā Norþmanna fierd, þe [[Harald Hardrada|Harald Hardrāda]] lǣdde, ac sōna siþþan wearþ hē on þǣm 14an dæge Winterfylleþes [[Battle of Hastings|æt Hǣstingum]] fram þǣm hēretogan [[William the Conqueror|Wīlhelme of Normandīe]] oferwunnen, and sēo [[Norman Conquest|Normanniscu oferwinning Englalandes]] wearþ ġefremed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Overview: The Normans, 1066–1154 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/overview_normans_01.shtml |access-date=3 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=4 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504063954/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/overview_normans_01.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā [[Normans|Normanne]] sylfe cōmon of [[Scandinavia|Scedenīeġe]], and on Normandīe on þǣm ende þæs 9an and on þǣm ǣran dǣle þæs 10an ġēarhundredes eardodon.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Crouch|2006|pp=2–4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þurh þā oferwinninge wurdon nēah ealle þā Engliscan æðelingas hira landa benumene, and nīwe æðelingas, þe Frencisc sprǣcon, wurdon on hira stede āsette, and hira sprǣc hæfde micelne and langne onweald ofer þǣre [[English language|Engliscan tungan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=20 February 2008 |title=Norman invasion word impact study |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/7254446.stm |access-date=3 December 2010 |archive-date=23 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523091455/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/7254446.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Siþþan onfēng þæt [[House of Plantagenet|Plantagenetes cynn]] of [[Duchy of Anjou|Angiou]] þone Engliscan cynestōl on þæs [[Henry II of England|Henrīċes 2an]] rīcsunge, and ġeānode Englaland mid þǣm ġrōwendan [[Angevin Empire|Angeouiniscan rīċe]] þǣra lǣna, þe hira cynn on Francland ierfde, swā [[Duchy of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bartlett p124&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Bartlett|1999|p=124}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Hīe rīcsodon þurh 3 ġēarhundred, and þǣra cyninga wǣron mǣre [[Richard I of England|Rīċard 1a]], [[Edward I of England|Eadweard 1a]], [[Edward III|Eadweard 3a]], and [[Henry V of England|Henrīċ 5a]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Bartlett p124&quot; /&gt; On þǣre tīde wǣron onwendunga on cēapunge and on ǣ, swā þæt [[Magna Carta]] ġewriten wearþ, ān Englisc ǣbōc, þe man tō þǣm brēac, þæt þæs cyninges onweald mid ǣ ġeendod wǣre and þā frēodōmas þǣra frēomanna bewerode wǣron. Þæt Rōmānisce [[Monasticism|mynsterlīf]] blēow and ġeaf wīsdōmes lārēowas, and þā hēahlārhūs tō Oxnaforde and tō Grantabrycge wurdon āstemnode mid cynelicum fultume. Þæt [[Principality of Wales|Wēala æðelingrīċe]] wearþ on þǣm 13an ġēarhundrede Plantagenetes lǣn&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Edward I (r. 1272–1307) |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/OutPut/Page61.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624181028/http://www.royal.gov.uk/OutPut/Page61.asp |archive-date=24 June 2008 |access-date=21 September 2009 |website=Royal.gov.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; and sē [[Lordship of Ireland|Īralandes hlāfordscipe]] wearþ þǣm Engliscum cynerīċe fram þǣm pāpan ġiefen. On þǣm 14an ġēarhundrede cwǣdon Plantagenetes cynn and þæt [[House of Valois|Valoises cynn]], þæt hīe rihtlīce þæt [[House of Capet|Capetes cynn]] and Francland ierfan sceoldon; þā twā onwealdas fuhton on þǣm [[Hundred Years' War|Hundred-ġēara wīge]].{{Sfn|Fowler|1967|p=208}} Sē [[Black Death|Sweart Cwealm]] [[Black Death in England|cōm tō Englalande]]; hē ongann on 1348 and ofslōg æt ende oþ þone healfan dǣl þǣre [[Medieval demography|landware]] Englalandes.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Ziegler|2003|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Goldberg|1996|p=4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Betwux 1453 and 1487 wæs innanlandes wīg, þe man [[War of the Roses|Wīg þǣra Rōsena]] nemneþ, betwux þǣm twām dǣlum þæs cynecynnes, [[House of York|Eoforwīces cynn]] and [[House of Lancaster|Lancastres cynn]].{{Sfn|Crofton|2007|p=111}} Æt ende forluron þā Eoforwīciscan þone cynestōl þǣm [[House of Tudor|Tudorum]], þe ān dǣl þǣra Lancastriscra wǣron, and þe [[Henry VII of England|Henrīċ Tudor]] lǣdde; hē infōr on Englaland mid Wēaliscum and Brytiscum cempum for mēde and ġewann þæt [[Battle of Bosworth Field|ġefeoht æt Bosworth Felda]], þǣr sē Eoforwīcisca cyning [[Richard III of England|Rīċard 3a]] ofslagen wearþ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Richard III (r. 1483–1485) |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page50.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710093939/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page50.asp |archive-date=10 July 2008 |access-date=21 September 2009 |website=Royal.gov.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Ǣrnīwe tīd===
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On þǣre [[Tudor period|Tudora tīde]] ongann Englaland [[English Navy|fæstne flotan]] āsettan, and mā and mā menn fōron on þǣre [[Age of Discovery|ġemētednesse ælde]] ofer sǣ nīwu land tō sēċenne.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Royal Navy History, Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy |url=http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118040146/http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-date=18 January 2012 |url-status=usurped |access-date=24 December 2010}}; {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Goldwin |url={{GBurl |id=RdOTQUDgH54C |q=england under the tudors by goldwin smith}} |title=England Under the Tudors |page=176 |publisher=Forgotten Books |access-date=26 December 2010 |isbn=978-1-60620-939-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Henry VIII|Henrīċ 8a]] āsyndrode hine fram þǣre Rōmāniscan ċiriċan ġemǣne, for þǣm tōdāle fram his wīfe, þurh þā [[Acts of Supremacy|Ǣ þæs Hēahonwealdes]] on þǣm ġēare 1534, þe þone cyning tō hēafde þǣre [[Church of England|Engliscan ċiriċan]] ġecuron. Ōðre þonne micel þæs [[Protestantism|Protestantiscan crīstendōmes]] on Europe wǣron þā [[English Reformation|wyrta þǣre tōdǣlnesse]] mā woruldlice þonne godcundlice.{{Efn|As [[Roger Scruton]] explains, &quot;The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the &quot;Reformation Parliament&quot; of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later.&quot;{{Sfn|Scruton|1982|p=470}}}} Hē ġeānode ēac his ieldra ēþel Wēalas mid ǣ tō þǣm [[Kingdom of England|Cynerīċe Englalandes]] þurh þā [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542|Ǣ 1535–1542]]. On þǣm rīcsungum Henrīċes dohtra, [[Mary I of England|Marīa 1e]] and [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeþ 1e]], wǣron innanlandes godcundlice saca on þǣm lande. Sēo forme lǣdde þæt land eft tō þǣm Rōmāniscan crīstendōme, ac sēo ōðre āsyndrode hīe eft fram him, and mid þrēate þone hēahonweald þæs [[Anglicanism|Engliscan bōges]] hēold. Sēo [[Elizabethan era|Elizabeþlice tīd]] is sēo ælde on þǣre Tudora tīde, þe cwēn Elizabeþ 1e rīcsode („sēo Mǣġden Cwēn“). Þā bōceras þǣre ġerecednesse cweþaþ oft, þæt hēo wæs sēo [[Golden age (metaphor)|gylden ælde]] on Englalandes ġerecednesse, and þæt hēo wæs sēo hēahnes þǣre Engliscan eftcennednesse, and on hire blēowon micel cræft, plegan, lēoð, sangcræft, and bōccræft.&lt;ref&gt;From the 1944 Clark lectures by [[C. S. Lewis]]; Lewis, ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century'' (Oxford, 1954) p. 1, {{OCLC|256072}}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣre tīde hæfde Englaland ġemiddlode, wel ġedihtode, and strangliċe rīcsunge.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Tudor Parliaments |url=https://spartacus-educational.com/TUDparliament.htm |access-date=4 April 2021 |website=Spartacus Educational |archive-date=1 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201000058/https://spartacus-educational.com/TUDparliament.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Winnende wiþ [[Spanish Empire|Spāniam]] wearþ sēo forme Englisce eardung on Amerīcan on þǣm ġēare 1585 þurh þone sēċend [[Walter Raleigh]] āstemnod on [[Virginia]], and hēo wearþ [[Roanoke Colony|Roanoke]] ġenemned. Sēo eardung on Roanoke ne stōd lange, and man nemneþ hīe „þā forlorenan eardunge“, siþþan hēo forlǣten ġemēted wæs, þā þā sē flota, þe lǣte cōm, þing bær.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ordahl |first=Karen |url={{GBurl |id=W8cr4Vgt9ekC |q=roanoke colony}} |title=Roanak:the abandoned colony |year=2007 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield publishers Inc |isbn=978-0-7425-5263-0 |access-date=24 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mid þǣm [[East India Company|Ēastindiscan Cēapmanna Werode]] wann Englaland ēac wiþ þā [[Dutch Empire|Niðerlandiscan]] and þā [[French colonial empire|Frenciscan]] on þǣm ēastdǣle. On þǣre Elizabeþlican tīde wæs Englaland on wīge wiþ Spāniam. Ān [[Spanish Armada|flota]] fōr of Spāniam on 1588, tō dǣle þæs wīdran rǣdes, Englaland tō infarenne and eft Rōmāniscne ānwald tō āsettenne. Þis rǣd wearþ fordōn for yfelre ġedihte, for rēþum wederum, and þurh þā hergunga þæs Engliscan flotan, þe [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Hlāford Howard of Effingham]] lǣdde. Þæt sēo fōr on 1588 ne ġelamp, ne āfǣrde Spāniam, þe ōðre twā flotan on [[2nd Spanish Armada|1596]] and [[3rd Spanish Armada|1597]] āsende; ac þā flotan wǣron ēac for strangum wederum on þǣre Atlantiscan sǣ ġedǣled.

===Ġeānung mid Scotlande and Englisc innanlandes wīg===
{{further|Union of the Crowns|Treaty of Union}}
[[File:JamesIEngland (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright=.7|[[King of Scotland|Scotlandes cyning]], [[King James VI of Scotland|Iacōb 6a]], wearþ [[King of England|Englalandes cyning]] swā Iacōb 1a on 1603, and þā [[Union of the Crowns|Ġeānung þǣra Cynehelma]] ġefremede]]

Sēo þēodlice dihtung þæs īeglandes wearþ āwended on 1603, þā þā [[James VI of Scotland|Iacōb 6a]], [[King of Scots|Scotta cyning]], þone Engliscan cynestōl ierfde swā Iacōb 1a, and þǣrmid [[Union of the Crowns|ġeānung on ānum hāde]] betwux þǣm twām fēondlicum cynerīċum scōp.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britons&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Colley|1992|p=12}}; {{Cite web |title=Making the Act of Union |work=Act of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/01_background.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609075346/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/01_background.html |archive-date=9 June 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=UK Parliament}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hē nemde hine [[King of Great Britain|cyning Grēate Bryten]], þēah þæt nān grund on Engliscre ǣ hæfde.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Hay |first=Denys |title=The term 'Great Britain' in the Middle Ages |url=http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_089/89_055_066.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325061737/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_089/89_055_066.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |access-date=19 February 2009 |website=ads.ahds.ac.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mid Iacōbes 6an and 1an fultume wearþ sēo ġeþafode [[King James Version|Iacōbes Āwendung]] þǣre Hāligan Bōc on 1611 ūt ġeġiefen. Hēo wæs sēo ġewune āwendung þǣre Hāligan Bōc, þe mǣst Protestantisce crīstene menn rǣddon for 400 ġēara, oþ nīwe ġebētunga on þǣm 20an ġēarhundrede ġeworhte wurdon.

Ġegrundod on ġewinnendum þēodlicum, godcundlicum, and folclicum wīsum wearþ þæt [[English Civil War|Englisce innanlandes wīg]] ġefohten betwux þǣm fultumendum þæs [[Long Parliament|Witenaġemōtes]] and þǣm fultumendum þæs cyninges [[Charles I of England|Carles 1an]], þā man on ġemǣnre sprǣce [[Roundhead|Rūndhēafdas]] and [[Cavalier|Rīdend]] nemneþ. Þis wæs ān ġewefen dǣl þǣra wīdran, missenlicra [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms|Wīga þǣra Þrēora Cynerīċa]], þe ēac [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Īraland]] ymbhæfdon. Þā fultumendas þæs Witenaġemōtes ġewunnon, [[execution of Charles I|Carl 1a wearþ ofslagen]], and þæt cynerīċe wearþ forlǣten, and þæt [[Commonwealth of England|Ġemǣnrīċe]] on his stede āsett. [[Oliver Cromwell]], sē hēretoga þæs Witenaġemōtes fierdes, nemde hine sylfne [[Lord Protector|Hlāford Mundboran]] on 1653; and þǣrefter wæs ān tīd his sylfes [[the Protectorate|onwealdes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;O Cromwell&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oliver Cromwell (English statesman) |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143822/Oliver-Cromwell |access-date=8 August 2009 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-date=11 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511074852/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143822/Oliver-Cromwell |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Æfter Cromwelles dēaþe and þæs, þæt his sunu [[Richard Cromwell|Rīċard]] Hlāford Mundbora forlēt, wearþ [[Charles II of England|Carl 2a]] ġelaðod, þæt hē eft tō cyninge cōme, on 1660, on þǣm weorce, þe man [[English Restoration|Eftāsetnesse]] nemneþ. Mid þǣre eftopenunge þǣra plegstōwa blēowon fæġere cræftas, bōccræft, and plegcræftas ġeond þā Eftāsetnesse þæs „Blīþan Cyninges“ Carles 2an.&lt;ref&gt;Lyndsey Bakewell, &quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20200212175057/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c52/dfd2b876951f2d9ca982a2aa2460f52c228f.pdf Changing scenes and flying machines: re-examination of spectacle and the spectacular in Restoration theatre, 1660–1714]&quot; (PhD. Diss. Loughborough University, 2016).&lt;/ref&gt; Æfter þǣre [[Glorious Revolution|Wuldorfullan Wendunge]] on 1688 wearþ mid ǣ ġesett, þæt cyning and Witenaġemōt ġemǣnlīċe rīcsian sceoldon, þēah þæt [[Parliament|Witenaġemōt]] þone sōþan onweald hæfde. Þis wearþ mid þǣre [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bōc þǣra Rihta]] on 1689 āsett. Betwux þǣm ǣ, þe āsette wǣron, wǣron þā, þæt man ǣ ne mihte macian būtan þurh Witenaġemōt, and þæt sē cyning hīe ne mihte fordōn, ēac þæt sē cyning gafol āsettan ne mihte, ne fierd ārǣran būtan Witenaġemōtes ǣrran ġeþafunge.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Adler |first1=Philip J. |url={{GBurl |id=mPoqfoiIp4sC |q=with the restoration it was not constitutionally established that king and parliament should rule together |p=340}} |title=World Civilization |last2=Pouwels |first2=Randall L. |date=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-50262-3 |page=340 |access-date=24 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Siþþan þǣre tīde ne ēode nān Brytenlandisc cyning on þæt [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|Hūs þǣra Ġemǣnra]], þā þā hit sæt; þæt man ælċe ġēar ġemyndgaþ on þǣre [[State Opening of Parliament|Witenaġemōtes Openunge]] fram þǣm Brytenlandiscan cyninge, þā þā þā duru þæs Hūses þæs cyninges ǣrendracan on his andwlitan ġeclȳsed wǣron, tō tācne þæs Witenaġemōtes riht and his frēodōmes fram þǣm cyninge.&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/guides/newsid_81000/81909.stm &quot;Democracy Live: Black Rod&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715075506/http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/guides/newsid_81000/81909.stm |date=15 July 2011 }}. BBC. Retrieved 6 August 2008; {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Black Rod|volume=4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Siþþan sēo [[Royal Society|Cynelicu Samnung]] on 1660 āstemnod wearþ, wearþ bōccræft micel ġefultumod.

[[File:Charles II of England.jpeg|thumb|upright=.7|alt=Painting of seated male figure, with long black hair wearing a white cape and breeches.|Sēo [[English Restoration|Eftāsetnes]] eft āsette þone ānwald under cyninge [[Charles II of England|Carle&amp;nbsp;2an]] and frið æfter þǣm [[English Civil War|Engliscan innanlandes wīge]].]]

On 1666 forbarn sēo [[Great Fire of London|Grēate Fȳr Lundenes]] micel þǣre burge [[London|Lunden]], ac hēo wearþ sōna eft ġetimbrod, and manig mǣre ġetimbru wǣron ġedihtode fram [[Christopher Wren]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=London's Burning: The Great Fire |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/great_fire_02.shtml |access-date=25 September 2009 |work=BBC News |archive-date=25 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825111257/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/great_fire_02.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣm middele oþ ende þæs 17an ġēarhundredes wǣron twēġen þēodlice floccas ārisen – þā [[Tory|Torīas]] and þā [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigas]]. Þēah þā Torīas ǣrest þone Rōmāniscan cyning [[James II of England|Iacōb 2an]] fultumodon, ġelaðodon hira fēawa samod mid þǣm Whigum on þǣre [[Glorious Revolution|Wendunge þæs ġēares 1688]] þone Niðerlandiscan æðeling [[William III of England|Wīlhelm of Orange]], þæt hē Iacōb oferwunne and cyning wurde. Fēawa Engliscra manna, mǣst on norþdǣle, wǣron [[Jacobitism|Iacōbītas]] and fultumodon ġīet Iacōb and his suna. Under þǣm [[House of Stuart|Stiwarda cynecynne]] wēox Englaland on cēapunge, on feo, and on wēlan. Sē [[Royal Navy|Cynelica Flota]] ġeīcte Europes mǣstne cēapmanna flotan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The History Press {{!}} The Stuarts |url=https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/the-stuarts |access-date=11 April 2021 |website=thehistorypress.co.uk }}{{Dead link|date=September 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}&lt;/ref&gt; Siþþan þā witenaġemōt Englalandes and Scotlandes ġecwǣdon,&lt;ref name=&quot;Union with Scotland&quot; /&gt; ġeānodon þā twā land on [[political union|þēodlicre ġeānunge]], and scōpon þæt [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Cynerīċe Grēate Bryten]] on 1707.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britons&quot; /&gt; Tō ġeþafunge þǣre ġeānunge belifon þā þing, swā þā ǣ and þā þēodlican ċiriċan ǣlċes landes, āsyndrode.{{Sfn|Gallagher|2006|p=14}}

===Nīwre and andweardre tīd===
[[File:CanalettoSomersetHouseTerrace.jpg|thumb|left|Sēo [[River Thames|Temes]] on þǣre [[Georgian period|Georġiscan tīde]], fram þǣre eahþyrelan þæs Somersetes Hūses, tō Sanctes Pāules locigende, {{Circa|1750}}]]

Siþþan þæt Cynerīċe Grēate Bryten ġesett wæs, ġeānodon þā weorc þǣre Cynelican Samnunge and ōðerra [[English Enlightenment|Engliscra fundunga]] mid þǣre [[Scottish Enlightenment|Scottiscan lārtīde]] tō nīwum cræftum on wīsdōme and on weorce; and sēo micele wæstm þǣre [[Triangular trade|Brytiscan cēapunge]] ofer sǣ, þe sē Cynelica Flota bewerode, þone weġ tō þǣm [[British Empire|Brytiscan rīċe]] ġerȳmde. On þǣm lande sylfum lǣdde hēo tō þǣre [[Industrial Revolution|Weorca Ymbhwyrfte]], þe micele wendunge on folclicum and þēawlicum þingum Englalandes brōhte: eorðtilþ, weorc, cræftas, and ġedelf on īsenōrum wurdon ġeīcte, and nīwe wegas, on lande and on wætere, þā þe þæt weorc ġefultumodon.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Hudson, Pat |title=The Workshop of the World |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/workshop_of_the_world_01.shtml |access-date=10 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015200153/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/workshop_of_the_world_01.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Siþþan sē [[Bridgewater Canal|Brycgwæteres wætertīge]] on norþwestdǣle Englalandes on 1761 ġeopenod wearþ, ongann sēo [[History of the British canal system|wætertīga tīd]] on Brytenlande.&lt;ref name=&quot;Briton20015&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Office for National Statistics|2000|p=5}}; {{harvnb|McNeil|Nevell|2000|p=4}}.&lt;/ref&gt; On 1825 wearþ sēo forme fæste [[Passenger rail terminology|īsenweġ for mannum]], þe man mid dismwæġne tōtēah (sē [[Stockton and Darlington Railway|Stocktones and Darlingtones īsenweġ]]) ġeopenod þǣm folce.&lt;ref name=&quot;Briton20015&quot; /&gt;

On þǣre Weorca Ymbhwyrfte fōron manega weorcmenn of Englalandes landum tō nīwum and weaxendum burgum, þǣr hīe on weorcstōwum wirċan sceoldon, swā tō [[Birmingham|Birminghāme]] and tō [[Manchester|Mamecestre]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|McNeil|Nevell|2000|p=9}}.; {{Cite web |last=Birmingham City Council |author-link=Birmingham City Council |title=Heritage |url=http://www.visitbirmingham.com/arts_and_culture/heritage/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426080011/http://www.visitbirmingham.com/arts_and_culture/heritage/ |archive-date=26 April 2012 |access-date=4 October 2009 |website=visitbirmingham.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426080011/http://www.visitbirmingham.com/arts_and_culture/heritage/ |archivedate=26 April 2012 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; and sēo lætere wæs sēo forme weorcburg on weorulde.&lt;ref name=&quot;Industrial city&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Manchester – the first industrial city |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309184810/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp |archive-date=9 March 2012 |access-date=17 March 2012 |publisher=Entry on Sciencemuseum website}}&lt;/ref&gt; Englaland belāf on friðe on þǣre [[French Revolution|Frenciscan Ymbhwyrfte]], under [[George III|Georġe 3an]] and [[William Pitt the Younger|Wīlhelme Pitte þǣm Ġingran]]. Þæt [[Regency era|stedeweardscipe Georġes 4an]] is for his cyrtenesse and for his ġewinnum on fæġrum cræftum and on timbrunge cūþ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Regency {{!}} British Architectural Dates and Styles {{!}} Property {{!}} UK {{!}} Mayfair Office |url=https://www.mayfairoffice.co.uk/members-home/British-Architectural-Styles/British-Architectural-Styles-Regency |access-date=8 April 2021 |website=mayfairoffice.co.uk |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417084322/https://www.mayfairoffice.co.uk/members-home/British-Architectural-Styles/British-Architectural-Styles-Regency |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417084322/https://www.mayfairoffice.co.uk/members-home/British-Architectural-Styles/British-Architectural-Styles-Regency |archivedate=17 April 2021 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣm [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleōnes wīgum]] ġeþōhte [[Napoleon|Napoleōn]] on Englaland [[Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom|infaran]] of sūþēastdǣle; ac þæt ne ġelamp, and Napoleōnes fierd wurdon fram þǣm Brytiscum oferwunnen: on sǣ fram [[Horatio Nelson|Horatiuse Nelsone]], and on lande fram [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthure Wellesleġe]]. Sē sige æt [[Battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]] ġefæstnode þone flotan onweald, þe Brytenland on þǣm 18an ġēarhundrede ġewunnen hæfde.&lt;ref&gt;Bennet, Geoffrey (2004). ''The Battle of Trafalgar''. England: Pen &amp; Sword Books Limited, CPI UK, South Yorkshire.&lt;/ref&gt; Þā Napoleōnes wīg ġefultumodon þone ġeþōht þǣre [[Britishness|Brytiscnesse]] and ānes þēodlices [[British people|Brytiscan folces]], þe Engliscum, Scottum, and Wēalum ġemǣne wæs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Colley1&quot;&gt;{{Harvnb|Colley|1992|p=1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:The Battle of Trafalgar by William Clarkson Stanfield.jpg|alt=multi-storey square industrial buildings beyond a river|thumb|right|Sē [[Battle of Trafalgar|ġefeoht æt Trafalgar]] wæs sǣġefeoht betwux þǣm [[Royal Navy|Cynelican Flotan]] and þǣm ġeānodum flotum Francland and Spāniam on þǣm [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleōnes wīgum]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=28 July 2014 |title=Department of History – Napoleonic Wars |url=http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728203458/http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2014 |access-date=8 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Lunden wearþ on þǣre [[Victorian era|Victoriscan tīde]] sēo mǣste burg on weorulde, and þǣr wunode mǣst manna; and sēo cēapung innan þǣm Brytiscan rīċe, and sēo ǣre þæs Brytiscan werodes and flotan, wǣron mǣre.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Haggard |first=Robert F. |url={{GBurl |id=53VUwDw_UYMC |q=prestige of the british empire in victorian times |p=13}} |title=The persistence of Victorian liberalism:The Politics of Social Reform in Britain, 1870–1900 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-31305-9 |page=13 |access-date=26 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; On cræftum wurdon on þǣre tīde manega nīwu þing ġefundene, þā þe þǣm Ġeānodan Cynerīċe mihte and wēlan ġeīcton.&lt;ref name=&quot;Atterbury 2011&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Atterbury |first=Paul |date=17 February 2011 |title=Victorian Technology |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_technology_01.shtml |access-date=13 October 2020 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232436/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_technology_01.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Þurh þā ȳðunge on þǣm lande fram þǣm [[Chartism|Chartistum]] and fram þǣm [[suffragette|wīfmanna rihtes sēċendum]] wurdon ǣ ġebētte, and eallum folce wearþ riht ġeþafod, hira rǣdend tō ċēosenne.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Crawford, Elizabeth |title=Women: From Abolition to the Vote |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/abolition_women_article_01.shtml#five |access-date=10 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323211733/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/abolition_women_article_01.shtml#five |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Wendunga onwealdes on ēastmiddele Europe lǣddon tō þǣm [[World War I|Ǣrestan Weorold-wīge]]; hundteontig þūsenda Engliscra cempena forwurdon, þā þā hīe for þæt Ġeānode Cynerīċe mid þǣm [[Allies of World War I|Ġefērum]] wunnon.{{Efn|Sēo rīm 550,000 cempena dēaþa is for Englaland and Wēalas.{{Sfn|Cox|1970|p=180}}}} Twēntig ġēara siþþan, on þǣm [[World War II|Ōðrum Weorold-wīge]], wæs þæt Ġeānode Cynerīċe eft ān þǣra [[Allies of World War II|Ġefēra]]. Nīwe wīgcræftas dydon, þæt manega burga fram lyftlicum hergungum āwēste wurdon on þǣre [[the Blitz|Blitz]]. Æfter þǣm wīge forlēt þæt Brytisce rīċe hrædlīce hira landa ofer sǣ, and nīwe cræftas wǣron ġefundene; sylfdrifenu wæġnas wurdon sēo ealdorlicoste wise tō faranne, and [[Frank Whittle|Franc Whittles]] fundung þæs [[jet engine|ȳþ-ēasenes]] lǣdde tō þǣm [[air travel|lyftfære]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Golley, John |date=10 August 1996 |title=Obituaries: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituaries-air-commodore-sir-frank-whittle-1309015.html |access-date=2 December 2010 |archive-date=13 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713230112/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituaries-air-commodore-sir-frank-whittle-1309015.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā eardunga on Englalande wurdon þurh sylfdrifenu wæġnas ġewended, and þurh þæt [[National Health Service (England)|Þēodlice Hǣlu-weorc]] on 1948 ġescapen, þe eallum fæstum eardiendum hǣlo būtan ġielde ġeaf, þā þā hīe hire þearfodon. Ealle þās þing lǣddon tō þǣm, þæt man on þǣre middele þæs 20an ġēarhundredes þā [[local government in England|landrǣdenne Englalandes]] ġebētte.&lt;ref&gt;{{Harvnb|Clark|Steed|Marshall|1973|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|Wilson|Game|2002|p=55}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|thumb|Sēo [[Victorian era|Victoriscu tīd]] is oft sēo [[Golden Age|gylden ǣlde]] ġenemned. Þis mǣlen wearþ ġeworht fram [[William Powell Frith|Wīlhelme Powell Frithe]], tō tācnienne þā ġedǣlednessa on þǣm folce. ]]

Siþþan þǣm 20an ġēarhundrede cōmon manega menn tō Englalande, mǣst of ōðrum dǣlum þǣra [[British Isles|Brytiscra īeglanda]], ac ēac of þǣm [[Commonwealth of Nations|Ġemǣnwelan]], swīþost of þǣm [[Indian subcontinent|Indiscan lande]].&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Gallagher|2006|pp=10–11}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Siþþan þǣm 1970an ġēarum is micel wendung fram weorce on weorcstōwum, and māre ġeȳmen ymb þā [[service industry|þēnunga]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Thatcher&quot; /&gt; Swā dǣl þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes ġeēode Englaland on þā [[common market|ġemǣne cēapstōwe]], þe [[European Economic Community|Europisc Cēapġemǣnnes]] hātte, and siþþan wearþ sēo [[European Union|Europisce Ġeānung]].

Siþþan þǣm ende þæs 20an ġēarhundredes hæfþ sēo [[politics of the United Kingdom|ealdorscipe þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]] onweald on Scotlande, Wēalum, and Norþīraland [[devolution|ġedǣled]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Keating (political scientist) |date=1 January 1998 |title=Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_publius_winter-1998_28_1/page/217 |journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |page=217 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sēo [[England and Wales|ǣ Englalandes and Wēala]] belīfþ ān ġemǣne ǣ on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynerīċe.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC Wales&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=The coming of the Tudors and the Act of Union |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch11_part2_coming_of_the_tudor.shtml |access-date=9 September 2009 |website=[[BBC Wales]] |publisher=BBC News |archive-date=4 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504063951/https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch11_part2_coming_of_the_tudor.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Þēos ġedǣlnes onwealdes hæfþ māre ġeȳmenne ymb Englisc sylfscipe and ēþel lufe ġeīcte.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Kenny|English|Hayton|2008|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Ward|2004|p=180}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Nis nān ġedǣled Englisc onweald, ac ān fandung, ċēosunge on dǣlum þæs landes, wearþ þurh [[2004 North East England devolution referendum|ġeċēosunge]] āwurpen.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Times 2004-11-05&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Sherman |first1=Jill |last2=Andrew Norfolk |date=5 November 2004 |title=Prescott's dream in tatters as North East rejects assembly |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article503255.ece |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525121618/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article503255.ece |archive-date=25 May 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525121618/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article503255.ece |archivedate=25 May 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Ealdorscipe==
Englaland is dǣl þæs [[United Kingdom|Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]],&lt;ref name=&quot;ONS Geography Guide&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=&lt;!--Not stated--&gt; |date=4 February 2025 |title=A Beginner's Guide to UK Geography (2023) |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/d1f39e20edb940d58307a54d6e1045cd/about |access-date=14 May 2025 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}&lt;/ref&gt; þe is [[constitutional monarchy|ǣlic cyningrīċe]] mid [[parliamentary system|witenaġemōtlicre dihtunge]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=United Kingdom|access-date=13 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Siþþan 1707 nis nān [[government of England|Englisc ealdorscipe]] ġewesen, þā þā þā [[Acts of Union 1707|Ǣ þǣre Ġeānunge 1707]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Act of Union between England and Scotland |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/The-Act-of-Union/ |access-date=25 December 2023 |website=Historic UK |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409121241/https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/The-Act-of-Union/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; þā þe þā ġerǣdnesse þæs [[Treaty of Union|Ġeānunge-ġewrites]] ġefremedon, Englaland and Scotland tō þǣm [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Cynerīċe Grēate Bryten]] ġeānodon.&lt;ref name=&quot;Union with Scotland&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=The first Parliament of Great Britain |url=http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_02_great.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621165514/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_02_great.html |archive-date=21 June 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Parliament}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ǣr þǣre ġeānunge wearþ Englaland fram [[List of English monarchs|hire cyninge]] and fram þǣm [[Parliament of England|Englisce Witenaġemōte]] ġerīcsod.
[[File:Palace of Westminster, London - Feb 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Photograph of rectangular floodlight building, reflected in water. The building has multiple towers including one at each end. The tower on the right includes an illuminated clock face.|right|Sēo [[Palace of Westminster|Westmynstres heall]], þæt setl þæs [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Ġeānodan Cynerīċes Witenaġemōtes]], fram þǣm Englaland ġerīcsod is]]

Englaland is ǣrnum fram þǣm [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Witenaġemōte þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]] ġerīcsod, þēah ōðre [[countries of the United Kingdom|land þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]] hira āgne [[Devolution|ġedǣlede]] ealdorscipas habbaþ.&lt;ref name=&quot;Devolution&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Cabinet Office |author-link=Cabinet Office |date=26 March 2009 |title=Devolution in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/devolution.aspx |access-date=16 August 2009 |publisher=cabinetoffice.gov.uk |archive-date=25 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125172918/http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/devolution.aspx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Is sacu ymb þæt, hū man þis on Englalande ġelīcian mǣge. Ǣrest wæs ġeþōht, þæt man þā [[regions of England|dǣlas Englalandes]] ġedǣlan sceolde, ac siþþan sē Norþēastdǣl on [[2004 North East England devolution referendum|ġeċēosunge on 2004]] þis forsōc, wearþ hit nā ġefremed.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Times 2004-11-05&quot; /&gt; On 2024 wearþ ān [[Mayoral Council for England|Englisc ġemōt]] āsett, þe þā ambihtmenn þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes ealdorscipes, þone [[Mayor of London|burhġerēfan Lundenes]], and þā lǣdan þǣra [[Combined authority|ġeānodra onwealda]] tōsomne ġelaðaþ.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/deputy-prime-minister-launches-first-ever-mayoral-council |title=Deputy Prime Minister launches first-ever Mayoral Council |access-date=12 October 2024 |archive-date=18 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251218165658/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/deputy-prime-minister-launches-first-ever-mayoral-council |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 2026 onfēng sēo [[English Devolution and Community Empowerment Act 2026|Ǣ ymb Englisce Ġedǣlnesse and Folces Mihte 2026]] cynelic ġeþafunge, and hēo āsette ānne þrēora dǣla dihtunge: [[Governance of England|þēodlicne]], [[Strategic authority|rǣdendlicra onwealda]], and [[Principal area|hēafodonwealda]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

===Wīsdōm þǣre ealdorscipes===
{{Main|Politics of England}}

On þǣm [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|Hūse þǣra Ġemǣnra]], þe is þæt [[lower house|niðerre hūs]] þæs Brytiscan Witenaġemōtes on þǣm [[Palace of Westminster|Westmynstres healle]], sind 543 witenaġemōtes menn for landdǣlum on Englalande, of 650 eallum.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Lists of MPs |url=http://www.parliament.uk/mps-lords-and-offices/mps/ |access-date=21 May 2009 |publisher=Parliament.uk |archive-date=4 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104174226/http://www.parliament.uk/mps-lords-and-offices/mps/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Englaland hæfþ 347 manna fram þǣm [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], 116 fram þǣm [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], 65 fram þǣm [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], 4 fram [[Reform UK]], and 4 fram þǣm [[Green Party of England and Wales|Green Party]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=State of the parties|url=https://members.parliament.uk/parties/commons|access-date=31 July 2025|archive-date=19 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119041224/https://members.parliament.uk/parties/Commons|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Þrēora dǣla ealdorscipe===
{{Main|Governance of England}}
[[File:Tiers of Government in England.webp|thumb|350px|Þā dǣlas þæs ealdorscipes on Englalande]]
Nū sind þrēo dǣlas ealdorscipes on Englalande: þēodlic, [[Strategic authority|rǣdendlic onweald]], and [[Principal areas|hēafodonwealdas]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Powerhouse |first=Eastern |date=18 December 2024 |title=Devo White Paper: A brave step, but not radical enough |url=https://www.easternpowerhouse.uk/post/devo-white-paper-a-brave-step-but-not-radical-enough |access-date=1 June 2026 |website=Eastern Powerhouse |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Þēodlic ====
Englaland nǣfþ nǣnne āgenne [[Devolved English parliament|ġedǣledne witenaġemōt]], swā Scotland ([[Scottish Parliament|Scottisc Witenaġemōt]]), Wēalas ([[Senedd|Wēalisc Senedd]]), and Norþīraland ([[Northern Ireland Assembly|Norþīrisc Samnung]]) habbaþ. Ac þæt [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Witenaġemōt þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]] ǣ for Englaland macaþ.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Devolution |url=https://consoc.org.uk/the-constitution-explained/devolution/ |access-date=1 June 2026 |website=The Constitution Society |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Rǣdendlic onweald ====
{{Main|Devolution in England|Strategic authority}}
[[File:English strategic authorities.svg|thumb|300px|Mǣlen þǣra Englisca rǣdendlicra onwealda]]
Þā ''rǣdendlican onwealdas'' sind dǣlas þæs landes, þe of [[Combined authority|ġeānodum and scīrlicum ġeānodum onwealdum]] and of þǣm [[Greater London Authority|Mǣran Lundenes Onwealde]] standaþ.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marc_WH&quot;/&gt;

On 2026 sind 18 ġeānode and scīrlice ġeānode onwealdas on Englalande, and 16 þǣra habbaþ ānne [[Directly elected mayors in England|ġecorenne burhġerēfan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Local government facts and figures: England |url=https://lgiu.org/resources/local-government-facts-and-figures/local-government-facts-and-figures-england/ |access-date=1 June 2026 |website=LGIU |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Fram 1994 oþ þā ǣrran ġēar þæs 2010an ġēarhundredes wæs Englaland tō sumum þingum on dǣlas ġedǣled; mid [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|ġeċēosunge on 1998]] for Lundenes dǣle wearþ twā ġēar siþþan sēo [[London Assembly|Lundenes Samnung]] āsett.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Cooper |first=Hilary |date=29 March 2011 |title=Tiers shed as regional government offices disappear |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/mar/29/regional-government-disappears-1500-jobs-lost |access-date=16 June 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402084945/http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2011/mar/29/regional-government-disappears-1500-jobs-lost |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sēo [[2004 North East England devolution referendum|forsacung on 2004]] ġeendode þā ġedǣlnesse þǣra [[Regional Assemblies in England|dǣla-samnunga]]&lt;ref name=&quot;The Times 2004-11-05&quot; /&gt;, and þā dǣlas būtan Lundenes wurdon āwurpene.

==== Hēafodonwealdas ====
{{Main|Local government in England|Principal council}}
Þā ''hēafodonwealdas'' sind of [[Unitary authority|ānfealdum samnungum]], [[Districts of England|dǣl-samnungum]], and [[county council|scīr-samnungum]] ġeworht.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Būtan Lundenes dǣle is sēo hēahste dǣl on Englalande þā 48 [[Ceremonial counties of England|þēawlican scīra]].&lt;ref name=&quot;britannicagov&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Encyclopædia Britannica|2002|p=100}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þās sind mǣst tō tācne þǣre stōwe ġebrūcene. Þǣra 38 wurdon lytlum siþþan þā [[Middle Ages|Middelieldu]] ġeworhte; hīe wurdon on 1974 tō 51 ġebētte, and on 1996 tō hira nū rīme.&lt;ref name=&quot;maud&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Redcliffe-Maud|Wood|1974}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Ǣlċ hæfþ ānne [[Lord Lieutenant|Hlāford-stedeweard]] and ānne [[High Sheriff|Hēahġerēfan]]; þās ambihtmenn tācniaþ þone [[British monarch|Brytiscan cyning]] on þǣre stōwe.&lt;ref name=&quot;britannicagov&quot; /&gt; Sume scīra, swā [[Herefordshire|Herefordscīr]], sind furðor ǣrnum on [[civil parish|folclice prēostscīra]] ġedǣlede. Sēo cynelice scīr [[Berkshire|Bearrucscīr]] and þā [[metropolitan county|burglican scīra]] habbaþ ōðerne hād þonne þā ōðre þēawlican scīra.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=abcounties.com |date=26 June 2013 |title=The problem of 'county confusion' – and how to resolve it |url=https://abcounties.com/counties/county-confusion/ |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=Association of British Counties |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103020800/https://abcounties.com/counties/county-confusion/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; On 1974 scōp sēo [[Local Government Act 1972|Ǣ þǣre Landrǣdenne 1972]] twā-dǣle dihtunge on Englalande mid 39 [[Non-metropolitan county|scīrum būtan burgum]] and 6 burglicum scīrum. Þā scīra wǣron twā-dǣlu (scīr-samnung and dǣl-samnunga), ac þā burglican scīra hæfdon ōðre dǣlunge þǣra weorca.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Tony |first=Travers |date=20 April 2024 |title=Tony Travers: 1974 reform heralded a near permanent revolution |url=https://www.lgcplus.com/politics/governance-and-structure/tony-travers-1974-reform-heralded-a-near-permanent-revolution-02-04-2024/ |website=LGC}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Þā burglican scīr-samnunga wurdon on 1986 fordōn.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Leach |first=Steve |last2=Game |first2=Chris |date=June 1991 |title=English Metropolitan Government Since Abolition: An Evaluation of the Abolition of the English Metropolitan County Councils |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00788.x |journal=Public Administration |language=en |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=141–170 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00788.x |issn=0033-3298|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; Furðor ġebētunga on þǣm middele þæs 1990an ġēarum (mǣst 1995–1998) dydon, þæt ānfealde onwealdas manega twā-dǣle dihtunga ġeedniwodon. Þā wendunga on 1996 tōdǣldon formlīċe þā þēawlican scīra (for hlāford-stedeweardes and þēawlicum weorcum) fram þǣm dihtlicum scīrum (for landrǣdenne).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=15 January 2025 |title=What is local government reorganisation? |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/local-government-unitarisation |access-date=3 June 2026 |website=Institute for Government |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Þis scōp clǣnran tōdǣl: þā þēawlican scīra folgiaþ oft ealde oþþe ġewendede landġemǣru, þā dihtlican onwealdas ġemyndgiaþ þā nū ānfealdan oþþe twā-dǣlan samnunga.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

Dihtlīċe is Lunden of 32 [[London boroughs|Lundenes burgum]] and þǣre [[City of London|Burge Lundenes]] ġeworht.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Axford|2002|p=315}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Þā 32 burga sind sēo þēawlice scīr Mǣrre Lunden, and sēo Burg Lundenes is ōðru þēawlicu scīr.

Englaland is ēac on landrǣdenne-dǣlas ġedǣled.&lt;ref name=&quot;localgov&quot;&gt;{{harvnb|Singh|2009|p=53}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Sē dǣl mæġ ġelīcian ānre þēawlican scīre, oþþe dǣl innan [[shire counties|scīre]] wesan, [[royal borough|cynelic]] oþþe [[metropolitan borough|burglic burg]] wesan, [[Borough status in the United Kingdom|burges]] oþþe [[city status in the United Kingdom|ceastre hād]] habban, oþþe [[Unitary authorities of England|ānfeald onweald]] wesan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Local government restructuring - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/methodology/geography/ukgeographies/administrativegeography/ourchanginggeography/localgovernmentrestructuring |access-date=3 June 2026 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lunden hæfþ tō bysene 33 [[local government districts|landrǣdenne-dǣlas]].

On þǣre folclicran stōwe is mǣst Englaland on [[civil parishes in England|folclice prēostscīra]] mid hira āgnum [[Parish councils in England|samnungum]] ġedǣled;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Office |first=Great Britain Census |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8JAcAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA12-PA9&amp;dq=civil+parishes+in+England&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;source=gb_mobile_search&amp;ovdme=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiPz5CMneuUAxXaUkEAHUZaM1sQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&amp;q=civil%20parishes%20in%20England&amp;f=false |title=Census of England &amp; Wales, 1931 |date=1933 |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; on Mǣrre Lundene is nū ān swilċ prēostscīr, [[Queen's Park, London|Cwēnes Pearroc]] {{as of|2014|lc=y}}, siþþan hīe on 1965 [[London Government Act 1963|fordōn]] wǣron, oþ ǣ on 2007 [[Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007|hīe eft tō āsettenne ġeþafode]].

===Ǣ===
{{Main|English law}}

[[File:Royal Courts of Justice (6201094569).jpg|thumb|Þā [[Royal Courts of Justice|Cynelican Ġemōt for Rihte]]|left]]

Sēo [[English law|Englisce ǣ]], þe ofer manega ġēarhundredu āwēox, is grund þǣra [[common law|ġemǣnra ǣ]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Common Law |url=http://dictionary.law.com/Default.aspx?selected=248 |access-date=5 October 2013 |website=The People's Law Dictionary |publisher=ALM Media Properties |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211034648/https://dictionary.law.com/Default.aspx?selected=248 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; dihtunga on mǣstum [[Commonwealth of Nations|Ġemǣnwelan]] landum&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=19 October 2000 |title=The Common Law in the British Empire |url=http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~law/ASLH/conferences/2000conference/101900345b.htm |access-date=20 August 2011 |publisher=H-net.msu.edu |archive-date=21 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921085926/http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~law/ASLH/conferences/2000conference/101900345b.htm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and on þǣm Ġeānodum Rīċum (būtan [[Louisiana|Louisiānan]]). Þēah Englaland nū dǣl þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes is, belāf sēo ǣ þǣra [[Courts of England and Wales|ġemōta Englalandes and Wēala]] under þǣm [[Treaty of Union|Ġeānunge-ġewrite]] swā āsyndrod ǣ fram þǣre, þe on [[Scots law|Scotlande]] brūcen is. Þæt ġewrit þǣre Englisce ǣ is, þæt dēman on ġemōtum hīe macaþ, and mid hira ġewitte and cunnunge [[legal precedent|ǣrra dōma]] — ''stare decisis'' — on þā þing dēmaþ, þe him beforan sind.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fafinski|2007|p=60}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Þā ġemōt sind fram þǣm [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Ġemōte for Eftcleopunge]], þǣm [[High Court of Justice|Hēahġemōte for Rihte]] for folclicum sacum, and þǣm [[Crown Court|Cynelican Ġemōte]] for fācnum ġelǣd.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fafinski|2007|p=127}}.&lt;/ref&gt; Þæt [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Hēahste Ġemōt þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]] is þæt hēahste ġemōt for fācnum and folclicum sacum on [[England and Wales|Englalande and Wēalum]]. Hit wearþ on 2009 ġescapen, þā þā man þā [[judicial functions of the House of Lords|dēmunga þæs Hūses þǣra Hlāforda]] on hit ġeflīemde.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090117132005/http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=DCA.gov.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dōm þæs Hēahstan Ġemōtes bind ǣlċ ōðer ġemōt, þe his bebodum folgian sceal.&lt;ref&gt;{{harvnb|Fafinski|2007|p=67}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Sē [[secretary of state for justice|ambihtmann for rihte]] is sē, þe fore þǣm Witenaġemōte for þǣm [[Judiciaries of the United Kingdom|dēmunge]], þǣm ġemōta dihtunge, and þǣm carcernum on Englalande andswarað.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-justice |website=GOV.UK |access-date=3 April 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202015058/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-justice |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Fācnu wurdon ġeīcte betwux 1981 and 1995, ac on 1995–2006 wurdon hīe 42% lǣssan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Crime over the last 25 years |url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/crime0607summ.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324214809/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/crime0607summ.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=HomeOffice.gov.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324214809/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/crime0607summ.pdf |archivedate=24 March 2009 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sēo rīm þǣra ġehæftenda wearþ on þǣre ylcan tīde twifeald, and þæt ġeaf Englalande ānne þǣra [[List of countries by incarceration rate|hēahstra rīma]] on Westerne Europe, 147 on ġehwilcum 100,000.&lt;ref name=&quot;Crime BBC&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |date=8 February 2008 |title=New record high prison population |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7235438.stm |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112123133/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7235438.stm |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[His Majesty's Prison Service|Cynges Carcernþēnung]], þe þǣm [[Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)|Ambihte for Rihte]] andswarað, dihteþ mǣst carcerna, and on 2024 hæfde hēo nēah 87,300 ġehæftenda on Englalande and Wēalum, þā mǣstan siþþan 1900.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=House of Commons Library: Prison Population Statistics|url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn04334/|access-date=26 May 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Land==
{{Main|Geography of England}}

===Land and ēa===
[[File:Malvern Hills - England.jpg|left|thumb|Þā [[Malvern Hills|Malferna dūna]] on þǣm Englisce scīrum [[Worcestershire|Wigraceastre]] and [[Herefordshire|Herefordes]]. Þā dūna sind fram þǣm Landscīre ġenemned [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty|ān stōw ofermǣre ġesceafte fæġernesse]]. ]]
Englaland is sēo mīddele and sūþlice twā þriddan þæs īeglandes Grēate Bryten, and ēac ūtīegland, swā [[Isle of Wight|Wihtland]] and þā [[Isles of Scilly|Scillan īegland]]. Hit is ġemǣred fram twām ōðrum landum þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes: [[Anglo Scottish border|norþan]] fram Scotlande and [[Wales-England border|westan]] fram Wēalum.

Englaland is nēar þǣm Europiscan fæstlande þonne ǣniġ ōðer dǣl þæs fæstlandes Brytenlandes. Hit is fram [[France|Francland]] ([[Hauts-de-France]]) ġedǣled mid ānre 21 mīla (34 km)&lt;ref name=&quot;Engchannel&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=English Channel |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187921/English-Channel |access-date=15 August 2009 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=britannica.com |archive-date=2 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502222618/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187921/English-Channel |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; sǣ-ġemǣre, þēah þā twā land mid þǣm [[Channel Tunnel|Sǣ-ġedelfe]] nēah [[Folkestone|Folcesstāne]] ġeþēodde sind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcAboutUs/ukm/history.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116055538/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcAboutUs/ukm/history.htm |archive-date=16 November 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=EuroTunnel.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Englaland hæfþ ēac strandas on þǣre [[Irish Sea|Īrisc sǣ]], þǣre [[North Sea|Norþsǣ]], and þǣm Atlantiscan Ōcēane.

Þā hȳþa Lundenes, [[Liverpool|Lifrepolan]], and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Nīwan Ceastre]] licgaþ on þǣm ȳþigum ēum [[River Thames|Temese]], [[River Mersey|Mærse]], and [[River Tyne|Tȳne]]. Mid 220 mīlum (354 km) is sēo [[River Severn|Sæferne]] sēo lengeste ēa, þe þurh Englaland flēowþ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The River Severn |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/england/sevenwonders/west/severn-river/ |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=11 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011115541/http://www.bbc.co.uk/england/sevenwonders/west/severn-river/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hēo flēowþ on þone [[Bristol Channel|Brycgstōwes sǣ-earm]] and is for hire [[Severn Bore|Sæferne ȳþe]], ān [[tidal bore|ȳþ of flōde]], ġemǣre, þe 2 m (6.6 fōta) hēah weorðan mæġ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Severn Bore and Trent Aegir |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/31439.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122125420/http://environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/31439.aspx |archive-date=22 November 2010 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=Environment Agency |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122125420/http://environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/31439.aspx |archivedate=22 November 2010 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ac sēo lengeste ēa, þe eal on Englalande is, is sēo Temes, þe 215 mīla (346 km) lang is.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thames&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=River Thames and London (England) |url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard-home/related-139-94056-articles-reviews/River+Thames-London+(England)/related.do |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606141618/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/related-139-94056-river-thames-london-england.do |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=17 August 2009 |website=London Evening Standard |location=London |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606141607/http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard-home/related-139-94056-articles-reviews/River%2BThames-London%2B%28England%29/related.do |archivedate=6 June 2011 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Manega [[lakes in England|merān]] sind on Englalande; sēo mǣste is [[Windermere|Wīnandermere]], on þǣm [[Lake District|Mere-landscīre]].&lt;ref name=&quot;metoffice_nw&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=North West England &amp; Isle of Man: climate |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/nw/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605003213/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/nw/ |archive-date=5 June 2011 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=Met Office}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mǣst þæs landes Englalandes is lāgum dūnum and fēldum ġeworht, and on norþdǣle and westdǣle is heahland and beorgig land. Þā norþlican heahlandu sind þā [[Pennines|Pennīnas]], þā dūna, þe ēast and west tōdǣlaþ, þā beorgas þæs Mere-landscīres on Cumbrīan, and þā [[Cheviot Hills|Cheviotes dūna]], þe betwux Englalande and Scotlande licgaþ. Sē hēahsta stede on Englalande, 978 m (3,209 fōta) hēah, is [[Scafell Pike|Scāfelles Pīc]] on þǣm Mere-landscīre.&lt;ref name=&quot;metoffice_nw&quot; /&gt; Þā [[Shropshire Hills|Scrobbesbyrig dūna]] sind nēah Wēalum, and [[Dartmoor|Dartmōr]] and [[Exmoor|Exmōr]] sind twā heahlandu on sūþwestdǣle þæs landes. Þā līċe tōdǣlnesse þǣra landa tācnaþ oft sēo [[Tees–Exe line|Tēse–Exe līn]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url={{GBurl |id=yAgGHnENHjoC |q=tees exe line england lowland upland |p=100}} |title=World Regional Geography |date=2008 |publisher=Joseph J. Hobbs |isbn=978-0-495-38950-7 |access-date=6 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Glenridding, Cumbria, England - June 2009.jpg|thumb|Þæt tūn [[Glenridding]] and [[Ullswater]] on [[Cumbria|Cumbrīan]]]]

Þā [[Pennines|Pennīnas]], þe &quot;bæcbān Englalandes&quot; ġehātene sind, sind þā ieldestan beorgas on þǣm lande, þe fram þǣm ende þǣre [[Paleozoic Era|Ealdlīfes ælde]] nēah 300&amp;nbsp;þūsend þūsenda ġēarum ǣr cōmon.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pennines |url=http://www.summitpost.org/area/range/220026/pennines.html |access-date=8 September 2009 |publisher=Smmit Post |archive-date=19 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719235117/http://www.summitpost.org/area/range/220026/pennines.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hira stāna ġecynd is mǣst ġeseted, mid micelum ġelegum [[sandstone|sandstānes]] and [[limestone|cealcstānes]], and ēac micelum cōlġelegum. Þǣr is [[karst|karstlandscipe]] on þǣm cealclandum, swā on dǣlum Eoforwīcscīre and [[Derbyshire|Deorbyscīre]]. Þæt landscipe þǣra Pennīna is hēah [[moorland|mōrland]] on hēahlandum, þe fram wæstmbǣrum dalum þǣra ēa þæs landes ġescoren is. On him sind twā [[national parks in England|þēodlice pearrocas]], þā [[Yorkshire Dales|Eoforwīcscīre dalas]] and þæt [[Peak District|Pēaclandscīr]]. On þǣm [[West Country|Westlande]] ymbfōþ [[Dartmoor|Dartmōr]] and [[Exmoor|Exmōr]] on þǣm sūþwestlican healfīeglande hēah mōrland, þæt mid [[granite|granīte]] ġefæstnod is.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=National Parks&amp;nbsp;– About us |url=http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/aboutus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027162402/http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/aboutus |archive-date=27 October 2010 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=nationalparks.gov.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027162402/http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/aboutus |archivedate=27 October 2010 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Þā [[English Lowlands beech forests|Englisce lāgland]] sind on þǣm middele and sūþdǣle þæs landes, and hīe sind of grēnum wealwiendum dūnum ġeworht, swā þā [[Cotswold Hills|Cotteswealdes dūna]], þā [[Chiltern Hills|Ċilterne dūna]], and þā [[North Downs|Norþ-]] and [[South Downs|Sūþdūna]]; þǣr hīe þā sǣ ġemētaþ, wyrcaþ hīe hwīte stānclifu, swā þā [[cliffs of Dover|Dofra clifu]]. On þǣm Englisce lāglandum sind ēac efne fēldas, swā [[Salisbury Plain|Searoburge fēld]], þā [[Somerset Levels|Sumorsǣta lāgland]], þæt [[South Coast Plain|Sūþstrandes fēld]], and þā [[The Fens|Fennas]].

===Ġewederu===
{{Main|Climate of England}}

Englaland hæfþ [[temperate climate|ġemetfæst]] [[maritime climate|sǣlic]] weder: hit is milde, and on winter is hit nā micle ċealdre þonne 0 °C (32 °F), and on sumere nā micle wearmre þonne 32 °C (90 °F).&lt;ref name=&quot;weather&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=What is the Climate like in Britain? |url=http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/weather/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114052538/http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/weather/ |archive-date=14 January 2010 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Woodlands Kent}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þæt weder is oft wǣt and wendiġ. Þā ċealdestan mōnþas sind Ianuarius and sē mōnaþ æfter him, sē lætera swīþost on þǣre [[Geography of the United Kingdom|Engliscan strande]], and sē wearmesta is ġewunelīċe sē mōnaþ, þe on þǣm hātestan dǣle þæs ġēares is. Þā mōnþas mid mildum oþþe wearmum wedere sind Māius, sē mōnaþ æfter him, Hāligmōnaþ, and Winterfylleþ.&lt;ref name=&quot;weather&quot; /&gt; Reġn fielþ nēah ġelīċe ġeond þæt ġēar.

Þā mǣstan ġewealdas on þǣm wedere Englalandes sind hire nēawest þǣm [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantiscan Ōcēane]], hire norþlice [[latitude|brǣdu]], and þæt wearmian þǣre sǣ fram þǣm [[Gulf Stream|Golfes Strēame]].&lt;ref name=&quot;weather&quot; /&gt; Reġn fielþ mā on westdǣle, and dǣlas þæs [[Lake District|Mere-landscīres]] onfōþ mā reġnes þonne ǣniġ ōðer stōw þæs landes.&lt;ref name=&quot;weather&quot; /&gt; Siþþan man þæt weder ǣrest āwrāt, wæs sēo hēahste hǣtu 40.3 °C (104.5 °F) on 19 Iūlius 2022 æt [[Coningsby|Cyninges byrġ]] on [[Lincolnshire|Lincolnscīre]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Record high temperatures verified |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/record-high-temperatures-verified |access-date=22 March 2023 |website=Met Office |archive-date=7 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807200218/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/record-high-temperatures-verified |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and sēo ċealdeste wæs −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 Ianuarius 1982 on [[Edgmond, Shropshire|Eċġemundes tūne]] on Scrobbesbyrigscīre.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=English Climate |url=http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829161614/http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/ |archive-date=29 August 2008 |publisher=MetOffice.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829161614/http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature |archivedate=29 August 2008 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Ġecynd and wilde dēor===
{{main|Fauna of England}}

[[File:Eurasian Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), Icklesham, Sussex.jpg|thumb|Sē [[Eurasian wren|Eurāsisca wrenna]], þæt manigfealdoste fugolcynn on Englalande&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=4 February 2020 |title=It's official – the Wren is our commonest bird |url=https://www.bto.org/press-releases/it%E2%80%99s-official-%E2%80%93-wren-our-commonest-bird |access-date=2 December 2022 |website=BTO |last1=Ornithology |first1=British Trust for |archive-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112190916/https://www.bto.org/press-releases/it%E2%80%99s-official-%E2%80%93-wren-our-commonest-bird |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Þā dēor Englalandes sind þǣm on ōðrum dǣlum þǣra [[British Isles|Brytenīeglanda]] ġelīc, mid manigfealdum cynnum, ġe þǣra þe ġelodra habbaþ ġe þǣra þe nabbaþ, on missenlicum wunungum.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Natural History Museum |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/british-wildlife.html |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713112232/https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/british-wildlife.html |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[National nature reserves in England|Þēodlice friþlandas]] on Englalande sind fram [[Natural England|Ġecyndlicum Englalande]] tō weorþlicum wunungum þǣra wilda dēora and þǣra ġecyndlicra landes hīwa ġenemnede. Hīe wurdon ġestaþelode, þæt hīe þǣm weorþlicostum dǣlum þǣra wununga and þǣra stāna ġelegu beorgen. Þā friþlandas sind for þǣre þēode ġehealdene, fela fram [[Natural England|Ġecyndlicum Englalande]] sylfum, ac ēac fram ġemǣnscipum, þe nā tō þǣm rīċe hīeraþ, swā þǣm ġefērum þæs fērscipes [[The Wildlife Trusts|Wildēora Trūwena]], þǣm [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|Þēodlicum Trūwan]], and þǣre [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds|Cynelican Ġefērscipe tō Fugola Friþe]]. Þǣr sind 221 friþlandas on Englalande, þe 110,000 ha (1,100 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) ymbfōþ. Oft habbaþ hīe cynn, þe fēawe sind, oþþe folc wyrta and dēora, þe þǣre þēode weorþlic sind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Natural England: Designated sites |url=https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/ReportConditionSummary.aspx?SiteType=NNR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825034122/https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/ReportConditionSummary.aspx?SiteType=NNR |archive-date=25 August 2021 |access-date=20 July 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sēo [[Environment Agency|Ymbhwyrftes Ġerēfscipe]] is ān folclic ġemǣnscipe būtan ambihte, þe on þǣm ġēare 1995 ġestaþelod wæs and fram þǣm [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs|Ambihte for Ymbhwyrfte, Mete, and Ūplendiscum Þingum]] ġehealden is; hēo hæfþ ambiht, þæt hēo þǣm ymbhwyrfte Englalandes beorge and hine bēte.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Environment Agency |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=GOV.UK |archive-date=2 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402170230/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sē [[secretary of state for environment, food and rural affairs|rīċes canceler]] for ymbhwyrfte, mete, and ūplendiscum þingum is sē ambihtmann, þe ġeweald hæfþ ofer ymbhwyrftfriðe, eorðtilðe, fiscaðe, and ūplendiscum ġemǣnscipum on Englalande.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-environment-food-and-rural-affairs |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=gov.uk |archive-date=5 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405111005/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-environment-food-and-rural-affairs |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Richmond Park - London - England - 02102005.jpg|thumb|[[Red deer|Rēad dēor]] on [[Richmond Park|Richmond Pearroce]]. Þæt pearroc wearþ fram [[Charles I of England|Carle þǣm 1an]] on þǣm 17an ġēarhundrede tō [[Deer park (England)|dēortūne]] ġeworht.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pastscape&quot;&gt;{{PastScape|mnumber=397979|mname=Richmond Park|date=2015|access-date=3 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
On mǣstum dǣlum hæfþ Englaland ġemetlic [[Oceanic climate|sǣweder]], būtan miċelre cealdnesse oþþe hǣte, ac hit hæfþ ēac fēawe lȳtle dǣlas mid [[Subarctic climate|subarktiscum]] wedere and wearmran dǣlas on [[South West England|Sūþwestdǣle]]. Tōweard þǣm [[Northern England|Norþdǣle]] Englalandes wierþ þæt weder ċealdre, and þǣr is mǣst þæs hēahlandes Englalandes, þe miċel ġeweald hæfþ ofer þæt weder and swā ēac ofer þā dēor þǣra dǣla. [[Deciduous|Hrurule]] wudas sind ġemǣne on eallum Englalande and ġiefaþ miċele wunung þǣm mǣstan dǣle þǣra dēora Englalandes, ac on þǣm norþdǣle and on þǣm hēahlande Englalandes sind þā wudas ġewende tō [[Coniferous|furhwudum]] (mǣst āplantodum), þe ēac sumum cynnum wilda dēora fremiaþ. Sume cynn sind tō þǣm wīdran ceasterniscan ymbhwyrfte ġefēgede, swīþost sē [[Red fox|rēada fox]], þe on burgum is, æfter þǣm [[Brown rat|brūnan ræte]], þæt ġeþungenoste ceasternisce dēor, and ōðre dēor, swā sēo [[Common wood pigeon|cūscote]]; þā twā on burgum and on underburgum wel libbaþ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=17 May 2012 |title=Mammals in Britain's cities: A spotter's guide – in pictures {{pipe}} Urban wildlife |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2012/may/17/mammals-britains-cities-spotters-guide}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Þā mǣstan burgdǣlas===
{{See also|List of places in England}}

Þæt [[Greater London Built-up Area|Lundenes ymbland]] is swīþe miċle þæt mǣste ymbland on Englalande&lt;ref name=&quot;BUA&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=2011 Census – Built-up areas |url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/articles/747.aspx |access-date=5 February 2014 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921045319/http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/articles/747.aspx |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; and ān þǣra bisigestena burga on weorulde. Hit is for [[global city|weorulde burg]] ġehealden and hæfþ māre folc þonne ǣniġ ōðer land on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynerīċe būtan Englalande sylfum.&lt;ref name=&quot;BUA&quot; /&gt; Ōðru ymbland, þe micelu sind and micel ġeweald habbaþ, sind oft on þǣm [[Northern England|Norþdǣle]] oþþe on þǣm [[English Midlands|Engliscan Middele]].&lt;ref name=&quot;BUA&quot; /&gt; Þǣr sind [[List of cities in the United Kingdom|50 tūna]], þe on Englalande tō [[City status in the United Kingdom|ceastrum]] ġenemnede sind, and þæt wīdre [[United Kingdom|Ġeānode Cynerīċe]] hæfþ 66.

Þēah fela ceastra on Englalande swīþe micela sind, swā [[Birmingham]], [[Sheffield]], [[Manchester]], [[Liverpool]], [[City of Leeds|Leeds]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[City of Bradford|Bradford]], and [[Nottingham]], nis micelnes folces nīedþearf tō ceasterhāde.&lt;ref name=&quot;cathcities&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=O'Brian |first=Harriet |date=24 November 2007 |title=The Complete Guide To: Cathedral cities in the UK |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-cathedral-cities-in-the-uk-760201.html |url-status=dead |access-date=8 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812091322/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-cathedral-cities-in-the-uk-760201.html |archive-date=12 August 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812091322/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-cathedral-cities-in-the-uk-760201.html |archivedate=12 August 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; Be ealdum þēawe wæs sē hād þǣm tūnum ġiefen, þe [[List of cathedrals in England|bisceopstōl]] hæfdon, and swā sind ēac lȳtle ceastra, swā [[Wells, Somerset|Wells]], [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]], [[Ripon]], [[Truro]], and [[Chichester]].
{{Largest cities
| name         = Mǣste ymbland
| kind         = burgdǣlas
| country      = Englaland
| stat_ref     = folces ġerīm 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;BUA&quot; /&gt;
| list_by_pop  = List of urban areas in the United Kingdom
| class        = nav
| div_name     =
| div_link     = List of urban areas in the United Kingdom{{!}}Conurbation
| div_1 = Greater London Built-up Area{{!}}Micel Lunden
| city_1 = Lunden
| pop_1 = 9,787,426
| div_2 = Greater Manchester Built-up Area{{!}}Micel Manchester
| city_2 = Manchester
| pop_2 = 2,553,379
| div_3 = West Midlands Conurbation{{!}}Westmiddele
| city_3 = Birmingham
| pop_3 = 2,440,986
| div_4 = West Yorkshire Urban Area{{!}}Westeoforwīcscīr
| city_4 = Leeds
| pop_4 = 1,777,934
| div_5 = Liverpool Urban Area{{!}}Liverpool
| city_5 = Liverpool
| pop_5 = 864,122
| img_5 =
| div_6 = Sūþhamtūnscīr
| city_6 = Southampton
| pop_6 = 855,569
| img_6 =
| div_7 = Tyneside
| city_7 = Newcastle upon Tyne
| pop_7 = 774,891
| img_7 =
| div_8 = Nottingham Urban Area{{!}}Nottingham
| city_8 = Nottingham
| pop_8 = 729,977
| img_8 =
| div_9 = Sheffield Urban Area{{!}}Sheffield
| city_9 = Sheffield
| pop_9 = 685,368
| img_9 =
| div_10 = Bristol Built-up Area{{!}}Bristol
| city_10 = Bristol
| pop_10 = 617,280
| img_10 =
}}

==Wela and cēapung==
{{Main|Economy of England}}

[[File:London Skyline (125508655).jpeg|thumb|[[London|Lunden]] is sēo hēafodburg Englalandes and þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes.]]
Englalandes wela is ān þǣra mǣstena and wæstmbǣrestena on weorulde, mid [[GDP per capita|wæstme ǣlċes mannes]], þe £37,852 wæs on þǣm ġēare 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;ONS GDP&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Regional gross domestic product: all ITL regions |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/datasets/regionalgrossdomesticproductallnutslevelregions |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605111513/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/datasets/regionalgrossdomesticproductallnutslevelregions |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[HM Treasury|Þæs Cyninges Feohhord]], þe sē [[chancellor of the exchequer|canceler þæs feohhordes]] lǣdeþ, hæfþ ambiht, þæt hit þā rǣdas þæs rīċes ymb [[public finance|folclic feoh]] and [[economic policy|ǣhta]] ġewyrce and ġefremme.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite report |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/bulletins/regionalgrossvalueaddedbalanceduk/1998to2017/pdf |title=Regional economic activity by gross value added (balanced), UK: 1998 to 2017 |last=Fenton |first=Trevor |date=12 December 2018 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] |archive-date=21 June 2018 |access-date=19 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015828/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/bulletins/regionalgrossvalueaddedincomeapproach/december2016 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hit is ġewunelīċe for [[Anglo-Saxon economy|ġemengde cēapunge]] ġehealden; hit hæfþ fela þēawa þæs [[free market|frēon cēapes]] ġenumen, ac hit hæfþ ēac ġeþungen ġeweorc þæs [[social welfare|folces ārǣdes]] ġehealden.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=The Welfare State&amp;nbsp;– Never Ending Reform |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/field_01.shtml |access-date=17 September 2009 |archive-date=14 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814113910/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/field_01.shtml |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sē wela Englalandes is sē mǣsta dǣl þæs [[economy of the United Kingdom|welan þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;regionalacc&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Office for National Statistics |author-link=Office for National Statistics |title=Regional Accounts |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/hub/economy/national-accounts/regional-accounts/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826104410/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/hub/economy/national-accounts/regional-accounts/index.html |archive-date=26 August 2009 |access-date=17 September 2009 |publisher=statistics.gov.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826104410/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/hub/economy/national-accounts/regional-accounts/index.html |archivedate=26 August 2009 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Englaland is mid þǣm fyrmestan on þǣm ċemiscum and lǣcedōmlicum cræftum and on ōðrum hēafodcræftum, swīþost on [[aerospace|lyftcræfte]], [[arms industry|wǣpnencræfte]], and [[software industry|rǣdwerccræfte]]. Lunden, þǣr þæt [[London Stock Exchange|Lundenes Cēapstōw]] is, sēo mǣste [[stock exchange|cēapstōw]] þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes and sēo mǣste on Europa, is Englalandes feohmiddel, and 100 þǣra 500 mǣstena ġefērscipa Europa eardiaþ þǣr.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Financial Centre |url=http://legacy.london.gov.uk/london-life/business-and-jobs/financial-centre.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713060624/http://legacy.london.gov.uk/london-life/business-and-jobs/financial-centre.jsp |archive-date=13 July 2011 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=London.gov.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; On þǣm ġēare 2025 is Lunden þæt mǣste feohmiddel on Europa and þæt ōðer mǣste on weorulde.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=GFCI 36 Rank - Long Finance |url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-36-explore-the-data/gfci-36-rank/ |access-date=24 September 2025 |website=www.longfinance.net |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925155927/https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-36-explore-the-data/gfci-36-rank/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Lunden is ġenemned þæt hrædost wexende cræfta middel on Europa, and Englaland hæfþ ofer 100 cræftġefērscipa, þe $1,000,000,000 oþþe māre weorþ sind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe |url=https://brainstation.io/magazine/london-technology-capital-of-europe-100-unicorns |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=BrainStation |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007093133/https://brainstation.io/magazine/london-technology-capital-of-europe-100-unicorns |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Willems |first=Michiel |date=20 June 2021 |title=Unicorn nest: UK hits milestone of 100 $1bn tech companies, more than rest of Europe combined |url=https://www.cityam.com/unicorn-nest-uk-hits-milestone-of-100-1bn-tech-companies-more-than-rest-of-europe-combined/ |access-date=17 September 2023 |website=CityAM |archive-date=2 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102232236/https://www.cityam.com/unicorn-nest-uk-hits-milestone-of-100-1bn-tech-companies-more-than-rest-of-europe-combined/ |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Sēo [[Bank of England|Englalandes Feohhord]], þe on þǣm ġēare 1694 tō ānlīpum māðmhyrde þæs rīċes Englalandes ġestaþelod wæs and siþþan 1946 [[nationalisation|þæs rīċes āgen]] is, is þæs Ġeānodan Cynerīċes [[central bank|hēafodfeohhord]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Bank's relationship with Parliament |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/parliament/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708200732/https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/parliament/index.htm |archive-date=8 July 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=BankofEngland.co.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708200732/https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/parliament/index.htm |archivedate=8 July 2009 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hēo āna mōt on [[England and Wales|Englalande and Wēalum]] feohcartan ūt ġiefan, ac nā on ōðrum dǣlum þæs Cynerīċes. Þæt ġerec þæs rīċes hæfþ þǣm [[Monetary Policy Committee (United Kingdom)|Feohrǣdes Ġemōte]] þǣre Bank þæt ambiht ġeseald, þæt hit þone feos rǣd þæs landes healde and þā gafol ġesette.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Monetary Policy Committee |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetarypolicy/overview.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708141658/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetarypolicy/overview.htm |archive-date=8 July 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=BankofEngland.co.uk |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708141658/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetarypolicy/overview.htm |archivedate=8 July 2009 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Aston Martin DB12 Volante IMG 9323.jpg|left|alt=Ān grǣġ wægn.|thumb|[[Aston Martin]] wyrcaþ weorþlice wægnas on Englalande.]]
Englaland hæfþ swīþe micelne weorccræft, ac siþþan þǣm ġēare 1970 is þǣr wanung þǣra ealdra hefigra cræfta and weorccræfta, and sē wela wierþ māre and māre tō þǣm [[service industry|þēnunga cræfte]] ġewend.&lt;ref name=&quot;Thatcher&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Reitan |first=Earl Aaron |title=The Thatcher Revolution |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-7425-2203-9 |page=50}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sē [[tourism|ġestfaru]] is weorþlic cræft ġeworden, þe manega þūsend þūsenda ġesta ǣlċ ġēar tō Englalande tīehþ. Sē dǣl þæs welan, þe tō ōðrum landum ġeseald wierþ, is mǣst [[pharmaceuticals|lǣcedōmas]], wægnas, [[crude oil|hrēaw ele]] and stānele of þǣm Engliscan dǣlum þæs [[North Sea oil|Norþsǣ eles]] and of [[Wytch Farm]], [[aircraft engine|lyftscipa ġeweorc]], and wīn and bēor.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=England Exports |url=http://mambiz.com/main/?cat=28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105132032/http://mambiz.com/main/?cat=28 |archive-date=5 January 2012 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=EconomyWatch.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā [[creative industries|sciepende cræftas]] hæfdon 7% GVA on þǣm ġēare 2005 and wēoxon ǣlċ ġēar on ġemetlicre mǣþe 6% betwux þǣm ġēarum 1997 and 2005.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=9 March 2007 |title=From the Margins to the Mainstream&amp;nbsp;– Government unveils new action plan for the creative industries |url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/2132.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204131529/http://www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/2132.aspx |archive-date=4 December 2008 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=DCMS |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204131529/http://www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/2132.aspx |archivedate=4 December 2008 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Sēo eorðtilð is swīþe ġeornful, mid fela ġeweorcum, and ġeþungen be Europiscum þēawe, and hēo wyrceþ 60% þæs mētes, þe man þearf, mid ānum 2% þǣra weorcmanna.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=World Guide&amp;nbsp;– England&amp;nbsp;– Economy Overview |url=http://www.intute.ac.uk/worldguide/html/1069_economic.html |access-date=9 September 2009 |website=World Guide |publisher=Intute |archive-date=2 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802024219/http://www.intute.ac.uk/worldguide/html/1069_economic.html |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802024219/http://www.intute.ac.uk/worldguide/html/1069_economic.html |archivedate=2 August 2009 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; 2/3 þæs wæstmes is tō orfe ġeseald, sē ōðer dǣl tō ǣcerwæstmum.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Economy of the United Kingdom |url=http://www.pteducation.com/gk/UK.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091123055028/http://www.pteducation.com/gk/UK.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2009 |access-date=8 October 2009 |publisher=PTeducation}}&lt;/ref&gt; Þā hēafodwæstmas, þe man tiliaþ, sind [[wheat|hwǣte]], [[barley|bere]], [[oat|ātan]], [[potato|potātan]], and [[sugar beet|sugorbētan]]. Englaland hæfþ ġīet weorþlicne fiscað. Hira flotan bringaþ hām manigfeald cynn fisca, fram [[Sole (fish)|sole]] oþ [[herring|hǣringas]]. Englaland is ēac ǣhtspēdig mid ġecyndlicum ǣhtum, þe sind [[coal|col]], [[petroleum|stānele]], [[natural gas|ġecyndlic lyft]], [[tin]], [[limestone|cealcstān]], [[iron ore|īsenōra]], [[salt|sealt]], [[clay|clǣg]], [[chalk|cealc]], [[gypsum|plǣsterstān]], [[lead|lēad]], and [[silicon dioxide|flintsand]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Coal {{!}} Mines and quarries {{!}} MineralsUK |url=https://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mines/coal/home.html |access-date=7 July 2016 |website=MineralsUK |archive-date=20 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720145905/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsUK/mines/coal/home.html |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720145905/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsUK/mines/coal/home.html |archivedate=20 July 2016 |accessdate=8 October 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Mario Wütrich</title>
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      <text bytes="22158" sha1="ek57o2qm1e8i99o3qp03i0payqak6sl" xml:space="preserve">== Early life and education ==
Wüthrich was born on 19 May 1969.&lt;ref name=&quot;thesis&quot;&gt;{{cite thesis|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario Valentin|title=Crossing Brownian motion in a soft Poissonian potential|type=Doctoral dissertation|publisher=ETH Zurich|year=1999|doi=10.3929/ethz-a-002049781}}&lt;/ref&gt; He studied mathematics at ETH Zurich and received the degree of ''Diplom-Mathematiker'' before continuing to doctoral study there. His 1999 dissertation, ''Crossing Brownian motion in a soft Poissonian potential'', was written under the supervision of [[Alain-Sol Sznitman]], with [[Erwin Bolthausen]] as co-examiner.&lt;ref name=&quot;thesis&quot; /&gt;

His early research was in probability theory and the mathematical theory of random media. In a series of papers in the late 1990s, he studied the behaviour of [[Brownian motion]] in Poissonian potentials, including fluctuations, geodesics and scaling relations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Fluctuation results for Brownian motion in a Poissonian potential|journal=Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré, Probabilités et Statistiques|volume=34|issue=3|pages=279–308|year=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;scaling&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Scaling identity for crossing Brownian motion in a Poissonian potential|url=https://archive.org/details/probability-theory-and-related-fields_1998_112_3/page/299|journal=Probability Theory and Related Fields|volume=112|issue=3|pages=299–319|year=1998|doi=10.1007/s004400050192}}&lt;/ref&gt; This work belongs to the study of random environments and directed or crossing paths, rather than to actuarial mathematics, which became the main focus of his later career.

== Career ==
After his doctorate Wüthrich spent a period in academic research before moving into the insurance industry. From 2000 to 2005 he worked at Winterthur Insurance in Switzerland, where his responsibilities included non-life claims reserving and work connected with the development and implementation of the [[Swiss Solvency Test]].&lt;ref name=&quot;springer-bio&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Market-Consistent Actuarial Valuation|edition=3rd|series=EAA Series|publisher=Springer|location=Cham|year=2016|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46636-1|isbn=978-3-319-46635-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; He qualified as an Actuary SAA of the Swiss Association of Actuaries in 2004.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=About|url=https://people.math.ethz.ch/~wueth/about.html|website=Mario Wüthrich, RiskLab, ETH Zurich|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

He returned to ETH Zurich in 2005, where he subsequently taught actuarial and financial mathematics and became Director of Actuarial Studies at RiskLab.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;risklab-members&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Members of RiskLab|url=https://risklab.ethz.ch/people/members.html|publisher=RiskLab Switzerland, ETH Zurich|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; ETH currently lists him as a ''Titularprofessor'' (adjunct professor) in the Department of Mathematics.&lt;ref name=&quot;eth-current&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Mario Wüthrich|url=https://math.ethz.ch/research/insurance-mathematics-stochastic-finance/mario-wuethrich.html|publisher=Department of Mathematics, ETH Zurich|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; His teaching has included courses in non-life insurance mathematics, actuarial data science and market-consistent actuarial valuation.&lt;ref name=&quot;eth-teaching&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Mario Valentin Wüthrich: Course units in Autumn Semester 2026|url=https://www.vvz.ethz.ch/Vorlesungsverzeichnis/dozent.view?ansicht=2&amp;dozide=10017668&amp;lang=en&amp;semkez=2026W|publisher=ETH Zurich|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Wüthrich served on the board of the Swiss Association of Actuaries from 2006 to 2018.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot; /&gt; He joined the editorial team of the ''ASTIN Bulletin'' before succeeding Andrew Cairns as Editor-in-Chief in 2018.&lt;ref name=&quot;astin-editor&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Editorial|journal=ASTIN Bulletin|volume=48|issue=1|pages=1–2|year=2018|doi=10.1017/asb.2017.43}}&lt;/ref&gt; The International Actuarial Association continues to list him in that position.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=ASTIN Bulletin|url=https://actuaries.org/publications/astin-bulletin/|publisher=International Actuarial Association|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since 2025 he has also been Senior Scientific Advisor to insureAI.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot; /&gt;

== Research ==

=== Probability and random media ===
Wüthrich's doctoral and immediately pre-doctoral research was concerned with Brownian motion in random Poissonian media. His 1998 paper in ''Probability Theory and Related Fields'' established a scaling identity connecting fluctuation exponents for crossing Brownian motion in a Poissonian potential.&lt;ref name=&quot;scaling&quot; /&gt; Other work from the same period treated fluctuation bounds, superdiffusive behaviour in two dimensions and geodesics in soft Poissonian potentials.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Superdiffusive behavior of two-dimensional Brownian motion in a Poissonian potential|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-probability_1998-07_26_3/page/1000|journal=The Annals of Probability|volume=26|issue=3|pages=1000–1015|year=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Geodesics and crossing Brownian motion in a soft Poissonian potential|journal=Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré, Probabilités et Statistiques|volume=35|issue=4|pages=509–529|year=1999}}&lt;/ref&gt;

After completing his doctorate, Wüthrich moved from academic research into the insurance industry. From 2000 to 2005 he worked at Winterthur Insurance, where his work focused on non-life claims reserving and solvency modelling. His later academic research at ETH Zurich developed these topics further, particularly in stochastic reserving, actuarial valuation and statistical modelling for insurance.

=== Claims reserving ===
A major strand of Wüthrich's research concerns stochastic modelling of outstanding claims in property and casualty insurance. His 2008 book with Michael Merz, ''Stochastic Claims Reserving Methods in Insurance'', develops stochastic versions of classical reserving techniques and methods for quantifying prediction uncertainty.&lt;ref name=&quot;scrm&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|title=Stochastic Claims Reserving Methods in Insurance|url=https://archive.org/details/stochasticclaims0000wuth|series=Wiley Finance|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|location=Chichester|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-72346-3|doi=10.1002/9781119206262}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Merz and Wüthrich's work on the claims development result focused on the change in an insurer's estimate of ultimate losses over a single accounting year. In the distribution-free chain-ladder framework of [[Thomas Mack]], they derived analytic expressions for the one-year prediction error and connected the resulting quantity to solvency measurement.&lt;ref name=&quot;cdr2008&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Merz|first1=Michael|last2=Wüthrich|first2=Mario V.|title=Modelling the claims development result for solvency purposes|journal=Casualty Actuarial Society E-Forum|issue=Fall|pages=542–568|year=2008|url=https://www.casact.org/abstract/modeling-claims-development-result-solvency-purposes}}&lt;/ref&gt; The distinction between an ''ultimate'' reserving horizon and a ''one-year'' horizon became important under modern risk-based regulatory regimes. Subsequent Casualty Actuarial Society publications described the Merz–Wüthrich modification of the Mack model as a foundational approach to one-year reserve variability.&lt;ref name=&quot;cas-one-year&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=A Practical Way to Estimate One-year Reserve Risk|url=https://www.casact.org/sites/default/files/database/forum_12sumforum_completesummer12.pdf|publisher=Casualty Actuarial Society|year=2012|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Actuary and Enterprise Risk Management: Integrating Reserve Variability|url=https://www.casact.org/sites/default/files/2024-02/cas-monograph-no-12.pdf|publisher=Casualty Actuarial Society|year=2024|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

His reserving research has also treated dependence between run-off triangles, the Bornhuetter–Ferguson method, paid-incurred chain models and Tweedie compound-Poisson models.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Alai|first1=Daniel H.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|last3=Wüthrich|first3=Mario V.|title=Mean square error of prediction in the Bornhuetter–Ferguson claims reserving method|journal=Annals of Actuarial Science|volume=5|issue=1|pages=7–31|year=2011|doi=10.1017/S1748499510000026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Merz|first1=Michael|last2=Wüthrich|first2=Mario V.|last3=Hashorva|first3=Enkelejd|title=Dependence modelling in multivariate claims run-off triangles|journal=Annals of Actuarial Science|volume=7|issue=1|pages=3–25|year=2013|doi=10.1017/S1748499512000127}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Valuation and solvency ===
A second long-running theme is the valuation of insurance liabilities in a way that is consistent with traded financial assets. With Hans Bühlmann and Hansjörg Furrer, Wüthrich wrote the first two editions of ''Market-Consistent Actuarial Valuation'', published in 2008 and 2010; he authored the revised third edition in 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario Valentin|last2=Bühlmann|first2=Hans|last3=Furrer|first3=Hansjörg|title=Market-Consistent Actuarial Valuation|edition=1st|series=EAA Series|publisher=Springer|year=2008|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-73643-1|isbn=978-3-540-73642-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;springer-bio&quot; /&gt; The framework combines actuarial valuation with concepts from financial mathematics such as stochastic discounting, replicating portfolios and hedging.

With Merz he also wrote ''Financial Modeling, Actuarial Valuation and Solvency in Insurance'' (2013), which develops a mathematical framework for solvency and asset-liability questions in incomplete markets.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|title=Financial Modeling, Actuarial Valuation and Solvency in Insurance|series=Springer Finance|publisher=Springer|year=2013|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31392-9|isbn=978-3-642-31391-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Machine learning and actuarial data science ===
From the late 2010s, Wüthrich became one of the actuarial researchers working systematically on deep learning and machine-learning methods for insurance. His 2018 paper ''Neural networks applied to chain–ladder reserving'' used individual claim information to refine traditional aggregate chain-ladder reserving.&lt;ref name=&quot;nn-chain&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Neural networks applied to chain–ladder reserving|journal=European Actuarial Journal|volume=8|issue=2|pages=407–436|year=2018|doi=10.1007/s13385-018-0184-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; A related paper, ''Machine learning in individual claims reserving'', examined prediction directly at the level of individual claims rather than only through aggregated run-off triangles.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Machine learning in individual claims reserving|journal=Scandinavian Actuarial Journal|volume=2018|issue=6|pages=465–480|year=2018|doi=10.1080/03461238.2018.1428681}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With Ronald Richman, Wüthrich applied neural networks to multi-population mortality forecasting by extending the classical [[Lee–Carter model]]. Their model used representation learning to learn shared and population-specific structures from mortality data.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Richman|first1=Ronald|last2=Wüthrich|first2=Mario V.|title=A neural network extension of the Lee–Carter model to multiple populations|journal=Annals of Actuarial Science|volume=15|issue=2|pages=346–366|year=2021|doi=10.1017/S1748499519000071}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Richman and Wüthrich later proposed ''LocalGLMnet'', a neural-network architecture designed to combine the predictive flexibility of deep learning with an additive structure that can be interpreted in a manner similar to a [[generalized linear model]].&lt;ref name=&quot;localglm&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Richman|first1=Ronald|last2=Wüthrich|first2=Mario V.|title=LocalGLMnet: interpretable deep learning for tabular data|journal=Scandinavian Actuarial Journal|volume=2023|issue=1|pages=71–95|year=2023|doi=10.1080/03461238.2022.2081816}}&lt;/ref&gt; The model uses feature-dependent regression coefficients learned by a neural network, permitting variable selection and local interpretation of the fitted model.

Their work has also explored methods for making machine-learning models conform more closely to actuarial modelling principles. With Salvatore Scognamiglio, they developed the ''credibility transformer'', which incorporates a credibility-weighting mechanism into a transformer architecture for tabular insurance data.&lt;ref name=&quot;credibility&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Richman|first1=Ronald|last2=Scognamiglio|first2=Salvatore|last3=Wüthrich|first3=Mario V.|title=The credibility transformer|journal=European Actuarial Journal|volume=15|pages=345–379|year=2025|doi=10.1007/s13385-025-00413-y}}&lt;/ref&gt; The paper received the International Actuarial Association's JoCo Best Paper Award in 2025.&lt;ref name=&quot;astin-prizes&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=ASTIN prizes|url=https://actuaries.org/sections/astin/astin-prizes/|publisher=International Actuarial Association|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Wüthrich and Merz's open-access 2023 textbook ''Statistical Foundations of Actuarial Learning and its Applications'' integrates classical actuarial statistics with modern predictive modelling. Its subjects include generalized linear models, Bayesian methods, regularization, forecast evaluation, neural networks, recurrent and convolutional architectures, natural-language processing and model interpretation.&lt;ref name=&quot;statfound&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|title=Statistical Foundations of Actuarial Learning and its Applications|series=Springer Actuarial|publisher=Springer|location=Cham|year=2023|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-12409-9|isbn=978-3-031-12409-9|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2025 he also became lead author of the collaborative lecture notes ''AI Tools for Actuaries'', a continuing open teaching project intended to provide data-science and artificial-intelligence material for actuarial education.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Richman|first2=Ronald|last3=Avanzi|first3=Benjamin|last4=Lindholm|first4=Mathias|last5=Maggi|first5=Marco|last6=Mayer|first6=Michael|last7=Schelldorfer|first7=Jürg|last8=Scognamiglio|first8=Salvatore|title=AI Tools for Actuaries|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5162304|publisher=Social Science Research Network|date=24 August 2026|doi=10.2139/ssrn.5162304|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Fairness and discrimination in insurance pricing ===
Wüthrich has also studied the relationship between statistical prediction and anti-discrimination constraints in insurance. With Mathias Lindholm, Ronald Richman and Andreas Tsanakas, he developed a mathematical formulation of ''discrimination-free insurance pricing'' that distinguishes direct use of protected characteristics from indirect discrimination arising when other variables act as proxies.&lt;ref name=&quot;fairness&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lindholm|first1=Mathias|last2=Richman|first2=Ronald|last3=Tsanakas|first3=Andreas|last4=Wüthrich|first4=Mario V.|title=Discrimination-free insurance pricing|journal=ASTIN Bulletin|volume=52|issue=1|pages=55–89|year=2022|doi=10.1017/asb.2021.23|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Their formulation can be applied to both traditional statistical models and machine-learning models. The work also highlights a practical tension: detecting and correcting indirect discrimination can require information about protected characteristics even when those variables cannot be used directly for pricing.&lt;ref name=&quot;fairness&quot; /&gt;

A later paper by the same group used multi-task neural networks to estimate discrimination-free prices.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lindholm|first1=Mathias|last2=Richman|first2=Ronald|last3=Tsanakas|first3=Andreas|last4=Wüthrich|first4=Mario V.|title=A multi-task network approach for calculating discrimination-free insurance prices|journal=European Actuarial Journal|volume=14|pages=329–369|year=2024|doi=10.1007/s13385-023-00367-z|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Teaching and professional service ==
At ETH Zurich, Wüthrich directs actuarial studies within RiskLab. His recent teaching has included ''Non-Life Insurance: Mathematics and Statistics'', ''Data Science for Actuaries'' and ''Economic and Market-Consistent Actuarial Valuation''.&lt;ref name=&quot;eth-teaching&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Mario Valentin Wüthrich: Course units in Spring Semester 2026|url=https://www.vvz.ethz.ch/Vorlesungsverzeichnis/dozent.view?ansicht=2&amp;dozide=10017668&amp;lang=en&amp;semkez=2026S|publisher=ETH Zurich|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; His lecture material is used both in university teaching and in actuarial professional education.

He was a member of the board of the Swiss Association of Actuaries from 2006 to 2018 and served as an editor of the ''ASTIN Bulletin'' before becoming Editor-in-Chief in 2018.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;astin-editor&quot; /&gt; He has also held visiting or honorary academic appointments, including Honorary Visiting Professor at [[City, University of London]] from 2011 to 2022, Honorary Professor at [[University College London]] from 2013 to 2019 and an adjunct professorship at the [[University of Bologna]] from 2014 to 2016.&lt;ref name=&quot;statfound&quot; /&gt;

== Recognition ==
Wüthrich has received a number of prizes for papers in actuarial science. In 2017 he and Josef Teichmann received the Bob Alting von Geusau Prize of the AFIR-ERM Section of the International Actuarial Association for ''Consistent yield curve prediction''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Josef Teichmann and Mario Wüthrich: Bob Alting von Geusau Prize|url=https://math.ethz.ch/news-and-events/news/d-math-news/2017/10/josef-teichmann-and-mario-wuethrich-bob-alting-von-geusau-prize.html|publisher=ETH Zurich|date=5 October 2017|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; His paper ''Neural networks applied to chain-ladder reserving'' received the Best Paper Award at the 2018 International Congress of Actuaries.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot; /&gt;

With Ronald Richman he received the [[Institute and Faculty of Actuaries]]' Geoffrey Heywood Prize in 2020 for their work on neural-network mortality forecasting and the Brian Hey Prize in 2021 for ''LocalGLMnet''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Geoffrey Heywood Prize|url=https://actuaries.org.uk/about-us/prizes-and-awards/best-paper-prizes/geoffrey-heywood-prize/|publisher=Institute and Faculty of Actuaries|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Brian Hey Prize|url=https://actuaries.org.uk/about-us/prizes-and-awards/best-paper-prizes/brian-hey-prize/|publisher=Institute and Faculty of Actuaries|access-date=26 September 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the same year Wüthrich, Łukasz Delong and Mathias Lindholm received the Gauss Prize of the German Society of Insurance and Financial Mathematics and the German Actuarial Association for work on Tweedie's compound-Poisson model.&lt;ref name=&quot;about&quot; /&gt; In 2025, ''The credibility transformer'', written with Richman and Scognamiglio, received the International Actuarial Association's JoCo Best Paper Award.&lt;ref name=&quot;astin-prizes&quot; /&gt;

== Selected works ==

=== Books ===

* {{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario Valentin|last2=Bühlmann|first2=Hans|last3=Furrer|first3=Hansjörg|title=Market-Consistent Actuarial Valuation|edition=1st|series=EAA Series|publisher=Springer|year=2008|isbn=978-3-540-73642-4|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-73643-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|title=Stochastic Claims Reserving Methods in Insurance|url=https://archive.org/details/stochasticclaims0000wuth|series=Wiley Finance|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-72346-3|doi=10.1002/9781119206262}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|title=Financial Modeling, Actuarial Valuation and Solvency in Insurance|series=Springer Finance|publisher=Springer|year=2013|isbn=978-3-642-31391-2|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-31392-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Merz|first1=Michael|last2=Wüthrich|first2=Mario V.|title=Mathematik für Wirtschaftswissenschaftler|publisher=Vahlen|year=2013|isbn=978-3-8006-4482-7|language=de}}
* {{cite book|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Market-Consistent Actuarial Valuation|edition=3rd|series=EAA Series|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=978-3-319-46635-4|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46636-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Wüthrich|first1=Mario V.|last2=Merz|first2=Michael|title=Statistical Foundations of Actuarial Learning and its Applications|series=Springer Actuarial|publisher=Springer|year=2023|isbn=978-3-031-12409-9|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-12409-9|doi-access=free}}

=== Selected articles ===

* {{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Scaling identity for crossing Brownian motion in a Poissonian potential|url=https://archive.org/details/probability-theory-and-related-fields_1998_112_3/page/299|journal=Probability Theory and Related Fields|volume=112|issue=3|pages=299–319|year=1998|doi=10.1007/s004400050192}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Merz|first1=Michael|last2=Wüthrich|first2=Mario V.|title=Modelling the claims development result for solvency purposes|journal=Casualty Actuarial Society E-Forum|issue=Fall|pages=542–568|year=2008}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Machine learning in individual claims reserving|journal=Scandinavian Actuarial Journal|volume=2018|issue=6|pages=465–480|year=2018|doi=10.1080/03461238.2018.1428681}}
* {{cite journal|last=Wüthrich|first=Mario V.|title=Neural networks applied to chain–ladder reserving|journal=European Actuarial Journal|volume=8|issue=2|pages=407–436|year=2018|doi=10.1007/s13385-018-0184-4}}
* &lt;nowiki&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Richman |first1=Ronald |last2=Wüthrich |first2=Mario V. |title=A neural network extension of the Lee–Carter model to multiple populations |journal=Annals of Actuarial Science |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=346–366 |year=2021 |doi=10.1017/S174&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
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