Wikipǣdia angwiki https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heafodtramet MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.3 first-letter Media Syndrig Mōtung Brūcend Brūcendmōtung Wikipǣdia Wikipǣdiamōtung Ymele Ymelmōtung MediaWiki MediaWikimōtung Bysen Bysenmōtung Help Helpmōtung Flocc Floccmōtung TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 12 2693 232858 227846 2026-11-10T09:29:07Z PitterPatter533 144226 /* Standard practice */ grammar error 232858 wikitext text/x-wiki For the benefit of those who are new to this Wikipedia, this Help page is written in modern English. == About == :''See also: [[Wikipedia:Tutorial on Old English]], [[:Wikibooks:Old English]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20141005081240/http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html Introduction to Old English by Professor Peter S. Baker of UVA]'' '''Old English''', otherwise known as '''Anglo-Saxon''', is the earliest and longest stage of the English language, having existed in the original time span of about 400 AD to 1150 AD, when the language began to evolve from its West Germanic Anglo-Frisian roots into Middle English, and then Modern English. The most prominent historic writing in Old English is [[Bēowulf|Bēowulf]]. This language is currently experiencing a small revival in use, for both academic and [[:en:Germanic Neopaganism|religious]] purposes. == Special characters == There are a few special characters you will see on this Wikipedia, '''ȝ''', '''ƿ''', '''þ''', '''ð''', '''æ''', '''ċ''', the macron accent mark ( '''¯''' ), as well as the Anglo-Saxon runes. In order to see the Runic characters, you will need any font which has Unicode compliance within the "Runic" range. If your browser supports it, you may enable Junicode in your [[Wikipedia:Stylistic and font options|UniversalLanguageSetting preferences]]. If that is not sufficient for some reason, feel free to give feedback by following the links at the bottom of that page or following the advice here. The recommended font to save to your computer is '''[https://sourceforge.net/projects/junicode/files/ Junicode]''', as its Runic characters are well-designed and evenly spaced. You can get the Junicode font on Ubuntu by executing <code>sudo apt install fonts-junicode</code> in your terminal. You will also need to have JavaScript enabled on your web browser to properly view the [[Wikipedia:Stylistic and font options|automatically converted page versions]]. It is usually enabled by default, but it can be disabled. If you suspect that JavaScript is disabled on your browser, you should see [https://www.enable-javascript.com/ this page for instructions]. The macron is used to represent a long vowel to help distinguish between words which would otherwise appear indistinguishable ('''īs''' vs '''is'''). The acute accent is often used in the same manner, but for consistency the macron should be used. == Typing == ''(For further and more detailed information, see [[Help:On Englisce Ƿrītan]])'' As with anything else, in order to type in Old English, you will need the proper tools to fit the job. Because of automated page conversion, there is no need to type using ȝƿ or runes; and you should not type with runes at all, because it is much more difficult to accurately convert from runes to the Latin alphabet than vice versa. As such, it would be best for you to have a keyboard which could write vowels with macrons, write æ and ǣ, and write þ and ð. Note that all page names will be written using gw. # A software-based keyboard can be downloaded [https://web.archive.org/web/20140802044238/http://megse.unm.edu/research/internal/keyboards.html here]. The provided link also includes instructions on how to type the extra characters, installation, and switching between keyboards. Alternatively, you can create your own software-based custom keyboard layout with a program such as [https://web.archive.org/web/20160503155530/https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-gb/goglobal/bb964665.aspx Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator]. This allows you to organize the extra characters according to what feels natural to you. # An alternative is to use the Icelandic keyboard layout, although this will not cover the full range of characters you will need. # If you use Mac OS X, you can download a pre-made keyboard layout [http://groups.google.com/group/eald-englisc/web/Anglo-Saxon.keylayout here], and save it to your '''Hard Drive > Library > Keyboard Layouts''' folder. Upon a system restart, and enabling your new layout in your '''System Preferences > International > Input''' pane, you will now have "Anglo-Saxon" as an option for your system. A map of this specific layout can be seen [http://groups.google.com/group/eald-englisc/web/rtende-englisc-on-num-mac here]. If you wish to write an article in Runes, creating your own layout will be especially helpful. # You can use ALT codes. A table of numeric values for Windows-based systems is provided on [[Help:On Englisce Ƿrītan]], and on Macintosh, the custom Anglo-Saxon layout (which is based on '''US International''') is shown [http://groups.google.com/group/eald-englisc/web/rtende-englisc-on-num-mac here]. # You can create Autocorrect values for typing in Microsoft Word. # In the X Window System, used in free software operating systems such as GNU/Linux and the various BSDs, it is not too hard to customise the keyboard. Specially relevant to customise a keyboard are a Unicode character map such as gucharmap, and editing, as root, the console-setup configuration file at /etc and the Compose file. == Terminology == Using the speech of a thousand years ago to describe modern concepts can be difficult, but it can be done. Authentic words ought to be used where they exist in the extant ''Englisc'' texts. Excessive neologisms should be avoided, if genuine Anglo-Saxon vocabulary can be used and applied accurately. Where a word or a concept is needed which does not exist in the original, there are a few steps you can take when writing or editing articles, to conjure the best possible term. # See what other Germanic languages call it. One thing you can do, if the word has a Wikipedia article, visit that article's English version, and look at its translation links on the left-hand side of the page. With the cursor hovering over each link, view the URL preview, and see what others call it. Useful languages to look for are '''Deutsch''', '''Dansk''', '''Íslenska''', '''Svenska''', '''Nederlands''', '''Frysk''', and sometimes even '''Seeltersk'''. This can also be done on the "Translations" section of any Wiktionary page. # Translate the etymological root. Sometimes this is a good method, sometimes it is not; you need to use judgement, particularly when blending this potential new term in with the rest of the language. For example, '''automobile''' ''could'' be rendered as '''selffērend''', but is there a closer authentic concept? # Create a descriptive term. This is useful when a transliteration or translation is not possible, yet there is no consistency across other Germanic languages as to what they call it either. Remember that Germanic languages tend to be more descriptive in their nature, rather than technical. For instance, '''fȳrþyrel''' ''("fire hole")'' is used as "engine cylinder" in the [[Stēamwægn|steam car]] article. # If all else fails, resort to a loan word. The general trend of modern Old English usage is a strive for language purity, but Old English of yore sometimes made use of loan words, and even today's Icelandic has had to. For example, it would be quite hard simply to represent "guitar" in Old English speech. Useful resources relating to modern terminology can be found on the [[NWT|Neologism proposal page]] as well as the [[Hu secge ic|"How do I say_?"]] page. The first relates directly to tackling the issues mentioned in this section, and the second deals with using the best existing terminology, reapplied to the modern world. You will find both to be very helpful. Finally, you need to remember that it is of utmost importance that you are ''understood'' by other people when they encounter your term for the first time. As such, it is important that all neologisms and also historical words used with new meanings in an article should be documented on the article's talk page, using the [[bysen:wordgetæl|wordgetæl]] template. The list of words should be bulletted and contained within the [[template:noc|noc]] template, to ensure that phonological notation will not be muddled by automated page conversion. == Spelling == While Old English of yore did not have steadfast rules about spelling, a bit more structure is needed here. You should already know how Old English spelling works, but posted below are guidelines specific to this Wikipedia. # '''þ''' is in preference used where the th sound is unvoiced, and at the beginning of words. Thus, you will almost always see "þæt" and "pæþ," not "ðæt" or "pæð", though these did exist historically. # '''ð''' is typically used for the voiced sound, and is found in the middle of a word, and when coupled with a back vowel. An exception is when ''th'' is doubled, in which case '''þ''' is used (example, '''cȳþþu'''). # '''k''' is rarely seen, as it is rarely needed, although it is certainly not forbidden. In general, it should only be used for loan words, words of foreign origin, proper names or titles, or in Old English words to make a clear distinction about pronunciation, where the use of '''c''' won't always make its pronunciation obvious. # '''z''' is rare as well. Generally, reserve it for non-English words where the '''z''' indicates a ''ts'' pronunciation, as this was how it was used in Old English. Examples include ''Nazi'' and ''pizza''. # '''ȝ''' and '''ƿ''' are used in many publications, and on this Wikipedia one can read a page in ȝƿ via the [[Wikipedia:Stylistic and font options|automated conversion]]. Articles used to be written in ȝƿ, but this is no longer necessary, and would in fact be unhelpful. You should write on this Wikipedia in '''gw'''. There were natural spelling variants in Old English, which accommodated for the various dialects and pronunciations, as well as spelling conventions of authors. Spelling consistency within an article and in general is tidy and easier to read, and due to automated page conversion, is now quite achievable. With that said, as long as alternate spellings did exist, then they are considered acceptable, and no choice is more correct than the other. == Fonts and styles == Please see [[Wikipedia:Stylistic and font options]]. == Standard practice == In order to create a tidy, quality, and unified feeling across this Wikipedia, it is necessary to have some standard practices. *Use good grammar! Be careful to make sure you are using the appropriate case, the appropriate tense, etc., and that you are actually representing these cases and tenses properly. Poor grammar is confusing, misleading to a learner, and difficult to read. Also, do not just assume that a particular grammatical structure existed in Old English just because it does in Modern English or another related language. *Don't just assume that a cognate word has the same or a similar meaning in Old English as it does in another language - look it up in credible dictionaries and/or historical source texts. *Sources are good. They help support information in an article. If you can provide a trustworthy source for some uncited information in an article, please do. *All neologisms should be documented on an article's talk page using [[template:wordgetæl|this template]], and ideally also [[Wikipedia:Full getæl nīwra worda|here]] to make it easier for other people to find and understand. When documenting neologism, give appropriate grammatical information (to see how, look at the template). Also, we explicitly mark palatalization in neologism lists, to make the words easier to read for beginners. *Need a neologism? Check to see if there is one already in use before you create another one - there should be only minimum necessary neologisms. All neologisms should be documented on the talk pages of the articles they are used in (giving their Modern English translations with them), so if you use "advanced search", mark "talk pages", and search for the Modern English equivalent, you should be able to find an already exisiting neologism, if there is one. Also, see this page: [[Wikipedia:Full getæl nīwra worda]], which is not necessarily absolutely comprehensive. If those two methods fail, also check obvious articles such a neologism might be used on (for example, for "solar system", you could look on one of the articles for the planets). If you still can't find one, you might then need to make one, but make sure you document it in the talk page! If you can find one, but you think it is rubbish (because it demonstrates a poor understanding of or poorly represents the concept itself, or uses bad grammar, or misuses the Old English stems used to create the new word, for example), please raise the issue with other members of this project, and move forward from there. Also, it is best to use historically precedented methods for word formation to create new words - otherwise the words will be less likely to be understood well, and will look out of place. *Names for pieces of software or a website should not be translated (for example, [[Ubuntu]] and [[Windows 8]] instead of "Menniscness" and "8. Ēagduru"), unless that is the usual or a common practice in the case of that specific piece of software (for example, [[Wikipǣdia]]). A literal translation for the name of software may be given within the article (for example, see [[World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King]]). *Category names should usually be in plural, except for when the category is related to one specific thing (for example, the category [[:flocc:tōlas|tōlas]] is plural, but the category [[:flocc:Nīwe Sǣland|Nīwe Sǣland]] is singular) *Categories should be organised in a useful, succint, hierarchical, and non-redundant way (e.g. put the page [[āte]] only in the category "[[:flocc:corn|corn]]", not both "[[:flocc:corn|corn]]" and "[[:flocc:wyrta|wyrta]]", because the category "corn" is already a sub-category of "wyrta"). *Ordinal numbers should be marked as such with a period after them, for example: "Se 12. mann". *Additional information given to specify the meaning of a word in an article's name should be put in brackets, for example: [[Niht (gyden)]]. This should also be done for places, for example: [[Weolingtūn (Nīwe Sǣland)]]. *Unlike many modern languages, including Modern English, where cardinal numbers can be used as ordinal numbers (for example, "contestant number 5" instead of "the fifth contestant"), cardinals could not be used as ordinals in Old English. As such, cardinals used as ordinals in other languages, should be translated as ordinals in Old English. The exception is when a whole proper noun has been borrowed, and it included an ordinally used cardinal, for example: [[Windows 8]]. Although written as two words, for grammatical purposes this should be regarded as one word, perhaps indeclinable neuter. *The names of articles on categories of things should be in the singular nominative, for example: [[Hēapplega]]. *Do not put adjectives in an article name in the weak declension unless they are normally weak (like comparative adjectives) or there is actually another word in the article name that causes the weak declension (but there usually isn't such a word in article names). [[Flocc:Help for modern English speakers]] 1z8594gi9nt1u6sqqc2z6d2tob0t0tg 0 10523 232857 226748 2026-11-10T06:16:42Z Westseax 101624 232857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cyþþubox land | ænglisc fullnama = Scotland | nama = Scotland | agenspræce fullnama = Scotland (Scottisc); Alba (Scottisc Gaelisc) | biliþ = | biliþ gewrit = | fana = Flag of Scotland.svg | fana gewrit = Fana | scild = Coat of arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (2022).svg | scild gewrit = Wǣpnscild | cwide = | ænglisc cwide = | anstefn = Flower of Scotland | ænglisc anstefn = Scotlandes Blōstm (nis ambihtlic) | landscite = | landscite gewrit = | leodweard = Ġedǣled þinglic rīċe on þinglicum cynedōme on ǣ | ambihtlicu spræc = Englisc | folces gereord = | elles gereordas = Scottisc<br />Scottisc Gaelisc<br />Brittisc Tācnspræc | steall = | heafodstol = [[Edinburg|Eadenburg]] | mæste burg = [[Glasgow]] | breges titul = Cyning | brego = [[Carl III Bretta Cyning|Carl 3]] | ealdormannes titul = Ǣresta Ealdormann | ealdorman = John Swinney | leodweardes heafod = | wyrþingdæg = | bradnes = 80,231 km²<ref name="onsarea">Office for National Statistics, "Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK", Open Geography Portal, 31 May 2024. https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about</ref> | menniscu = 5,439,842 (2022)<ref name="census2022qa">Scotland's Census, "Quality Assurance report – Unrounded population estimates and ethnic group, national identity, language and religion topic data", 21 May 2024. https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/2022-results/scotland-s-census-2022-quality-assurance-reports/quality-assurance-report-unrounded-population-estimates-and-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion-topic-data/</ref> | þiccnes = 67.8/km² | geleafan = 51.1% nān ġeleafa; 38.8% Crīstendōm (20.4% Ċiriċe Scotlandes; 13.3% Rōmānisc Pāpdōm; 5.1% ōþre Crīstene); 2.2% Īslam; 0.6% Hindūdōm; 0.3% Buddadōm; 0.2% Sikhdōm; 0.1% Iūdēadōm; 0.6% ōþre; 6.2% nān ġecȳþed (2022)<ref name="census2022eth">Scotland's Census, "Scotland's Census 2022 - Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion - Chart data", 21 May 2024. https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/media/trbdxzme/scotland-s-census-2022-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion-chart-data.xlsx</ref> | GDP getæl = £230.9 þūsend mīliona (2025) | GDP ælcum heafde = £40,339<ref name="scotgovgdp">Scottish Government, "GDP in nominal terms", www.gov.scot. https://www.gov.scot/publications/gdp-quarterly-national-accounts-2024-q4/pages/gdp-in-nominal-terms/</ref> | landesforþbæro = | feoh = Sterlinges pund (£) | tidgyrdel = UTC+0 | tidgyrdel 2 = | sundorricehad = | webbnamena tægl = .scot | feorspræcan forerim = | wægnplatung = }} '''Scotland''' (Scottisc: ''Scotland''; Scottisc Gaelisc: ''Alba'') is land, þe is dǣl þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes. Hit ymbhæfþ þone norþdǣl Mǣran Brytene and þā nēahstan īegland, ǣrest þā Hebrides and þā Norþīegland. Þæt landfolc wæs on þǣm ġēare 2022 ymbe 5.4 mīlion manna.<ref name="r1">Office for National Statistics, "A Beginner's Guide to UK Geography (2023)", Open Geography Portal, 4 February 2025, https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/d1f39e20edb940d58307a54d6e1045cd/about</ref> Hēafodstōl is Eadenburg; sēo mǣste burg is Glasgow. Scotland hæfþ mearce wiþ Englaland on sūþhealfe, wiþ þone Atlantiscan Gārsecg on norþhealfe and westhealfe, wiþ þā Norþsǣ on ēasthealfe, and wiþ þā Īriscan Sǣ on sūþwesthealfe. Þæt Scottisce Þing hæfþ 129 þingmanna for 73 cyrstōwum.<ref name="r2">SpatialData.gov.scot, Scottish Government, "Scottish Parliamentary Constituencies", www.data.gov.uk, 6 June 2024, https://www.data.gov.uk/dataset/e8eae7cf-3aa3-4d09-bfe8-3d5354bf0d63/scottish-parliamentary-constituencies#:~:text=Scottish%20Parliamentary%20Constituencies%20and%20Regions,electing%20an%20additional%20seven%20MSPs.</ref> Sē Scottisca Rīċeweald is sē dǣdlica dǣl þæs ġedǣledan rīċes; sē ǣresta ealdormann hine lǣdeþ, sitt ofer þǣm rǣdþeġnum, and lǣdeþ þone rǣd and þā ūtlandiscan ġeþingþu.<ref name="r3">"First Minister", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/first-minister/#:~:text=As%20head%20of%20the%20Scottish,Scotland%20at%20home%20and%20overseas.</ref><ref name="r4">"What is the role of Scotland's First Minister?", BBC Bitesize, https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z69y8p3#zsmktcw</ref> Þæt Cynerīċe Scotlandes ārās swā frēo rīċe on þǣm 9an ġēarhundrede and hēold his mundbyrdnesse wiþ Englaland, dǣlum þurh þoftscipe mid Franclande. On þǣm ġēare 1603 fēng Iacob 6 tō þǣm cynesetlum Englalandes and Īralandes (ānes cyninges ġeānung). On þǣm 1an dæġe Þrimilces 1707 ġeworhton Scotland and Englaland þæt Cynerīċe Mǣran Brytene,<ref name="r5">Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) ''Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland''. London. HarperCollins.</ref><ref name="r6">Mackie, J.D. (1969) ''A History of Scotland''. London. Penguin.</ref> and þæt Þing Scotlandes wearþ ġemenged on þæt Þing Mǣran Brytene. Scottisc Þing wæs eft ġesett on þǣm ġēare 1999 mid ġedǣledre mihte ofer manigu þing þæs inlandiscan rǣdes.<ref name="r7">gov.uk, "Devolution Settlement, Scotland", https://www.gov.uk/guidance/devolution-settlement-scotland</ref> Scotland hæfþ āgene ǣ, āgene lāre, and āgene stǣr þæs ġeleafan; þās healdaþ Scottisce ġemǣnscipe, þēaw, and þēodlīce ġecynde.<ref name="r8">Devine, T. M. (1999), ''The Scottish Nation 1700–2000'', P.288–289, ISBN 0-14-023004-1 ''"created a new and powerful ''local state'' run by the Scottish bourgeoisie and reflecting their political and religious values. It was this local state, rather than a distant and usually indifferent Westminster authority, that in effect routinely governed Scotland"''</ref> Scottisc Englisc and Scottisc sind þā spræca, þe man mǣst sprecþ, and hīe stondaþ on ānre rǣwe ġereorda.<ref name="r9">Maguire, Warren, "Areal Features of the Anglophone World", 2012, pp. 53–78</ref> Scottisc Gaelisc is ġecyndelīce sprecen ǣrest on þǣm Hebridum;<ref name="r10">"Gaelic Language", Outer Hebrides, https://www.visitouterhebrides.co.uk/see-and-do/gaelic/gaelic-language</ref> Gaelisce sprecan sind lǣs þonne 2% þæs landfolces, ac þæs rīċes edcwicung hæfþ ġeworht weaxende ġemǣnscipe þǣra, þe hīe æfterlīce leornodon.<ref name="r11">"Gaelic in modern Scotland", Open Learning, https://www.open.edu/openlearn/languages/gaelic-modern-scotland/content-section-3.3</ref> Þæt fæstland hæfþ 3 landscipas: þæt Hēahland (beorgiht, on norþhealfe and norþwesthealfe), þæt Niþerland (emnet, on middum), and þā Sūþdūna (hyllas, wiþ þā sūþmearce). Þæt Hēahland is sē beorgihtesta landscipe þǣra Brittiscra Īegland and hæfþ hira hēhstan beorg, Ben Nevis (1,345 m).<ref name="r1" /> Sē landscipe hæfþ manige meras, þe man ''loch'' hǣt; þæt word man ēac nemneþ þā sealtan sǣearmas þæs ġehyrnedan westrīman. Þā īegland sind unġelīc: Mull and Skye sind beorgiht, Tiree and Coll emnran. == Namcȳþþ == ''Scotland'' cymþ of ''Scoti'', þǣm Lǣdenan naman þǣra Gaela.<ref name="r12">BBC, "Scotland's History - The Kingdom of the Gaels", www.bbc.co.uk, https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/kingdom_of_the_gaels/</ref> Philip Freeman wēnþ Indo-Eurōpiscne wyrtruman *''skot'', tō metenne wiþ Grēcisc ''skotos'' ('þēostornes').<ref name="r13">P. Freeman, ''Ireland and the Classical World'', Austin, 2001, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSHhfOM-5AEC&pg=PA93 93] .</ref> Sīþlǣden ''Scotia'' ("Gaela land") and ǣrlic Englisc ''Scotland'' tācnodon ǣrest Īraland.<ref name="r14">Gwynn, Stephen, "The History Of Ireland", July 2009, p. 16, ISBN 9781113155177, https://books.google.com/books?id=2RlF7sq48n4C&pg=PA16</ref><ref name="r15">Lemke, Andreas: [https://www.univerlag.uni-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn-978-3-86395-189-4/GSEP8_lemke.pdf?sequence=1 The Old English Translation of Bede's ''Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'' in its Historical and Cultural Context] , Chapter II: The ''OEHE'': The Material Evidence; page 71 (Universitätsdrucke Göttingen, 2015)</ref> Be þǣm 11an ġēarhundrede tācnode ''Scotia'' þæt Gaelisc-sprecende Scotland be norþan þǣre ēa Forth, mid ''Albania'' oþþe ''Albany'' (of Gaelisc ''Alba'').<ref name="r16">Ayto, John, "Brewer's Britain & Ireland: The History, Culture, Folklore and Etymology of 7500 Places in These Islands", 2005, ISBN 978-0-304-35385-9, https://archive.org/details/brewersbritainir0000unse</ref> ''Scottas'' and ''Scotland'' tācnodon eall þæt nūlice Scotland on þǣre lætran middelylde.<ref name="r5" /> == Stǣr == === Ǣr ġewritum === Sēo ǣreste ġecȳþnes manna on Scotlande is Hamburgisc stānlōma, ġeworht fram huntum and gaderiendum þǣre lætran ufeweardan ealdstāntīde ymbe 14,500–14,000 ġēara ǣr nū, on þǣre wearman tīde Bølling–Allerød, æfter þǣm þe sē īsweall ġewāt.<ref name="r17">Hardy, Karen, "At the far end of everything: A likely Ahrensburgian presence in the far north of the Isle of Skye, Scotland", Journal of Quaternary Science, 23 April 2025, pp. 847–861</ref><ref name="r18">Ballin, Torben Bjarke, "Reindeer hunters at Howburn Farm, South Lanarkshire: a late Hamburgian settlement in Southern Scotland - its lithic artefacts and natural environment", 2018, ISBN 978-1-78491-902-3, https://www.archaeopress.com/Archaeopress/Products/9781784919016</ref> Ēorþtilian þǣre nīwan stāntīde cōmon ymbe 6000 ġēara ǣr nū.<ref name="r19">Rowley-Conwy, P., Gron, K.J., Bishop, R.R. et al. (5 more authors) (2020) [https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/157765/3/Rowley%20Conwey%20et%20al_Accepted_Earliest%20farming%20Britain%20ch%2019.pdf The earliest farming in Britain : towards a new synthesis]. In: Gron, K.J., Sorensen, L. and RowleyConwy, P., (eds.) Farmers at the Frontier: A Pan European Perspective on Neolithisation. Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK, pp. 401-424. ISBN 9781789251401</ref> Skara Brae on Orcanēġe is of þisse tīde. Stōwa þǣre nīwan stāntīde sind ġelōme on þǣm Norþīeglandum and Westīeglandum, þǣr wana trēowa dyde, þæt man of stāne timbrode.<ref name="r20">Pryor, Francis, "Britain BC", 2003, pp. 98–104 & 246–250, ISBN 978-0-00-712693-4</ref> Þā Stānas æt Callanish on Lewis and Maes Howe on Orcanēġe (þæt 3e þūsendġēar ǣr Crīste) ætȳwaþ searolīcne hǣþenne ġeleafan.<ref name="r21">Houston, Rab, "Scotland: A Very Short Introduction", 2008, ISBN 9780191578861</ref> === Ǣrlicu stǣr === [[File:Skara Brae - geograph.org.uk - 3912232.jpg|thumb|Skara Brae, þæt fulfremedoste þorp þǣre nīwan stāntīde on Eurōpe, bewunod fram ymbe 3180 oþ 2500 ǣr Crīste]] Þæt ǣreste ġewrit be Scotlande is fram þǣm Grēciscan sǣmenn Pytheas on þǣm ġēare 320 ǣr Crīste, þe nemnde þone norþende Brytene "Orcas"; þanon cymþ sē nama Orcanēġ.<ref name="r22">Forsyth, Katherine, "Scotland: A History", 2005, ISBN 9780199601646</ref> Sē mǣsta dǣl Scotlandes ne wæs nǣfre on þǣm Rōmāniscan Rīċe. Agricola fōr on þæt land on þǣm ġēare 79 æfter Crīste and oferwann Caledonisce fierd æt Mons Graupius on þǣm ġēare 83.<ref name="r22" /> Þā Rōmāniscan ceastra on þǣm Gask Hlince wǣron forlǣtena binnan 3 ġēarum, and þā Rōmāne ġewiton tō þǣm Sūþdūnum.<ref name="r23">Hanson, William S. ''The Roman Presence: Brief Interludes'', in Edwards, Kevin J. & Ralston, Ian B.M. (Eds) (2003). ''Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archeology and History, 8000 BC—AD 1000.'' Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.</ref> Ceastra þæs 1an ġēarhundredes rǣhton swā feorr norþ swā tō þǣm Moray Sǣearme.<ref name="r24">Richmond, Ian Archibald, "Oxford Classical Dictionary", 2012, ISBN 9780199545568</ref> Under Traiane (rīcsode 98–117) fēoll sēo Rōmānisce wealdnes on bæc tō rǣwe betwux þǣre ēa Tyne and þǣm Solway Sǣearme,<ref name="r25">Millett, Martin J., "The Oxford Classical Dictionary", 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8</ref> þǣr Hadrianus (rīcsode 117–138) timbrode Hadrianes Weall; sē ''Limes Britannicus'' wearþ þæs rīċes norþmearc.<ref name="r22" /><ref name="r26">Robertson, Anne S. (1960). ''The Antonine Wall''. Glasgow Archaeological Society.</ref><ref name="r27">Keys, David, "Ancient Roman 'hand of god' discovered near Hadrian's Wall sheds light on biggest combat operation ever in UK", 27 June 2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html</ref> Þā Rōmāne wendon þone sūþdǣl and brōhton þider Crīstendōm.<ref name="r22" /><ref name="r21" /> Antoninus Pius (rīcsode 138–161) timbrode þone Antoninan Weall fram þǣm ġēare 142, betwux þǣm Sǣearme Clyde and þǣm Sǣearme Forth.<ref name="r28">Visit Scotland, "Frontiers of the Roman Empire, The Antonine Wall", Visitscotland, https://www.visitscotland.com/things-to-do/unesco-trail/designations/antonine-wall</ref> Sēo Severisce infaru on Caledonia (208–210) andswarode þǣm Caledoniscan foreweardbryċe on þǣm ġēare 197,<ref name="r24" /> ac lȳtel ġewinn on wuda and sē dēaþ Septimius Severus (rīcsode 193–211) æt Eoforwīce ġelettan fulle oferwinnunge; þā Caledoniscan wiþerwunnon on 210–211 and oferēodon þā nīwan ceastra.<ref name="r24" /> Tacitus and Cassius Dio nemndon þæt Hēahland and þæt land be norþan Forth Caledonia; Dio nemneþ his lēode Caledonisce and Maeatae.<ref name="r24" /> Ptolemaeus (2e ġēarhundred) sette wudiġe dūne (''saltus'') be sūþwestan þǣm Beauly Sǣearme. Sē nama lifaþ ġīet on Dunkeld, Rohallion, and Schiehallion.<ref name="r24" /> On þǣm lætran 4an ġēarhundrede wæs sēo Micle Sāmrǣdnes, infaru mid þǣm Gaeliscum Scottum and þǣm Caledoniscum (þā ġehātenum Peohtum), oferwunnen fram Theodosie. Rōm ġewāt of Brytene be þǣm ǣrlican 5an ġēarhundrede; æfter þǣm cōm Engla and Seaxna landbūnes, mid Seaxum on sūþēastdǣle Scotlandes.<ref name="r25" /> === Cynerīċe Scotlandes === [[File:Early Medieval Scotland areas.png|thumb|Þinglica tōdǣlas Scotlandes on þǣre ǣrlican middelylde]] Fram þǣm 6an ġēarhundrede hæfde þæt land 4 dǣlas: Peohtland (lȳtle hlāfordscipas on middum Scotlande);<ref name="r22" /> þæt Englisce Cynerīċe Norþhymbra on sūþēastdǣle;<ref name="r22" /> Norþbrytisc land ymbe Alt Clut (Dumbarton Clif) and þæt dene Clyde;<ref name="r29">Clarkson, Tim, "Strathclyde and the Anglo-Saxons in the Viking Age", 2014, ISBN 9781906566784</ref> and Dál Riata (westdǣl Scotlandes and norþdǣl Īralandes), þe brǣdde Gaelisce spræce and þēaw.<ref name="r30">Woolf, Alex, "Ancient Kindred? Dál Riata and the Cruthin", academia.edu, 2012, https://www.academia.edu/1502702</ref> Sē ġemǣnscipe wæs ġetimbrod on mǣġþe and swīþe unefen; þā mǣstan menn wǣron earme ēorþtilian, þe for heora āgnum bīleofan tilodon. Þā Peohtas hēoldon þēowlingas, mǣst ġefangene on ġewinne, oþ þæt 9e ġēarhundred.<ref name="r22" /> Gaelisce lārēowas brǣddon Gaeliscne andweald ofer Peohtland and Norþhymbre;<ref name="r22" /> Sanct Columba, on Īe on þǣm 6an ġēarhundrede, wæs ān þǣra ǣrestena.<ref name="r21" /> Wīcingas hergodon fram þǣm 8an ġēarhundrede and sōhton þēowlingas, dēore þing, and ofer eall land; hīe ġesǣton ǣrest on norþwestdǣle, siþþan be manigum strandum. Ealdnorrǣn spræc ġenam Peohtiscre spræce stede on þǣm Norþīeglandum.<ref name="r31">"What makes Shetland, Shetland?", Shetland.org, 18 December 2021, https://www.shetland.org/blog/what-makes-shetland-shetland</ref> On þǣm 9an ġēarhundrede, under Norþmanna þrēate, ġenam sē Gael Cenneþ 1 (Cináed mac Ailpín) anweald ofer Peohtland and onstealde þā cynelican mǣġþe, of þǣre þā nūlican cyningas cumaþ.<ref name="r22" /><ref name="r32">Brown, Dauvit, "The Oxford Companion to Scottish History", 2001, p. 359, ISBN 978-0-19-211696-3</ref> His cynerīċe, Alba, wæs Gaelisc on ġecynde; Peohtisc spræc ġewāt be þǣm ende þæs 10an ġēarhundredes, þā þā hire sprecan tō Gaelisce wendon.<ref name="r22" /> Of his stōwe betwux Forth and Spey ġebrǣdde Alba hit sūþ on þæt ǣrre Norþhymbraland and norþ on Moray. Ymbe þæt ġēar 1000 wæs sēo eorþtilþ ġegaderod and þā ǣrestan burga ġetimbrode.<ref name="r22" /> [[File:Great Window, Parliament Hall, Edinburgh.JPG|thumb|Iacob 5 Scotlandes æt þǣm Hēahdōmhūse on þǣm ġēare 1532, on þǣm Þinghūse on Eadenburge, Þinge Scotlandes oþ þæt ġēar 1707]] On þǣm 12an–13an ġēarhundrede wæs sē mǣsta dǣl Scotlandes under ānum wealdende. Incuman of Franclande, Englalande, and Flandran ġemǣnigfealdodon þone ġemǣnscipe, Scottisc ongann Gaelisce stede niman, and þēodrīċe ārās; ġewinn wiþ Englaland ġetimbrode siþþan þēodlic ġewitt.<ref name="r33">Stringer, Keith, "Scotland: A History", 2005, ISBN 9780199601646</ref><ref name="r34">Barrell, A. D. M., "Medieval Scotland", 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-58602-3</ref> Dauid 1 (1124–1153) and his æfterfylgendas ġegaderodon cynelice miht and ġenāmon Moray, Galloway, and Caithness, ac nā þā Hebrides, þe mǣġþa hēoldon æfter Somerledes dēaþe on þǣm ġēare 1164.<ref name="r33" /> On þǣm Scottisc-Norþweġiscan ġewinne on þǣm ġēare 1266, æfter Haconnes 4 wīghryre æt þǣm ġefeohte æt Largs, ġewann Scotland eft þā Hebrides,<ref name="r35">theorkneynews, "The Battle of Largs #OnThisDay", The Orkney News, 1 October 2022, https://theorkneynews.scot/2022/10/02/the-battle-of-largs-onthisday/</ref> þe wǣron under Norþweġiscum anwealde ymbe 400 ġēara and hæfdon Norrǣnne-Gaeliscne þēaw; Norrǣnu word cōmon on þā Gaeliscan spræce þǣra īegbūendra, and þā Norþmenn wǣron ġemengede on þā mǣġþa. Scotland andette Norþweġes anweald ofer þǣm Norþīeglandum, þe cōmon tō Scotlande on þǣm 15an ġēarhundrede; þǣr lifode sēo Norn spræc lenġ and wende þā Scottiscan cwidas on Hjaltlande and Orcanēġe.<ref name="r36">Petrie, Calum, "Spikkin Scandinavian: The similarity between Scots and Nordic tongues", Press and Journal, 7 November 2021, https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/education/schools/3652656/similarity-between-scots-nordic/</ref> Sēo lēnġetimbrung wæs ġetrymed; land wæs ġiefen Englisc-Normaniscum incumum and Gaeliscum heretogum for cynelicre þēnunge.<ref name="r33" /> Scottisce cyningas notodon hwīlum Englisce unstilnesse; 1217–1296 wæs sēo lenġeste sibb betwux þǣm twǣm cynerīcum on þǣre middelylde. === Ġewinn for Scotlandes Mundbyrdnesse === [[File:The Battle of Stirling Bridge.jpg|thumb|Mǣl þæs ġefeohtes æt Stirling Brycge, ġefohten on þǣm ǣrestan ġewinne for Scotlandes mundbyrdnesse, 1297]] Alexandres 3 dēaþ on Hrēþmōnþe 1286 ġeendode þā cynelican mǣġþe. Ēadweard 1 Englalandes dēmde betwux þǣm, þe þæt cynesetl ġīrndon; Iohannes Balliol wearþ cyning on þǣm ġēare 1292, æfter þǣm þe hē Scotlandes mundbyrdnesse on naman āġeaf.<ref name="r33" /><ref name="r37">National Archives, "Scotland Conquered, 1174–1296", http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/conquered.htm</ref> On þǣm ġēare 1294 forsōcon Balliol and ōþre hlāfordas Ēadwearde tō þēowienne wiþ Francland; on þǣm 23an dæġe Winterfylleþes 1295 ġeworhton Scotland and Francland þone Ealdan Þoftscipe. Ēadweard āwearp Iohannes and wēold Scotlande self.<ref name="r38">National Archives of the United Kingdom, "Scotland Regained, 1297–1328", http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/regained.htm</ref> Andreas Moray and Willelm Wallace lǣddon þæt wiþstandan, oþ þæt Rodbeorht Bruce wæs ġecynehelmod on þǣm ġēare 1306.<ref name="r39">Murison, A. F., "King Robert the Bruce", 1899, p. 30, ISBN 978-1-4179-1494-4, https://books.google.com/books?id=iMEMc45g9s8C</ref> Sige æt Bannockburn on þǣm ġēare 1314 āġeaf Scottum heora anweald. On þǣm ġēare 1320 ġewann þæt Forþspell æt Arbroath, þæt ǣreste ġewritene forþspell mundbyrdnesse on worulde, þæs Pāpan Iohannes 22 fultum and lǣdde tō Englisce andetnesse Scotlandes ānwealdes.<ref name="r40">Brown, Michael, "Scotland: A History", 2005, ISBN 9780199601646</ref> Inġewinn betwux Bruces mǣġþe and þǣm hīredum Comyn and Balliol dūrode oþ þone middan 14an ġēarhundredes. Dauid 2 swealt būtan ierfan; his healfnefa Rodbeorht 2, sē Hēahstīweard, onstealde Stīwardes hīred,<ref name="r40" /> þe rīcsode þā ōþre middelylde. Wela wēox fram þǣm lætran 14an ġēarhundrede þurh þā Scottiscan Edcennunge oþ þā Ednīwunge þǣre ċiriċan,<ref name="r41">Mason, Roger, "Scotland: A History", 2005, ISBN 9780199601646</ref> þēah þe sē Sweart Dēaþ (1349) wǣre and sē tōdǣl betwux Hēahlande and Niþerlande wēox; friþa ġelȳtlodon þæt ġewinn on þǣre mearce.<ref name="r40" /> === Ġeānung þǣra Cynehelma === [[File:Adam de Colone (c.1572-1651) - James VI and I (1566–1625), King of Scotland (1567–1625), King of England and Ireland (1603–1625) - PG 2172 - National Galleries of Scotland.jpg|thumb|Iacob 6, Scotlandes cyning, fēng tō þǣm Engliscan and Īriscan cynesetlum on þǣm ġēare 1603.]] Iacob 4 Scotlandes and Henriċ 7 Englalandes ġeworhton þā Foreweard Ēċre Sibbe on þǣm ġēare 1502; Iacob ǣwnode Henrices dohtor Margarete Tudor.<ref name="r42">BBC, "James IV, King of Scots 1488–1513", https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/james_iv/</ref> Iacob fōr on Englaland Franclande tō fultume under þǣm Ealdan Þoftscipe and swealt æt Flodden on þǣm ġēare 1513, sē lætesta cyning on Mǣran Brytene, þe on ġefeohte ofslæġen wæs.<ref name="r43">"Battle of Flodden, (Sept.&nbsp;9, 1513)", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 September 2023, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/210431/Battle-of-Flodden</ref> Þæt ġewinn wiþ Englaland on 1543–1551, on Marian ġeoguþe, Scotta Cwēne, man hǣt þā Rūhan Wōgunge.<ref name="r44">Marcus Merriman, ''The Rough Wooings'' (East Linton: Tuckwell, 2000), p. 6.</ref> Sēo Foreweard æt Eadenburge (1560) ġeendode þæt ymbsetl æt Leith and andette þā Ednīwiendlican Elizabeth 1 swā Englalandes cwēne.<ref name="r41" /> Þæt Þing Scotlandes underfēng þā Scottiscan Andetnesse and bræc fram þæs Pāpan anwealde (Scottisc Ednīwung).<ref name="r21" /> Sēo Pāpisce Maria wæs ġenȳdd hire rīċe tō forlǣtenne on þǣm ġēare 1567.<ref name="r45">The National Archives of the United Kingdom, "Religion, Marriage and Power in Scotland, 1503–1603", http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/religion.htm</ref> On þǣm ġēare 1603 fēng Iacob 6 tō þǣm cynesetlum Englalandes and Īralandes (Ġeānung þǣra Cynehelma) and fērde tō Lundene.<ref name="r46">Ross, David, "Chronology of Scottish History", 2002, p. 56, ISBN 978-1-85534-380-1</ref> Þā cynerīċu hēoldon āsundrode þing, ǣ, and ġesetnessa. Iacob hēt þone ǣrestan Ġeānunge Fanan ġewyrcan. His ġeþeaht for ānum Cynerīċe Mǣran Brytene ne spēow: þæt Englisce Þing bæd fulle ġeānunge on ǣ, and þæt Scottisce Þing hīe forsōc.<ref name="r47">"On this Day: 21 November 1606: The proposed union between England and Scotland | History of Parliament Online", www.historyofparliamentonline.org, https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/periods/stuarts/day-21-november-1606-proposed-union-between-england-and-scotland</ref> Būtan under þǣm Mundbyrdhāde wunode Scotland āsundrod rīċe on þǣm 17an ġēarhundrede, mid ġewinne betwux þǣm cynehelme and þǣm Wǣrgewyrhtum ymbe þā ċiriċan wealdnesse.<ref name="r48">Wormald, Jenny, "Scotland: A History", 2005, ISBN 9780199601646</ref> Strengre fierd sette cynelicne anweald ofer þā westlican mǣġþa þæs Hēahlandes; þā Ġesetnessa æt Īe (1609) nȳddon þā heafodmenn þǣra mǣġþa on þǣm Hebridum tō þēawlicre ġeānunge.<ref name="r49">Devine, T M, "The Scottish Clearances: A History of the Dispossessed, 1600–1900", 2018, ISBN 978-0241304105</ref> On 1641 and 1643 sōhte þæt Scottisce Þing "ġefērlǣcende", nā "inlīcende", ġeānunge mid Englalande, būtan spēde; sēo ġeānung tōdǣlde þæt þing on þǣm ġēare 1648.<ref name="r50">"BBC – History – British History in depth: Acts of Union: The creation of the United Kingdom", www.bbc.co.uk, https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/acts_of_union_01.shtml</ref> Æfter þǣm þe sē cyning wæs ācweald æt Whitehall on þǣm ġēare 1649, on þǣm Ġewinnum þǣra Þrēora Cynerīca, sette Oliver Cromwell þæt Rīċewealdes Ġewrit, þā ǣrestan ġewritenan grundlage þǣra Brittiscra Īegland, ofer Scotland on þǣm ġēare 1652 swā dǣl þæs Ġemǣnan Weles Englalandes, Scotlandes, and Īralandes.<ref name="r50" /> Þæt Þing þæs Mundbyrdhādes wæs þæt ǣreste Westmynstres þing mid Scottiscum þingmannum on naman. Sē cynedōm þǣra Stīwarda cōm eft on þǣm ġēare 1660. Ōþre ġeþeaht be ġeānunge ne spēowon: Scottisc cēapġeānung (1664, forsacen 1668); Englisce forsacunga on 1670, 1674, and 1685; Scottisc forsacung on 1689.<ref name="r50" /> Iacobiscnes, fultum þǣm ūtādrǣfdum Pāpiscum Stīwardum, þrēade þæt Ednīwiendlice Brittisce rīċe oþ þone wīghryre þæs ūpastīġes on þǣm ġēare 1745.<ref name="r50" /> On þǣm ġēare 1698 cunnode sēo Scotlandes Ġesīþscipe cēaplandbūnesse tō onstellenne on þǣm Landswiran æt Panama, þæt Darienes ġeþeaht, on þæt fēoh lēde nēah ǣlc landhlāford, þe fēoh tō lāfe hæfde.<ref name="r51">Scottish Affairs, "Why did the Scottish parliament accept the Treaty of Union?", http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa52/Sa52_Scott.pdf</ref><ref name="r52">Scottish Historical Society, "Popular Opposition to the Ratification of the Treaty of Anglo-Scottish Union in 1706–7", scottishhistorysociety.com, https://scottishhistorysociety.com/popular-opposition-to-the-ratification-of-the-treaty-of-anglo-scottish-union-in-1706-7</ref> === Foreweard þǣre Ġeānunge === [[File:Treaty of Union.jpg|thumb|Scottisc ambihtlic bȳsen þǣre Forewearde þǣre Ġeānunge 1707]] Ġeānung wæs eft forsacen on 1695, 1700, and 1702.<ref name="r50" /> Darienes misspēd ġeearmode þā landhlāfordas, þe þǣron fēoh lēdon (nā þā burga); þis, and sē þrēa Engliscre infære, nȳdde þā Scottiscan hēahmenn ġeānunge tō underfōnne.<ref name="r51" /><ref name="r52" /> Sēo Foreweard þǣre Ġeānunge wæs ġeþwǣred on þǣm 22an dæġe Mǣdmōnþes 1706; twā Ġeānunge Ǣ ġeworhton þæt Cynerīċe Mǣran Brytene fram þǣm 1an dæġe Þrimilces 1707,<ref name="r53">UK Parliament, "Act of Union 1707", www.parliament.uk, https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/act-of-union-1707/#:~:text=The%20Acts%20of%20Union%2C%20passed,1%20May%20of%20that%20year.</ref> þēah þe man wiþ þǣre ġeānunge unstille wǣre on Eadenburge, Glasgowe, and elleshwǣr.<ref name="r54">Devine, T. M., "The Scottish Nation 1700–2000", 1999, p. 9, ISBN 978-0-14-023004-8</ref><ref name="r55">The House of Lords, "Act of Union 1707 Mob unrest and disorder", 2007, http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/06_03_mob.html</ref> Þæt nīwe Þing Mǣran Brytene fēng tō bēġra þinga stede and forsōc Īrisce bēna tō ġeþēodenne.<ref name="r50" /> Andreas Fletcher warnode, þæt Scotland wurde "ġelīcre oferwunnenre folcsceare";<ref name="r56">"Union of Parliaments", National Library of Scotland, https://www.nls.uk/collections/rare-books/collections/union-of-parliaments/</ref> be þǣm ġēare 1713 sōhte Iacob Ogilvy, sē 4a Eorl of Findlater, ǣr fultumiend, þæt man hīe tōbrǣce, būtan spēde.<ref name="r57">"James Ogilvy, 1st Earl of Seafield, 1663 - 1730. Lord Chancellor", Nationalgalleries.org, https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/3734</ref> Þā Iacobiscan Stīwardas wǣron ġīet lēofe on þǣm Hēahlande and on norþēastdǣle, swīþost mid Pāpiscum and Biscopiscum. Þā ūpastīġas on 1715 and 1745 ne spēowon; þæt ġefeoht æt Culloden, þæt lætoste ġesette ġefeoht on Mǣran Brytene, ġeendode þone Iacobiscan þrēan. Sēo ġeānung ne brōhte nānne hrædne welan, for þǣm þe man lȳtle gȳman nam þæs Scottiscan feohġemētes.<ref name="r58">William, Rilley, Patrick, Joseph, "The Union of England and Scotland A Study in Anglo-Scottish Politics of the Eighteenth Century", 1978, p. 312, ISBN 9780719007279</ref> Hire forspecan behēton ġestrēon æfter Darienes ġeearmunge.<ref name="r56" /> Siþþan þā tollas wiþ Englaland ġeendodon, wēox sēo cēapung, swīþost mid þǣm landbūnessum on Americe; oþ þæt ġēar 1776 wæs Glasgow, mid þǣm swiftum scipum þǣra Tobaces Hlāforda, sēo forme tobaces hȳþ on worulde.<ref name="r59">Robert, Joseph C, "The Tobacco Lords: A study of the Tobacco Merchants of Glasgow and their Activities", The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1976, pp. 100–102</ref> Sē tōdǣl betwux þǣm weliġum cīepemannum þæs Niþerlandes and þǣm mǣġþum þæs Hēahlandes wēox. On þǣm Hēahlande wurdon þā hēafodmenn þǣra mǣġþa cēaplice landhlāfordas; þis lǣdde tō þǣm ǣrestum Hēahlandes Ǣmtiġungum and tō þǣs mǣġþdōmes ende.<ref name="r60">Devine, T M, "Clanship to Crofters' War: The social transformation of the Scottish Highlands", 1994, ISBN 978-0-7190-9076-9</ref> === Cræfta ieldu and sēo Scottisce Onlīhtung === [[File:Sir Henry Raeburn - Portrait of Sir Walter Scott.jpg|thumb|Walter Scott, þæs Waverleyes Spell hulpon Scottisce ġecynde ġetǣcnian on þǣm 19an ġēarhundrede]] Sēo Scottisce Onlīhtung and sēo Cræftlice Āwendednes ġeworhton Scotland miċelne ġeweald on ġewitte, cēapunge, and cræftum;<ref name="r61">"[http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Ec008224b/scotline2.htm Some Dates in Scottish History from 1745 to 1914] ", The University of Iowa.</ref> Voltaire cwæþ: "Wē lōciaþ tō Scotlande for eallum ūrum ġeþōhtum þǣre burhcȳste."<ref name="r62">Learning and Teaching Scotland, "Enlightenment Scotland", http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/scottishenlightenment/scotland/index.asp</ref> Siþþan Iacobiscnes ġeendode, þūsenda Scotta, mǣst of þǣm Niþerlande, underfēngon ambihtas on rīċes þingum, on þēnunge, on fierde, on sǣfyrde, on cēapunge, and on landbūnessum ġeond þæt Brittisce Rīċe. Sē stǣrwrītere Neil Davidson wrīt, þæt æfter 1746 Scottisc dǣlnimung on rīċes þingum becōm "eallunga nīwre stǣpe", and þæt þæt Niþerland læġ on þǣm "cyrnele" þæs Brittiscan feohġemētes.<ref name="r63">Neil Davidson(2000), "The Origins of Scottish Nationhood", pp. 94–95</ref> Sēo Scottisce Bōte Ǣ 1832 ēacnode Scottisce þingmenn and sealde cyre mā þǣm middelhādum.<ref name="r64">T. M. Devine and R. J. Finlay, ''Scotland in the Twentieth Century'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1996), pp. 64–65.</ref> Fram þǣm middan 19an ġēarhundredes bǣdon menn Hāmwealdes, and þæt ambiht þæs Scotlandes Rīċesþeġnes wæs ednīwod.<ref name="r65">F. Requejo and K-J Nagel, ''Federalism Beyond Federations: Asymmetry and Processes of Re-symmetrization in Europe'' (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011), p. 39.</ref> Formaþeġnas of Scottiscre mǣġþe wǣron Willelm Gladstone and sē Eorl of Rosebery.<ref name="r66">R. Quinault, "Scots on Top? Tartan Power at Westminster 1707–2007", ''History Today'', 2007 57(7): 30–36. ISSN 0018-2753 Fulltext: Ebsco.</ref><ref name="r67">K. Kumar, ''The Making of English National Identity'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 183.</ref> Keir Hardies spēd on þǣm æfterċyre on Middel Lanarkscīre 1888 lǣdde tō þǣm Scottiscan Weorcmanna Flocce, sē on þǣm ġēare 1895 wearþ ġemenged on þone Frēon Weorcmanna Flocc, mid Hardie swā ǣrestum ealdre.<ref name="r68">D. Howell, ''British Workers and the Independent Labour Party, 1888–1906'' (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. 144.</ref> Glasgow wearþ ān þǣra mǣstena burga on worulde, "sēo Ōþeru Burg þæs Rīċes".<ref name="r69">J. F. MacKenzie, "The second city of the Empire: Glasgow – imperial municipality", in F. Driver and D. Gilbert, eds, ''Imperial Cities: Landscape, Display and Identity'' (2003), pp. 215–223.</ref> Æfter 1860 timbrodon þā scipwyrhtan be Clyde īsene (æfter 1870 stȳlene) dȳmscipu and wurdon sē forma scipwyrhtena stede on worulde.<ref name="r70">J. Shields, ''Clyde Built: a History of Ship-Building on the River Clyde'' (1949).</ref> Hūs, burhġeþeaht, and folces hǣlu ne heoldon stæpe wiþ þǣm cræftlican wæstme; þanon cōm ġeþrang, hēah cilda dēaþ, and weaxende līċþrōwung.<ref name="r71">C. H. Lee, ''Scotland and the United Kingdom: the Economy and the Union in the Twentieth Century'' (1995), p. 43.</ref> Sēo Scottisce Onlīhtung ġeendode on þǣm lætran 18an ġēarhundrede,<ref name="r72">M. Magnusson, "Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World''", New Statesman, 10 November 2003, http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040</ref> ac miċel Scottisc fultum tō ġewitte dūrode 50 ġēara oþþe mā, fram þǣm ġecyndlǣreowum Iacob Clerk Maxwell and Hlāford Kelvin and þǣm searowyrhtum Iacob Watt and Willelm Murdoch, þe wǣron hēafodlice þǣre Cræftlican Āwendednesse.<ref name="r73">E. Wills, ''Scottish Firsts: a Celebration of Innovation and Achievement'' (Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2002).</ref> Walter Scottes ''Waverley'' (1814) man oft hǣt þæt ǣreste stǣrlice spell;<ref name="r74">K. S. Whetter, "Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance", 2008, p. 28</ref> his weorc dyde mā þonne ǣniġ ōþer tō ġetǣcnienne Scottisce þēawlice ġecynde.<ref name="r75">N. Davidson, "The Origins of Scottish Nationhood", 2000, p. 136</ref> Rodbeorht Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie, and George MacDonald begēaton woruldhlīsan on þǣm lætran 19an ġēarhundrede.<ref name="r76">"Cultural Profile: 19th and early 20th century developments", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html</ref> Sēo Glasgowes Scōl (lætre 19e – ǣrlic 20e ġēarhundred), þe mengde þā Celtiscan Edcwicunge, Cræftas and Handweorc, and Iapanisce wīsan, hulp ''Art Nouveau'' ġetǣcnian; hire forma mann wæs Carl Rennie Mackintosh.<ref name="r77">Stephan Tschudi-Madsen, ''The Art Nouveau Style: a Comprehensive Guide'' (Courier Dover, 2002), pp. 283–284.</ref> === Woruldġewinn and sēo Scotlandes Ǣ 1998 === [[File:Bagpiper Battle of Bazentin Ridge 14-07-1916 IWM Q 4012.jpg|thumb|Pīpere þǣra Seaforth Hēahlandmanna lǣdeþ þā 26an Fierdsceare of þǣm dīcum on þǣm ġefeohte æt Bazentin Hlince, Mǣdmōnaþ 1916]] On þǣm Ǣrestan Woruldġewinne ġeaf Scotland menn, scipu, searu, fixas, and fēoh.<ref name="r78">Richard J. Finlay, ''Modern Scotland 1914–2000'' (2006), pp 1–33</ref> Mid 4.8 mīlion manna on þǣm ġēare 1911 sende hit mā þonne 500,000 wera; mā þonne fēorþa dǣl swulton and 150,000 wǣron hefiġlīce ġewundode.<ref name="r79">R. A. Houston and W. W. J. Knox, eds. ''The New Penguin History of Scotland'' (2001) p 426.[https://books.google.com/books?id=VI5nAAAAMAAJ&q=casualties] Niall Ferguson points out in "The Pity of War" that the proportion of enlisted Scots who died was third highest in the war behind Serbia and Turkey and a much higher proportion than in other parts of the UK.[https://books.google.com/books?id=QrYhAQAAIAAJ&q=enlisted] [http://news.scotsman.com/worldwarone/39Savage-Scots39-wish-you-weren39t.6487746.jp]</ref> Sē Fyrdmearcealdor Sir Douglas Haig lǣdde þā Brittiscan fierda on þǣm Westlican Fyrdstede. Sēo strange "Rēade Clyde" styrung ārās, ġelǣd fram cēnum weorcgildum; þā cræftlican landdǣlas wendon fram þǣm Frēolican Flocce tō þǣm Weorcmanna Flocce be 1922, ġetimbrode on Īriscum Pāpiscum weorcmanna stōwum, mid wīfum, þe ymbe hūs þing swīþe wunnon. Sēo styrung hæfde lȳtelne þinglicne andweald and āswand be þǣm lætran 1920–1929 ġēarum.<ref name="r80">Iain McLean, ''The Legend of Red Clydeside'' (1983)</ref> On þǣm Ōþrum Woruldġewinne bærnde Þēodscland mid lyftscipum Scottisce weorchūs, scipwyrhtena stōwa, and colpyttas, on Glasgowe, Eadenburge, and burgum þæs middelbeltes.<ref name="r81">BBC, "Primary History – World War 2 – Scotland's Blitz", https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/subjects/zcw76sg</ref> Sē Clydebankes Lyftrǣs on Hrēþmōnþe 1941, wiþ þā sǣfyrde scipwyrhtan, ofslōh 528 manna and fordyde 4,000 hūsa.<ref name="r82">BBC, "Scotland's Landscape : Clydebank Blitz", https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/landscapes/clydebank_blitz/</ref> On þǣm ġēare 1941 flēah Rudolf Hess tō Renfrewscīre, wēnunga sibbe tō sēċenne þurh þone Heretogan of Hamilton.<ref name="r83">J. Leasor ''Rudolf Hess: The Uninvited Envoy'' (Kelly Bray: House of Stratus, 2001), ISBN 0-7551-0041-7, p. 15.</ref> Hē hæfde lǣfed his þeġne Karlheinz Pintsch ǣrendbōc tō Adolfe Hitlere, þe his sibbe ġeþeaht ġecȳþde; sēo wæs ġebroht tō þǣm Berghof on þǣm 11an dæġe Þrimilces.<ref name="r84">Evans, Richard J., "The Third Reich at War", 2008, ISBN 978-0-14-311671-4, p. 168</ref> Swā swā Albert Speer sæġde, hēold Hitler þone flyht for āgenne swicdōm and ān þǣra wyrstena sleġa his līfes;<ref name="r85">Sereny, Gitta, "Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth", 1996, ISBN 978-0-679-76812-8, p. 240</ref> hē ondrēd, þæt Italia and Iapan wēndon, þæt hē dīeġollīce sibbe wiþ Brytene sōhte. [[File:Opening of the Scottish Parliament, 1999.jpg|thumb|Þæt Scottisce Þing ġesamnode eft on Mǣdmōnþe 1999 mid Donald Dewar, ǣrestum ealdormenn (wynstran), and Cwēne Elizabeth 2 (on middum)]] Æfter 1945 lytlode þæt feohġemēt for ūtlandiscum ġewinne, unspēdiġum cræftum, and weorcmanna ġeflitum.<ref name="r86">Harvie, Christopher ''No Gods and Precious Few Heroes'' (Edward Arnold, 1989) pp 54–63.</ref> Edwyrpung on nīwum ġēarum cōm of feohþēnungum, līġcræftlicum searwum (Silicon Glen),<ref name="r87">Stewart, Heather, "Celtic Tiger Burns Brighter at Holyrood", The Guardian, 6 May 2007, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/may/06/scottishparliament.devolution</ref> and Norþsǣ ele and gæse.<ref name="r88">"National Planning Framework for Scotland", Gov.scot, April 2004, http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2004/04/19170/35326</ref> Margarete Thatcheres rīċeweald sette þæt Ġemǣnscipes Gafol (Hēafodgafol) on Scotlande on þǣm ġēare 1989, ān ġēar ǣr þǣm ōþrum dǣle Mǣran Brytene,<ref name="r89">Torrance, David, "Modern myth of a poll tax test-bed lives on", The Scotsman, 30 March 2009, http://www.scotsman.com/news/david-torrance-modern-myth-of-a-poll-tax-test-bed-lives-on-1-1031968</ref> and þæt fēdde þā styrunge for Scottiscum selfwealde.<ref name="r90">"The poll tax in Scotland 20 years on", BBC News, 1 April 2009, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/7976782.stm</ref> On þǣm 21an dæġe Ǣrra Ġēolan 1988 tōbærst Pan Am Lyftscip 103 ofer Lockerbie and ofslōh ealle on borde and 11 būendra; þæt is ġīet sē dēadlicosta ōgaþrēa onrǣs on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme.<ref name="r91">"Lockerbie tragedy: 35th anniversary of the bombing of Pan Am flight 103", Sky News, https://news.sky.com/story/lockerbie-tragedy-35th-anniversary-of-the-bombing-of-pan-am-flight-103-13033448</ref> Æfter þǣre folcāscunge be ġedǣledum mihtum on þǣm ġēare 1997 ġeworhte sēo Scotlandes Ǣ 1998<ref name="r92">[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/acts1998/ukpga_19980046_en_1 "Scotland Act 1998"] , Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 22 April 2008.</ref> ġedǣled Scottisc Þing and Scottiscne Rīċeweald, þe healdaþ þā mǣstan ǣ, þe Scotlande synderlīce belimpaþ.<ref name="r93">"Devolution > Scottish responsibilities", Scottish Government, http://www.gov.scot/About/Factfile/18060/11552</ref> Þæt Þing ġesamnode eft on Eadenburge on þǣm 4an dæġe Mǣdmōnþes 1999.<ref name="r94">"Special Report &#124; 1999 &#124; 06/99 &#124; Scottish Parliament opening &#124; Scotland's day of history", BBC News, 4 July 1999, https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/06/99/scottish_parliament_opening/382490.stm</ref> Sē ǣresta ǣresta ealdormann, Donald Dewar, þēnode oþ his fǣrlicne dēaþ on þǣm ġēare 2000.<ref name="r95">"Donald Dewar dies after fall", The Independent, 11 October 2000, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/donald-dewar-dies-after-fall-634695.html</ref> === Þæt 21e ġēarhundred === [[File:Signing of the Edinburgh Agreement, 2012.jpg|thumb|Sēo awritung þǣre Eadenburges Forewearde lȳfde folcāscunge be mundbyrdnesse on þǣm ġēare 2014]] Þæt Scottisce Þinghūs æt Holyrood wæs ġeopenod on Winterfylleþe 2004, late and ofer þæt ġeteohhode fēoh.<ref name="r96">"UK &#124; Scotland &#124; Guide to opening of Scottish Parliament", BBC News, 6 October 2004, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/3719396.stm</ref> Under þǣm ēacan þingmanna cyre ne ġewann nān flocc þone mǣstan dǣl on þǣm 3 ǣrestum cyrum. Sē Scottisca Þēodlica Flocc (SNP), for mundbyrdnesse, under Alex Salmond ġewann þone mǣstan dǣl on þǣm ġēare 2011, 69 of 129 setla,<ref name="r97">Carrell, Severin, "Salmond hails 'historic' victory as SNP secures Holyrood's first ever majority &#124; Politics", The Guardian, 6 May 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2011/may/06/scottish-elections-salmond-historic-victory-snp</ref> and þæt lǣdde tō þǣre folcāscunge be mundbyrdnesse on Hāligmōnþe 2014, on þǣre 55% "nā" curon.<ref name="r98">"Scottish independence referendum – Results", BBC News, 19 September 2014, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results</ref> Æfter sprǣcum ealra flocca on þǣm Smithes Ġemōte wǣron mā mihta, swīþost ymbe gafol, ġedǣlede. Brytenes ūtgang of þǣre Eurōpiscan Ġeānunge, þone sē mǣsta dǣl Scottiscra cēosendra wiþsōc, lǣdde tō bēnum for ōþerre folcāscunge. On þǣm ġēare 2022 sæġde sēo Hlāfdīġe Forspeca Dorothy Bain, þæt sē Scottisca Rīċeweald mihte āne healdan; sē Hēhsta Dōm dēmde onġēan.<ref name="r99">"Supreme court rules against Scottish parliament holding new independence referendum", The Guardian, 23 November 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/nov/23/scottish-independence-supreme-court-scottish-parliament-second-referendum-indyref2</ref> Sē Scottisca Rīċeweald sōhte siþþan þā Scotlandes Ǣ 1998 tō wendenne, þæt hēo folcāscunge lȳfde.<ref name="r100">Brown, Faye, "SNP reveals new plan to secure indyref2 without Westminster backing", Sky News, 14 December 2022, https://news.sky.com/story/snp-reveals-new-plan-to-secure-indyref2-without-westminster-backing-12767700</ref><ref name="r101">Torrance, David, "Scottish independence referendum: legal issues", House of Commons Library, 18 February 2025, https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-9104/</ref> On þǣm 14an dæġe Hāligmōnþes 2026 āwrāt sē ǣresta ealdormann John Swinney ġewrit ġeþwǣrnesse mid þǣm ǣrestum ealdormannum Wēala and Norþīralandes, þe bæd æfterlicre folcāscunge be mundbyrdnesse; hē hit nemnde "hwerfende tīd on þǣre fōre þǣre grundlage".<ref name="r102">"Westminster coming to an end, say Welsh, Scottish and Northern Irish leaders", BBC News, 13 September 2026, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c62enegxyl9o</ref> == Landgemǣre == [[File:Corpach Basin - geograph.org.uk - 5757851.jpg|thumb|Mid 4,413 fōta (1,345 m) is Ben Nevis sē hēhsta beorg on Scotlande and on þǣm Brittiscum Īeglandum]] Þæt fæstland Scotlandes is sē norþlica þridda dǣl Mǣran Brytene, be norþwestan þǣm Eurōpiscan fæstlande. Eall brādnes 80,231 km², landes brādnes 77,901 km²,<ref name="r103">Office for National Statistics, "Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK", Open Geography Portal, 31 May 2024, https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about</ref> ġelīc þǣm Ċeċiscan Folcrīċe. His āne landmearc, wiþ Englaland, līþ 96 mīla fram þǣm dene þǣre ēa Tweed on ēasthealfe tō þǣm Solway Sǣearme on westhealfe. Sē Atlantisca Gārsecg līþ on westhealfe and sēo Norþsǣ on ēasthealfe. Īraland is 21 km fram þǣm næsse Kintyre;<ref name="r104">[http://www.britannica.com/place/North-Channel-strait North Channel] , Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 May 2016.</ref> Norþweġ is 305 km on norþēasthealfe and þā Færēġ 270 km on norþhealfe. Scotlandes ġemǣru wǣron mǣst ġesette þurh þā Forewearde æt Eoforwīce mid Englalande (1237)<ref name="r37" /> and þā Forewearde æt Perth mid Norþweġe (1266).<ref name="r6" /> Būtan þissum: Manīeġ, forloren tō Englalande on þǣm 14an ġēarhundrede and nū cynehelmes underþēodnes; Orcanēġ and Hjaltland, begieten of Norþweġe on þǣm ġēare 1472;<ref name="r105">''Whitaker's Almanack'' (1991) London. J. Whitaker and Sons.</ref> and Berwick be Tweed, āġiefen Englalande on þǣm ġēare 1482.<ref name="r106">Ellis, Steven G., "The Making of the British Isles", 15 July 2014, p. 30, ISBN 978-1-317-90050-4</ref> Sē landmiddel is nēah Newtonmore on Badenoch.<ref name="r107">See [http://www.newtonmore.com/our-community/centre-of-scotland.html "Centre of Scotland"] Newtonmore.com. Retrieved 7 September 2012.</ref> Sēo hēhste stōw is Ben Nevis (1,345 m) on Lochaber; sēo lenġeste ēa is Tay (188 km).<ref name="r1" /> === Īegland === [[File:South over the Quiraing, Isle of Skye - 2.jpg|thumb|Sē Quiraing on Skye, ānum þǣra īegland þǣra Inrena Hebrida]] Scotland hæfþ ymbe 900 īegland, of þǣm ymbe 118 sind bewunode,<ref name="r108">"Facts and figures about Scotland's sea area (coastline length, sea area in sq kms) | marine.gov.scot", marine.gov.scot, https://marine.gov.scot/data/facts-and-figures-about-scotlands-sea-area-coastline-length-sea-area-sq-kms</ref> on 4 hēafodflocca: Hjaltland, Orcanēġ, þā Inran Hebrides, and þā Ūtran Hebrides. Hit hæfþ þā mǣstan miclan īegland þǣra Brittiscra Īegland: 71 of 5 km² oþþe mā.<ref name="r109">"Britain's largest islands | Blog | OS", Ordnance Survey, 28 June 2018, https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/britains-largest-islands</ref> Þā mǣstan sind Lewis and Harris, Skye, Hjaltlandes Fæstland, and Mull.<ref name="r109" /> Arran, Bute, Sūþ Uist, Islay, and Miċel Cumbrae habbaþ ǣlc 1,300–6,400 būendra.<ref name="r110">"5 Exploring individual factors: population, local amenities, and ferry connections", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-islands-typology-overview-2024/pages/7/</ref> Unbewunod Ailsa Craig, be Sūþ Ayrscīre, ġiefþ þone stān for þǣm stānum þæs ''curling'' plegan.<ref name="r111">"Ailsa Craig: Asking price reduced in Irish Sea island sale", BBC News, 21 March 2013, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-21878099</ref> Hjaltland and Orcanēġ, Scottisc siþþan 1472, healdaþ dǣlas heora āgnes þēawes and ġecyndes. Iacob 3 Scotlandes beġeat hīe, þā þā Crīstian 1 Denemearce hīe forlēt.<ref name="r112">"550 Years Ago: how Shetland became part of Scotland - part 2", Shetland Museum & Archives, 14 February 2022, https://www.shetlandmuseumandarchives.org.uk/blog/550-years-ago-how-shetland-became-part-of-scotland-part-2</ref> Ǣġþer hæfþ āgen ġemōt and is ān þǣra 32 landscīra Scotlandes.<ref name="r113">"Organisations", www.mygov.scot, https://www.mygov.scot/organisations</ref> Sē lȳtla clūd Rockall on þǣm Norþatlantiscan Gārsecge wæs ġecȳþed Scottisc þurh þā Īeglandes Rockall Ǣ 1972;<ref name="r114">BBC News, "On This Day: 21 September", 21 September 1955, https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/21/newsid_4582000/4582327.stm</ref><ref name="r115">"House of Lords Hansard", 24 June 1997, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo970624/text/70624-02.htm</ref> Īraland, Denemearc, and Īsland wiþsacaþ þǣre ġīrnesse, þe on ūtlandiscre ǣ wēnunga ne stent.<ref name="r116">Dáil Éireann, "Oral Questions to the Minister of Foreign Affairs", Official Report of the Parliamentary Debates of the Houses of the Oireachtas, 1 November 1973, http://historical-debates.oireachtas.ie/D/0268/D.0268.197311010090.html</ref><ref name="r117">MacDonald (2006) pp. 627–647.</ref> === Eorþlǣr and landes hīw === [[File:Arthur's Seat seen from the Pentlands - geograph.org.uk - 7138235.jpg|thumb|Arthures Setl, Eadenburg]] Eall Scotland wæs under īsweallum on þǣre Pleistocēnan tīde, and īs scōp þæt landes hīw. Þǣr sind 3 eorþlǣre tōdǣlas: þæt Hēahland and þā Īegland, þæt Middel Niþerland, and þā Sūþdūna. Þæt Hēahland and þā Īegland licgaþ be norþan and be westan þǣm Hēahlandes Mearcbryċe (fram Arran tō Stonehaven). Hīe sind mǣst Cambrisc and ǣrcambrisc stān, āhafen on þǣre Caledoniscan beorgcenninge, mid ġingran fȳrstānum, þe ġeworhton beorghēapas swā swā Cairngorms and Cuillin.<ref name="r118">"Hebrides – Scottish Geology Trust", https://www.scottishgeologytrust.org/geology/scotlands-geology/regional-geology/hebrides/</ref> On norþēastdǣle scōp sēo forwēornes ǣr þǣre Lætestan Īsieldu miċelne dǣl þæs landes.<ref name="r119">Hall, Adian M., "Deep weathering patterns in north-east Scotland and their geomorphological significance", Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 1986, pp. 407–422</ref> Sē Ealda Rēada Sandstān be Moray Sǣearme, mid stǣnenum lāfum dēora, is būtan þǣre rǣwe. Þæt Hēahland hæfþ þā hēhstan beorgas þǣra Brittiscra Īegland and meras swā swā Loch Lomond and Loch Ness; dǣlas þæs strandes sind ''machair'', nīþerlicu sandlǣs. Þæt Middel Niþerland is tōbrocen dene of Paleozōiscum stānum, mid þǣm cole and īsene, þe fēddon þā cræftlican āwendednesse. Ealde fȳrbeorgas lǣfdon Arthures Setl on Eadenburge. Þæt land is nīþerlic, mid hyllum swā swā Ochils and Campsie Fells. Þā Sūþdūna sind rǣw hylla nēah 200 km lang mid brādum denum, be sūþan þǣm Sūþdūna Mearcbryċe (fram Girvan tō Dunbar).<ref name="r120">Tiscali.co.uk, "Southern Uplands", 16 November 1990, http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0029160.html</ref><ref name="r121">BBC, "Education Scotland – Standard Grade Bitesize Revision – Ask a Teacher – Geography – Physical – Question From PN", http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/other/sos/geography/physical/answerphysical_59.shtml</ref><ref name="r122">Intheknowtraveler.com, "Scotland Today " ITKT", 28 December 2006, http://www.intheknowtraveler.com/1144</ref> Hīe sind mǣst Silurisc lāf, 400–500 mīlion ġēara eald. Sēo hēhste stōw is Merrick (843 m).<ref name="r5" /><ref name="r123">Murray, W.H. (1973) ''The Islands of Western Scotland''. London. Eyre Methuen ISBN 978-0-413-30380-6</ref><ref name="r124">Murray, W.H. (1968) ''The Companion Guide to the West Highlands of Scotland''. London. Collins. ISBN 0-00-211135-7</ref><ref name="r125">Johnstone, Scott ''et al.'' (1990) ''The Corbetts and Other Scottish Hills''. Edinburgh. Scottish Mountaineering Trust. Page 9.</ref> Wanlockhead (430 m) is þæt hēhste þorp Scotlandes.<ref name="r122" /> === Weder === [[File:The beach below Balevullin - geograph.org.uk - 4480551.jpg|thumb|Tiree on þǣm Inrum Hebridum is ān þǣra sunnigostena stōwa on Scotlande.]] Sē mǣsta dǣl Scotlandes hæfþ ġemetlic, gārsecglic, and swīþe wendendlic weder. Sē Gulf Strēam ġiefþ mildran wintras ac ċēlran, wǣtran sumoras þonne stōwum on ġelīcre brǣdu, swā swā Labrador, sūþdǣl Scedelandes, sēo landscīr ymbe Moscuwe, and Kamchatka. Sēo hǣtu is lǣsse þonne on þǣm ōþrum dǣle þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes. Sēo lǣste hǣtu þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes, −27.2 °C, wæs ġemeten æt Braemar on þǣm 11an dæġe Solmōnþes 1895, and eft æt Braemar on þǣm 10an dæġe Æfterran Ġēolan 1982 and æt Altnaharra on þǣm 30an dæġe Ǣrran Ġēolan 1995.<ref name="r126">BBC Weather, "UK Records", http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/uk_records.shtml</ref> Þā hēhstan wintres hǣtu sind on midle 6 °C on þǣm niþerlande, sumores 18 °C. Sēo mǣste hǣtu is 34.8 °C æt Charterhall, Scottisc Mearcland, on þǣm 19an dæġe Mǣdmōnþes 2022.<ref name="r127">"Scotland's record temperature of 34.8C at Charterhall confirmed", 28 July 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-south-scotland-62334687</ref> Sē westdǣl is ġewunelīce wearmra þonne sē ēastdǣl, for þǣm Atlantiscum strēamum and þǣre ċēlran Norþsǣ. Tiree is ān þǣra sunnigostena stōwa, mid mā þonne 300 tīdum sunnan on Þrimilce 1975.<ref name="r128">Met Office, "Weather extremes", http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate-extremes/#?tab=climateExtremes</ref> Þæt westlice Hēahland is wǣtost, mā þonne 3000 mm on ġēare on sumum stōwum;<ref name="r129">"Western Scotland: climate", http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ws</ref> miċel dǣl þæs niþerlandes underfēhþ lǣs þonne 800 mm.<ref name="r130">"Eastern Scotland: climate", http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/es</ref> Hefiġ snāw is seldsiene on þǣm Niþerlande and wexþ mid hēahnesse: Braemar hæfþ on midle 59 snāwdagas on ġēare,<ref name="r131">BBC, "Scottish Weather Part One", http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/scotland_01.shtml</ref> maniġ strand lǣs þonne 10 dagas liċġendes snāwes.<ref name="r130" /> Wederġecyndes wending slēhþ Scotland hearde: 3 stæpas woruldlicre wearmunge mihton ġecostian oþ 8% þæs ġeares wæstmes þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes be 2070. Scotland ġelȳtlode his ġlæshūses lyfte ūtsendunge be 51.3% betwux 1990 and 2023. His wederġecyndes ġeþeaht on þǣm ġēare 2026 sēcþ carbonlēasnesse be 2045, carbonlēase hūses hǣtunge be 2045, 21% landes under wudu be 2032, and edstaþelunge þǣra mōra.<ref name="r132">"Scotland's Climate Change Plan: 2026 – 2040 & Annexes", Scottish Government, https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-climate-change-plan-2026-2040-annexes/</ref><ref name="r133">"Scotland's Climate Change Plan: 2026 – 2040 & Annexes - Introduction", Scottish Government, https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-climate-change-plan-2026-2040-annexes/pages/2/</ref><ref name="r134">"Climate Change Plan published", March 2026, https://nen.press/climate-change-plan-published/</ref> === Wyrta and dēor === [[File:White-tailed eagle in flight at Falkenhof Schloss Rosenburg.jpg|thumb|Hwītsteort sǣearn]] Scotlandes wilde dēor sind ġelīc þǣm on norþwestdǣle Eurōpe; sē lox, sē brūna bera, sē wulf, sē elh, and sē horshwæl wǣron āhuntode oþ dēaþ on stǣrlicum tīdum. Þǣr sind miċele flocca seolha and miċele sǣfugla stōwa, swā swā ganota.<ref name="r135">Fraser Darling, F. & Boyd, J. M. (1969) ''Natural History in the Highlands and Islands.'' London. Bloomsbury.</ref> Sē gylden earn is þēodlic tācen.<ref name="r136">Benvie, Neil (2004) ''Scotland's Wildlife''. London. Aurum Press. ISBN 1-85410-978-2 p. 12.</ref> On hēahum beorgum wendaþ sē rjúpa, sē beorghara, and sē hearma hwīte on wintra.<ref name="r137">[http://www.cairngorms.co.uk/resource/docs/publications/CNPA.Paper.225.State%20of%20the%20Park%20Report%20-%20Chapter%202%20Natural%20Resources.pdf "State of the Park Report. Chapter 2: Natural Resources"] (pdf) (2006) Cairngorms National Park Authority. Retrieved 14 October 2007.</ref> Lāfa þæs inlendiscan Scottiscan furhwuda<ref name="r138">Preston, C. D., Pearman, D. A., & Dines, T. D. (2002) ''New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora''. Oxford University Press.</ref> healdaþ þone Scottiscan crūcbile (þone ānne inlendiscan fugol and bānlēod þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes), þone wudu-hǣþcoc, þā Scottiscan wildan catte, þā rēadan ācweorran, and þone furhmeard.<ref name="r139">Gooders, J. (1994) ''Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Ireland''. London. Kingfisher.</ref><ref name="r140">Matthews, L. H. (1968) ''British Mammals''. London. Bloomsbury.</ref><ref name="r141">WM Adams, "Future nature:a vision for conservation", 2003, p. 30, ISBN 978-1-85383-998-6, https://books.google.com/books?id=kxlN8YJQWQsC&q=future+nature:+a+vision+for+conservation</ref> Sē hwītsteort earn (1975) and sēo rēade glida (1980–1989) wǣron eft ingelǣdde;<ref name="r142">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110420032140/http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/projects/details/274707-east-scotland-sea-eagles-esse "East Scotland Sea Eagles"] RSPB. Retrieved 3 January 2014.</ref><ref name="r143">Ross, John, "Mass slaughter of the red kites", The Scotsman, 29 December 2006</ref> befor and wilde eofor, ǣrest on cunnunge ālȳsde, sind nū wīde. Sē mǣsta dǣl þæs lāfan Caledoniscan Wuda is on þǣm Cairngorms Þēodlican Landparruce, mid lāfum on 84 stōwum. Seldsiene lāfa Celtisces Reġnwuda libbaþ on þǣm westrīman, swīþost on þǣm næsse Taynish on Argyll, æfter ġēarhundredum wudufyllinge.<ref name="r144">Ross, David (26 November 2009) "Wild Boar: our new eco warriors" ''The Herald.'' Glasgow.</ref><ref name="r145">"Beavers return after 400-year gap", BBC News, 29 May 2009, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/glasgow_and_west/8072443.stm</ref> Scotland is on þǣm nīþemestan 15% landa on þǣre Ġetæle Ansundnesse Līfes.<ref name="r146">"NatureScot Research Report 1309 - Understanding the Indirect Drivers of Biodiversity Loss in Scotland &#124; NatureScot", www.nature.scot, 31 August 2023, https://www.nature.scot/doc/naturescot-research-report-1309-understanding-indirect-drivers-biodiversity-loss-scotland</ref><ref name="r147">"How does Scotland's biodiversity measure up?", SPICe Spotlight &#124; Solas air SPICe, 4 June 2021, https://spice-spotlight.scot/2021/06/04/how-does-scotlands-biodiversity-measure-up/</ref> Þā wyrta habbaþ lēaffeallende and hnyttberende wudu, mōras, and cealdlandes cynn. Cēaplic wudutilþ and mōras, ġehealdene for scēapum, hēortes huntoþe, and drifenre mōrhenna scēotunge, wendaþ þā inlendiscan cynn.<ref name="r148">''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191004122226/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.382.9320&rep=rep1&type=pdf Integrated Upland Management for Wildlife, Field Sports, Agriculture & Public Enjoyment]'' (pdf) (September 1999) Scottish Natural Heritage. Retrieved 14 October 2007.</ref> Þæt hēhste trēow þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes is miċel æbs, ġeplanted be Loch Fyne, Argyll, on þǣm 1870–1879 ġēarum; sē Fortingalles Īw mæġ bēon 5,000 ġēara eald, wēnunga þæt ieldeste libbende þing on Eurōpe.<ref name="r149">Forestry and Land Scotland, "Yew", www.forestryandland.gov.scot, https://forestryandland.gov.scot/learn/trees/yew</ref><ref name="r150">Forestry Commission, "Scotland remains home to Britain's tallest tree as Dughall Mor reaches new heights", http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/3EEE4838BED1F155802570D8003965E9</ref><ref name="r151">Copping, Jasper (4 June 2011) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110607184948/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/countryside/8557126/Britains-record-breaking-trees-identified.html "Britain's record-breaking trees identified"] London. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved 10 July 2011.</ref> Inlendisce ǣdrewyrta sind fēawe æfter woruldmǣþe, ac Scotlandes mēos is woruldmiċel.<ref name="r152">"Why Scotland has so many mosses and liverworts", Snh.org.uk, http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/naturallyscottish/mossesliverworts/whyscotland.asp</ref><ref name="r153">"Bryology (mosses, liverworts and hornworts)", Rbge.org.uk, http://www.rbge.org.uk/science/cryptogamic-plants-and-fungi/bryology</ref> == Ealdordōm and þinglic rīċe == [[File:King Charles III (July 2023).jpg|thumb|Cyning Carl 3, Cyning siþþan 2022]] Scotland is dǣl þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes, cynedōmes on ǣ, þæs brego is Carl 3.<ref name="r154">"Scotland marks the Coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla", royal.uk, 5 July 2023, https://www.royal.uk/news-and-activity/2023-07-05/scotland-marks-the-coronation-of-king-charles-iii-and-queen-camilla</ref> Sē cynedōm notaþ Scotlande synderlicu tācn of þǣm cynerīċe ǣr þǣre ġeānunge: þone Cynelican Fanan Scotlandes, þone cynelican wǣpnscild, and þone titul Heretoga of Rothesay for þǣm ierfan. Þǣr sind synderlice Scottisce Rīċes Ambihtmenn and Cynehelmes Ambihtmenn, and sēo Endebyrdnes þæs Þistles.<ref name="r155">Scottish Parliament, "Opening of Parliament: Procession of the Crown of Scotland", 29 June 2016, http://www.parliament.scot/newsandmediacentre/100237.aspx</ref> Þæt Þing þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes and þæt Scottisce Þing sind þā hēafodlican ǣsettendan. Þæt Þing þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes is ofer þǣm Scottiscan Þinge<ref name="r156">Select Committee on the Constitution, "Respect and Co-operation: Building a Stronger Union for the 21st century", 2022, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld5802/ldselect/ldconst/142/14206.htm#_idTextAnchor033</ref> ac ġewunelīce sett ǣ ǣnlīce on ġehealdenum þingum: sumu gafolu, dǣlas þæs ġemǣnan fultumes, ealgung, ūtlandisc ġeþingþu, and lyftspell.<ref name="r157">"Government of Scotland Facts", http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/government/index.html</ref> Be þēawe ne sett hit ǣ on ġedǣledum þingum būtan Scottiscre ġeþafunge.<ref name="r158">"Sewel Convention", UK Parliament, https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/sewel-convention/</ref> Scotland ċīest 57 þǣra 650 þingmanna on þǣm Hūse Ġemǣnra,<ref name="r159">"Parliamentary constituencies", UK Parliament, https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/elections-and-voting/constituencies/</ref> þurh þone ǣrestan æt þǣm stæfe on ānmannes cyrstōwum. Sēo Scotlandes Þegnung bēodeþ þone rīċeweald þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes on Scotlande and Scottisce nēode on þǣm rīċewealde;<ref name="r160">"Scotland Office Charter", Scotland Office website, 9 August 2004, http://www.scotlandoffice.gov.uk/our-communications/doc.php?id=11</ref> hīe lǣdeþ sē Scotlandes Rīċesþeġn, ān þǣra rǣdþeġna þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes.<ref name="r161">BBC, "Alister Jack: What do we know about the new Scottish Secretary?", BBC News, 24 July 2019, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-49103859</ref> Sē Weorcmanna þingmann Douglas Alexander hæfþ þæt ambiht siþþan Hāligmōnaþ 2025,<ref name="r162">Lennon, Holly, "Douglas Alexander replaces Ian Murray after Scottish secretary sacked", STV News, 5 September 2025, https://news.stv.tv/politics/scottish-secretary-sacked-as-starmer-reshuffles-cabinet-in-wake-of-rayner-resignation</ref> æfter Ian Murray (fram Mǣdmōnþe 2024).<ref name="r163">"Ian Murray: From lone Labour MP to Scottish secretary", BBC, 5 July 2024, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cxe2xyv13g3o.amp</ref> [[File:Scottish Parliament Debating Chamber 1.jpg|thumb|Sēo flītstōw þæs Scottiscan Þinges on Eadenburge]] Þæt Scottisce Þing hæfþ ān hūs mid 129 þingmanna: 73 ġecorene þurh þone ǣrestan æt þǣm stæfe on cyrstōwum and 56 on 8 landscipum þurh þone ēacan þingmanna cyre, ġewunelīce for 5 ġēarum.<ref name="r164">Scottish Government, "Parliamentary and local election terms extended", www.gov.scot, 3 June 2020, https://www.gov.scot/news/parliamentary-and-local-election-terms-extended</ref> Hit hæfþ þā wīdestan mihta þǣra ġedǣledra þinga þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes<ref name="r165">"The progress of devolution - Erskine May - UK Parliament", erskinemay.parliament.uk, https://erskinemay.parliament.uk/section/4537/the-progress-of-devolution</ref> and is ān þǣra mihtigostena ġedǣledra þinga on worulde.<ref name="r166">"David Mundell speech: 20 years of Scottish devolution", GOV.UK, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/david-mundell-speech-20-years-of-scottish-devolution</ref> Sē Scottisca Rīċeweald, ēac ān þǣra mihtigostena ġedǣledra rīċewealda,<ref name="r167">"5 reasons why Scotland is more powerful as part of the United Kingdom", GOV.UK, 22 January 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/5-reasons-why-scotland-is-more-powerful-as-part-of-the-united-kingdom</ref> is ġelǣd fram þǣm ǣrestan ealdormenn, þone þā þingmenn nemnaþ and þe ġewunelīce is ealdor þæs mǣstan flocces; sē ǣresta ealdormann sett þā ōþre rǣdþeġnas.<ref name="r168">Scottish Government, "People: Who runs the Scottish Government", 21 November 2014, http://www.gov.scot/About/People</ref> Sē ǣresta ealdormann wīsaþ þæs rīċewealdes rǣd and forþaþ Scotland æt hām and on ūtlandum.<ref name="r169">"First Minister", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/first-minister/</ref> John Swinney, ealdor þæs SNP, is ǣresta ealdormann siþþan þone 8an dæġ Þrimilces 2024.<ref name="r170">National Records of Scotland, "First Minister swearing in ceremony", ros.gov.uk, https://www.ros.gov.uk/about/news/2024/first-minister-swearing-in-ceremony</ref> === Ūtlandisc ġeþingþu === [[File:President Donald Trump meets with Scottish First Minister John Swinney and U.K. Ambassador to the U.S. Peter Mandelson (54778210513).jpg|thumb|Sē ǣresta ealdormann Swinney mētt þone folcealdor þǣra Ġeānodra Rīċa Donald Trump, Hāligmōnaþ 2025]] Sē ǣresta ealdormann sitt on þǣm Ġemōte þæs Formaþeġnes and þǣra Hēafoda þǣra Ġedǣledra Rīċewealda and on þǣm Ġemōte þǣra Þēoda and Landscipa, þǣm ġemōtum for ġeþingþum betwux þǣm rīċewealdum on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme.<ref name="r171">"StackPath", www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk, 11 December 2017, https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/devolution-joint-ministerial-committee</ref> Ūtlandisc rǣd is ġehealden þǣm Ūtlandes Hūse þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes,<ref name="r172">Scottish Parliament, "Devolved and Reserved Matters – Visit & Learn", 14 February 2017, http://www.parliament.scot/visitandlearn/Education/18642.aspx</ref> ac sē Scottisca Rīċeweald mōt Scottisce nēode forþian on ūtlandum and ūtlandisc fēoh tōtēon.<ref name="r173">gov.scot, "International", http://www.gov.scot/Topics/International</ref> Sē ǣresta ealdormann and sē grundlage rǣdþeġn habbaþ ūtlandisce þing on hira ambihtum.<ref name="r174">gov.scot, "Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs", https://beta.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/cabinet-secretary-culture-tourism-external-affairs</ref><ref name="r175">gov.scot, "Minister for Europe, Migration and International Development", https://beta.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/minister-international-development-europe</ref><ref name="r176">Government of the United Kingdom, "The Review of Intergovernmental Relations", https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1046083/The_Review_of_Intergovernmental_Relations.pdf</ref> Scotlandes ūtlandisc nett hæfþ 2 Scotlandes Hūs (on Brussel and Lundene, healden āgenlīce fram þǣm Scottiscan Rīċewealde), 7 þegnunga þæs Scottiscan Rīċewealdes binnan Brittiscum ǣrendhūsum oþþe hēahǣrendhūsum, and mā þonne 30 þegnunga þǣre Scottiscan Ūtlandiscan Forþunge.<ref name="r177">Scottish Government, "Scotland's International Network Annual Report 2022-23", https://www.gov.scot/binaries/content/documents/govscot/publications/corporate-report/2023/12/scotlands-international-network-annual-report-2022-23/documents/scotlands-international-network-annual-report-2022-23/scotlands-international-network-annual-report-2022-23/govscot%3Adocument/scotlands-international-network-annual-report-2022-23.pdf</ref> Þegnunga þæs Scottiscan Rīċewealdes sind on Beijing, Berlin, Brussel, Copenhagen, Dyflin, Lundene, Ottawa, Paris, and Washington.<ref name="r178">"International relations - gov.scot", gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/policies/international-relations/</ref> Þā mǣstan ūtlandiscan ǣrendhūs on Scotlande sind on Eadenburge.<ref name="r179">"Consular Corps in Scotland | Consulates in Scotland", CCS, https://www.consularcorpsscotland.org</ref> Sē Ealda Þoftscipe mid Franclande (1295) wolde Engliscne heregang forstandan;<ref name="r180">BBC, "Scotland's History – The Auld Alliance", https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/auld_alliance/</ref> hē ġeendode on þǣm 16an ġēarhundrede, ac þā bendas sind ġīet nēah, mid Ġewrite Willan, āwritenum mid Franclande on þǣm ġēare 2013.<ref name="r181">"Scottish & French Connections", Scotland.org, https://www.scotland.org/events/lorient-celtic-festival/scottish-french-connections</ref> Sē Scotlandes and Malawies Ġefērscipe (2004) ġesamnaþ þā bendas mid Malawi; sēo Īralandes and Scotlandes Twifealde Ofersceawung (2021) behǣt bēġen rīċewealdas nēarran ġemǣnscipe on ġeþingþum, feohġemēte, and cēapunge.<ref name="r177" /><ref name="r182">Scotland Malawi Partnership, "About us", 3 November 2005, https://www.scotland-malawipartnership.org/who-we-are/about-us</ref><ref name="r183">First Minister of Scotland, "First Minister in Dublin: Day 2", 29 November 2016, https://firstminister.gov.scot/first-minister-in-dublin-day-2</ref> Scotland hæfþ stǣrlice and þēawlice bendas mid Scedelande.<ref name="r184">Fitzpatrick, Tara, "Arts festival celebrates Scotland's ties to Canada and Scandinavia", STV News, 29 September 2022, https://news.stv.tv/highlands-islands/highlands-arts-festival-celebrates-scotlands-ties-to-canada-and-scandinavia</ref><ref name="r185">"How DNA reveals Vikings never left Scotland – BBC REEL", 6 June 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dw3VbJ0RTcQ</ref> Sē Scottisca Rīċeweald sēcþ nēarran ġeþingþu mid þǣm Norþlandum and Baltiscum landum and underfēng Norþlandlice rǣdas swā swā cilda ċistas;<ref name="r186">Heather, Alistair, "Why Finns believe Scotland could become Nordic nation number six", The Scotsman, 17 May 2020, https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/alistair-heather-why-finns-believe-scotland-could-become-nordic-nation-number-six-2855748</ref><ref name="r187">"Nordic Baltic Policy Statement", gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/policies/europe/nordic-baltic-policy-statement/</ref> ǣrendracan þæs Scottiscan Þinges cōmon ǣrest tō þǣm Norþlanda Ġemōte swā scēaweras on þǣm ġēare 2022.<ref name="r188">"Presiding Officer leads Holyrood delegation to strengthen links with Nordic Council", parliament.scot, 31 October 2022, https://www.parliament.scot/about/news/news-listing/presiding-officer-leads-holyrood-delegation-to-strengthen-links-with-nordic-council</ref> Scotland is lim þǣs Brittisc–Īriscan Ġemōtes, þǣre Ġesamnunge Eurōpiscra Landscipa mid Ǣsettendre Mihte (REGLEG), þǣre Brittisc–Īriscan Þinglican Ġesamnunge, þæs Ġemōtes Eurōpiscra Burga and Landscipa,<ref name="r189">"National Associations", CEMR CCRE, https://ccre-cemr.org/national-associations</ref> þǣre Betwuxþinglican Mōtstōwe, þǣre Ġesamnunge Burhlicra and Landscipiscra Anwealda,<ref name="r190">"Détail pays - Congress of Local and Regional Authorities - www.coe.int", Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, https://www.coe.int/en/web/congress/country?id=13</ref> þǣre Ġemǣnweles Þinglican Ġefērrǣdenne<ref name="r191">"Scotland", UK-CPA, https://www.uk-cpa.org/where-we-work/americas-caribbean-europe/scotland</ref><ref name="r192">"Scotland / Alba", British-Irish Council, 7 December 2011, http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/member-administrations/scotland-alba</ref><ref name="r193">British-Irish Parliamentary Assembly, "Members", http://www.britishirish.org/members-2</ref> and þǣre Þinglican Ġefērscipes Ġesamnunge mid þǣre Eurōpiscan Ġeānunge.<ref name="r194">"Parliamentary Partnership Assembly", www.parliament.scot, https://www.parliament.scot/chamber-and-committees/committees/current-and-previous-committees/session-6-constitution-europe-external-affairs-and-culture-committee/correspondence/2021/parliamentary-partnership-assembly</ref> Scotland hæfde þæt forsetl þæs REGLEG fram Blōtmōnþe 2003 oþ Blōtmōnaþ 2004 under Jack McConnell.<ref name="r195">"Scotland on the international stage", SPICe Spotlight | Solas air SPICe, 18 September 2019, https://spice-spotlight.scot/2019/09/18/scotland-on-the-international-stage/</ref> === Ġedǣlede māhta and mundbyrdnes === [[File:Donald Dewar First Minister.jpg|thumb|Donald Dewar, sē ǣresta ǣresta ealdormann, ġehāten "Fæder þǣre Þēode"]] Ġedǣlede māhta, sēo sellung mihta þæs middelrīċewealdes tō landscipiscum rīċewealde, wurdon lēofe on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme on þǣm lætran 20an ġēarhundrede; sē Weorcmanna ealdor John Smith hīe nemnde "þone ġesettan willan þæs Scottiscan folces".<ref name="r196">Cavanagh, Michael (2001) ''[http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/aspect/docs/aspectcampaigns.htm The Campaigns for a Scottish Parliament] ''. University of Strathclyde. Retrieved 12 April 2008.</ref> Æfter þǣm þe sēo folcāscung on þǣm ġēare 1997 fultumode Þinge mid ġemetlicre mihte ofer innoþgafol, ġeworhte sēo Scotlandes Ǣ 1998 þæt Scottisce Þing and þone Rīċeweald,<ref name="r197">Kerr, Andrew, "Scottish devolution referendum: The birth of a parliament", BBC News, 8 September 2017, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-41189455</ref> þe ǣ settan magon on eallum þingum, þe ne sind ġehealden þǣm Þinge þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes.<ref name="r198">"Devolved and Reserved Powers", www.parliament.scot, https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works/devolved-and-reserved-powers</ref> Þā Scotlandes Ǣ on 2012 and 2016 ēacnodon mihta ofer gafol and ġemǣnne fultum;<ref name="r199">Fraser, Douglas, "Scotland's tax powers: What it has and what's coming?", BBC News, 2 February 2016, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35470086</ref> sēo Ǣ 2016 sealde ēac wealdnesse þæs Cynehelmes Ēþles on Scotlande.<ref name="r200">"Holyrood gives approval to devolved powers Scotland Bill", BBC News, 16 March 2016, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35815426</ref> Sēo Ǣ þæs Inlandiscan Cēapstōwe þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes 2020, swāþēah, ġetihþ þæs Scottiscan Þinges miht wara and þēnunga tō wealdenne,<ref name="r201">Masterman, Roger, "Constitutional and Administrative Law", 2022, pp. 471–473, ISBN 9781009158503, https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/constitutional-and-administrative-law/E1EB9FEDC43459C991E42BD945231DB5</ref><ref name="r202">Dougan, Michael, "Sleeping with an Elephant: Devolution and the United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020", Law Quarterly Review, 2022, pp. 650–676, https://dro.dur.ac.uk/35167/</ref> and swā wanaþ þā ġedǣledan māhta.<ref name="r203">Guderjan, Marius, "Intergovernmental Relations in the UK: Cooperation and Conflict in a Devolved Unitary State", 2023, pp. 166–176, ISBN 978-1-032-39485-5, https://www.routledge.com/Intergovernmental-Relations-in-the-UK-Cooperation-and-Conflict-in-a-Devolved/Guderjan/p/book/9781032394855</ref><ref name="r204">Keating, Michael, "Taking back control? Brexit and the territorial constitution of the United Kingdom", Journal of European Public Policy, 2 February 2021, pp. 491–509</ref><ref name="r205">Lydgate, Emily, "Brexit, food law and the UK's search for a post-EU identity", Modern Law Review, September 2022, pp. 1168–1190</ref><ref name="r206">Dougan, Michael, "UK and the Internal Market, Devolution and the Union", 2020, pp. 2–3, https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/publications/uk-and-internal-market-devolution-and-union</ref><ref name="r207">Armstrong, Kenneth A., "The Governance of Economic Unionism after the United Kingdom Internal Market Act", Modern Law Review, May 2022, pp. 635–660</ref> Æfter þǣm cyre on þǣm ġēare 2007 ġeworhte sē SNP, for mundbyrdnesse, lǣssan rīċeweald and ongann "Þēodlice Sprǣce" ymbe cyre swā swā mā mihta, ġefērlǣcunge, oþþe folcāscunge be mundbyrdnesse. Sē Scottisca Weorcmanna Flocc, þā Scottiscan Healdendan, and þā Scottiscan Frēolican Folcrīċan ġesetton synderlic ġemōt ymbe þā dǣlunge þǣra mihta, būtan mundbyrdnesse.<ref name="r208">Porter, David, "Party people confront new realities", BBC News, 18 January 2008, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/7195800.stm</ref> On Wēodmōnþe 2009 bēad sē SNP folcāscunge on Blōtmōnþe 2010; ealle ōþre miċele floccas hīe forstōdon.<ref name="r209">Scottish Government, "Referendum Bill", 2 September 2009, http://www.gov.scot/About/programme-for-government/2009-10/summary-of-bills/referendum-bill</ref><ref name="r210">MacLeod, Angus, "Salmond to push ahead with referendum Bill", The Times, 3 September 2009, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article6820542.ece</ref><ref name="r211">"Scottish independence plan 'an election issue'", BBC News, 6 September 2010, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-11196967</ref> [[File:Visit of Nicola Sturgeon, First Minister of the Scottish Government, to the EC.jpg|thumb|Sēo ǣreste ealdormann Nicola Sturgeon mid Michel Barnier on Brussel, ymbe Scottisc þing æfter Brytenes ūtgange sprecende, 2019]] Æfter þǣm þe sē SNP ġewann þone mǣstan dǣl on þǣm ġēare 2011, wæs sēo folcāscung be mundbyrdnesse ġehealden on þǣm 18an dæġe Hāligmōnþes 2014<ref name="r212">Black, Andrew, "Scottish independence: Referendum to be held on 18 September, 2014", BBC News, 21 March 2013, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-21828424</ref> and forsōc mundbyrdnesse mid 55.3% wiþ 44.7%.<ref name="r213">"Scotland votes no: the union has survived, but the questions for the left are profound", The Guardian, 19 September 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/19/scottish-independence-union-survived-put-away-flags</ref><ref name="r214">"Scotland decides", BBC, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/live</ref> On þǣm ġewinne behēton þā Healdendan, sē Weorcmanna Flocc, and þā Frēolican Folcrīċan mā mihta;<ref name="r215">[https://www.gov.uk/government/news/scottish-independence-referendum-statement-by-the-prime-minister Scottish Independence Referendum: statement by the Prime Minister] , UK Government</ref><ref name="r216">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-29273177 Scottish referendum: Who is Lord Smith of Kelvin?] , BBC News</ref> þæt ġemōt ealra flocca under Rodbeorhte Smith, Barune Smith of Kelvin,<ref name="r216" /> lǣdde tō þǣre Scotlandes Ǣ 2016.<ref name="r217">"Scotland Act 2016", 23 March 2016, https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/contents/enacted</ref> On þǣre folcāscunge be þǣre Eurōpiscan Ġeānunge on þǣm 23an dæġe Sēremōnþes 2016 ċēas sē Ġeānoda Cynedōm ūt tō gānne, Scotland tō wunienne.<ref name="r218">"Brexit: Nicola Sturgeon says second Scottish independence vote 'highly likely'", 24 June 2016, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-36621030</ref> Sēo ǣreste ealdormann Nicola Sturgeon cwæþ on þǣm æfteran dæġe, þæt nīwu folcāscung be mundbyrdnesse wǣre "swīþe ġelīcliċ".<ref name="r219">"Scottish Leader Nicola Sturgeon Announces Plans for Second Independence Referendum", 24 June 2016, https://time.com/4381327/brexit-nicole-sturgeon-scotland-referendum/</ref><ref name="r218" /> Sē Ġeānoda Cynedōm ēode ūt of þǣre Eurōpiscan Ġeānunge on þǣm 31an dæġe Æfterran Ġēolan 2020. === Landscīra wealdnes === [[File:Cunningham House, Irvine.jpg|thumb|Cunninghame Hūs on Irvine, Norþ Ayrscīr, setl þæs Ġemōtes Norþ Ayrscīre]] Scotland hæfþ 32 ānfealde ġemōtes landscīra,<ref name="r220">[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940039_en_1.htm "Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994"] Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref> ġesette on þǣm ġēare 1996, þǣra ġemōtu ġiefaþ ealle landlica þēnunga. Ġemōtesmenn bēoþ ġecorene ǣlce 5 ġēar; sē ealdor þæs ġemōtes cymþ ġewunelīce of þǣm mǣstan flocce, and burhealdor (''provost'' oþþe ''lord provost'') sitt ofer þǣm mōtum and hæfþ þēawlice ambihtas.<ref name="r221">"Local authorities: factsheet", www.gov.scot, http://www.gov.scot/publications/local-authorities-factsheet/</ref> Ġemǣnscipes ġemōtu sind unambihtlicu for lǣssum stōwum.<ref name="r222">"Scotland – Office for National Statistics", www.ons.gov.uk, https://www.ons.gov.uk/methodology/geography/ukgeographies/administrativegeography/scotland</ref> Scotlandes Friþweardas and sēo Scotlandes Fȳr- and Āhreddunge Þēnung healdaþ eall þæt land. Hǣlþe, ǣrendgewrita, and ċiriċan ġemōtu notiaþ heora āgene ealde tōdǣlas. Scotland hæfþ 8 ċeastra: Aberdeen, Dundee, Dunfermline, Eadenburg, Glasgow, Inverness, Perth, and Stirling.<ref name="r223">"UK Cities", Dca.gov.uk, http://www.dca.gov.uk/constitution/city/citygj.htm</ref> Sē cyning ġiefþ ċeastre wyrþe þurh openum ġewritum.<ref name="r224">"City status", Dca.gov.uk, http://www.dca.gov.uk/constitution/city/cityhome.htm</ref> === Wīgfyrd === [[File:Eurofighter Typhoon, ZK312 (19451923880).jpg|thumb|Typhoon FGR4 lyftscip mid tācnum þǣre 6an Lyftfyrdsceare æt RAF Lossiemouth]] Scotlandes wǣpned fierd is sēo Brittisce Wǣpned Fierd; ymbe £3.3 þūsend mīliona þæs wīgfēos þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes belamp Scotlande on 2018–2019.<ref name="r225">Scottish Government, "Government Expenditure & Review 2018-19", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/binaries/content/documents/govscot/publications/statistics/2019/08/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-gers/documents/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-2018-19/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-2018-19/govscot%3Adocument/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-2018-19.pdf?forceDownload=true</ref> Æfter þǣre ġeānunge on þǣm ġēare 1707 wurdon sēo Scottisce Fierd and sēo Cynelice Scottisce Sǣfyrd ġemengede mid þǣm Engliscum on þā Brittiscan Fierde and þā Cynelican Sǣfyrde.<ref name="r226">Williams, Noel T. St John, "Redcoats and courtesans: the birth of the British Army (1660–1690)", 1 January 1994, pp. 1–2, ISBN 9781857530971, https://books.google.com/books?id=zDxnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22british+army%22+1660</ref><ref name="r227">Walton, Clifford, "History of the British Standing Army. A.D. 1660 to 1700", 1 January 1894, p. [https://archive.org/details/historybritishs00waltgoog/page/n42 16], https://archive.org/details/historybritishs00waltgoog</ref> Þā Atholles Hēahlandmenn, sēo ǣne ǣlicu āgen fierd þe ġīet stent on Eurōpe, wunodon būtan þǣre Brittiscan Wǣpnedan Fierde.<ref name="r228">Atholl Estates, "Atholl Highlanders", www.atholl-estates.co.uk, https://atholl-estates.co.uk/blair-castle/atholl-highlanders/</ref> Scottisce fierdsceara sind þā Scottiscan Weardas, þā Cynelican Scottiscan Dragan Weardas, and sēo ġehealdene 154 (Scottisc) Fierdscearu RLC. On þǣm ġēare 2006, under þǣm hwītan ġewrite ''Delivering Security in a Changing World'', wurdon þā Scottiscan fēþan fierdsceara ġemengede on þā Cynelican Fierdsceare Scotlandes.<ref name="r229">The British Army, "Royal Regiment of Scotland", www.army.mod.uk, https://www.army.mod.uk/who-we-are/corps-regiments-and-units/infantry/royal-regiment-of-scotland/#:~:text=The%20Royal%20Regiment%20of%20Scotland%20was%20formed%20in%202006%20through,those%20regiments%20that%20formed%20us.</ref> Æfter þǣre Ofersceawunge Ealgunge and Frīþes 2010 wearþ sēo Scottisce Tōdǣlung dǣl þǣre Scottiscan, Wēaliscan, and Īriscan Tōdǣlunge on þǣm ġēare 2017; ǣr þǣm worhte sēo Scottisce fēþa Niþerlandes Fierdflocc and Hēahlandes Fierdflocc.<ref name="r230">The Telegraph, "Army to merge Scottish brigades", www.telegraph.co.uk, 7 May 2001, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1329420/Army-to-merge-Scottish-brigades.html</ref> For his landes hīwe and feorrnesse hæfþ Scotland manige dīeġle ealgunge stōwa.<ref name="r231">The large number of military bases in Scotland led some to use the euphemism "Fortress Scotland". See Spaven, Malcolm (1983) ''Fortress Scotland''. London. Pluto Press in association with Scottish CND.</ref><ref name="r232">"Pensioner, 94, in nuclear protest", BBC News Online, 16 December 2006, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/6186213.stm</ref><ref name="r233">"Reprieve for RAF Lossiemouth base", News.bbc.co.uk, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/4083933.stm</ref> Fram 1960 oþ 1991 wæs Holy Loch stede þǣra Polaris sǣscipa þǣra Ġeānodra Rīċa, þe under wætere farað.<ref name="r234">"Dunoon and the US Navy", Argyllonline.co.uk, http://www.argyllonline.co.uk/places/dunoon-cowal/dunoon-and-the-us-navy</ref> Þæs Cyninges Sǣfyrde Stede Clyde, 25 mīla be norþwestan Glasgowe, healdeþ þā 4 Trident sǣscipu þæs Brittiscan cernelwǣpnes āgǣlunge. Scapa Flow wæs sē hēafodstede þǣre Cynelican Sǣfyrde on þǣm 20an ġēarhundrede.<ref name="r235">Angus Konstam, ''Scapa Flow: The Defences of Britain's Great Fleet Anchorage 1914–45'' (2009).</ref> On þǣm ġēare 1961 setton þā Ġeānodan Rīċu Polaris sǣscipu on Holy Loch, þēah þe CND wiþsōce; sēo Cynelice Sǣfyrd hit underfēng, þæt hēo āgnu Polaris scipu beġēate (1963), ġestaþolod on þǣm ġebrǣddan Faslane Sǣfyrde Stede on Gare Loch. Sēo ǣreste Trident weardung wæs on þǣm ġēare 1994; sē stede þǣra Ġeānodra Rīċa wæs belocen æt þǣm ende þæs Cealdan Ġewinnes.<ref name="r236">Andrew Marr, ''A History of Modern Britain'' (2009), p. 211.</ref> RAF Lossiemouth on Moray, sē āna forþlica stede þǣre Lyftfyrde on Scotlande and sē norþmesta fyhtendra lyftscipa stede þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes, healdeþ 4 Eurofighter Typhoon lyftfyrdsceara, 3 Poseidon MRA1 lyftfyrdsceara, and ǣne fierdsceare þæs RAF Regiment.<ref name="r237">Royal Air Force, "RAF Lossiemouth", www.raf.mod.uk, https://www.raf.mod.uk/our-organisation/stations/raf-lossiemouth/#:~:text=RAF%20Lossiemouth%20in%20Moray%2C%20north,and%20an%20RAF%20Regiment%20squadron.</ref> 4 ġehealdene lyftfyrdsceara sind on Scotlande: 612, 2622 (Hēahland), and 602 on Glasgowe, and 603 on Eadenburge.<ref name="r238">"The Royal Air Force in Scotland", Delivering for Scotland, https://www.deliveringforscotland.gov.uk/security/the-royal-air-force-in-scotland/</ref> === Ǣ and wītes dōm === [[File:Parliament Square, Edinburgh facing east.jpg|thumb|Þæt Þinghūs on Eadenburge, ǣr þæt Þing Scotlandes, healdeþ nū þā Hēhstan Dōmhūs Scotlandes]] Scottisc ǣ cymþ of Rōmāniscre ǣ,<ref name="r239">The University of Edinburgh School of Law, "History of the Faculty of Law", http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/history/chpt4.aspx</ref> and mengþ unġewritene burhǣ (of þǣm ''Corpus Juris Civilis'') and ġemǣne ǣ þǣre middelylde. Sēo Foreweard þǣre Ġeānunge 1707 ġetrymede ǣ, āsundrode fram þǣre Englalandes and Wēala.<ref name="r240">The Articles: legal and miscellaneous, UK Parliament House of Lords (2007). "Article 19: The Scottish legal system and its courts were to remain unchanged":House of Lords, "Act of Union 1707", http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_05_legal.html</ref> Ǣr 1611 wǣron landscipisce ǣ, swīþost Ēþelǣ (eald Norrǣn ǣ) on Orcanēġe and Hjaltlande; Celtisc (Brehon) ǣ lifode on þǣm Hēahlande oþ þæt 19e ġēarhundred.<ref name="r241">"Law and institutions, Gaelic" & "Law and lawyers" in M. Lynch (ed.), ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'', (Oxford, 2001), pp. 381–382 & 382–386. Udal Law remains relevant to land law in Orkney and Shetland: Law Society of Scotland, "A General History of Scots Law (20th century)", http://www.lawscot.org.uk/uploads/Ad-Hoc/AGeneralHistoryofScotsLaw_20thCentury.pdf</ref> Scottisce dōmhūs sind burhlicu, wītlicu, and wǣpnscildes. Þæt hēhste burhlice dōmhūs is þæt Ġesetes Dōmhūs, and man mæġ cīeġan tō þǣm Hēhstan Dōme þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes (ǣr þǣm 1an dæġe Winterfylleþes 2009, tō þǣm Hūse þǣra Hlāforda). Sē Hēahdōm Rihtwīsnesse is þæt hēhste wītlice dōmhūs. Þæt Ġesetes Dōmhūs sitt on þǣm Þinghūse on Eadenburge, þǣm ealdan Þinge Scotlandes; sē Hēahdōm Rihtwīsnesse and sē Hēhsta Cīeġunge Dōm sind on þǣm Lawnmarket. Þā 49 scīrġerēfan dōmhūs ġehīeraþ þā mǣstan burhlican and wītlican spǣca.<ref name="r242">[http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/locations/index.asp "Court Information"] www.scotcourts.gov.uk. Retrieved 26 September 207.</ref> Landdǣles dōmhūs (fram 1975) for lǣssum spǣcum wǣron āwended on Frīþes Dēmena dōmhūs on 2008–2010. Þrēo ġēarhundred wæs Scottisc ǣ sēo āne þēodlice ǣ būtan þinge, oþ þæt Scottisce Þing on þǣm ġēare 1999.<ref name="r198" /> Scottisce wītlice dōmas habbaþ 3 andsweru: "scyldiġ", "unscyldiġ", and "''nā ġecȳþed''".<ref name="r243">The Times, "The case for keeping 'not proven' verdict", Timesonline.co.uk, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article431121.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1</ref> Bēġen unscyldiġe dōmas forstandaþ ġewunelīce ōþerne dōm (twifeald plēoh), būtan for nīwre fæstre ġecȳþnesse, lætran andetnesse, oþþe ġecȳþnesse, þæt sē unscyldiġa dōm wæs beġieten þurh rihtes āwendednesse.<ref name="r244">The Scotsman, "Scotland's unique 15-strong juries will not be abolished", www.scotsman.com, 11 May 2009, http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/scotland-s-unique-15-strong-juries-will-not-be-abolished-1-1037747</ref> Wītlice ġecorene dēman sind 15, þrēo mā þonne elleshwǣr ġewunelic is. [[File:The High Court, Glasgow (geograph 6643274).jpg|thumb|Þā Rihtwīsnesse Hūs on Glasgowe, dǣl þæs Hēahdōmes Rihtwīsnesse mid ġelīcum stōwum on Eadenburge and Aberdeen]] Sē Hlāford Forspeca is sē hēafodlica ǣwita þæs Scottiscan Rīċewealdes and þæs Cynehelmes on Scotlande, hēafod þǣre wrōhte firendǣda and þǣre smēaunge dēaþa, and sē forma ǣlǣrend þæs rīċewealdes.<ref name="r245">Scottish Government, "Lord Advocate", www.gov.scot, 16 August 2021, https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/lord-advocate/</ref> Ealle wrōhta on ġewrite bēoþ ġebrohte fram þǣre Cynehelmes Þegnunge and þǣre Wrōhtġerēfena Þēnunge on þæs Hlāfordes Forspecan naman.<ref name="r245" /> Þæt ambiht is ān þǣra Miclena Rīċes Ambihtmanna Scotlandes. Dorothy Bain, ġenemned fram Nicola Sturgeon, hæfþ hit siþþan Sēremōnaþ 2021,<ref name="r246">Scottish Government, "Rt Hon Dorothy Bain KC", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/dorothy-bain-qc/</ref> ġefultumod fram þǣm Ġemǣnan Forspecan Scotlandes.<ref name="r247">Scottish Government, "Solicitor General", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/solicitor-general/</ref> Scotlandes Friþweardas sind ān weorod siþþan 2013. Sēo Scotlandes Cwearterna Þēnung healdeþ cwearterna mid mā þonne 8,500 ġefangenra,<ref name="r248">Scottish Prison Service, "Prisoner Population", www.sps.gov.uk, http://www.sps.gov.uk/default.aspx?documentid=7811a7f1-6c61-4667-a12c-f102bbf5b808</ref> under þǣm rǣdþeġne for rihtwīsnesse. == Feohġemēt == [[File:Skyline of Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|Eadenburg, sēo 13e mǣste feohstōw on worulde and 4e mǣste on Eurōpe on þǣm ġēare 2020]] Scotland hæfþ open ġemenged feohġemēt æfter westlicre wīsan and is sēo mǣste feohstōw þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes būtan Lundene.<ref name="r249">Union Media, "Scotland retains status as the UK's second largest international financial hub", Scottish Business News, 5 September 2023, https://scottishbusinessnews.net/scotland-retains-status-as-the-uks-second-largest-international-financial-hub/</ref> On Eadenburge sind Lloyds Banking Group, þæt Scotlandes Feohhūs, þæt Cynelice Scotlandes Feohhūs, and Standard Life;<ref name="r250">Scottish Development International, "Financial services and fintech", www.sdi.co.uk, https://www.sdi.co.uk/business-in-scotland/find-your-industry/digital-and-technology-industries/financial-services-and-fintech</ref> hēo wæs 15e on þǣre Ġetæle Woruldlicra Feohstōwa on þǣm ġēare 2007<ref name="r251">"Scots cities slide down chart of the world's top financial centres", The Scotsman, 20 March 2012, https://www.scotsman.com/business/scots-cities-slide-down-chart-of-the-worlds-top-financial-centres-1638036#:~:text=Edinburgh's%20fortunes%20as%20a%20world,Index%20(GFCI)%20in%202007.</ref> and 33e on worulde (10e on Eurōpe) on þǣm ġēare 2024. Glasgow wæs 42e on þǣm ġēare 2024.<ref name="r252">"Scottish cities rise in Global Financial Centres Index as industry reports 13,000 new jobs", Scottish Financial Enterprise (SFE), https://www.sfe.org.uk/news-database/scottish-cities-rise-in-global-financial-centres-index-as-industry-reports-13000-new-jobsnbsp</ref> Scotland is ān þǣra 10 forma Eurōpiscra landscipa for ūtlandiscum fēo.<ref name="r253">"Scotland's sustainable and inclusive economy", www.sdi.co.uk, https://www.sdi.co.uk/business-in-scotland/sustainable-economy</ref> [[File:Distillery-gates.jpg|thumb|Scottisces brendwīnes wyrcung æt Bruichladdich brendwīnhūse]] Þæs ġēares wæstm on þǣm ġēare 2024, mid ele and gæse of sǣ, wæs ymbe £223.4 þūsend mīliona.<ref name="r254">"GDP in nominal terms", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/publications/gdp-quarterly-national-accounts-2024-q4/pages/gdp-in-nominal-terms/</ref> Ūtsendunga wara and þēnunga, būtan cēapunge binnan þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme, wǣron £50.1 þūsend mīliona on þǣm ġēare 2021.<ref name="r255">Tuck, Helen, "International trade in UK nations, regions and cities: 2021", Office for National Statistics, 28 June 2023, https://www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/internationaltrade/bulletins/internationaltradeinuknationsregionsandcities/2021</ref> Hēafodwara ūtsendunga: eorþbrandas, searu and færeld, drincas and tobac.<ref name="r256">HM Revenue and Customs, "UK Regional Trade in Goods Statistics", UK Trade Info, 14 December 2023, https://www.uktradeinfo.com/media/uainztpl/rts-q3-2023.xlsx</ref> Mǣste cēapstōwa wara: Niþerland (£6.9 þūsend mīliona), þā Ġeānodan Rīċu (£4.0), Īraland (£2.8), Þēodscland (£2.8), Francland (£2.3), and Cīna (£0.8);<ref name="r257">"Goods exports by destination", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-international-goods-trade-quarter-3-2023/pages/goods-exports-by-destination/</ref> sēo mǣste ūtlandisce cēapstōw is sēo Eurōpisce Ġeānung.<ref name="r258">McKee, Ivan, "Scotland and Poland: European partners", Scotland's Economy, 23 January 2019, https://blogs.gov.scot/scotlands-economy/2019/01/23/scotland-and-poland-european-partners/</ref><ref name="r259">"SCOTLAND'S TRADE POSITION AND PERFORMANCE", Scottish Enterprise, https://www.scottish-enterprise.com/media/o0nbozgp/scotland-s-trade-position-and-performance.pdf</ref> Ūtsendunga Scottisces brendwīnes ġestrīendon £5.4 þūsend mīliona on þǣm ġēare 2024; brendwīn wæs 74% Scottiscra metes and drences ūtsendunga on þǣm ġēare 2023 and healdeþ mā þonne 41,000 weorca.<ref name="r260">"Facts & Figures", Scotch Whisky Association, https://www.scotch-whisky.org.uk/industry-insights/facts-figures/#:~:text=There%20are%2043%20bottles%20of,popular%20tourist%20attraction%20in%20Scotland</ref> Ġesīþscipas cūþe ofer worulde sind Rockstar North (rīmplegan), Pringle of Scotland and Lyle & Scott (hrægl), A.G. Barr (swēte drincas), Alexander Dennis (folcwǣnas), Stagecoach Group (færeld), Tunnock's (swētmettas), and Johnnie Walker (brendwīn). [[File:Beryl alpha from air.jpg|thumb|Eles ūtātēon on Scottiscum wæterum on þǣre Norþsǣ]] Fram þǣre Cræftlican Āwendednesse wæs Scotland forma on worulde on handweorce,<ref name="r261">"Scotland profile", BBC News, 17 October 2012, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/7219799.stm</ref> and lǣfde maniġfealde wyrcunge fram hræglum, brendwīne, and buterhlāfe oþ lyftscipa searu, folcwǣnas, rīmġewritu, and fēos rēdunge.<ref name="r262">"Scottish Goods and Services", Scotland, https://www.scotland.org/business/goods-and-services</ref> Swā on ōþrum forþgangendum feohġemētum sind handweorc and ūtātēon lǣssan ġewordene, and þēnunga sind nū sē mǣsta dǣl.<ref name="r263">gov.scot, "Financial and Business Services", Scotland: a trading nation, 1 May 2019, https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotland-a-trading-nation/sectors/financial-and-business-services</ref> Hefiġ cræft (scipwyrhtung on Glasgowe, col, stȳle) wēold ǣr; Norþsǣ ele is miċel weorcġiefa siþþan þǣm 1970–1979 ġēarum, swīþost on norþēastdǣle. Æfter þǣre lytlunge þǣra cræfta on þǣm 1970–1989 ġēarum sind þā hēafoddǣlas eorþtilþ, wudutilþ, fiscnoþ, handweorc, timbrung, ele and gæs, ġewitt, cræft, feohþēnunga, mete and drenċ, and cumfaru; steorrancræft, ednīwiendlic orþanc, and feohcræft sind weaxende dǣlas.<ref name="r264">"Key Sectors | Scotland.org", Scotland, https://www.scotland.org/business/key-sectors</ref> Scotlandes fiscnoþes stōw is sēo 4e mǣste on Eurōpe.<ref name="r265">"SCOTLAND'S PLACE IN EUROPE: People, Jobs and Investment", Scottish Government, https://www.cdn.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Scotlands-place-in-Europe.pdf</ref> Þæt Scottisce Þēodlice Fēosetnesse Feohhūs, ġesett on þǣm ġēare 2020 mid £2 þūsend mīliona folces fēos, fultumaþ cēaplicum weorcum, þæt āgen fēoh tōtēo.<ref name="r266">BBC News, "Scotland's national investment bank launches", 23 November 2020, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-55035520</ref> === Cumfaru === [[File:Horses' heads in the clouds - geograph.org.uk (cropped for SCO Portal).jpg|thumb|Þā Kelpies, miċel wundor on Falkirk]] Cumfaru and ūtlandiscu ġemōtu sind hēafodlic dǣl:<ref name="r267">"Tourism and events", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/policies/tourism-and-events/</ref> mā þonne 245,000 weorca and £10.8 þūsend mīliona on þǣm ġēare 2023, 6% þæs feohġemētes.<ref name="r268">Davidson, Shongah, "Industry Update: Driving the visitor economy | Scottish Tourism Alliance", Scottish Tourism Alliance, 12 May 2025, https://scottishtourismalliance.co.uk/industry-update-driving-the-visitor-economy/#:~:text=In%202023%2C%20visitor%20spend%20was%20worth%20£10.8,these%20areas%20in%20the%20past%2012%20months.</ref> Þā forman wundru sind Eadenburges Castel, þæt Þēodlice Mādmhūs Scotlandes, sēo Cumena Stōw æt Culloden, Eadenburges Dēorgeard, Stirlinges Castel, and Urquhartes Castel;<ref name="r269">"Visitor Attractions Performance I VisitScotland.org", www.visitscotland.org, https://www.visitscotland.org/research-insights/about-our-industry/visitor-attractions</ref> Eadenburges Castel and þæt Þēodlice Mādmhūs hæfdon ǣġþer mā þonne 2 mīlion cumena on þǣm ġēare 2017.<ref name="r270">"Chapter 2: The Value of Visitors to Scotland[4]", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/publications/tourism-scotland-economic-contribution-sector/pages/3/</ref> VisitScotland, ġesett þurh þā Cumfare Ġemōta (Scotland) Ǣ 2006, is sēo rīċes þēnung for cumfare.<ref name="r267" /> Fræġnung on þǣm ġēare 2023 sette Scotlandes landscipe 7an of 60 landum.<ref name="r271">"Scotland's international reputation grows", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/news/scotlands-international-reputation-grows/</ref> Mā þonne 4 mīlion manna cōmon on þǣm ġēare 2023, 15% mā þonne on þǣm ġēare 2019.<ref name="r272">"Record number of overseas tourists visit Scotland", BBC News, 17 May 2024, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cv2rg3rjdvjo</ref> Loch Lomond, þā Kelpies, and þæt sæġenlice Nihtscucca on Loch Ness tēoþ mǣst cuman of Norþamerice;<ref name="r273">"Tourism rises sharply in Falkirk with almost a million visits in 2024", www.falkirk.gov.uk, https://www.falkirk.gov.uk/news/council/tourism-rises-sharply-in-falkirk-with-almost-a-million-visits-in-2024</ref><ref name="r274">"We came to Scotland to see the Loch Ness Monster", BBC News, 19 May 2023, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-65637377</ref> þā mǣstan ūtlandiscan cuman cumaþ of þǣm Ġeānodum Rīċum, Þēodsclande, Canada, and Australia.<ref name="r275">"International Visitors | VisitScotland.org", www.visitscotland.org, https://www.visitscotland.org/research-insights/about-our-visitors/international</ref> Strand, sandas, castelas, and ierfe dōþ Scotland ān þǣra lēofostena stōwa on Eurōpe.<ref name="r276">"Visiting Scotland | Scotland.org", Scotland, https://www.scotland.org/visit</ref><ref name="r277">"Why People Choose Scotland I VisitScotland.org", www.visitscotland.org, https://www.visitscotland.org/research-insights/about-our-visitors/why-people-choose-scotland#:~:text=The%20overall%20%22nation%20brand%22%20rank,towards%20and%20familiar%20with%20Scotland.</ref> Ūtlandisc cumfare spendung wæs £9.7 þūsend mīliona on þǣm ġēare 2016.<ref name="r278">"Chapter 2: The Value of Visitors to Scotland[4]", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/publications/tourism-scotland-economic-contribution-sector/pages/3/#</ref> === Feohhūs and feoh === [[File:Museum on the mound, Edinburgh (41404375864).jpg|thumb|Þæt Scotlandes Feohhūs is ān þǣra ieldestena feohhūsa on worulde and þæt ǣreste on Eurōpe, þe spēdiġlīce āgen feohġewritu prentode]] Englalandes Feohhūs is þæt middelfeohhūs þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes, ac 3 Scottiscu feohhūs sellaþ sterlinges feohġewritu: þæt Scotlandes Feohhūs, þæt Cynelice Scotlandes Feohhūs, and þæt Clydesdale Feohhūs. Þæt Scotlandes Feohhūs, þe ġewritu selþ siþþan 1696, wæs þæt ǣreste Eurōpisce feohhūs, þe āgen ġewritfeoh prentode, and is sē lenġesta unforlǣtenda sellend on worulde.<ref name="r279">"Lloyds Banking Group - Bank of Scotland History", www.lloydsbankinggroup.com, https://www.lloydsbankinggroup.com/who-we-are/our-heritage/bank-of-scotland-heritage.html</ref> Þæt Cynelice Scotlandes Feohhūs wearþ þæt ōþer mǣste feohhūs on Eurōpe and þæt 5e mǣste on worulde be cēapwyrþe on þǣm ġēare 2002,<ref name="r280">"Royal Bank of Scotland Group", Scottish Financial Enterprise (SFE), https://www.sfe.org.uk/members-database/royal-bank-of-scotland-group</ref> ac hit fēoll on þǣre feohþrēa on þǣm ġēare 2008 and beþorfte £76 þūsend mīliona fultumes fram þǣm rīċewealde þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes;<ref name="r281">"RBS collapse: timeline", The Guardian, 12 December 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/dec/12/rbs-collapse-timeline</ref> his hēafodhūs on Eadenburge strangode þǣre burge feohstōwe. Ǣr 2008 wæs Scotland ōþer æfter Lundene swā hēafodstōw þǣra 30 mǣstena feohhūsa on Eurōpe.<ref name="r282">"Scottish Financial Enterprise – Financial Industry Overview", http://www.sfe.org.uk/info/overview_scottish_financial_industry</ref><ref name="r283">"Lloyds Bank – About Lloyds Banking Group – TSB", Lloydsbank.com, https://www.lloydsbank.com/about_ltsb/tsb.asp</ref> Scottisc ġewritfēos sellung is ġewealden þurh þā Feohhūsa Ǣ 2009 and þā Scotlandes and Norþīralandes Feohġewrita Ġesetnessa 2009.<ref name="r284">"The Bank of England's approach to regulating Scottish and Northern Ireland commercial banknotes", March 2017, https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/banknotes/scottish-northern-ireland/scottish-and-northern-ireland-regime-approach.pdf</ref> Scottisce feohġewritu on ymbryne on þǣm ġēare 2013 wǣron £3.8 þūsend mīliona wyrþe, ġehealdene þurh fēoh, þe Englalandes Feohhūs hæfþ.<ref name="r285">"Scottish Banknotes: The Treasury's Symbolic Hostage in the Independence Debate", The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/scottish-independence-blog/2013/apr/22/scottish-independence-banknotes</ref> === Færeld === [[File:Airport and plane Barra airstrip - geograph.org.uk - 852094.jpg|thumb|Barra Lyftscipstōw, sēo āne lyftscipstōw on worulde, þe sǣsand swā rǣsweġ notaþ]] Scotland hæfþ 5 ūtlandisce lyftscipstōwa mid flyhtum tō Eurōpe, Norþamerice, and Asia, and inlendisce weġas.<ref name="r286">Visit Scotland, "Scotland's Airports & Flights Around The Country", www.visitscotland.com, https://www.visitscotland.com/travel-planning/getting-around/plane</ref> Hēahlandes and Īeglanda Lyftscipstōwa healdaþ 11 lyftscipstōwa on þǣm Hēahlande, Orcanēġe, Hjaltlande, and Westīeglandum, mǣst for scortum folces flyhtum; Inverness Lyftscipstōw ēac þēnaþ þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme and þǣm Eurōpiscan fæstlande.<ref name="r287">Highlands and Islands Airport Limited, "Destinations from Inverness Airport", www.hial.co.uk, https://www.hial.co.uk/inverness-airport/destinations-5/1</ref> Eadenburges Lyftscipstōw is sēo bisgoste (mā þonne 13 mīlion færendra on þǣm ġēare 2017) and 6e bisgoste on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme.<ref name="r288">"Datasets – UK Civil Aviation Authority", Caa.co.uk, https://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airports/Datasets</ref> Loganair, "Scotlandes Lyftfaru", is ġestaþolod æt Glasgowes Lyftscipstōwe.<ref name="r289">Isle of Man Government, "Loganair to link Scotland's capital with the Isle of Man", www.gov.im, https://www.gov.im/news/2017/mar/31/loganair-to-link-scotlands-capital-with-the-isle-of-man/</ref> Network Rail āh þā īsenweġas; sē Scottisca Rīċeweald sett þæs īsenweġes rǣd and fēoh.<ref name="r290">[https://web.archive.org/web/20050722065527/http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/238.pdf "Disaggregating Network Rail's expenditure and revenue allowance and future price control framework: a consultation (June 2005)"] Office of Rail Regulation. Retrieved 2 November 2007.</ref> Þæt nett hæfþ 359 fȳrwæġnstōwa and ymbe 2,760 km īsenweġes;<ref name="r291">Transport Scotland, "Scottish Transport Statistics No 38: 2019 Edition Chapter 7: Rail Services", Transport.gov.scot, 18 March 2020, https://www.transport.gov.scot/publication/scottish-transport-statistics-no-38-2019-edition/chapter-7-rail-services</ref> ScotRail bær 64 mīlion færendra on 2022–2023.<ref name="r292">"Scottish Transport Statistics 2023 Rail", transport.gov.scot, https://www.transport.gov.scot/media/ahohoblv/chapter-7-rail-transport-scottish-transport-statistics-2023.pdf</ref> Transport Scotland, ġesett on þǣm 1an dæġe Æfterran Ġēolan 2006, wielt þā īsenweġas and lǣdeþ miċel weorc.<ref name="r293">Transport in Scotland, "Corporate: Freedom of Information Publication Scheme", http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/corporate/freedom-information-publication-scheme/freedom-information-publication-scheme</ref> Þurh Scottish Rail Holdings nam hit ScotRail on folces ǣhte on Ēastermōnþe 2022<ref name="r294">"ScotRail goes back into public ownership", BBC News, 1 April 2022, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-60842268</ref> and þone Caledoniscan Slǣpwæġn on Sēremōnþe 2023.<ref name="r295">Transport Scotland, "Caledonian Sleeper to be delivered by the Scottish Government", 2 March 2023, https://www.transport.gov.scot/news/caledonian-sleeper-to-be-delivered-by-the-scottish-government/</ref> Glasgowes Undereorþweġ, ġeopenod on þǣm 14an dæġe Ǣrran Ġēolan 1896, is sē āna undereorþweġ on Scotlande and sē 3a ieldesta on worulde æfter Budapest and Lundene; Strathclyde Partnership for Transport hine healdeþ.<ref name="r296">Strathclyde Partnership for Transport, "Celebrating 125 years of Subway", www.spt.co.uk, https://www.spt.co.uk/125/</ref> Transport Scotland wielt þā miclan weġas; landscīra anwealdas wealdaþ þā ōþre weġas. Ferescipu ġeþēodaþ þæt fæstland and þā īegland. Caledonian MacBrayne, þæs rīċes āgen, þēnaþ þǣm Inrum and Ūtrum Hebridum;<ref name="r297">Traveline Scotland, "Ferry operators", www.travelinescotland.com, https://www.travelinescotland.com/ferry-operators</ref><ref name="r298">CalMac Ferries, "Scotland's west coast ferry seascape", www.calmac.co.uk, https://www.calmac.co.uk/article/5655/Scotlands-west-coast-ferry-seascape#:~:text=They%20are%20a%20company%20wholly%20owned%20by%20the%20Scottish%20Government.&text=CalMac%20Ferries%20Ltd%20is%20a,service%20provider%20David%20MacBrayne%20Ltd.</ref> Serco þēnaþ þǣm Norþīeglandum; maniġe ġesīþscipas ġeþēodaþ sūþwestdǣl Scotlandes and Norþīraland.<ref name="r299">Direct Ferries, "Ferries from Northern Ireland to Scotland", www.directferries.co.uk, https://www.directferries.co.uk/ferries_from_northern_ireland_to_scotland.htm#:~:text=There%20are%202%20ferry%20routes,which%20runs%205%20times%20daily.</ref> DFDS Seaways hēold ladferescip betwux Rosyth and Zeebrugge, oþ þæt fȳr his scip ġedērede;<ref name="r300">"Ferry freight service axed after fire", Bbc.co.uk, 23 April 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-43864813</ref> færendra ferescip fōr fram 2002 oþ 2010.<ref name="r301">"Passenger ferry service to stop", Bbc.co.uk, 20 August 2010, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-11041554</ref> === Ġewitt, cræft, and orþanc === [[File:Synthetic Production of Penicillin TR1468 crop.jpg|thumb|Sir Alexander Fleming, sē findend þæs ǣrestan wīdlīce spēdiġan lǣċedōmes wiþ ādlwyrmum – penicillin]] Scotlandes orþanc cymþ of ednīwiendlicum orþance (61.8%), cernelorþance (25.7%), and eorþbrandum (10.9%).<ref name="r302">"Quarterly energy statistics bulletins", www.gov.scot, http://www.gov.scot/publications/quarterly-energy-statistics-bulletins</ref> Whitelee Windcræftes Tūn is sē mǣsta windcræftes tūn on lande on þǣm Ġeānodan Cynedōme and wæs hwīlum sē mǣsta on Eurōpe.<ref name="r303">Iberdrola, "Whitelee wind farm in Scotland", iberdrola.com, https://www.iberdrola.com/about-us/what-we-do/onshore-wind-energy/-whitelee-onshore-wind-farm#:~:text=Whitelee%2C%20with%20215%20turbines%20in,period%20the%20largest%20in%20Europe.</ref> Flōdes cræft ārīst; MeyGen on norþdǣle man sæġþ þæt mǣste flōdstrēames weorc on worulde.<ref name="r304">Dickie, Mure, "Scotland unveils world's largest tidal stream power project", ft.com, 12 September 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/d197308a-7826-11e6-97ae-647294649b28</ref> Æfter ūtsendungum wæs 98.6% þæs ġenotodan līġcræftes ednīwiendlic.<ref name="r302" /> Fram Winterfylleþe 2021 oþ Hāligmōnaþ 2022 wæs 63.1% þæs ġeworhtan līġcræftes ednīwiendlic, 83.6% lytelcarbonlic, and 14.5% of eorþbrandum.<ref name="r305">"Scottish Energy Statistics Hub: Proportion of electricity consumption by fuel", scotland.shinyapps.io, https://scotland.shinyapps.io/Energy/?Section=RenLowCarbon&Subsection=RenElec&Chart=ElecConsumptionFuel</ref> Sēo mearc is 50% þæs orþances for hǣtu, færelde, and līġcræfte of ednīwiendlicum orþance be 2030.<ref name="r306">"The future of energy in Scotland: Scottish energy strategy", Gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-energy-strategy-future-energy-scotland-9781788515276/pages/5</ref> On þǣm ġēare 2022 ġeworhte ednīwiendlic orþanc ġelīc 113% þæs līġcræftes nēode, swā fela swā nǣfre ǣr.<ref name="r307">Scottish Government, "Record renewable energy output", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/news/record-renewable-energy-output/</ref> Scottisce findunga swā swā feorrġesiht, feorrsprǣc, ċealdcist, MRI sceawere, flōdende gangærn, and dȳmes searu man tellþ Scotlandes hēahscōlum, sōcnscōlum, and þǣre Onlīhtunge ġeornfulnesse tō lāre.<ref name="r308">Live Breathe Scotland, "Scottish Inventions", https://www.livebreathescotland.com/scottish-inventions/</ref> Alexander Fleming fand penicillin, þone ǣrestan wīdlīce spēdiġan lǣċedōm wiþ ādlwyrmum, and ġewann þone Nobeles Sigeġifu on Līċlǣre oþþe Lǣċecræfte on þǣm ġēare 1945.<ref name="r309">The Nobel Foundation, "Alexander Fleming Biography", Les Prix Nobel, 1945, http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1945/fleming.html</ref><ref name="r310">Hugh, T. B., "Howard Florey, Alexander Fleming and the fairy tale of penicillin", The Medical Journal of Australia, 2002, pp. 52–53; author 53 53</ref><ref name="r311">Cruickshank, Robert, "Sir Alexander Fleming, F.R.S", Nature, 1955, pp. 355–6</ref> Þæt Falkirkes Hwēol is sē āna hwyrfende bāthebbend on worulde, and sē Glasgowes Stīpel is sē hēhsta fullīce hwyrfende sylfstandende ġetimbro.<ref name="r312">Scottish Canals, "The Falkirk Wheel", https://www.scottishcanals.co.uk/visit/canals/visit-the-forth-clyde-canal/attractions/the-falkirk-wheel</ref><ref name="r313">Glasgow Science Centre, "Glasgow Tower", https://www.glasgowsciencecentre.org/discover/our-experiences/glasgow-tower</ref> Scotlandes steorrancræft is forma on þolgendum tungolcræfte;<ref name="r314">"The Scottish Space Cluster Executive Summary May 2020", https://londoneconomics.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/LE-SE-Scottish-Space-Cluster-EXECUTIVE-SUMMARY-FINAL-Issue-4-S2C110520.pdf</ref><ref name="r315">Scottish Development International, "Space technology industry in Scotland", Sdi.co.uk, https://www.sdi.co.uk/business-in-scotland/find-your-industry/digital-and-technology-industries/space-tech</ref> sēo Steorrancræftes Þēnung þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes tealde 173 steorrancræftes ġesīþscipas on Þrimilce 2021,<ref name="r316">"More than 3,000 jobs created as space sector grows across the UK", GOV.UK, 19 May 2021, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/more-than-3000-jobs-created-as-space-sector-grows-across-the-uk</ref> mid tungolscipa wyrhtum, ūpsendendum, ġewitena smēaġendum, and smēaunge ġemōtum.<ref name="r317">"Boldly going towards the new age of space", HeraldScotland, 20 February 2021, https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19104939.boldly-going-towards-new-age-space/</ref> Man wēnþ, þæt sē dǣl ġestrīene £2 þūsend mīliona be 2030,<ref name="r314" /> and hē hæfþ nēah ān of 5 steorrancræftes weorcum þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes.<ref name="r318">"Manufacturing: Space sector - gov.scot", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/policies/manufacturing/space-sector/</ref> 2 tungolscipstōwa sind ġeteohhode: Sutherland and SaxaVord.<ref name="r319">Carrell, Severin, "Rocket men: locals divided over plans for UK's first spaceport", The Guardian, 16 July 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jul/16/rocket-men-locals-divided-over-plans-for-uks-first-spaceport</ref> Sē Cynelica Tungolwītega Scotlandes, ġesett on þǣm ġēare 1834, is nū weorþlic titul for mǣrum tungolwītegan and forþiende folclices ġewittes.<ref name="r320">"Expert is first female Astronomer Royal for Scotland | Research and innovation", The University of Edinburgh, 27 May 2021, https://www.ed.ac.uk/research-innovation/latest-research-news/expert-first-female-astronomer-royal-for-scotland</ref> == Folcrīm == === Landfolc === [[File:Scotland population cartogram.svg|thumb|Landfolces landmǣl Scotlandes. Þǣra landscīra micelnes is æfter heora landfolce.]] On þǣm 1820–1829 ġēarum fērdon maniġe Scottas, mǣst of þǣm earman Hēahlande, tō Australia, þǣm Ġeānodum Rīċum, and Canada.<ref name="r321">National Library of Scotland, "Emigration", www.nls.uk, https://www.nls.uk/family-history/emigration/</ref> Þæt Hēahland wæs sē āna dǣl þæs fæstlandes Brytene mid eftcymendum hungre.<ref name="r322">University of Glasgow, "Poverty, Protest and Politics: Perceptions of the Scottish Highlands in the 1880s", www.gla.ac.uk, https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_792389_smxx.pdf</ref> Fēawa ūtsendunga, nēah nān cræft, and weaxende landfolc swencton þā eorþtilþe for āgnum bīleofan. Þās earfoþu and sēo ġīernes eorþtilþes ġestrēones worhton þā Hēahlandes Ǣmtiġunga: miċele ūtādrǣfunga, þā þā þæt land wæs betȳned, mǣst for scēapum. Sē ǣresta dǣl folgode eorþtilþes wendinge ġeond Brytene; sē ōþer wæs ġedrifen þurh tō miċel landfolc, þone Hēahlandes Eorþæppla Hungor, and þone hryre þǣra cræfta þe on Napoleones ġewinnum stōdon.<ref name="r323">E. Richards, ''The Highland Clearances: People, Landlords and Rural Turmoil'' (2008).</ref> Þæt landfolc wēox fram 1,608,000 (1801) tō 2,889,000 (1851) and 4,472,000 (1901).<ref name="r324">A. K. Cairncross, ''The Scottish Economy: A Statistical Account of Scottish Life by Members of the Staff of Glasgow University'' (Glasgow: Glasgow University Press, 1953), p. 10.</ref> Weorc ne ġenihtsumode: on 1841–1931 fērdon ymbe 2 mīlion Scotta tō Norþamerice and Australia and 750,000 tō Englalande.<ref name="r325">R. A. Houston and W. W. Knox, eds, ''The New Penguin History of Scotland'' (Penguin, 2001), p. xxxii.</ref> On þǣm 1870–1879 ġēarum ċēlung and ūtlandisc lamb, scēapflǣsc, and wull āfyldon scēapa wyrþ and ġeendodon þone scēapa wæstm.<ref name="r326">Warren, Charles R., "Managing Scotland's environment", 2009, pp. [https://archive.org/details/managingscotland00warr/page/n73 45] ff., 179 ff, ISBN 9780748630639, https://archive.org/details/managingscotland00warr</ref> Scotland is þæt þynnost bewunode land þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes.<ref name="r327">"Number of people per square kilometer in the United Kingdom in 2023, by region", Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/281322/population-density-in-the-uk-by-region/</ref><ref name="r328">"Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland - Office for National Statistics", www.beta.ons.gov.uk, https://www.beta.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2023</ref> On Wēodmōnþe 2012 rǣhte þæt landfolc 5.25 mīlion, swā fela swā nǣfre ǣr, for þǣm þe ācennednessa ofer dēaþas wǣron and incuman cōmon; on þǣm ġēare 2011 cōmon 43,700 manna of Englalande, Wēalum, and Norþīralande.<ref name="r329">The Courier, "Scotland's population reaches record of high of 5.25&nbsp;million", 3 August 2012, http://www.thecourier.co.uk/news/scotland-s-population-reaches-record-of-high-of-5-25-million-1.57049</ref> Sēo nīwoste folcrīmung, on Hrēþmōnþe 2022, fram þǣm Scottiscan Rīċewealde and þǣm Þēodlicum Ġewritum Scotlandes,<ref name="r330">"Scotland's Census 2022 - key milestones", https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/about/2022-census/2022-timeline/key-milestones/</ref> tealde 5,436,600, mā þonne nǣfre ǣr, ofer 5,295,400 (2011)<ref name="r330" /> and 5,062,011 (2001).<ref name="r331">National Records of Scotland, "Scotland's Population at its Highest Ever", 30 April 2015, http://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/news/2015/scotlands-population-at-its-highest-ever</ref> On þǣre folcrīmunge 2011 cwǣdon 62% hīe 'Scottisce āne', 18% 'Scottisce and Brittisce', 8% 'Brittisce āne', and 4% 'ōþre ġecynde āne'.<ref name="r332">[http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-detailed-characteristics-ethnicity-identity-language-and-religion-scotland-%E2%80%93 Census 2011: Detailed characteristics on Ethnicity, Identity, Language and Religion in Scotland – Release 3A] . Scotland Census 2011. Retrieved 20 September 2014.</ref> Scotland hæfde lange ǣġþer ūtfare and infare. On þǣm ġēare 2021 cōmon ymbe 41,000 manna in and 22,100 fērdon ūt, wiþ 27,800 and 26,200 on þǣm ġēare 2002.<ref name="r333">"statistics.gov.scot", statistics.gov.scot, https://statistics.gov.scot/slice?dataset=http://statistics.gov.scot/data/migration-to-and-from-scotland&http://purl.org/linked-data/cube#measureType=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/measure-properties/count&http://purl.org/linked-data/sdmx/2009/dimension</ref> === Burga wæstm === Eadenburg is sē hēafodstōl, ac Glasgow is sēo mǣste burg, mid lȳtle mā þonne 584,000 manna; Miċel Glasgow, nēah 1.2 mīlion, hæfþ nēah fēorþan dǣl þæs landfolces.<ref name="r334">"Did You Know?—Scotland's Cities", Rampantscotland.com, http://rampantscotland.com/know/blknow_cities.htm</ref> Þā mǣstan burga, mid Glasgowe, Eadenburge, Dundee, and Perth, sind on þǣm Middelbelte; Aberdeen is sēo āne miċele burg būtan him. Þæt Niþerland hæfþ 80% þæs landfolces, sē Middelbelt 3.5 mīlion. Ǣnlīce þā māran, ēaþfērran īegland sind ġīet bewunode, nū lǣs þonne 90. Þā Sūþdūna sind uplendisc, mid eorþtilþe and wudutilþe.<ref name="r335">Clapperton, C.M. (ed) (1983) ''Scotland: A New Study''. London. David & Charles.</ref><ref name="r336">Miller, J. (2004) ''Inverness''. Edinburgh. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1-84158-296-2</ref> Hūses earfoþu on Glasgowe and Eadenburge lǣddon tō 5 nīwum burgum on 1947–1966: East Kilbride, Glenrothes, Cumbernauld, Livingston, and Irvine.<ref name="r337">"New Towns", Bbc.co.uk, https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/as/sixties/standard/rural/new_towns.shtml</ref> Sēo mǣste landscīr be landfolce is Glasgowes Ċeaster; be brādnesse, Hēahland. {| class="wikitable" |+ Mǣstan stōwa (Scotlandes Folcrīmung 2022)<ref>National Records of Scotland, "2022 Census population data for localities in Scotland", Scotlandscensus.gov.uk. http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-analyser/jsf/tableView/crosstabTableView.xhtml</ref> ! Stæpe !! Stōw !! Landscīr !! Landfolc |- | 1 || Glasgow || Glasgow City || 632,350 |- | 2 || Edinburgh || City of Edinburgh || 506,520 |- | 3 || Aberdeen || Aberdeen || 198,590 |- | 4 || Dundee || Dundee City || 148,210 |- | 5 || Paisley || Renfrewshire || 77,270 |- | 6 || East Kilbride || South Lanarkshire || 75,310 |- | 7 || Livingston || West Lothian || 56,840 |- | 8 || Dunfermline || Fife || 54,990 |- | 9 || Hamilton || South Lanarkshire || 54,480 |- | 10 || Cumbernauld || North Lanarkshire || 50,530 |- | 11 || Kirkcaldy || Fife || 50,370 |- | 12 || Inverness || Highland || 47,790 |- | 13 || Perth || Perth and Kinross || 47,350 |- | 14 || Kilmarnock || East Ayrshire || 46,970 |- | 15 || Ayr || South Ayrshire || 46,260 |- | 16 || Coatbridge || North Lanarkshire || 43,950 |- | 17 || Greenock || Inverclyde || 41,280 |- | 18 || Glenrothes || Fife || 38,360 |- | 19 || Stirling || Stirling || 37,910 |- | 20 || Airdrie || North Lanarkshire || 36,390 |} === Spræc === [[File:Welcome to Scotland sign on the A1 - geograph.org.uk - 4057371.jpg|thumb|Sēo Englisc-Scottisce mearc, þe færendas grēt on Englisce and Scottiscre Gaelisce]] Scotland hæfþ 4 inlendisce spræca: Englisc, Scottisc,<ref name="r338">[https://www.gov.scot/Topics/ArtsCultureSport/arts/Scots/ScotsLanguagePolicy Scots Language Policy] , Gov.scot, Retrieved 2 October 2014</ref> Scottisc Gaelisc,<ref name="r339">[https://www.gov.scot/Topics/ArtsCultureSport/arts/GaelicLanguage/languageplan Gaelic Language Plan, www.gov.scot] . Retrieved 2 October 2014</ref> and Brittisc Tācnspræc.<ref name="r340">Samuel, Harriet, "British Sign Language Week", 4 January 2026, https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cdp-2025-0061/</ref> Scottisc Ġemǣne Englisc is ān ende rǣwe, mid brādum Scottiscum on þǣm ōþrum<ref name="r341">Stuart-Smith J. ''Scottish English: Phonology'' in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p. 47</ref> and mæġ bēon ġewend fram Scottiscum.<ref name="r342">Stuart-Smith J. ''Scottish English: Phonology'' in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p.48</ref><ref name="r343">Macafee C. ''Scots'' in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Oxford, 2005. p. 33</ref> Hēahlandes Englisc is sprecen on þǣm Hēahlande; Gaelisc is mǣst sprecen on þǣm Westīeglandum, fram miclum dǣle þǣra būendra. Brȳce þǣra inlendiscra spræca būtan Englisce hæfþ ġelytlod siþþan þǣm 19an ġēarhundrede. On þǣm ġēare 2011 hæfdon 63% "nāne cunnunge Scottisces".<ref name="r344">National Records of Scotland, "2022 Census population data for localities in Scotland", Scotlandscensus.gov.uk, http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-analyser/jsf/tableView/crosstabTableView.xhtml</ref> Gaelisc brȳcþ 1% þæs landfolces;<ref name="r345">Kenneth MacKinnon, "A Century on the Census—Gaelic in Twentieth Century Focus", http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/SESLL/STELLA/STARN/lang/GAELIC/focus.htm</ref> sprecan fēollon fram 250,000 on þǣm ġēare 1881 tō 60,000 on þǣm ġēare 2008.<ref name="r346">"[http://news.scotsman.com/gaelic/Can-TV39s-evolution-ignite-a.4494029.jp Can TV's evolution ignite a Gaelic revolution?] ". ''The Scotsman''. 16 September 2008.</ref> On þǣm ġēare 2011 brȳcton 25,000 manna (0.49%) Gaelisces æt hām.<ref name="r347">"2011: Gaelic report (part 1)", Scotland's Census, https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/media/cqoji4qx/report_part_1.pdf</ref> Ambihtlic fultum wēox on þǣm 21an ġēarhundrede, fram andetnesse swā lǣssan spræca oþ ambihtlicne stede Scottisces and Gaelisces on þǣm ġēare 2025.<ref name="r348">"Scottish Languages Bill passed", www.gov.scot, https://www.gov.scot/news/scottish-languages-bill-passed/</ref> Æfter Englisce and Scottiscum is Polisc sēo ġelōmoste hāmspræc (ymbe 1.1%, 54,000 manna).<ref name="r349">"Scotland's Census at a glance: Languages", Scotland's Census, https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/census-results/at-a-glance/languages/</ref> Infaru æfter þǣm ġewinne ġeworhte lȳtle Sūþasiatisce ġemǣnscipas on Glasgowe, Eadenburge, and Dundee.<ref name="r350">"Scotland speaks Urdu", Urdustan.net, http://www.urdustan.net/2004/11/scotland-speaks-urdu.html</ref> On þǣm ġēare 2011 wǣron ymbe 49,000 Pacistaniscra manna sē mǣsta unhwīta flocc.<ref name="r351">Scottish Government, "Ethnic groups, Scotland, 2001 and 2011", 2013, http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/rel2asbtable2.pdf</ref> Þǣre Eurōpiscan Ġeānunge ġebrǣdung on þǣm ġēare 2004 ēacnode infare of middel and ēastlicre Eurōpe; 61,000 Polisca wunodon on Scotlande on þǣm ġēare 2011.<ref name="r351" /><ref name="r352">''The Pole Position'' (6 August 2005). Glasgow. ''Sunday Herald'' newspaper.</ref> Mā manna of Scottiscre mǣġþe wuniaþ on ūtlandum þonne on Scotlande. On þǣre folcrīmunge þǣra Ġeānodra Rīċa 2000 cwǣdon 9.2 mīlion Americanisca Scottisce mǣġþe.<ref name="r353">The [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP13&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-_sse=on US Census 2000] . The [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2004_EST_G00_DP2&-ds_name=ACS_2004_EST_G00_&-_lang=en&-_sse=on] American Community Survey 2004 by the US Census Bureau estimates 5,752,571 people claiming Scottish ancestry and 5,323,888 people claiming Scotch-Irish ancestry. "Explore Census Data", http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP13&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-_sse=on</ref> Ulstres Ednīwiendlican sind mǣst of Niþerlandes Scottiscre mǣġþe,<ref name="r354">"The Scotch-Irish", American Heritage Magazine, December 1970, http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1970/1/1970_1_28.shtml</ref> and mā þonne 27 mīlion æftergengena þǣra Scottisc-Īriscra wuniaþ on þǣm Ġeānodum Rīċum.<ref name="r355">Powells.com, "Born Fighting: How the Scots-Irish Shaped America", 12 August 2009, http://www.powells.com/biblio/1-9780767916899-1</ref><ref name="r356">Nitakeacloserlook.gov.uk, "Scots-Irish By Alister McReynolds, writer and lecturer in Ulster-Scots studies", http://www.nitakeacloserlook.gov.uk/index/american-connections/scots-irish.htm</ref> Scottisce Canadiscan sind 4.7 mīlion.<ref name="r357">"2006 Canadian Census", 12.statcan.ca, 2 April 2008, http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000</ref> Ymbe 20% þǣra ǣrestena Eurōpiscra landbūendra Nīwes Sǣlandes wǣron Scottisce.<ref name="r358">Linguistic Archaeology: The Scottish Input to New Zealand English Phonology Trudgill et al. Journal of English Linguistics.2003; 31: 103–124</ref> === Ġeleafa === [[File:St Marys Cathedral ,Edinburgh - 20240916182847.jpg|thumb|Sancte Marian Hēafodmynster, Eadenburg]] On þǣre folcrīmunge 2022 cwǣdon 51.12%, þæt hīe nānne ġeleafan næfdon. Crīstendōm (38.79%) is sē mǣsta ġeleafa, mǣst sēo Ċiriċe Scotlandes (20.36%) and Rōmānisc Pāpdōm (13.3%).<ref name="r359">"Scotland's Census 2022 - Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion", Scotland's Census, https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/2022-results/scotland-s-census-2022-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion/</ref> "Nān ġeleafa" wæs sēo forme andswaru on nēah ǣlcre landscīre, būtan Na h-Eileanan Siar (Ċiriċe Scotlandes, 35.3%) and Inverclyde (Pāpisc, 33.4%).<ref name="r359" /> Crīstendōm hæfþ ġewealden þæs ġeleafan līfe mā þonne 1,400 ġēara.<ref name="r360">L. Alcock, ''Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain AD 550–850'' (Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland), ISBN 0-903903-24-5, p. 63.</ref><ref name="r361">Lucas Quensel von Kalben, "The British Church and the Emergence of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom", in T. Dickinson and D. Griffiths, eds, ''Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 10: Papers for the 47th Sachsensymposium, York, September 1996'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), ISBN 086054138X, p. 93.</ref> Siþþan þǣre Ednīwunge on þǣm ġēare 1560 is sēo þēodlice Ċiriċe Scotlandes (''The Kirk'') Ednīwiendlic and Ġebētt; siþþan 1689 hæfþ hēo Prēostealdra wealdnesse, frēo fram þǣm rīċe.<ref name="r5" /> Hire lima fēollon lȳtle under 300,000 (5%) on þǣm ġēare 2020;<ref name="r362">"Church of Scotland General Assembly 2021 CONGREGATIONAL STATISTICS 2020 Summary Page 75", https://churchofscotland.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/80744/Order-of-Proceedings-2021.pdf</ref><ref name="r363">"Church of Scotland 'struggling to stay alive'", scotsman.com, http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/church-of-scotland-struggling-to-stay-alive-1-3391152</ref><ref name="r364">"Survey indicates 1.5&nbsp;million Scots identify with Church", Churchofscotland.org.uk, http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/news_and_events/news/archive/articles/survey_indicates_1.5_million_scots_identify_with_church</ref> ǣlc ġemǣnscipe hæfþ sōcne ġesamnunge. Rōmānisce Pāpiscan (13.3%) sind ġegaderode on Miclum Glasgowe and on norþwestdǣle.<ref name="r365">Andrew Collier, "Scotland's Confident Catholics", ''The Tablet'' 10 January 2009, 16.</ref><ref name="r359" /> Pāpdōm lifode æfter þǣre Ednīwunge on þǣm Hēahlande and on īeglandum swā swā Uist and Barra and wēox mid Īriscre infare on þǣm 19an ġēarhundrede. Ōþre ċiriċan sind sēo Frēo Ċiriċe Scotlandes and ōþre Prēostealdra bōgas; sēo Scottisce Biscopisce Ċiriċe is sēo 3e mǣste.<ref name="r366">"Scottish Episcopal Church could be first in UK to conduct same-sex weddings", Scottish Legal News, 20 May 2016, http://www.scottishlegal.com/2016/05/20/scottish-episcopal-church-could-be-first-in-uk-to-conduct-same-sex-weddings</ref> Lǣssan ġeleafan sind Īslam (2.2%), Hindūdōm (0.55%), Sikhdōm, Buddadōm, and Iūdēadōm;<ref name="r359" /><ref name="r367">National Records of Scotland, "Scotland's Census 2011", http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS209SCb.pdf</ref><ref name="r368">General Register Office for Scotland, "Analysis of Religion in the 2001 Census", http://www.gro-gov.scot/press/news2005/analysis-of-religion-in-the-2001-census.html</ref> on þǣm ġēare 2022 wǣron 10,988 manna Sikhisce, 15,501 Buddisce, and 5,847 Iūdēisce.<ref name="r369">"Further information on the Jewish and Sikh populations", Scotland's Census, https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/census-blog/further-information-on-the-jewish-and-sikh-populations/</ref> Sēo Gudwara Guru Granth Sahib Sikh Sabha on Pollokshields, Glasgow (2013) is þæt ǣreste Sikhisce ġebedhūs on Scotlande, tō þǣm ġetimbrod.<ref name="r370">"How do you prepare a Sikh temple?", BBC News, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-scotland-22314647</ref> Samyé Ling nēah Eskdalemuir (40 ġēara on þǣm ġēare 2007) is þæt ieldeste Buddisce mynster on westdǣle Eurōpe.<ref name="r371">"In the Scottish Lowlands, Europe's first Buddhist monastery turns 40", Buddhistchannel.tv, http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=3,4102,0,0,1,0</ref> Glasgowes Garnethill Ġesamnunghūs (1879), þæt ieldeste þe ġīet stent on Scotlande, healdeþ þā Scottiscan Iūdēiscan Ġewrithordes Stōwe; Iūdēisce ġemǣnscipas sind fram þǣm lætran 17an ġēarhundrede, mid ġesamnungum on Eadenburge and Glasgowe fram þǣm ǣrlican 19an ġēarhundrede.<ref name="r372">"Scottish Jewish Heritage Centre", https://sjhc.org.uk/</ref><ref name="r373">"Exploring Jewish History in Glasgow: Glasgow City Heritage Trust", Glasgow Heritage, https://www.glasgowheritage.org.uk/exploring-jewish-history-in-glasgow/</ref> === Lār === [[File:+ 908 wurde St Andrews bereits Bischohfssitz. 13 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ġesett on þǣm ġēare 1413, is sēo Hēahscōl Sancte Andreas sēo ieldeste on Scotlande and ān þǣra ieldestena on worulde]] Scottisc lār hæfþ ā wīdnesse ġeornlīce lufod.<ref name="r374">Scottish Government, "A Guide to Education and Training in Scotland – "the broad education long regarded as characteristic of Scotland"", 17 March 2003, http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2003/03/16743/19914</ref> Sēo Lāre Ǣ 1496 bēad, þæt þā suna þǣra baruna and weliġra frēomanna sōhton stæfcræftes scōlan tō leornienne "perfyct Latyne", and swā wēox rǣdcræft mid weliġum werum.<ref name="r375">P. J. Bawcutt and J. H. Williams, ''A Companion to Medieval Scottish Poetry'' (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2006), ISBN 1-84384-096-0, pp.&nbsp;29–30.</ref> Sēo ''Ǣreste Bōc Þēodscipes'' (1560) ġeþōhte scōle on ǣlcre sōcne, ac man ne mihte hīe ġefēohian;<ref name="r376">R. A. Houston, ''Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), ISBN 0-521-89088-8, p. 5.</ref> ǣ þæs Dīeġlan Rǣdes on þǣm ġēare 1616 bēad āne.<ref name="r377">"School education prior to 1873", Scottish Archive Network, 2010, http://www.scan.org.uk/knowledgebase/topics/education_box1.htm</ref> Be þǣm lætran 17an ġēarhundrede hæfde þæt Niþerland nēah fulfremed nett sōcnscōla, ac miċel dǣl þæs Hēahlandes næfde grundlice lāre.<ref name="r378">R. Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre-1980", in T. G. K. Bryce and W. M. Humes, eds, ''Scottish Education: Post-Devolution'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2nd edn., 2003), ISBN 0-7486-1625-X, pp.&nbsp;219–228.</ref> Lār wunode mid þǣre ċiriċan oþ þā Lāre (Scotland) Ǣ 1872.<ref name="r379">"Schools and schooling" in M. Lynch (ed.), ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'', (Oxford, 2001), pp. 561–563.</ref> Sē Scottisca Rīċeweald sett þā lāre rǣd, mid Education Scotland (gōdnesse bētung) and þæs Cyninges Lāre Ofersceawunge (scēawunga).<ref name="r380">"Education Scotland &#124; Education Scotland", education.gov.scot, https://education.gov.scot/</ref> Sē ''Curriculum for Excellence'' ymbhæfþ þā ielda fram 3 oþ 18.<ref name="r381">Scottish Government, "Curriculum for Excellence – Aims, Purposes and Principles", http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/index.asp</ref> Ealle cild 3 and 4 ġēara eald habbaþ frēone stede on cildhūse. Sēo forme scōl onġinþ ymbe 5 ġēara and dūraþ 7 ġēar (P1–P7); leorneras nimaþ Þēodlicu Ġecostunga on 14–18 ġēarum. Þæt forlǣtenes ġēar is 16. Fēawa āgenra scōla folgiaþ þǣm Engliscan GCSE and A-Level ġesette.<ref name="r382">"The Scottish Exam System", http://www.scis.org.uk/genInfo/genInfo_scott_exam.html</ref> Scotland hæfþ 15 hēahscōla, sume ān þǣra ieldestena on worulde.<ref name="r383">Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, "Welcome to the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland", http://www.carnegie-trust.org/what_we_do.htm</ref><ref name="r384">Scottish Agricultural College, "Understanding Scottish Qualifications", http://www.sac.ac.uk/learning/prospective/international/ireland/IrelandScotsqual</ref> Þā 4 ealdan hēahscōlan, ġesette ǣr 1600, sind Sancte Andreas, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Eadenburg; ealle sind on þǣm 200 formum on worulde æfter THE, Eadenburg on þǣm 50 formum.<ref name="r385">"World University Rankings", Times Higher Education (THE), 20 August 2019, https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2020/world-ranking</ref> On þǣm ġēare 2012 hæfde Scotland mā hēahscōla for ǣlcum hēafde on þǣm 100 formum æfter QS þonne ǣniġ ōþer þēod.<ref name="r386">Newsnet Scotland, "Scotland tops global university rankings", 11 September 2012, http://www.newsnetscotland.com/index.php/scottish-news/5813-scotland-tops-global-university-rankings</ref> Mid lǣs þonne 0.1% þǣre worulde landfolces ġewyrcþ hit 1% þǣre ūtġesendan smēaunge; hēah lār is 9% þǣra þēnunga ūtsendunga.<ref name="r387">Scottish Government, "A Framework for Higher Education in Scotland: Higher Education Review Phase 2", 20 March 2003, http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2003/03/16786/20354</ref><ref name="r388">Universities Scotland, "What is higher education?", http://www.universities-scotland.ac.uk/Facts%20and%20Figures/HigherEducation.pdf</ref> Ǣnlīce Hēahscōla Ġemōtu magon stæpas sellan. === Hǣlþ === [[File:View along the access road towards the new Southern General Hospital (geograph 4542089).jpg|thumb|NHS Scotlandes Cwēne Elizabeth Hēahscōle Lǣcehūs, Glasgow; hit is sēo mǣste lǣcehūses stōw on Eurōpe.]] Hǣlþe ġīemnes is ġiefen mǣst fram NHS Scotland, ġesett þurh þā Þēodlican Hǣlþe Þēnunge (Scotland) Ǣ 1947 (siþþan āwend þurh þā Ǣ 1978) and ongunnen on þǣm 5an dæġe Mǣdmōnþes 1948 mid þǣm NHS on Englalande and Wēalum. Ǣr 1948 ġeaf sēo Hēahlandes and Īeglanda Lǣċecræftes Þēnung ġīet rīċes ġefēohode ġīemnesse healfum lande Scotlandes.<ref name="r389">[http://www.60yearsofnhsscotland.co.uk/history/birth-of-nhs-scotland/highlands-and-islands-medical-service.html Highlands and Islands Medical Service (HIMS)] www.60yearsofnhsscotland.co.uk. Retrieved 28 July 2008.</ref> Þæs Scottiscan Rīċewealdes Hǣlþe Wīsunga settaþ rǣd and fēoh. NHS Scotland hæfde ymbe 140,000 þēna on þǣm ġēare 2014.<ref name="r390">"About the NHS in Scotland", http://www.show.scot.nhs.uk/introduction.aspx</ref> Sēo ācennednesse rīm is under þǣm edlēanes rīme 2.1 (1.73 on þǣm ġēare 2011).<ref name="r391">Gro-gov.scot, "Scotland's Population 2011: The Registrar General's Annual Review of Demographic Trends 157th Edition", http://www.gro-gov.scot/files2/stats/annual-review-2011/j21285204.htm</ref> Þā mǣstan ācennednessa sind būtan ǣwe (51.3% on þǣm ġēare 2012).<ref name="r392">General Register Office for Scotland, "Table Q1: Births, stillbirths, deaths, marriages and civil partnerships, numbers and rates, Scotland, quarterly, 2002 to 2012", http://www.gro-gov.scot/files2/stats/births-marriages-deaths-quarterly/ve-2012-q4-tableq1.pdf</ref> Līfes lenġu on 2012–2014 wæs 77.1 ġēara for werum and 81.1 for wīfum, sēo lǣste þǣra 4 landa þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes.<ref name="r393">National Records of Scotland, "Life Expectancy for Areas within Scotland 2012–2014", 13 October 2015, p. 5, https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/life-expectancy-areas-in-scotland/12-14/life-exp-in-scotland-2012-to-2014.pdf</ref> Lǣcehūses infara for cancre wēoxon fram 2,528 (2002) tō 2,669 (2012); for heortan ǣdre ādle fēollon hīe fram 727 tō 489.<ref name="r394">[https://statistics.gov.scot/slice?dataset=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdata%2Fhospital-admissions&http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Flinked-data%2Fcube%23measureType=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fmeasure-properties%2Fratio&http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fdimension%2FadmissionType=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fconcept%2Fadmission-type%2Fcancer&http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fdimension%2Fage=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fconcept%2Fage%2Fall&http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fdimension%2Fgender=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fconcept%2Fgender%2Fall Hospital Admissions: a data cube spreadsheet] , Scottish Government</ref> == Þēaw == === Woruldierfes Stōwa === [[File:New Lanark (45324811821).jpg|thumb|New Lanark, ān þǣra UNESCO Woruldierfes Stōwa on Scotlande]] Scotland hæfþ 7 Woruldierfes Stōwa: St Kilda, Eadenburges Ealde Burg and Nīwe Burg, sēo Heorte þǣre Nīwan Stāntīde on Orcanēġe, New Lanark, sē Antonina Weall, sēo Forth Brycg, and þæt Flow Land.<ref name="r395">"World Heritage Sites in Scotland", www.historicenvironment.scot, https://www.historicenvironment.scot/advice-and-support/listing-scheduling-and-designations/world-heritage-sites/world-heritage-sites-in-scotland/</ref> Sē Hrōf þǣre Īsenieldu on Hjaltlande is UNESCO ġīerning.<ref name="r396">"The iron age sites seeking world heritage status", BBC News, 10 April 2023, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-65231943</ref> Historic Environment Scotland wielt þā þēawlican stōwa; sēo Ymbhwyrftes Wīsung wielt þā ġecyndelican.<ref name="r397">Historic Environment Scotland, "What is A World Heritage Site?", https://www.historicenvironment.scot/advice-and-support/listing-scheduling-and-designations/world-heritage-sites/what-is-a-world-heritage-site/</ref> === Celtisce bendas === Swā Celtisc þēod nimþ Scotland dǣl on ġemōtum ealra Celtiscra þēoda. Hit healdeþ frēolsas swā swā Celtic Connections (Glasgow) and þone Hebridisca Celtiscan Frēols (Stornoway). Sē Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Lȳtel Bryten), sē Ealceltisca Frēols (Īraland), and sē Þēodlica Celtisca Frēols (Portarlington, Australia) ætȳwaþ Scottisce spræce, drēamcræft, and sealtunge.<ref name="r398">Celtic Connections, "Celtic connections:Scotland's premier winter music festival", Celtic connections website, 2010, http://www.celticconnections.com</ref><ref name="r399">Festival Interceltique de Lorient, "Site Officiel du Festival Interceltique de Lorient", Festival Interceltique de Lorient website, 2009, http://www.festival-interceltique.com/le-monde-des-celtes-et-de-la-celtie.php</ref><ref name="r400">Fáilte Ireland, "Welcome to the Pan Celtic 2010 Home Page", Pan Celtic Festival 2010 website, 2010, http://www.panceltic.ie</ref><ref name="r401">National Celtic Festival, "About the Festival", National Celtic Festival website, 2009, http://www.nationalcelticfestival.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24&Itemid=26</ref> === Bōccræft and plegung === [[File:PG 1063Burns Naysmith.jpg|thumb|Sē woruldmǣra lēoþwyrhta Rodbeorht Burns is ġehealden for þone þēodlican lēoþwyrhtan, cūþ for weorcum swā swā "Auld Lang Syne" and for his wrītunge on Scottiscum]] Sē ieldesta bōccræft of þǣm nūlican Scotlande is Brytisc fers of þǣm 6an ġēarhundrede, ġehealden on Wēaliscum bōccræfte.<ref name="r402">R. T. Lambdin and L. C. Lambdin, ''Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature'' (London: Greenwood, 2000), ISBN 0-313-30054-2, p. 508.</ref> Weorc þǣre middelylde cōmon siþþan on Lǣdene,<ref name="r403">I. Brown, T. Owen Clancy, M. Pittock, S. Manning, eds, ''The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union, until 1707'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1615-2, p. 94.</ref> Gaelisce,<ref name="r404">J. T. Koch, ''Celtic Culture: a Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-CLIO, 2006), ISBN 1-85109-440-7, p. 999.</ref> Englisce<ref name="r405">E. M. Treharne, ''Old and Middle English c.890-c.1400: an Anthology'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), ISBN 1-4051-1313-8, p. 108.</ref> and Frencisce.<ref name="r406">M. Fry, ''Edinburgh'' (London: Pan Macmillan, 2011), ISBN 0-330-53997-3.</ref> Sē ǣresta miċela ġewrit on Ǣrlicum Scottiscum is Iohannes Barbour ''Brus'' of þǣm 14an ġēarhundrede, lēoþ be Rodbeorhte 1,<ref name="r407">N. Jayapalan, ''History of English Literature'' (Atlantic, 2001), ISBN 81-269-0041-5, p. 23.</ref> and him folgodon spell and ġewritu on folces spræce.<ref name="r408">J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 60–67.</ref> Cynelic fultum fēdde Scottisce plegunge and lēoþcræft on þǣm 16an ġēarhundrede,<ref name="r409">I. Brown, T. Owen Clancy, M. Pittock, S. Manning, eds, ''The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union, until 1707'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1615-2, pp. 256–257.</ref> ac Iacobes 6 fōr tō Englalande ādyde þone fultum and sette Scottisc on sīdan swā bōcspræce.<ref name="r410">R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed., ''The History of Scottish Literature'' (Aberdeen University Press, 1988), vol. 1, ISBN 0-08-037728-9, pp. 137–138.</ref> On þǣm 18an ġēarhundrede dyde Iacobes Macpherson Ossianes lēoþ hine þone ǣrestan woruldmǣran Scottiscan lēoþwyrhtan and wende þā Eurōpiscan Onlīhtunge,<ref name="r411">J. Buchan, "Crowded with Genius", 2003, p. [https://archive.org/details/crowdedwithgeniu00buch/page/163 163], ISBN 978-0-06-055888-8, https://archive.org/details/crowdedwithgeniu00buch/page/163</ref> and ēac Rodbeorht Burns, oft ġehealden for þone þēodlican lēoþwyrhtan,<ref name="r412">L. McIlvanney, "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", Eighteenth-Century Life, Spring 2005, pp. 25–46</ref> and Walter Scott, þæs Waverleyes Spell scōpon Scottisce ġecynde on þǣm 19an ġēarhundrede.<ref name="r413">N. Davidson, "The Origins of Scottish Nationhood", 2000, p. [https://archive.org/details/originsscottishn00davi/page/n141 136], ISBN 978-0-7453-1608-6, https://archive.org/details/originsscottishn00davi</ref> Late Victorisce wrīteras on Englisce, swā swā Rodbeorht Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie, and George MacDonald, wurdon cūþe ofer worulde.<ref name="r76" /> Sēo Scottisce Edcennung on þǣm 20an ġēarhundrede sōhte Scottisc eft tō settenne swā bōcspræce.<ref name="r414">"The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond", Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile, http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html</ref> Lēoþwyrhtan æfter þǣm ġewinne folgodon, mid Edwine Morgan, ġesettum swā ǣrestum Makar on þǣm ġēare 2004.<ref name="r415">Scottish Government, "The Scots Makar", 16 February 2004, http://www.gov.scot/News/Releases/2004/02/5075</ref> Sēo Scottisce Lēoþhord hǣt Sorley MacLean "ānne þǣra miclena Scottiscra lēoþwyrhtena þǣre nīwan tīde";<ref name="r416">Scottish Poetry Library, "Sorley MacLean", http://www.scottishpoetrylibrary.org.uk/poetry/poets/sorley-maclean</ref> Seamus Heaney sæġde, þæt hē Gaelisc lēoþcræft āhredde.<ref name="r417">Edinburgh Live, "Edinburgh streets could be given Gaelic names under plans to celebrate language", 18 March 2022, https://www.edinburghlive.co.uk/news/edinburgh-news/edinburgh-streets-could-given-gaelic-23437071</ref> Nīwu edcwicung fram þǣm 1980–1989 ġēarum is ġebunden mid wrīterum swā swā Irvine Welsh.<ref name="r414" /> Carol Ann Duffy wearþ sē ǣresta Scottisca Cynelica Lēoþwyrhta on Þrimilce 2009.<ref name="r418">"Duffy reacts to new Laureate post", BBC News, 1 May 2009, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8029388.stm</ref> Sē Makar, sē þēodlica lēoþwyrhta, þone sē ǣresta ealdormann sett, forþaþ rǣdcræft and lēoþcræft, wrīt for þēodlicum ġemōtum, and cȳþþ ǣlce ġēare þǣm rīċewealde.<ref name="r419">"The story of the Makar - National Poet of Scotland", Scottish Poetry Library, https://www.scottishpoetrylibrary.org.uk/the-story-of-the-makar-national-poet-of-scotland/</ref> Sē nūlica Makar, Pàdraig MacAoidh, is sē ǣresta Gaelisca wrītere on þǣm ambihte.<ref name="r420">"Lewis-born Gaelic poet Peter Mackay appointed Scotland's Makar", BBC News, 3 December 2024, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cn0x31w69d1o</ref> Þēodlica nīwspellbēċ ġeworhte on Scotlande sind ''Daily Record'', ''The Herald'', ''The Scotsman'', and ''The National''; landscipisce dæġlice sind ''Evening News'' (Eadenburg), ''The Courier'' (Dundee), and ''The Press and Journal'' (Aberdeen and sē norþdǣl).<ref name="r421">IFLA University of Stirling, "Newspapers and National Identity in Scotland", http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/papers/051-127e.pdf</ref> Scottisce ġeondweorc hæfdon maniġe sigeġifa ġewunnen æt þǣm Celtiscan Cȳþnessa Frēolse siþþan 1980.<ref name="r422">Celtic Media Festival, "About Us::Celtic Media Festival", Celtic Media Festival website, 2014, http://www.celticmediafestival.co.uk/about</ref> BBC Scotland healdeþ þā feorrġesihþe weġas BBC One Scotland, BBC Scotland, and Gaelisc BBC Alba, and þā lyftswēġes stōwa ''BBC Radio Scotland'' and ''BBC Radio nan Gàidheal''. Sē forma cēaplica sendend is STV, þe 2 þǣra 3 ITV landscipa Scotlandes healdeþ.<ref name="r423">"ITV Media – STV", www.itvmedia.co.uk, https://www.itvmedia.co.uk/itv-regions/stv</ref> Screen Scotland fēohaþ sēondplegena wyrcunge.<ref name="r424">Scotland, Screen, "About Us", Screen Scotland, 12 January 2021, https://www.screen.scot/about</ref> === Sang === [[File:Edinburgh Scottish bagpiper (49552292312).jpg|thumb|Sēo bylġpīpe is drēamcræftes tōl, mǣst ġebunden mid Scotlande, and ǣrlic bȳsen Scottisces folclices drēamcræftes]] Scottisc drēamcræft mengþ ealde and nīwe wīsan. Sēo Miċele Hēahlandes Bylġpīpe hæfþ 3 hlimmendu pīpan and āne swēġpīpan (''chanter''), ġefēdde mid lyfte of bylġe. Pīpera flocca, mid bylġpīpum, tunnum, and ealdum hræġle, sind lēofe ofer worulde æt frēolsum, gangum, līcþēnungum, and brȳdlācum; maniġ fierdscearu hæfþ ānne. Lǣssan bylġpīpan mid blǣstbylġum sind þā lȳtlan pīpan and þā Mearce pīpan. Ūtlandisce folclice sangeras sind Lewis Capaldi, Amy Macdonald, KT Tunstall, Nina Nesbitt, Chvrches, Gerry Cinnamon, and Paolo Nutini. Sē DJ Calvin Harris wæs ān þǣra mǣst ġehīerdra sangera on Spotify on þǣm ġēare 2023;<ref name="r425">Bracknell News, "Spotify Wrapped 2023 top song predictions ahead of release", www.bracknellnews.co.uk, 25 October 2023, https://www.bracknellnews.co.uk/news/national/uk-today/23875288.spotify-wrapped-2023-top-song-predictions-ahead-release/</ref><ref name="r426">Lydia, "Top 25 Most Popular Scottish Singers", discoverwalks.com, 4 February 2023, https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/united-kingdom/top-25-most-popular-scottish-singers/#:~:text=1.,help%20of%20his%20eldest%20brother.</ref> Susan Boyles ǣreste sangbōc wæs sēo mǣst ġeċēapode sangbōc on worulde on þǣm ġēare 2009.<ref name="r427">Kisiel, Ryan, "Tragedies, feuds and public tantrums: Is the dream finally over for Susan Boyle?", news.com.au, 2 May 2016, https://www.news.com.au/entertainment/celebrity-life/tragedies-feuds-and-public-tantrums-is-the-dream-finally-over-for-susan-boyle/news-story/bdfa00d9c14b9ccf1ec22d59ebdc80fa</ref> Runrig forþode Celtiscne stān-drēam on Gaelisce; hira sang "An Ubhal as Àirde" (1995) wæs sē ǣresta Gaelisca sang on þǣm 20 formum þæs Ġeānodan Cynedōmes.<ref name="r428">"RUNRIG – The Story (Ridge RR078)", Folking.com, 22 January 2016, https://folking.com/runrig-the-story-ridge-rr078/</ref> Sigeġifa sind þā Scottiscan Drēamcræftes Sigeġifa, sēo Scottisce Sangbēċ þæs Ġēares Sigeġifu, þā Scottiscan Ealdes Drēamcræftes Sigeġifa, and BBC Radio Scotlandes Ġeongan Ealdes Drēamcræftigan sigeġifu. === Mete === [[File:Haggis neeps and tatties.jpg|thumb|Haggis, nǣpas, and eorþæppla]] Scottisc mete hæfþ āgene wīsan ac dǣlþ miċel mid Brittiscum and Eurōpiscum ġearwunge; infaru ēacnode ūtlandiscne mete. Eald ġearwung stent on landlicre huntoþe, meolce mete, fiscum, ofete, and wyrtum, ġearwode ānfealdlīce and mid fēawum wyrtgemangum, þā wǣron seldsiene and dēore on ealdum tīdum.<ref name="r429">National Trust for Scotland, "Edinburgh's Pantry: Tatties, neeps, oranges and lemons", www.nts.org.uk, https://www.nts.org.uk/stories/edinburghs-pantry-tatties-neeps-oranges-and-lemons</ref> Irn-Bru, sē ġelōmosta Scottisca swēta drenċ, man hǣt "Scotlandes ōþerne þēodlicne drenċ" æfter brendwīne.<ref name="r430">Brooks, Libby, "Scotland's other national drink", The Guardian, 30 May 2007, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/may/30/scotlandsothernationaldrink</ref> Þurh þone Ealdan Þoftscipe wende Frencisc mete Scottisce ġearwunge on þǣre lætran middelylde and þǣre ǣrlican nīwan tīde,<ref name="r431">Gail Kilgore, "The Auld Alliance and its Influence on Scottish Cuisine", http://www.historichighlanders.com/auldfood.htm</ref> swīþost under Marian, Scotta Cwēne, þǣre Frencisce þēnas Scottisce ġearwunge āwendon and Frencisc metes word lǣfdon.<ref name="r432">"Traditional Scottish Food – Brief History of Food in Scotland", Taste of Scotland, https://www.taste-of-scotland.com/traditional-scottish-food-scotlands-cuisine</ref> === Plega === [[File:Scotland Starting XI Scotland v Bolivia 6 June 2026-15.jpg|thumb|Sē þēodlica fōtballes werod stent ǣr plegan wiþ Bolivia, Sēremōnaþ 2026]] Scotland hæfþ āgen þēodlic ġeflit and synderlic werod æt þǣm FIFA Woruldbunan, þǣre UEFA Þēoda Ġefērrǣdenne, þǣm UEFA Eurōpiscan Forme, þǣm Rugby Woruldbunan, þǣm Rugby League Woruldbunan, þǣm Cricket Woruldbunan, þǣm Netball Woruldbunan, and þǣm Ġemǣnweles Plegum. Hire wealdendan ġemōtu sind sē Scottisca Fōtbealles Ġefērscipe (sē ōþer ieldesta on worulde)<ref name="r433">''Soccer in South Asia: Empire, Nation, Diaspora'' by James Mills, Paul Dimeo: Page 18 – Oldest Football Association is England's FA, then Scotland and third oldest is the Indian FA.</ref> and sēo Scottisce Rugby Ġeānung. Wīsan fōtballes sind ġewritene on Scotlande fram 1424.<ref name="r434">Gerhardt, W., "The colourful history of a fascinating game. More than 2000 Years of Football", https://www.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,1283,1,00.html</ref> Sē ǣresta ambihtlica ūtlandisca fōtballes plega, Scotland wiþ Englaland, wæs ġeplegod on Glasgowe on þǣm 30an dæġe Blōtmōnþes 1872 (0–0).<ref name="r435">"First ever international football match recreated in Glasgow", UEFA, 1 December 2022, https://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/027c-16b892bcfd7e-1d75251aa5cc-1000--first-ever-international-football-match-recreated-in-glasgow/</ref> Sē Scottisca Buna, ǣrest ġeflitod on þǣm ġēare 1873, is sēo ieldeste sigeġifu fōtballes.<ref name="r436">"Scottish Cup History | Scottish Cup | Scottish FA", scottishfa.co.uk, https://www.scottishfa.co.uk/scottish-cup/archive/scottish-cup-history/</ref> Sē SFA, ān þǣra onstellendra þæs Ūtlandiscan Fōtbealles Ġefērscipa Bordes (IFAB), þe þā Plegan Ǣ sett, is ān þǣra 4 ā sittendra lima; FIFA sett þā ōþre 4.<ref name="r437">"IFAB Meetings 1914-2008", FIFA, http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/organisation/ip-100_04e_ifab_9481.pdf</ref><ref name="r438">Moore, Kevin, "What you think you know about football is wrong", 2019, ISBN 9781472955678</ref> Sē SFA healdeþ þā þēodlican weru werod and wīfa werod. [[File:Old 18th tee lr.jpg|thumb|Sē Ealda Ryne æt Sancte Andrease, sē ieldesta golfes ryne on worulde]] Nīwlic golf ārās on Scotlande on þǣm 15an ġēarhundrede, "golfes hām".<ref name="r439">PGA Tour official website, "Scotland is the home of golf", http://www.pgatour.com/2008/tourlife/travel/04/08/trans_atlantic/index.html</ref><ref name="r440">Scottish Government, "The Home of Golf", 6 March 2007, http://www.gov.scot/News/Releases/2007/03/06090032</ref><ref name="r441">Keay (1994) ''op cit'' page 839. "In 1834 the Royal and Ancient Golf Club declared St. Andrews 'the Alma Mater of golf'".</ref> Sē Ealda Ryne æt Sancte Andrease, Fife, sandhlinca ryne ieldra þonne 1552,<ref name="r442">Scottish Golf History, "1574 St Andrews – The Student Golfer", http://www.scottishgolfhistory.org/oldest-golf-sites/1574-st-andrews</ref> is golferum hālig sīþstōw.<ref name="r443">Cochrane, Alistair (ed) ''Science and Golf IV: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf''. Page 849. Routledge.</ref> On þǣm ġēare 1764 wæs hē ġescyrt fram 22 tō 18 hola, and swā wearþ sē ġewunelica ryne.<ref name="r444">Forrest L. Richardson (2002). "Routing the Golf Course: The Art & Science That Forms the Golf Journey". p. 46. John Wiley & Sons</ref> Sē Opena Ġeflit, sē ieldesta ġeflit and sē ǣresta miċela, ongann on þǣm 17an dæġe Winterfylleþes 1860 æt Prestwick, Ayrscīr; Scottas ġewunnon þā ǣrestan.<ref name="r445">[http://www.pgatour.com/2007/travel/07/16/trans_071607/index.html The Open Championship – More Scottish than British] PGA Tour. Retrieved 23 September 2011</ref> Ōþre mǣre rynas sind Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield, and Royal Troon. Sēo Scottisce Rugby Ġeānung is sēo ōþer ieldeste on worulde. Murrayfield Plegstōw on Eadenburge is sēo þēodlice plegstōw. Scotland ġewann þone ǣrestan ambihtlican plegan wiþ Englaland æt Raeburn Place on þǣm ġēare 1871. Scotland hæfþ ġeplegod on þǣm Six Þēodum siþþan 1883, and hæfþ 14 sīþum āna ġewunnen (mid þǣm lætestan Fīf Þēodum on þǣm ġēare 1999) and 8 sīþum mid ōþrum. Hit hæfþ ġeplegod on eallum 9 Rugby Woruldbunum siþþan 1987, nīwost on þǣm ġēare 2023. Scotland and Englaland flītaþ ymbe þone Calcuttan Bunan ǣlce ġēare on þǣm Six Þēodum; Scotland ġewann lætost on þǣm ġēare 2026.<ref name="r446">Calvert, Lee, "Scotland 30-21 England: Six Nations 2024 – as it happened", the Guardian, 24 February 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/sport/live/2024/feb/24/scotland-v-england-six-nations-2024-live</ref> [[File:Murrayfield Autumn 2017.jpg|thumb|Murrayfield Plegstōw, sēo þēodlice plegstōw þæs Scottiscan þēodlican rugby werodes]] Ōþre þēodlice plegan sind þā Hēahlandes plegan, ''curling'', and ''shinty''. Scotland hæfde 13 woruldforman on fȳstġewinne, swā swā Ken Buchanan, Benny Lynch, and Jim Watt. Formula One wæġnrǣsas sind David Coulthard, Jim Clark, Paul Di Resta, and Jackie Stewart;<ref name="r447">"10 Scottish motor racing great", heraldscotland.com, 30 January 2015, https://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/other_sports/13199539.10-scottish-motor-racing-great</ref> Dario Franchitti ġewann 4 æfterfylgende IndyCar ġeflitu.<ref name="r448">Oreovicz, John, "Dario Franchitti seals his place as the greatest Indy car driver of the modern era", ESPN.com, 4 October 2010, https://www.espn.com/racing/racing/indycar/columns/story?columnist=oreovicz_john&id=5649822</ref> Scotland hæfþ ġeflitod æt ǣlcum Ġemǣnweles Plegum siþþan 1930 and ġewunnen 508 bēaga (134 gyldene, 146 seolfrene, 228 ǣrene).<ref name="r449">Scotland, Team, "Medal History", Team Scotland, https://www.teamscotland.scot/games/medal-history/</ref> Hit hēold þā Plegan 4 sīþum: Eadenburg on 1970 and 1986, Glasgow on 2014 and 2026<ref name="r450">"Overview and History", Cgcs.org.uk, http://www.cgcs.org.uk/past-games/overview-and-history</ref> (ġetrymed on Hāligmōnþe 2024).<ref name="r451">"Glasgow 2026 Commonwealth Games - What do we know so far?", BBC News, 18 September 2024, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/czj978gnmgpo</ref> Eadenburg hēold þā ǣrestan Ġemǣnweles Ġeogoþe Plegan on þǣm ġēare 2000.<ref name="r452">"Edinburgh 2000 Commonwealth Youth Games", Commonwealth Sport, https://www.commonwealthsport.com/commonwealth-youth-games/edinburgh-2000</ref> === Tācna === [[File:Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland.svg|thumb|Sē Cynelica Wǣpnscild Scotlandes]] Sēo anlīcnes Sancte Andreas, ġemartyrod on X-hīwre rōde, ætēowde ǣrest on Scotlande under Willelme 1.<ref name="r453">The National Archives of Scotland, "Feature: Saint Andrew seals Scotland's independence", 28 November 2007, http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/051124.asp</ref> Æfter Alexandres 3 dēaþe on þǣm ġēare 1286 wæs hēo on þǣm inseġle þǣra Weardena Scotlandes on þǣre cyningleasan tīde.<ref name="r453" /> Sēo sāltīr is fram þǣm lætran 14an ġēarhundrede: on þǣm ġēare 1385 bēad þæt Þing Scotlandes þǣm heremannum hwīte Sancte Andreas Rōde on heora ġewǣdum tō berenne.<ref name="r454">Dickinson, Donaldson, Milne (eds.), A Source Book Of Scottish History, Nelson and Sons Ltd, Edinburgh 1952, p. 205</ref> Sē blǣwena grund is lǣst fram þǣm 15an ġēarhundrede.<ref name="r455">G. Bartram, [http://www.flaginstitute.org/images/page10_large.gif www.flaginstitute.org ''British Flags & Emblems''] (Edinburgh: Tuckwell Press, 2004), ISBN 1-86232-297-X, p. 10.</ref> Siþþan 1606 is sēo sāltīr dǣl þæs Ġeānunge Fanan. Ōþru tācn sind sē þistel, þæt blōstmtācen (ġemǣrsod on þǣm sange ''The Thistle o' Scotland''); þæt Forþspell æt Arbroath on þǣm 6an dæġe Ēastermōnþes 1320; sēo bleofāgung ''tartan'', oft ġebunden mid mǣġþe; and sē cynelica fana mid Upstandendum Lēon.<ref name="r456">"National identity" in M. Lynch (ed.), ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'', (Oxford, 2001), pp. 437–444.</ref><ref name="r457">Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) ''Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland''. London. HarperCollins. Page 936.</ref><ref name="r458">"Symbols of Scotland—Index", Rampantscotland.com, http://www.rampantscotland.com/symbols/blsymbols_index.htm</ref> Sēo Hræġles Ǣ 1746 forbēad ''tartan''; hēo wæs tōbrocen on þǣm ġēare 1782 æfter ġewinne Iacobes Graham, þæs 3an Heretogan of Montrose.<ref name="r459">Bain, Robert, "Clans & Tartans of Scotland (revised)", 1959, p. 108</ref> Þā Weorþmynta Scotlandes (Scottisce Cynehelmes Ġimmas) sind sē Cynehelm Scotlandes, cynegierd, and þæt Rīċes Sweord. Cyningas bǣron þone cynehelm æt cynehelmunge; hē is ġehealden on þǣm Cynehelmes Būre on Eadenburges Castele and is ætgædere æt ǣlcre openunge þæs Scottiscan Þinges.<ref name="r460">"Scottish Parliament opening: Crown returns to seat of parliament", BBC News, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1999/06/99/scottish_parliament_opening/378157.stm</ref> Hīe sind fram þǣm lætran 15an and ǣrlican 16an ġēarhundrede and sind þā ieldestan cynelican mādmas on þǣm Brittiscum Īeglandum.<ref name="r461">"The Honours of Scotland", www.royal.uk, https://www.royal.uk/honours-scotland</ref> [[File:The Queen at the Scottish Parliament - crop.jpg|thumb|Sē Cynehelm Scotlandes]] Scotland næfþ nānne ambihtlicne anstefn,<ref name="r462">"Action call over national anthem", BBC News, 21 March 2006, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/4828454.stm</ref> ac ''Flower of Scotland'' man singþ æt synderlicum tīdum and æt fōtballes and rugby plegum, and siþþan 2010 æt þǣm Ġemǣnweles Plegum, æfter þǣm þe Scottisce plegmenn hine curon.<ref name="r463">BBC, "Games team picks new Scots anthem", 9 January 2010, https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/8449939.stm</ref> Lǣs lēofe ġīerningas sind ''Scotland the Brave'', ''Highland Cathedral'', ''Scots Wha Hae'', and ''A Man's A Man for A' That''.<ref name="r464">"Background Info", www.parliament.scot, 11 May 2014, http://www.parliament.scot/gettinginvolved/petitions/PE01500-PE01599/PE01541_BackgroundInfo.aspx</ref> Sancte Andreas Dæġ, sē 30a dæġ Blōtmōnþes, is sē þēodlica dæġ, þēah þe Burnses Niht sīe wīdor ġefrēolsod, swīþost on ūtlandum. Sēo Sancte Andreas Dæġes Frēolsdæġes (Scotland) Ǣ 2007, ġesett on þǣm ġēare 2006, dyde hine frēolsdæġ.<ref name="r465">[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/en2007/2007en02.htm "Explanatory Notes to St. Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007"] Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 22 September 2007.</ref> Tartanes Dæġ is nīwu findung of Canada.<ref name="r466">"Tartan Day in Canada | Scotland.org", Scotland, https://www.scotland.org/events/scotland-week/tartan-day-in-canada</ref> Þæt þēodlice dēor is sē ānhorn, Scottisc wǣpnscildes tācen siþþan þǣm 12an ġēarhundrede.<ref name="r467">"Scottish fact of the week: Scotland's official animal, the Unicorn", Scotsman.com, http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/heritage/scottish-fact-of-the-week-scotland-s-official-animal-the-unicorn-1-2564399</ref> Þæt Dōmhūs þæs Hlāfordes Lyon wielt wǣpnscilda cræft and healdeþ þæt Folclice Ġetæl Ealra Wǣpnscilda on Scotlande.<ref name="r468">"About us", The Court of the Lord Lyon, https://www.courtofthelordlyon.scot/about%20us.htm</ref> == Niwu Ƿord == {{niwuword}} * Ġeānod Cynedōm (n.masc) - United Kingdom * Norþīegland (n.neut) - Northern Isles * mīlion (n.neut) - million * þingmann (n.masc) - member of parliament * cyrstōw (n.fem) - constituency * rīċeweald (n.masc) - government (executive) * rǣdþeġn (n.masc) - cabinet minister * ġedǣlede māhta (n.fem) - devolved powers, devolution * Niþerland (n.neut) - Lowlands * Sūþdūna (n.fem) - Southern Uplands * sǣearm (n.masc) - firth, sea inlet * Namcȳþþ (n.fem) - etymology * ealdstāntīd (n.fem) - Paleolithic * nīwe stāntīd (n.fem) - Neolithic * þūsendġēar (n.neut) - millennium * Peohtland (n.neut) - Pictland * middelyld (n.fem) - Middle Ages * þēodrīċe (n.neut) - nation-state * lēnġetimbrung (n.fem) - feudalism * Ednīwung (n.fem) - Reformation * Ednīwiendlic (adj) - Protestant * Pāpisc (adj) - Catholic * Edcennung (n.fem) - Renaissance * Mundbyrdhād (n.masc) - Protectorate (Cromwell) * Wǣrgewyrhta (n.masc) - Covenanter * grundlagu (n.fem) - constitution * Iacobiscnes (n.fem) - Jacobitism * landswira (n.masc) - isthmus * ǣmtiġung (n.fem) - clearance (eviction) * mǣġþdōm (n.masc) - clanship * Onlīhtung (n.fem) - Enlightenment * Cræftlic Āwendednes (n.fem) - Industrial Revolution * Hāmweald (n.masc) - Home Rule * rīċesþeġn (n.masc) - Secretary of State * formaþeġn (n.masc) - Prime Minister * æfterċyre (n.masc) - by-election * scipwyrhta (n.masc) - shipbuilder * dȳmscip (n.neut) - steamship * ġecyndlǣreow (n.masc) - physicist * searowyrhta (n.masc) - engineer * woruldġewinn (n.neut) - world war * fyrdmearcealdor (n.masc) - field marshal * weorcgild (n.neut) - trade union * lyftrǣs (n.masc) - air raid, blitz * feohþēnung (n.fem) - financial service * līġcræft (n.masc) - electricity, electronics * ōgaþrēa (n.masc) - terrorism * folcāscung (n.fem) - referendum * ǣsettend (n.masc) - legislature * lyftspell (n.neut) - broadcasting * ealgung (n.fem) - defence * sǣfyrd (n.fem) - navy * lyftfyrd (n.fem) - air force * sǣscip (n.neut) - submarine * cernelwǣpn (n.neut) - nuclear weapon * lyftscip (n.neut) - airplane * wīgfēoh (n.neut) - defence spending * friþweard (n.masc) - police officer * feohġemēt (n.neut) - economy * feohstōw (n.fem) - financial centre * brendwīn (n.neut) - whisky * ūtsendung (n.fem) - export * eorþbrand (n.masc) - fossil fuel * rīmplega (n.masc) - video game * rīmġewrit (n.neut) - software * steorrancræft (n.masc) - space industry * ednīwiendlic orþanc (n.masc) - renewable energy * feohcræft (n.masc) - economics, fintech * cumfaru (n.fem) - tourism * feohġewrit (n.neut) - banknote * middelfeohhūs (n.neut) - central bank * ġewritfeoh (n.neut) - paper money * lyftscipstōw (n.fem) - airport * īsenweġ (n.masc) - railway * fȳrwæġn (n.masc) - train * fȳrwæġnstōw (n.fem) - railway station * undereorþweġ (n.masc) - underground railway * ferescip (n.neut) - ferry * cernelorþanc (n.masc) - nuclear power * windcræftes tūn (n.masc) - wind farm * feorrġesiht (n.fem) - television * feorrsprǣc (n.fem) - telephone * ċealdcist (n.fem) - refrigerator * gangærn (n.neut) - toilet * ādlwyrm (n.masc) - germ, microbe * tungolscip (n.neut) - spacecraft * tungolscipstōw (n.fem) - spaceport * hēahscōl (n.fem) - university * folcrīmung (n.fem) - census * landmǣl (n.neut) - cartogram, map * ūtfaru (n.fem) - emigration * Tācnspræc (n.fem) - sign language * smēaung (n.fem) - research * ēaþfērre (adj) - accessible * wederġecynd (n.neut) - climate * carbonlēasnes (n.fem) - carbon neutrality * Woruldierfe (n.neut) - World Heritage * nīwspellbōc (n.fem) - newspaper * lyftswēġ (n.masc) - radio * sēondplega (n.masc) - film * bylġpīpe (n.fem) - bagpipe * fōtbal (n.masc) - football * golf (n.neut) - golf * buna (n.masc) - cup (trophy) * fȳstġewinn (n.neut) - boxing * wæġnrǣs (n.masc) - racing driver * sāltīr (n.masc) - saltire * crūcbile (n.masc) - crossbill * furhmeard (n.masc) - pine marten == References == <references /> [[Flocc:Scotland]] [[flocc:Niwlicu word]] 5qwi6vy9xy8i29yi0poltmn6do8904s 0 14819 232853 218732 2026-11-10T03:54:06Z Bryceybam 144190 Created by translating the section "History" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1384601747|IOS]]" 232853 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Ymele:IOS_wordmark_(2017).svg|thumb]] '''iOS''' is [[searusprecend]]a [[weorcendebyrdness|ƿeorcendebyrdness]] þe is geƿorht and asteald fram [[Apple Inc.]] Ǣrost ƿæs hit þæs 2007. gēares on folc on þǣm [[iPhone]] and on þǣm iPod Touch asteald, ac nū brȳcþ man hit on ōðrum searƿum, ēac þǣm [[iPad]] and þǣm Apple TV. Nā sƿā Google [[Android]] and Microsoft [[Windows Phone]] nile Apple Inc. līefan þe iOS sīe gesett on līchamhyrste būtan Apple Inc. līchamhyrste. Þæs 12. dæges Hærfestmōnaðes þæs 2012. gēares hafaþ Apple Inc. ƿeorcƿrithord mā þonne 700,000 ƿeorcƿrita for iOS, þā ætsomne ƿǣron mā þonne 30 þūsend þūsenda þūsenda mǣla on searu gefǣted. Hit hæfde 21% þǣre tōdǣlunge searcusprecenda þā ƿǣron forþsend on þǣm fēorðan dǣle þæs 2012. gēares, synderlīce æfter [[Android]] fram [[Google]]. Be healfe þæs 2012. gēares ƿǣron mā þonne 400 þūsend þūsenda searƿa mid iOS aƿeaht. ==Seoh ēac== *[[Android]] *[[Windows Phone]] *[[Apple Inc.]] [[Flocc:Weorcendebyrdnessa]] == Stǣr == ''Þā on þǣm gēare twū þūsend and fīf'', þā ðā Stīfen Jobs ongan þæt īsen tō gesearwienne tō macianne þone īsern-fōn, hē cwæð þæt hē hæfde twēġen cyste: oþþē "tō smǣlanne þā Mac, sēo wǣre mǣre weorcsumra cræft, oþþē tō brǣdanne þone iPod". Jobs lufode þone ǣrran rǣd, ac hē satte þā Mac-werod and þā iPod-werod — þā wǣron under Scotes Forstalles and Toniges Fadelles lǣrungum — tōwēard oþrum on inneweardre costnunge, and Forstall siððan sige nam mid þȳ hē geworhte þone īsern-fōn-gesetednysse (iPhone OS). Sēo rǣd ġetimbrode þone spēd þæs īsern-fōnes swā swā grundwong for oðrum wrihterum: mid þȳ hē brēac cūðe borghūs-gesetednysse swā swā his grund, þæt alȣfde þām manigum fremdum Mac-wrihterum tō writenne cræftmidel for þǣm īsern-fōne mid lytlum lǣran. Forstall wæs ēac witega tō wyrcenne þone cræft-gesetednysse gersum (SDK) for þām wrihterum tō timbrienne īsern-fōn-cræft, swā ēac an App Store innan iTunes. ''Þæt rīces-stȳre (oþþe gesetednys) wæs ǣrest geīwed mid þǣm īsern-fōne æt þǣm Macworld-gemēte on þǣm nigoðan dæge þæs Æfterran Gēares þæs gēares twū þūsend and seofon, and hit wæs ūtgenge on þǣm þrymman mōnað þæs ylcan gēares.'' ''Þā þæt rīces-stȳre wæs ǣrost ætīwed on þǣm Æfterran Gēare, cwæð Stīfen Jobs: "Sē īsern-fōn rīdet OS X" and "fereð bord-gelīce cræftmidlas," ac tō þǣm tīman þæs ūt-gangs wæs þæt rīces-stȳre genemned "iPhone OS" (īsern-fōn-gesetednys). Ān-ginnlice wǣron fremde cyndelīce cræftmidlas nā geþafode. Jobs þōhte þæt þā wrihteras meahton webb-cræftmidelas timbrian ðurh þone Safari-webb-bōcere, þā "swelc geworhten swā cyndelīce cræftmidlas on þǣm īsern-fōne."'' ''On þǣm Tīman-fyllnesse mōnað (October) twū þūsend and seofon, cyðde Apple þæt cyndelic cræft-gesetednysse gersum (SDK) wæs ǣrgeweorc and þæt hīe hogodon tō syllenne hit "on wrihtera handa on þǣm Solmōnað." On þǣm syxtan dæge þæs Hrēðmōnaðs twū þūsend and eahta, hēold Apple gemēt, þǣr hīe cyðdon þone īsern-fōn-SDK.'' [[File:Apple_iPhone_2G_8GB_(16).jpg|thumb|Sē ǣresta īsern-fōn (twū þūsend and seofon), sē ǣresta ūtgesetedan tōtēohhunge sē þe rād þone rīces-stȳre, ðā genemned iPhone OS (īsern-fōn-gesetednys)]] Sēo [[App-strǣt]] (oþþe cræft-cēapung) wæs geopenod on þǣm tēoðan dæge þæs Mǣdmōnaðs twū þūsend and eahta, mid fīf hund fruman cræftmidlum gearwum. Þis wēox hrade tō þrēo þūsendum on þǣm Hāligmōnaðe twū þūsend and eahta, fīf tēoðra þūsenda on þǣm Æfterran Gēare twū þūsend and nigon, fīftig þūsenda on þǣm Sēremōnaðe twū þūsend and nigon, hundteantig þūsenda on þǣm Blōtmōnaðe twū þūsend and nigon, twū hund and fīftig þūsenda on þǣm Weodmōnaðe twū þūsend and tēn, fīf and syx hund þūsenda on þǣm Mǣdmōnaðe twū þūsend and twelf, ān þūsend þūsenda on þǣm Wīntfylleðe twū þūsend and þrēotīene, twū þūsend þūsenda on þǣm Sēremōnaðe twū þūsend and syxtīene, and twū þūsend and twū hund þūsenda on þǣm Æfterran Gēare twū þūsend and seofontīene. Swā swā on þǣm Hrēðmōnaðe twū þūsend and syxtīene, syndon ān þūsend þūsenda cræftmidla cyndelīce gemǣte mid þǣm iPad-bōcorde. Þās cræftmidlas sind gesomnodlīce adūn hlædene mā þonne hund þrēotīene þūsend mīla sīðas. Sēo cræft-spyregend cnyhtgefera Sensor Tower tǣhte þæt sēo App-strǣt wæs tō cumanne tō fīf þūsendum þūsenda cræftmidla ymbe twū þūsend and twēntig. On þǣm Hāligmōnaðe twū þūsend and seofon, cyðde Apple þone iPod Touch, se wæs edniwod iPod geworht æfter þǣm gelīcnesse þæs īsern-fōnes. On þǣm seofon and twēntigostan dæge þæs Æfterran Gēares twū þūsend and tēn, tǣhte Apple hiera georn-bādene middangeard-bōcord (tablet), sēo wæs nemned se iPad, sēo hæfde māran scīnan þonne sē īsern-fōn and se iPod Touch, and wæs gegearwod tō webb-sēonne, middangeard-brūcunge, and rǣdunge, and bēad manig-hrīnunge wið manig-hīwes cræfte þǣr-rihte bōc-fella, bōca, gelīcnessa, scēawunga, drēames, word-wyrhtan gewrita, plegan, and þāra mǣstan dǣle ǣrra īsern-fōn-cræftmidla mid niogon and seofon-tēoðan tolfan (9.7-inch) scīnan. Hit hæfð ēac tō-cyme tō mōbilan Safari for webb-sēonne, swā swā tō-gange tō þǣre App-strǣte, iTunes-hordern, iBookstore, Gemētungum (Contacts), and Gemyndwrihtum (Notes). Þæt þing bið adūn hlæden þurh Wi-Fi and ōðrum 3G-þēowbære oþþe gecnytted þurh þæs brūcendes tōtēohhunge. AT&T wæs ǣrest sē ānlepa Ameriscan þēowa for þǣm 3G-lēaswebbe þæs iPads. On þǣm Sēremōnaðe twū þūsend and tēn, endebyrde Apple eft hiora īsern-fōn-gesetednysse nemne tō "iOS". Sēo tacen-nama "IOS" wæs ǣr brūcendu fram þǣm cēapmanna-felage Cisco ofer tŷn gēar tō hiora ānum rīces-stȳre, sēo wæs genemned IOS, sēo wæs geseted on hiora ræstra (routers). Tō forflēonne ǣnige uncūðe sacu, gelahte Apple þone "IOS"-tacen-naman tō lēane fram Cisco. On þǣm nigoðan dæge þæs Hāligmōnaðs twū þūsend and fīertyne, cyðde Tim Cook þone Apple Watch tid-weard (smartwatch), sēo wæs ǣrest geīwed swā tōtēohhung mid hǣlo- and lichaman-cunnunge. Hit wæs ūtgenge on þǣm fēower and twēntigostan dæge þæs Ēastermōnaðs twū þūsend and fīftīene. Hit brēac watchOS swā swā his rīces-stȳre; watchOS is getimbrod on iOS, mid nīwum cræftum geworht synderlīce for þǣm Apple Watch swā swā styrmunge-cunnunge cræftmidel. ''On þǣm Wīntfylleðe twū þūsend and syxtīene, geopnode Apple hiora ǣrrestan iOS-wrihtera lǣrhūs on Neapoli innan þǣm nīwum tūnscīre þære Neapol-hāgweardes Hīhstōwes Frederikes II. Sēo lǣrung is eallinga frēo, geseted tō begitenne synderlīce cræft-þēawas be þǣm gewyrhte and stȳrunge cræftmidla for þǣm Apple-stede. Æt þǣm lǣrhūse sind ēac sprǣca be cēapunge-stȳrunge (cēapunge-rǣdunge and cēapunge-stȳrunge mid hogunge tō tōwēardum dǣlum) and þǣr is weg gehālgod tō þǣre timbrunge fagerra ansīna. Leorneras habbað þone gemynd tō gemǣnanne on þǣm "Cēapunge-weg", dēop-lǣrende costnunge be eallum līfe þæs cræftmidles, fram timbrunge tō gefyllnesse, tō frīðunge, tō wæfersīnum, tō hordernu and wolcn-brūcunge. Swā swā on þǣm gēare twū þūsend and twēntig, hæfð þæt lǣrhūs gelǣred nēah þūsend leornera fram eallum middangearde, þā habbað gewroht on fēower hund cræftmidla geþancas and habbað ǣr ūt-āgefen nēah fīftig cræftmidla on þǣre iOS App-strǣte. On þǣm lǣr-gēare twū þūsend and eahtatīene oþ twū þūsend and nigontīene, cōmon leorneras fram mā þonne þrītig landa. Fīf and þrītig þissa wǣron gecorene tō cumanne tō þǣm Middangeardlican Wrihtera Gemēte, þǣm gēarlīcan Apple-wrihtera gemēte þe bið gehalden gēarlīce in Californie on þǣm fruman þæs Sēremōnaðs.'' [[File:Steve_Jobs_with_the_Apple_iPad_no_logo_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Stīfen Jobs, sēo Apple-hēafodmann, cyðþ þone iPad on þǣm gēare twū þūsend and tēn.]] ''On þǣm þridðan dæge þæs Sēremōnaðs twū þūsend and nigontīene, wæs iPadOS, sēo nemnende cynd iOS for þǣm iPad, gecȳðed ofer þǣm WWDC 2019 hēafod-sprǣce; hit wæs ūtgenge on þǣm fīf and twēntigostan dæge þæs Hāligmōnaðs twū þūsend and nigontīene.'' On þǣm nigonðan dæge þæs Sēremōnaðs twū þūsend and fīf and twēntig, æt þǣm WWDC 2025, inngetēhte Apple iOS 26. Sēo rīm-getācnung bȳcð þæt gēar þæt fylgeð þæt gēar in þǣm sēo ut-gāfe wæs inngetēht; þēos rīmung-endebyrdnes is nū brūcendu for eallum Apple-rīces-stȳrum, healdende hira rīm-getācnunga samod-geseted. On þǣm eahtoðan dæge þæs Sēremōnaðs twū þūsend and syxtīene, æt þǣm WWDC 2026, inngetēhte Apple iOS 27. Hit inngetēhð Siri AI, nīwne cynd geworht fram Apple on gemǣnsumunge mid Google. Siri AI mæg befangen miclum mā earfoðra weorca, swā swā wyrcende sceortnesse in þǣm Sceortnessa-cræftmidle and timbriende foresnotere wegas. Sēo ednīwode Siri is gelīc ānre AI-sprǣccwædan, and hēo onfōð ānne cræftmidel þǣr brūceras magon bēonian heora ǣrra sprǣca. g5m1kf7xwku0nn00p9w72pfsebh5hns 232854 232853 2026-11-10T04:34:56Z Bryceybam 144190 Created by translating the section "Features" from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1384601747|IOS]]" 232854 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Ymele:IOS_wordmark_(2017).svg|thumb]] '''iOS''' is [[searusprecend]]a [[weorcendebyrdness|ƿeorcendebyrdness]] þe is geƿorht and asteald fram [[Apple Inc.]] Ǣrost ƿæs hit þæs 2007. gēares on folc on þǣm [[iPhone]] and on þǣm iPod Touch asteald, ac nū brȳcþ man hit on ōðrum searƿum, ēac þǣm [[iPad]] and þǣm Apple TV. Nā sƿā Google [[Android]] and Microsoft [[Windows Phone]] nile Apple Inc. līefan þe iOS sīe gesett on līchamhyrste būtan Apple Inc. līchamhyrste. Þæs 12. dæges Hærfestmōnaðes þæs 2012. gēares hafaþ Apple Inc. ƿeorcƿrithord mā þonne 700,000 ƿeorcƿrita for iOS, þā ætsomne ƿǣron mā þonne 30 þūsend þūsenda þūsenda mǣla on searu gefǣted. Hit hæfde 21% þǣre tōdǣlunge searcusprecenda þā ƿǣron forþsend on þǣm fēorðan dǣle þæs 2012. gēares, synderlīce æfter [[Android]] fram [[Google]]. Be healfe þæs 2012. gēares ƿǣron mā þonne 400 þūsend þūsenda searƿa mid iOS aƿeaht. ==Seoh ēac== *[[Android]] *[[Windows Phone]] *[[Apple Inc.]] [[Flocc:Weorcendebyrdnessa]] == Stǣr == ''Þā on þǣm gēare twū þūsend and fīf'', þā ðā Stīfen Jobs ongan þæt īsen tō gesearwienne tō macianne þone īsern-fōn, hē cwæð þæt hē hæfde twēġen cyste: oþþē "tō smǣlanne þā Mac, sēo wǣre mǣre weorcsumra cræft, oþþē tō brǣdanne þone iPod". Jobs lufode þone ǣrran rǣd, ac hē satte þā Mac-werod and þā iPod-werod — þā wǣron under Scotes Forstalles and Toniges Fadelles lǣrungum — tōwēard oþrum on inneweardre costnunge, and Forstall siððan sige nam mid þȳ hē geworhte þone īsern-fōn-gesetednysse (iPhone OS). Sēo rǣd ġetimbrode þone spēd þæs īsern-fōnes swā swā grundwong for oðrum wrihterum: mid þȳ hē brēac cūðe borghūs-gesetednysse swā swā his grund, þæt alȣfde þām manigum fremdum Mac-wrihterum tō writenne cræftmidel for þǣm īsern-fōne mid lytlum lǣran. Forstall wæs ēac witega tō wyrcenne þone cræft-gesetednysse gersum (SDK) for þām wrihterum tō timbrienne īsern-fōn-cræft, swā ēac an App Store innan iTunes. ''Þæt rīces-stȳre (oþþe gesetednys) wæs ǣrest geīwed mid þǣm īsern-fōne æt þǣm Macworld-gemēte on þǣm nigoðan dæge þæs Æfterran Gēares þæs gēares twū þūsend and seofon, and hit wæs ūtgenge on þǣm þrymman mōnað þæs ylcan gēares.'' ''Þā þæt rīces-stȳre wæs ǣrost ætīwed on þǣm Æfterran Gēare, cwæð Stīfen Jobs: "Sē īsern-fōn rīdet OS X" and "fereð bord-gelīce cræftmidlas," ac tō þǣm tīman þæs ūt-gangs wæs þæt rīces-stȳre genemned "iPhone OS" (īsern-fōn-gesetednys). Ān-ginnlice wǣron fremde cyndelīce cræftmidlas nā geþafode. Jobs þōhte þæt þā wrihteras meahton webb-cræftmidelas timbrian ðurh þone Safari-webb-bōcere, þā "swelc geworhten swā cyndelīce cræftmidlas on þǣm īsern-fōne."'' ''On þǣm Tīman-fyllnesse mōnað (October) twū þūsend and seofon, cyðde Apple þæt cyndelic cræft-gesetednysse gersum (SDK) wæs ǣrgeweorc and þæt hīe hogodon tō syllenne hit "on wrihtera handa on þǣm Solmōnað." On þǣm syxtan dæge þæs Hrēðmōnaðs twū þūsend and eahta, hēold Apple gemēt, þǣr hīe cyðdon þone īsern-fōn-SDK.'' [[File:Apple_iPhone_2G_8GB_(16).jpg|thumb|Sē ǣresta īsern-fōn (twū þūsend and seofon), sē ǣresta ūtgesetedan tōtēohhunge sē þe rād þone rīces-stȳre, ðā genemned iPhone OS (īsern-fōn-gesetednys)]] Sēo [[App-strǣt]] (oþþe cræft-cēapung) wæs geopenod on þǣm tēoðan dæge þæs Mǣdmōnaðs twū þūsend and eahta, mid fīf hund fruman cræftmidlum gearwum. Þis wēox hrade tō þrēo þūsendum on þǣm Hāligmōnaðe twū þūsend and eahta, fīf tēoðra þūsenda on þǣm Æfterran Gēare twū þūsend and nigon, fīftig þūsenda on þǣm Sēremōnaðe twū þūsend and nigon, hundteantig þūsenda on þǣm Blōtmōnaðe twū þūsend and nigon, twū hund and fīftig þūsenda on þǣm Weodmōnaðe twū þūsend and tēn, fīf and syx hund þūsenda on þǣm Mǣdmōnaðe twū þūsend and twelf, ān þūsend þūsenda on þǣm Wīntfylleðe twū þūsend and þrēotīene, twū þūsend þūsenda on þǣm Sēremōnaðe twū þūsend and syxtīene, and twū þūsend and twū hund þūsenda on þǣm Æfterran Gēare twū þūsend and seofontīene. Swā swā on þǣm Hrēðmōnaðe twū þūsend and syxtīene, syndon ān þūsend þūsenda cræftmidla cyndelīce gemǣte mid þǣm iPad-bōcorde. Þās cræftmidlas sind gesomnodlīce adūn hlædene mā þonne hund þrēotīene þūsend mīla sīðas. Sēo cræft-spyregend cnyhtgefera Sensor Tower tǣhte þæt sēo App-strǣt wæs tō cumanne tō fīf þūsendum þūsenda cræftmidla ymbe twū þūsend and twēntig. On þǣm Hāligmōnaðe twū þūsend and seofon, cyðde Apple þone iPod Touch, se wæs edniwod iPod geworht æfter þǣm gelīcnesse þæs īsern-fōnes. On þǣm seofon and twēntigostan dæge þæs Æfterran Gēares twū þūsend and tēn, tǣhte Apple hiera georn-bādene middangeard-bōcord (tablet), sēo wæs nemned se iPad, sēo hæfde māran scīnan þonne sē īsern-fōn and se iPod Touch, and wæs gegearwod tō webb-sēonne, middangeard-brūcunge, and rǣdunge, and bēad manig-hrīnunge wið manig-hīwes cræfte þǣr-rihte bōc-fella, bōca, gelīcnessa, scēawunga, drēames, word-wyrhtan gewrita, plegan, and þāra mǣstan dǣle ǣrra īsern-fōn-cræftmidla mid niogon and seofon-tēoðan tolfan (9.7-inch) scīnan. Hit hæfð ēac tō-cyme tō mōbilan Safari for webb-sēonne, swā swā tō-gange tō þǣre App-strǣte, iTunes-hordern, iBookstore, Gemētungum (Contacts), and Gemyndwrihtum (Notes). Þæt þing bið adūn hlæden þurh Wi-Fi and ōðrum 3G-þēowbære oþþe gecnytted þurh þæs brūcendes tōtēohhunge. AT&T wæs ǣrest sē ānlepa Ameriscan þēowa for þǣm 3G-lēaswebbe þæs iPads. On þǣm Sēremōnaðe twū þūsend and tēn, endebyrde Apple eft hiora īsern-fōn-gesetednysse nemne tō "iOS". Sēo tacen-nama "IOS" wæs ǣr brūcendu fram þǣm cēapmanna-felage Cisco ofer tŷn gēar tō hiora ānum rīces-stȳre, sēo wæs genemned IOS, sēo wæs geseted on hiora ræstra (routers). Tō forflēonne ǣnige uncūðe sacu, gelahte Apple þone "IOS"-tacen-naman tō lēane fram Cisco. On þǣm nigoðan dæge þæs Hāligmōnaðs twū þūsend and fīertyne, cyðde Tim Cook þone Apple Watch tid-weard (smartwatch), sēo wæs ǣrest geīwed swā tōtēohhung mid hǣlo- and lichaman-cunnunge. Hit wæs ūtgenge on þǣm fēower and twēntigostan dæge þæs Ēastermōnaðs twū þūsend and fīftīene. Hit brēac watchOS swā swā his rīces-stȳre; watchOS is getimbrod on iOS, mid nīwum cræftum geworht synderlīce for þǣm Apple Watch swā swā styrmunge-cunnunge cræftmidel. ''On þǣm Wīntfylleðe twū þūsend and syxtīene, geopnode Apple hiora ǣrrestan iOS-wrihtera lǣrhūs on Neapoli innan þǣm nīwum tūnscīre þære Neapol-hāgweardes Hīhstōwes Frederikes II. Sēo lǣrung is eallinga frēo, geseted tō begitenne synderlīce cræft-þēawas be þǣm gewyrhte and stȳrunge cræftmidla for þǣm Apple-stede. Æt þǣm lǣrhūse sind ēac sprǣca be cēapunge-stȳrunge (cēapunge-rǣdunge and cēapunge-stȳrunge mid hogunge tō tōwēardum dǣlum) and þǣr is weg gehālgod tō þǣre timbrunge fagerra ansīna. Leorneras habbað þone gemynd tō gemǣnanne on þǣm "Cēapunge-weg", dēop-lǣrende costnunge be eallum līfe þæs cræftmidles, fram timbrunge tō gefyllnesse, tō frīðunge, tō wæfersīnum, tō hordernu and wolcn-brūcunge. Swā swā on þǣm gēare twū þūsend and twēntig, hæfð þæt lǣrhūs gelǣred nēah þūsend leornera fram eallum middangearde, þā habbað gewroht on fēower hund cræftmidla geþancas and habbað ǣr ūt-āgefen nēah fīftig cræftmidla on þǣre iOS App-strǣte. On þǣm lǣr-gēare twū þūsend and eahtatīene oþ twū þūsend and nigontīene, cōmon leorneras fram mā þonne þrītig landa. Fīf and þrītig þissa wǣron gecorene tō cumanne tō þǣm Middangeardlican Wrihtera Gemēte, þǣm gēarlīcan Apple-wrihtera gemēte þe bið gehalden gēarlīce in Californie on þǣm fruman þæs Sēremōnaðs.'' [[File:Steve_Jobs_with_the_Apple_iPad_no_logo_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Stīfen Jobs, sēo Apple-hēafodmann, cyðþ þone iPad on þǣm gēare twū þūsend and tēn.]] ''On þǣm þridðan dæge þæs Sēremōnaðs twū þūsend and nigontīene, wæs iPadOS, sēo nemnende cynd iOS for þǣm iPad, gecȳðed ofer þǣm WWDC 2019 hēafod-sprǣce; hit wæs ūtgenge on þǣm fīf and twēntigostan dæge þæs Hāligmōnaðs twū þūsend and nigontīene.'' On þǣm nigonðan dæge þæs Sēremōnaðs twū þūsend and fīf and twēntig, æt þǣm WWDC 2025, inngetēhte Apple iOS 26. Sēo rīm-getācnung bȳcð þæt gēar þæt fylgeð þæt gēar in þǣm sēo ut-gāfe wæs inngetēht; þēos rīmung-endebyrdnes is nū brūcendu for eallum Apple-rīces-stȳrum, healdende hira rīm-getācnunga samod-geseted. On þǣm eahtoðan dæge þæs Sēremōnaðs twū þūsend and syxtīene, æt þǣm WWDC 2026, inngetēhte Apple iOS 27. Hit inngetēhð Siri AI, nīwne cynd geworht fram Apple on gemǣnsumunge mid Google. Siri AI mæg befangen miclum mā earfoðra weorca, swā swā wyrcende sceortnesse in þǣm Sceortnessa-cræftmidle and timbriende foresnotere wegas. Sēo ednīwode Siri is gelīc ānre AI-sprǣccwædan, and hēo onfōð ānne cræftmidel þǣr brūceras magon bēonian heora ǣrra sprǣca. == Cræftas == === Ansīne === Sēo iOS-ansīne is getimbrod ofer rihtre handlungum, brūcende manig-hrīnunge lǣca swā swā strikes, hrinan, pyngan, and gecyrred pyngan. Ansīne-stȳrunge tōtēohhunga beþeccað tōtogan (sliders), clyfias (switches), and hnæpsla (buttons). Inneweard hrerunge-mētendas (accelerometers) sind brūcende fram sumum cræftmidlum tō onfōnne wið hrerunge þæs tōtēohhunges (ān gemǣnelic cyme is sēo unwyrcunge bōd) oþþe hweorfunge hit in þrēom gemētum (ān gemǣnelic cyme is hweorfung betwēux standende and licgende hīwe). Mislicu geðēofnes (accessibility) āwriteð in þǣm dǣle be geðēofnesse þēowbērum gelaðiað þā brūceras mid sēon- and gehȳren-swīcnissum tō brūcenne iOS rihtlīce. ''iOS-tōtēohhunga cēosað tō ðǣm clysp-scīnan (lock screen). Sēo clysp-scīne ætīewð þone tīman and brūcendes clysp-scīnan gesceapenessu, þā ðā ætīewað tīmlicu bodednys fram cræftmidlum. Sēo clysp-scīne hæfð ēac twēġen hnæpsla, hātene Stȳrunge (Controls), þā ðā sind āna tōgētīene on þǣm īsern-fōne. Þās frum-gesetednys synd tō leoht-færete and cAmeran, ac hīe magon bēon endebyrded tō ǣnigum stȳrunge tōgētīene on þǣm Stȳrunge-Stede (Control Center) and magon ēac bēon āfyrrede. Æfter unclyspunge bið sē brūcer lǣded tō þǣm hām-scīnan, sēo is sēo frumlicu stȳrunge and bodednys "stōw" on iOS-tōtēohhungum, gelīc þǣm bord-gesetednysse fundenum on agnum tōtēohhungum. iOS-hām-scīnan sind gewunelīce geworhte fram cræftmidla tācnum and gesceapenessum; cræftmidla tācnas onfōð þone gemǣnan cræftmidel, þǣr gesceapenessu ætīewað libbende, self-niwiende bodednys, swā swā weder-spǣte, þæs brūcendesǣrend-hordern, oþþe nīwa bodednys tīd-rǣw rihte on þǣm hām-scīnan.'' ''Be þǣm uferran ende þære scīnan is stæþ-bār, ætīewende bodednys be þǣm tōtēohhunge and his tōganges. Sē Stȳrunge-Sted (Control Center) mæg bēon "togen" niðer fram þǣm uferran swīðran dæle þæs nnotches oþþe Dynamic Island on īsern-fōnum mid Face ID, oþþe mæg bēon "togen" ūp fram þǣm niðemestan tō þǣm uferran þære scīnan on īsern-fōnum mid Touch ID, syllende tō-gang tō manigum wendan tō stȳrenne þone tōtēohhung hraðor būtan þǣm þearfe tō openianne þā Gestillnesse (Settings). Hit is mǣgelīc tō stȳrenne lēoht-micelnesse, hlūdnesse, lēaswebb-tōgangas, drēam-plegan, and swā furðor.'' ''Scriðende fram þǣm uferran winstran dæle tō þǣm niðemestan (oþþe fram ufele tō niðer on īsern-fōnum mid Touch ID) opnað þone Bodednysse-Midstede (Notification Center), sēo in þǣm nīwestan cyndum iOS is swīðe gelīc þære clysp-scīnan. Hit ætīewð bodednyssa in tīd-endebyrdnysse and tēohhað hīe be cræftmidle. Fram þǣm bodednyssum sumra cræftmidla is hit mǣgelīc tō gemǣnanne rihte, tō bisene mid andwyrdende ǣrend-gewrite rihte þǣr-fram. Bodednyssa sind āsendede in twǣm wīsum, ǣnlīcum bodednyssum þā ðā sind ætīewde on þǣm clysp-scīnan and getācnode fram syndrigum hlēoðre and hrerunge (tō bisene nīedy-bodednyssa oþþe wendlicu weder-bodednyssa), mid gewyrðlicum warnunge-fane and þæs cræftmidles tācn-hnæpsle, and gewunelicum bodednyssum þā ðā brūcað frum-geseted hlēoðr and hrerunge. Bǣðe magon bēon fundene in þǣm Bodednysse-Midstede, and ætīewað for gesetedum tīde-mæte on þǣm clysp-scīnan (būton sē brūcer hæfð Bodednysse-Midstede alȳfed þonne clȳsped).'' ''On īsern-fōnum mid Touch ID, gelīcnessa þære scīnan (screenshots) magon bēon geworhte mid þǣm samodlicum þrycce þæs hām-hnæpsles and þæs mægen-hnæpsles. In gelīcnesse tō Android, sēo ðe lǣteð þā hnæpsla bēon gehealdene niðer, dēh scort þryccunga on iOS. On īsern-fōne mid Face ID, gelīcnessa þære scīnan sind gefangene mid þǣm hlūdnesse-ūp and mægen-hnæpslum þǣre stede.'' ''Sēo cameran-cræftmidel brēac ǣr iOS 7 ānne bīsnendlīce closende cameran-loka-gelīcnessa (skeuomorphic closing camera shutter animation). Siððan þǣm brūcð hit ānne scortne sweartunge-cræft. Mǣre ēacnunga ofer tīd begripað HDR-gelīcnessa-wrihtunge and þone cēap tō gehealdenne bǣðe gemǣnu and hēah-drīflicu (HDR) gelīcnessa samodlicum þǣr sēo ǣrre forwyrð gāstunge-cyme fram hrerendum þingum (fram īsern-fōne 5 on iOS 6), self-wendinglicu HDR-endebyrdnys (fram iOS 7.1), "libbende gelīcnessa" (live photo) mid scortum scēawunge-gewrite gebundenum tō ǣlcere gelīcnesshe (īsern-fōn 6s, iOS 9), and tīd-rīm-cernunge scortnessa-tōgiet (īsern-fōn 7 Plus, iOS 10). Sume cameran-gestillnessa swā swā scēawunge-micelnes and hwætlice-rīm sind nā gedihtende þurh þone cameran-ansīne selfne, ac sind ūt-āsendede tō þǣm stēres gestillnessum.'' ''On iOS 13 inngetēhte man nīwne cræft gehātene "stede-writa" (context menus) sēo ðe ætīewð gesibbe dǣda þonne man hrīneð and gehealt ān þing. Þonne sē stede-writa bið ætīewed, bið se wælg-stede (background) ablitered oððe swīðe ablended.'' ''Tō cēosenne fram feawum cēosungum, bið ān cēosunge-stȳrung brūced. Cēoseras magon ætīewan fæstnode tō þǣm niðemestan oþþe on līnan mid þǣre bodednysse (hātene dæges-cēoseras). Dæges-cēoseras onfōð þone hiw ǣnigres ōðres cēosunge-stȳrunges, ac mid ānre sǣle for dæge, mōnaðe, and mǣgelīce gēare.'' ''Wīsnes-bodednyssa ætīewað in middan þǣre scīnan, ac þǣr sind ēac wīsnes-bodednyssa þā ðā scriðað ūp fram þǣm niðemestan þære scīnan (hātene "dǣd-tīlunga" oþþe action panels). Wēalde dǣda (swā swā tō āfyrrenne ǣnig þing) sind gehiwode rēade.'' Sēo ambehtlice bōcstæf-endebyrdnes iOS is [[San Francisco]]. Hēo is geworht for lytlum bōca rǣdnysse, and bið brūced geond ealne þone rīces-stȳre, eac swylce on fremdum cræftmidlum. Þā tācnas sind hundeahtatig ymbe hundeahtatig pīxela on micelnesse for īsern-fōnum mid māran scīnan, gewunelīce cyndum ofer syx yncum, begripendum iPhone 11 Pro and iPhone 8 Plus, þǣr hīe sind hundtwēntig ymbe hundtwēntig pīxela on īsern-fōnum mid læssum scīnum. ==== ''Hām-scīne'' ==== <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Heafodgewrit|SpringBoard}}Sē hām-scīne, geworht fram SpringBoard, ætīewð cræftmidla tācnas and stæþ at þǣm niðemestan ðǣr brūceras magon fæstnian heora oftost brūcenda cræftmidlas. iOS-hām-scīnan sind gewunelīce geworhte fram cræftmidla tācnas and gesceapenessum; cræftmidla tācnas onfōð þone gesibban cræftmidel, þǣr gesceapenessu ætīewað libbende, self-niwiende bodednys, swā swā weder-spǣte, þæs brūcendes ǣrend-hordern, oþþe nīwa bodednys tīd-rǣw rihte on þǣm hām-scīnan. Sē hām-scīne ætīewð hwonne sē brūcer unclyspeð þone tōtēohhung, þrycð þone līchamlīcan "Hām" hnæpsles þǣr hē in cræftmidle bið, oþþe scrið ūp fram þǣm niðemestan þære scīnan brūcende þone hām-stæþ. Sēo scīne hæfð stæþ-bār ofer þǣm uferran tō ætīewanne bodednyssa, swā swā tīd, hlæst-stede, and mægen-strangnesse. Sē ōðra dǣl þære scīnan is gegearwod þǣm nīwan cræftmidle. Þonne rūn-bōc bið geseted and sē brūcer ontynð þone tōtēohhung, sēo rūn-bōc mæg bēon inngeofen on þǣm Clysp-Scīnan ǣr tōgang tō þǣm Hām-scīnan bið forgifen. ''In iPhone OS 3, wæs [[Spotlight]] inngetēht, alȳfende brūceras tō sēċenne middangeard-gestrēon, cræftmidlas, ǣrend-gewritu, gecorenra menniscra naman, ǣrendgas, gemyndbōcas, gēardaga gelimpu, and gelīcu bodednyssa. In iOS 7 and siððan, Spotlight bið genealǣht þurh niðertogunge ǣghwǣr on þǣm hām-scīnan (būton þā uferran and niðemestan ende þā ðā openiað Bodednysse-Midstede and Stȳrunge-Stede). In iOS 9, þǣr sind twā wīsan tō genealǣcenne Spotlight. Swā swā mid iOS 7 and 8, niðertogung on ǣnigum hām-scīnan ætīewð Spotlight. Hwæðere, hit mæg ēac bēon genealǣht swā swā hit wæs in iOS cyndum 3 oð 6. Þes cræft gifeð Spotlight Siri-rǣdas, þā ðā begripað cræftmidla rǣdas, manna rǣdas, and nīwu bodednyssa. In iOS 10, Spotlight is æt þǣm uferran dæle þæs nū hālgodan "Tōdæges" targe.'' Mid þǣm cyme iPhone OS 3.2, onfēngon brūceras þone cræft tō gesettenne weall-tæge (wallpaper) for þǣm Hām-scīnan. Sē cræft wæs ǣrest āna tōgētīene on þǣm iPad (forman cynn) oð þone cyme iOS 4 sume mōnaðas æfter þǣm cyme iPhone OS 3.2, sē ðe brōhte þone cræft tō eallum īsern-fōnum and iPod Touch cyndum þā ðā meahton þone rīces-stȳre gegangan, būton þǣm īsern-fōne 3G and þǣm iPod touch (ōðrum cynn) for wyrcnesse earfoðnyssum mid tācnla hrerungum. In iOS 7 inngetēhte man gelīcnesse-forhwyrfunge (parallax effect) on þǣm Hām-scīnan, sēo ðe wendað þæs tōtēohhunges weall-tæge and tācnas tōgeanes þære hrerunge þæs tōtēohhunges, wyrcende þrēo-gemētes gelīcnesse (3D effect) and scīne libbendra tācnas. Þes cræft is ēac gesewenlic on þǣm tægl-gesīhte (tab view) Mail and Safari. ''Rīsed-leorneras fundon þæt brūceras endebyrdað tācnas on heora hām-scīnum be brūcnesse tīd-stæpe and gesibbnysse þāra cræftmidla, swā swā ēac for intingan brūcendlicnesse and wlites.'' ==== ''Rīces-bōcstæf'' ==== iOS ǣr brēac Helvetica swā swā þone rīces-bōcstæf. Apple wende tō Helvetica Neue ānum tō þǣm īsern-fōne 4 and his Retina Scīnan, and geheold Helvetica swā swā rīces-bōcstæf for ieldran īsern-fōnum on iOS 4. Mid iOS 7, Apple cȳðde þæt hīe wolden wendan þone rīces-bōcstæf tō Helvetica Neue Light, rēdnis sēo ðe āsthyrode tæle for ungerisenlicre brūcunge lēohtre, þynre bōcstæf-endebyrdnysse for læssum mæte-scīnum. Apple tō lēste gecēas Helvetica Neue stede. Sē cyme iOS 7 ēac inngetēhte þone cræft tō gemetenne bōcstæf oþþe tō settanne ōðru hiw bōcstæf-tōganges þurh Gestillnessa. Mid iOS 9, Apple wende þone bōcstæf tō San Francisco, Apple-geworhtum bōcstæfe geseted tō mǣstan rǣdnysse and bōcstæf-gelīcnysse geond his cræft-endebyrdnysse. ==== Cræftmidla Hordernu ==== iOS 4 inngetēhte cræftmidla hordernu (folders), þā ðā magon bēon geworhte þurh teonne cræftmidel ofer ōðrum, and siððan, mā þinga magon bēon geīected tō þǣm horderne brūcende þone ilcan wisan. Noma for þǣm horderne bið self-gerīmed gecoren be þǣm floccum cræftmidla innan, ac sē noma mæg ēac bēon aedwiscod mid þǣm brūcere. Þonne cræftmidlas innan hordernum onfōð bodednysse tācnas (notification badges), þā singlan gerīmu bodednyssa sind togædere gerīmed and þæt tōtæle gerīme bið ætīewed swā swā bodednysse tācn on þǣm horderne selfum. Ærre, hordernu on īsern-fōne meahton behabban oð twelf cræftmidlas, þǣr hordernu on iPad meahton behabban twēntig. Mid mǣran scīn-micelnessum on nīwum īsern-fōne tōtēohhungum, iOS 7 nīwode þā hordernu mid sīdum gelīcum þǣm hām-scīnes endebyrdnysse, alȳfende micelne brǣdunge hordernes cræftes. Ælc sīde ānres hordernes mæg behabban oð nigon cræftmidlas, and þǣr magon bēon fīf tȳne sīdan on tōtæle, alȳfende tōtæle of hund-þrēotig and fīf cræftmidlum on ānum horderne. In iOS 9, Apple nīwode hordernes micelnessa for iPad tōtēohhungum, alȳfende syx tȳne cræftmidlas be sīdan, gīet æt fīf tȳne sīdum mǣstum, mærende þæt tōtæle tō twā hund and fēowertig cræftmidlum. ==== Bodednysse-Midstede ==== <templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>{{Heafodgewrit|Notification Center}}Ǣr iOS 5, bodednyssa wǮron onsended in anre gelīcnesse scīnan (modal window) and ne meahton bēon gesewene æfter þæt hīe wǮron āworpene. In iOS 5, Apple inngetēhte Bodednysse-Midstede (Notification Center), sēo ðe alȳfeð brūceras tō geseonne stǣre bodednyssa. Sē brūcer mæg hhrīnan bodednysse tō openianne his gesibban cræftmidel, oþþe tō clǣnsienne hine. Bodednyssa sind nū onsended in fana (banners) þā ðā ætīewað stætlīce on þǣm uferran dæle þære scīnan. Gif brūcer hrīð onfengenre bodednysse, sē cræftmidel sē ðe onsende þā bodednysse bið openod. Brūceras magon ēac gecēosan tō geseonne bodednyssa in gelīcnesse wīsnes-scīnum þurh tōgemetenum þæs cræftmidles bodednysse gesellnessum. Inngetēht mid iOS 8, gesceapenessu (widgets) sind nū genealǣhtlicu þurh þǣm Bodednysse-Midstede, gemearcode fram fremdum cræftmidlum. ''Þonne cræftmidel onsendeð bodednysse þenden hē bið belocen, rēad bād bið gesewen on his tācne. Þes bād secgð þǣm brūcere, tō ānum ansīne, hū fela bodednyssa se cræftmidel hæfð onsended. Onpenung þæs cræftmidles clǣnseð þone bād.'' ==== ''Cræftmidlas'' ==== ''iOS tōtēohhunga cumað mid foregesettum cræftmidlum geworhtum fram Apple, midspellum Mail, Maps, TV, Music, FaceTime, Wallet, Health, and monigum ōðrum.'' Cræftmidlas sind sēo gemǣneste wisu cræftmidla teohhunge þē mæg bēon geseted on iOS. Hīe sind niðerāhlod fram þǣm ambehtlican cēape-hūse App Store, þǣr cræftmidlas sind underðēod frib-cunningum ǣr hīe bēon gearwe brūcerum. In Sūnite 2017, Apple nīwode his rēdnyssa tō gecȳðenne þæt cræftmidla wyrhtan nabbað nā māre þone cræft tō brūcenne āgen wīsunga tō manienne brūcerum tō lætenne domas for heora cræftmidlum. iOS cræftmidlas magon ēac bēon geseted rihte fram IPA skiften geworhtum fram þǣm teohhunge-dǣlere, þurh unambehtlica wīsan. Hīe sind gewritene brūcende iOS Cnyttnesse Geðēodes Tōtēohhunge (SDK) and, oft, gemenged mid Xcode, brūcende ambehtlīce gehæptra sprǣca, midspellum Swift and Objective-C. Ōðra felagscipas habbað ēac geworht tōtēohhunga þā ðā alȳfað teohhunge gecyndra iOS cræftmidla brūcende heora āgenra sprǣca. ''iOS cræftmidlas sind mǣst geworhte brūcende dǣlum UIKit, þæt is cræftmǣte geryne-endebyrdnys (programming framework). Hit alȳfeð cræftmidlum tō hæbban gelīcne wlít and brūcung mid þǣm rīces-stȳre, þēahwæðere bēodende āgenlice geatwunge.'' Dǣlas self-niwiað mid iOS nīwungum, self-gesetedlīce inniende nīwu ansīne rēdnyssa. UIKit dǣlas sind swīðe gewendlicu, þæt alȳfeð teohhicum tō wrīcanne ānne cræftmidel sē ðe lict gelīce on ǣnigum iOS tōtēohhunge. Tōēaces þǣm tō gemearconne þæt iOS ansīne, UIKit gemearcað þone cræft þæs cræftmidles. Ærre, Apple nolde nā útgifan SDK tō cræftmidla wyrhtum, for þǣm ðe hīe wolden þæt fremde cræftmidlas nǣren geworhte tō iOS, ac wyrcean web-cræftmidlas þæs stede. Hwæðere, þēos cræftcundnys næfre cōm tō gemǣnum brūce, þæt lædde Apple tō wendan his mōd, swā þæt in Winterfylleð 2007 sē SDK tō wyrhtum wæs cȳðed, and tō lēste ūtgeseted on Hrēðmōnað 6, 2008. Sē SDK innið an innoð-fylled getal cræftmidla teohhunge, midspellum hlūd-mengere and īsern-fōnes gelīcnysse-tōtēohhunge (iPhone simulator). Hit is frēo niðerāhlod for Mac brūcerum. Hit nis nā tōgētīene for Microsoft Windows tōtēohhungum. Tō cunnienne þone cræftmidel, tō onfōnne cræftlīce fultum, and tō dǣlenne cræftmidlas þurh App Store, wyrhtan sind behēfe tō giemeniende þone Apple Teohhunge Gerīm (Apple Developer Program). ''Ofer þāra gēara, þā App Store cræftmidlas ofersƣwodon monigu mǣru gemearc, midspellum fīf tig þūsenda, hund þūsenda, twā hund and fīf tig þūsenda, fīf hund þūsenda, ān þūsenda þūsend, and twā þūsenda þūsend cræftmidla. Sēo þūsend-þūsend-þūsend-licu cræftmidel wæs geseted on Ēastermōnað 24, 2009.'' ==== Cræftmidla Bōchord ==== Cræftmidla Bōchord self-floccð cræftmidlas tō hordernum be heora cræfte oþþe gecynde and innið stæfroflic getal ealra gesetera cræftmidla. Bisene þingum, hit mæg gegaderian ealla gefer-scipes cræftmidlas tō ānum horderne and nytnesse cræftmidlas tō ōðrum. Brūceras magon hrædlīce findan and genealǣcan cræftmidlas þurh brūcende þā sēcan-brægd æt þǣm uferran dæle þæs Cræftmidla Bōchordes. Brūceras magon gecēosan tō hydanne sindrige cræftmidla sīdan fram þǣm hām-scīne, wyrchende hit eaðre tō hogienne on þā cræftmidlas þā hīe oftost brūcað. === Hord-stede === iOS genȳdð strīnge hord-clȣnsunge tō healdenne frīð and dysegung. Cræftmidlas sind gemǣnelīce ġeþearnode tō genealǣcenne hiera āgenum hordernum and sundorlicum rīces-gesettum strǣtum, swā swā þǣre Biliðena Hordernes. Tō genealǣcenne flas ūtan hiera hord-clȣnsunge, iOS brūceð wīsan swā swā gewrit-cēosendas, gewrit-forðendas, and cræftmidla īcunge. iOS 8 introdæde þone Gewrit-Cēosend and Gewrit-Forðend Īcunga tō dǣle þæs gewrites gemǣnunge rīces. Þæt alȳfeð cræftmidlum tō openianne, tō healdenne, and tō gemǣnenne wið gewritum þā sind gehealdene on ānre midlestan stede oþþe wolcn-hord-stede ðēnungum. Mid iOS 11, Apple innyste þone Gewrit-Cræftmidel and þone Gewrit-Forðend Īcunge, selende ānre midlestan stede brūcerum tō stȳrenne and tō endebyrdenne hiera gewritu. Cræftmidlas magon gemengan mid þǣm Gewrit-Cræftmidle tō dōnne hiera gewritu genealǣcendlicu and rihtendlīcu rihte fram þǣm Gewrit-Cræftmidle. Sēo hord-stede iOS tōtēohhunga mæg bēon brǣded þurh þone wolcn-hord-stede Apple, sē ðe syleð fīf gigabytes hord-stedes tō nāwihte eallum brūcerum, þā hwīle ðe ōðra endebyrdnyssa behofiað gyldendne gield-cræft. Wolcn-Hord-Stede alȳfeð brūcerum tō healdenne missenlicu cynn gewrita, swā swā gewritu, gesetnesse, and tæl-bord, on þǣm wolcne. Þās gewritu magon bēon genealǣcede ofer monigum tōtēohhungum swā lange swā sē brūcer is underwriten mid þǣm samum Apple Cennysse. === Ætgrǣpness === iOS bietet monige ætgrǣpnessu tōtēohhunga tō fultumienne brūcerum mid gesihþe and gehȳran untrumnessum. Ān mǣre þing, VoiceOver, seleð stefne þē rǣð bodiendlīce gewritu ofer þǣm scīne, midspellum gesetedlicu hnæppan, tācnu, bendas, and ōðra cræft-ansīne dǣlas, and alȳfeð þǣm brūcere tō lādienne þæt rīces-stȳre þurh fǣhþu. Ǣnig cræftmidel mid gesetedlicum stȳrsum and geworht mid UIKit cræftmǣte onfehð VoiceOver cræftscieptunge inneweardlīce. Ān bisen innið þone īsern-fōn ūp āhebbande tō nimenne bilið, mid VoiceOver þē gerecað þæs biliðes gesihþe. Swā dǣl þæs "Made for iPhone" endebyrdnisses, innyst þurh þǣm ūtgange iOS 7 in 2013, Apple hæfð geworht cræftcundnysse tō brūcenne Blēo-Tōð and sundorlic cræftcundnysse rēdnysse tō lǣtende gerysne fremde tōtēohhunga gebindan mid īsern-fōnum and pad-tōtēohhungum tō strēamienne hlūd-mengunge rihte tō brūceres ēarum. Māre geatwung tōgētīene for Made for iPhone tōtēohhungum innið hlæst-rǣran and wendendlicu hlēo-gesetnesse tō missenlicum stōwum. Apple macode furðor strepunga ætgrǣpnessu for þǣm ūtgange iOS 10 in 2016, ēacniende nīwne sprǣce-wyrhtan tō VoiceOver, ēacniende Styrra-scēawunge gesetnesse tō swiþianne þing þurh þǣre tōtēohhunge cāmeran, cræft-ansīne TTY fultum tō ðeafum mannum tō wyrcenne sprǣc-clypunga fram þǣm īsern-fōne, and selende lǣrnessa and rēdnyssa tō fremdum wyrhtum tō inniende gerysne ætgrǣpnessu cræftas in heora cræftmidlum. In 2012, Liat Kornowski fram The Atlantic wrāt þæt "se īsern-fōn hæfð geworden ān þāra mǣstan cyrrende gewyrda siððan þǣre findunge Brēle", and in 2016, Steven Aquino fram TechCrunch wrāt Apple swā "forðlǣdende þone weg in fultumlicre cræftcundnysse", mid Sarah Herrlinger, Ealdre Stȳrende for Wīdrēdre Ætgrǣpnessu Ærendgespræce and Fruman æt Apple, cweðende þæt "Wē geseoð ætgrǣpnessu swā frymðlicne mannes riht. Timbrende in þone cwelm nūra tōtēohhunga styreð gesihþe anes inne-berendlicu middangeardes hwǣr cyrr and genealǣcung tō gewrite sind wyrc-lēase, mægenlicende menn mid untrumnessum tō gerǣcenne heora myntas." Tēona wæs geseted wið iOS be hängennessu ægðer ge ofer net-tōgepinge ge oferne rǣdnde SIM-carde tō forman cwide. Þes gelettes wæs alȣd in iOS 12, sē ðe nū nǣfre behōfað þone æfterran. === Manig-wyrcnes === Manig-wyrcnes for iOS wæs tō forman ūtgeseted in Sēremōnað 2010 mid þǣm ūtgange iOS 4. Sumu tōtēohhunga āne mihtan manig-wyrcan. Sē Pad nāfde manig-wyrcnesse oð iOS 4.2.1 in þǣm Blōtmōnað. Þæt gefōg manig-wyrcnesse in iOS wæs tōteled for hiera wīsan, sēo ðe geþearnað þā wyrcnesse ðe cræftmidlas in þǣm bæcborde magon fremman tō ānrum lȳtlum rǣde cræfta and behōfað cræftmidla wyrhtan tō ēacienne openlic fultum tō þǣm. Ǣr iOS 4, manig-wyrcnes wæs gewæsced tō cyre þāra cræftmidla þe Apple inþēodde on þǣre tōtēohhunge. Brūceras mihtan hwæðere "frēolsian" hiera tōtēohhunge tō wyrcenne manig-wyrcnesse uncyndelīce. Onginnende mid iOS 4, on þriddan-cnōsle and nīwran iOS tōtēohhungum, manig-wyrcnes is gefultumod þurh seofon bæcbordes cræftmǣlas: # Bæcbordes hlēo – cræftmidel forðgæð tō wyrcenne on þǣm bæcborde swā lange swā hit plegeð hlēo oððe bilið-gecynd. # Stæf-clypung wið IP – cræftmidel is ahafen þonne clypung nalið in forðgange. # ''Bæcbordes stōw – cræftmidel is ġecȳþed be stōwe wendunghwīlum.'' # ''Tōþrȳcnesse gemyndgunga'' # Stōwlice gemyndgunga – cræftmidel endebyrdeð stōwlice gemyndgunga tō bēonne gegiefene on gewisre tīde. # Weorces gefyllednes – cræftmidel biddeð þæt rīce æfter māran tīde tō gefyllenne giefene weorc. # Hræde cræftmidla wendung – cræftmidel ne fremð ǣnig cynd and mæg bēon genumen of gemynde on ǣlcre tīde. In iOS 5, þrēo nīwu bæcbordes cræftmǣlas wǣron innystu: # Stand – cræftmidel mæg niman ingang on þǣm bæcborde tō bēonne ġearu þǣm brūcere. # Ūtan-tōtēohhunge Īcenes – cræftmidel gemǣneð mid ūtan-tōtēohhunge and dǣleð geryne be geornum stundum. # Īcung – cræftmidel gemǣneð mid blēo-tōð tōtēohhunge and dǣleð geryne be geornum stundum. In iOS 7, Apple innyste nīwe manig-wyrcnesse þing, selende eallum cræftmidlum þone cræft tō fremmenne bæcbordes niwunge. Þes cræft gecēost tō niwienne þæs brūceres oftost brūcenda cræftmidla and gecēost tō brūcenne Wi-Fi netwerc ofer fyl-netwerc, būtan miclum minnienne þære tōtēohhunge hlæst-līfes. ==== Wrixlung cræftmidla ==== In iOS 4.0 oð iOS 6.x, twi-cnysgende þone hām-hnæpp tǣceð þone cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd. Scrēawendlīc disc-endebyrdnys ætīweð fram þǣm grunde, styrende þā inwritu þæs scīnes ūp. Cēosende tācn tōcēost tō cræftmidle. Tō þǣm swīðran ende sind tācnu þē wyrcað swā hlēo-stȳras, wended-fæstnys, and on iOS 4.2 and up, hlūd-stȳre. Mid þǣm tōcyme iOS 7, twi-cnysgende þone hām-hnæpp ēac tǣceð þone cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd. Hwæðere, ungelīce ǣrran endebyrdnissum, hē ætīweð biliðu openra cræftmidla ofer þǣm tācne and ofer-weard scēawung alȳfeð ymbseonne þurh ǣrran cræftmidlas, and hit is gelīclīc tō belūcanne cræftmidlas mid þȳ drægenne hīe ūp, gelīc þǣm hwū WebOS gehandlede manigu cardu. ''Mid þǣm tōcyme iOS 9, se cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd onfeng micelne ansīne wendunge; þenden hē healdð gīt þā card-bisen innystu in iOS 7, se cræftmidles tācn is læssa, and ætīweð bufan þæs biliðes (sēo ðe is nū māre, for þǣre ālȳsednesse "Nīwra and Leofra Gefeērena"), and ælc cræftmidles "card" oferwrihð þæt ōðre, wyrcende rolodex-endebyrdnysse swā se brūcer scēawað. Nū, stede þæs hām-scīnes ætīwendes æt þǣm swīðran ende þæs cræft-ansīne rǣles gemyndes, hit ætīweð æt þǣm winstran ende. In iOS 11, se cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd onfehð micelne endebyrdnysse edniwunge. On þǣm Pade, se Stȳr-Stede and cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd sind gegaderodu. Se cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd on þǣm Pade mæg ēac bēon genumen mid þȳ strīcenne ūp fram þǣm grunde. On þǣm īsern-fōne, se cræft-ansīne rǣles gemynd ne mæg bēon genumen gif nān cræftmidel nis in þǣm gemynde.'' ==== Geendunge weorca ==== In iOS 4.0 oð iOS 6.x, lytle fæste hæbbende þā tācnu in þǣm cræft-ansīne rǣles gemyndes dēð þæt hīe cwecgad (gelīce þǣm hām-scīne) and alȳfeð þǣm brūcere tō nied-endanne þā cræftmidlas mid þȳ cnyssenne þone rēadan minus-hring se ðe ætīweð æt þǣm hyrran þæs cræftmidles tācnes. Rǣmende cræftmidlas of manig-wyrcnesse wunode þæt ilce fram iOS 4.0 oð 6.1.6, sēo latoste endebyrdnys iOS 6. Siððan iOS 7, se gang is geworden hrædra and ēðra. In iOS 7, stede þæs hæbbendes þā tācnu tō belūcanne hīe, hīe sind belocene mid þȳ smēale strīcenne hīe ūpwearð of þǣm scīne. Ōð þrēo cræftmidlas magon bēon rǣmedet ānre tīd gelīce wið ānre in endebyrdnissum oð iOS 6.1.6. ==== Weorces gefyllednes ==== Weorces gefyllednes alȳfeð cræftmidlum tō forðgǣanne gewis weorc æfter þǣm þe se cræftmidel is ahangod. Siððan iOS 4.0, cræftmidlas magon biddan oð tyn minuta tō gefyllenne weorc in þǣm bæcborde. Þes ne forðgǣð tō bæcbordes uplādum and niðerlādum þēah (hwæðere gif brūcer onginð niðerlād in ānum cræftmidle, hit ne endað gif hē wrixleð aweg of þǣm cræftmidle). === Siri === Siri (/ˈsɪri/) is wīrlic fultumend geseted in iOS. Se fultumend brūceð stefn-bēda and gecyndelīces gereordes brūcer-gesīhðe tō andswarienne spurnungum, dōn rǣda, and wyrcanne dǣda mid þȳ befæstanne bēda tō gedale internet-þēowda. Sēo tōtēohhung gecyndað hine tō brūcendra sundorlicum gereord-brūcungum, sēocungum, and gecēosungum, mid forðgǣndum brūce. Geldene wæstmas sind sundorlicu geseted. Ǣrest ūtgeseted swā tōtēohhung for iOS in Solmōnað 2010, hēo wæs gefangen fram Apple twām mōnaðum æfter þǣm, and þǣr-æfter geseted in þǣm īsern-fōne 4S æt hire ūtgesetenysse in Winterfylleð 2011. On þǣm tīman, sēo sundor tōtēohhung wæs ēac ālȳsed of þǣm iOS App Store. ''Siri styðð wīde endebyrdnysse brūcer-bēda, swā swā wyrcanne sīman-dǣda, cunnian grundlicu gerynu, settanne gelimpu and gemund-bēda, gehendanne tōtēohhunge gesetednessa, sēcean þæt Internet, wīsian stōwa, findanne gerynu be plegan, and mæg gemǣnan mid iOS-gesetedum cræftmidlum. Mid þǣm tōcyme iOS 10 in 2016, Apple openode gemǣne þridda-dǣle gang tō Siri, swā swā þridda-dǣles bōc-sendende cræftmidlas, swā ēac gylda, wægn-dǣlende, and Internet-sīman cræftmidla. Mid þǣm tōcyme iOS 11, Apple edniwode Siri stefna tō mā hlūtrum, manncynnes stefnum, hēo nū styðð æfterfylgendlicu spurnunga and gereordes wendunge, and ēacen þridda-dǣles dǣda. iOS 17 ālȳfde brūcerum tō ālȳsenne Siri mid þȳ ānlicum cwedenne "Siri", þenden sēo ǣrre bēd, "Hey Siri", is gīt gestydod.'' === Gamen-Stede === ''Gamen-Stede is onlīne manig-pleges "felāscipe-plegande netwerc"[1] ūtgeseted fram Apple.[2] Hit alȳfeð brūcerum tō "lāðian gefēeran tō pleganne gamen, onginne manig-plege gamen þurh gemynd-cēosunge, folgian heora geearnunga, and gelīcan heora hēah-stigende sceora on stæf-gelæde." iOS 5 and up tēcoð gestyndnisse tō þissum bilið-bieldum.[1]'' Gamen-Stede wæs gebēoded binnan iOS 4 fore-gesīhde gelimpe gehædred fram Apple on Ēaster-mōnað 8, 2010. Fore-gesīhð wæs ūtgeseted tō gewritenum Apple tōtēohhiendum in Weod-mōnað.[1] Hit wæs ūtgeseted on Hāligmōnað 8, 2010, mid iOS 4.1 on īsern-fōne 4, īsern-fōne 3GS, and iPod Touch ōðre cynn oð fēorðum cynne.[2] Gamen-Stede macode his folclīce cyme on þǣm Pade mid iOS 4.2.1.[3] Nān gestyndnys nis tō þǣm īsern-fōne 3G, fruman īsern-fōne and þǣm forman cynne iPod Touch (þā twēgen tōtēohhunga næfdon Gamen-Stede for þǣm þe hīe ne onfēngon iOS 4).[4]. Hwæðere, Gamen-Stede is uncyndlīce gearu on þǣm īsern-fōne 3G þurh cræft.[5] 7dr0s26jfqhknxppmrqb4yvq4ah0b0m 0 18656 232849 222034 2026-11-09T18:20:44Z ~2026-59477-17 144212 232849 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bæþ Heartesburg''' ([[Þēodsc sprǣc|Þēodsc]]: ''Bad Harzburg'', [[Niðerseaxisc sprǣc|Nīƿeseaxisc]]: ''Bad Harzborg'') is burg in [[Þēodscland]]e, hnēaƿra in Sūþ[[niðerseaxland]]<nowiki/>e bī þǣm [[Heartbeorg]]um. Þā ƿunodon 2015 ymbe 21,700 menn. == Nama == In Nīƿenglisc sprǣce, sē nama ''Bæþ Heartesburg'' mǣnde ''Bath (of the) Harz's castle''. == Dǣle == Dǣle Bæþ Heartesburges sind: *Æccerdæl *Beaduƿingahrēod *Byndhām *[[Gydingahrēod]] *[[Herelingahrēod]] *Hof Rædīeġ *Slāƿþu *Ƿesthrēod [[Flocc:Byrig on Niðerseaxlande]] [[Flocc:Bæþtūnas on Þēodsclande]] 8fij8kh5hrzg0k7czdyxwbbb76v41ob 232850 232849 2026-11-09T18:21:15Z ~2026-59477-17 144212 232850 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bæþ Heartesburg''' ([[Þēodsc sprǣc|Þēodsc]]: ''Bad Harzburg'', [[Niðerseaxisc sprǣc|Nīƿeseaxisc]]: ''Bad Harzborg'') is burg in [[Þēodscland]]e, hnēaƿra in Sūþ[[niðerseaxland]]<nowiki/>e bī þǣm [[Heartbeorg]]um. Þā ƿunodon 2015 ymbe 21,700 menn. == Nama == In Nīƿenglisc sprǣce, sē nama ''Bæþ Heartesburg'' mǣnde ''Bath (of the) Harz's castle''. == Dǣle == Dǣle Bæþ Heartesburges sind: *Æccerdæl *Beaduƿingahrēod *Byndhām *[[Gydingahrēod]] *[[Herelingahrēod]] *Hof Rædīeġ *Slāƿþu *Ƿesthrēod {{DEFAULTSORT:Baeþ Heartesburg]] [[Flocc:Byrig on Niðerseaxlande]] [[Flocc:Bæþtūnas on Þēodsclande]] p4hq9jv1xza2bmpcimajzyso34qejba 232851 232850 2026-11-09T18:21:23Z ~2026-59477-17 144212 /* Dǣle */ 232851 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bæþ Heartesburg''' ([[Þēodsc sprǣc|Þēodsc]]: ''Bad Harzburg'', [[Niðerseaxisc sprǣc|Nīƿeseaxisc]]: ''Bad Harzborg'') is burg in [[Þēodscland]]e, hnēaƿra in Sūþ[[niðerseaxland]]<nowiki/>e bī þǣm [[Heartbeorg]]um. Þā ƿunodon 2015 ymbe 21,700 menn. == Nama == In Nīƿenglisc sprǣce, sē nama ''Bæþ Heartesburg'' mǣnde ''Bath (of the) Harz's castle''. == Dǣle == Dǣle Bæþ Heartesburges sind: *Æccerdæl *Beaduƿingahrēod *Byndhām *[[Gydingahrēod]] *[[Herelingahrēod]] *Hof Rædīeġ *Slāƿþu *Ƿesthrēod {{DEFAULTSORT:Baeþ Heartesburg}} [[Flocc:Byrig on Niðerseaxlande]] [[Flocc:Bæþtūnas on Þēodsclande]] lnme5gq9ho9habfo3u6lykflnwc0l71 0 28865 232845 2026-11-09T13:37:07Z Aldayaman 144204 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1369908287|Acting Shakespeare]]" 232845 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Plega Sċacaspere''' is ānmannes scēawung [[Shakespeare]] ānspellunga betwux geþēod mid scēawcræftlīcum spellum geþōht and gefremmed fram Ian McKellen. 9hsp6r5uwygljfo48ie9mr2bm0uqhhr 0 28866 232846 2026-11-09T13:40:29Z Aldayaman 144204 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1383386882|Acting]]" 232846 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Plega''' is dǣd on þǣre þe spell biþ gereaht þurh his gefremminge fram scēawere þe onfēhþ hād—on pleganhūse, on feorrsīene, on filme, on rādiō, oþþe on ǣnigum ōðrum medume þe brȳcþ þæs onlīcigendan hīwes. gr3vs7ang3uy07yazihzgers305lhf6 232847 232846 2026-11-09T13:40:56Z Aldayaman 144204 /* */ 232847 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 28867 232848 2026-11-09T13:46:14Z Aldayaman 144204 Created by translating the opening section from the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1384493535|Leon Angel]]" 232848 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Leon Angel''' (15 Þrimilcemonað 1900 – 12 Mædmōnað 1973), gewunelīce gecīged swā simplice Leon, wæs Ægyptisc scēawere betst cūð for his weorce in þǣm 1930um. Hē ætīewde in rīme Muslimisc–Iudēisc freondlicra filma in þǣm þe hē plegode cōmisc Iudēisc hād. Betwēonan Iudēum Ægyptes þe wǣron on Ægyptiscum filme weorce, Leon wæs sē āna Iudēisc steorra þe hēafodode Ægyptiscne film þā hwīle þe hē plegode Iudēiscne hād. Hē siþþan ūtferde tō Australie, þǣr þe hē wæs on begangnysse tō staðolianne þæs landes forman Sephardiscan synag kli4amd4shzhxqazounfn9dmdy1z793 0 28868 232852 2026-11-10T03:09:46Z Bryceybam 144190 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1384751528|Regulus (Turner)]]" 232852 wikitext text/x-wiki   '''Regulus is ele-mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres J. M. W. Turner, þe nū stent on Tate Britain, on Lunden-byrig, and sēo þēod on his hand is tō beonne ġesæġd for þā mænigeigum hira þæt hē wæs ealdor mid ealdormannum under þǣm tīde. Hēo wæs ǣrest ġemǣled on þǣm ġēare 1829 and swīðlīce ofer-mǣled twiwa. Þæt mǣling is ġestaðolod ofer eald-ġesegenum be þǣm Rōmāniscan hēah-ġerefan and hild-fruman Marce Atilie Regule, on þǣre þe hē wæs ġefangen fram Cartaina-fyrdum and ōfslegen æfter þǣm þe hē forsōc tō hwearfienne hæftlingas. Eald-ġewritu Ēacnaþ þæt hē wæs ġewītnod mid þǣm þe hē wæs ġenēded tō fōre-lōcienne on þā sunnan, þe hine ablendode. Þæt mǣling getācnaþ hȳðe on Rōme oþþe Cartaino, mid scipum and boldum ymbsittendum þone garsecg. Hēo is ġewealdend fram þǣre mǣstan hwītan sunnan on þǣm midle.''' Turner ǣror mǣlede and ǣwde ''Regulus'' on Rōme-byriġ under his faru on þǣm ġēare 1828, æfter þǣm þe hēo wæs ġesended tō Lunden-byriġ, þǣr hē eardode. On sumum tīde under oþþe æfter þǣre scipunge, sēo ūp-lyft dǣl þæs clay-clāþes wæs to-doren, þe þorfte ġebētunge and eft-mǣlinge. Þæt geweorc wæs ġeheolden on Turneres āgenum māþm-hūse oð 1837, þā hēo wæs ofer-mǣled æt þǣm Brytiscan In-setene under diht-dæġe, mid þǣm mǣleras dydon hit forþ fast-mǣlinga and ġenspēonnon hira mǣlinga beforan diht-hyrde ǣr ǣwunge. Hēo æfter-þam ġeangode mid wīd-cūðnesse, and in-bryrdode twā ōþru ymb-mǣlinga and twā ġegrafena biliþ. ''Regulus'' wæs ġflitlic ġeweorc, swīðe ġecīdid under his ǣwungum and fram contemporaneous-mannum swylce Turneres fultumiend John Ruskin. On 1863, hēo wæs ġesticod fram wer þe wæs unġewercum mid Turneres cræfte and þǣm mǣlere selfum. Þæt mǣling hæfþ ēac ġedroren fram sprying-scellum ġemǣles. Nāh wētan snoteras be þǣm hwæt þæt mǣling sōþlīce getācnaþ. Sumere wēnaþ þæt þæt mǣling ætȳwde Regule faranne fram Cartaine tō Rōme, þenden ōþru feohtaþ þæt hit cȳþeþ his eft-cyme. Ōðer ġeflit is hwæðer Regulus is ān biliþ on þǣm mǣlinge, oþþe hwæðer hit is of his gesihþe þā hē wæs ablendod, oþþe hwæðer hit is ġesett tō getācnienne Regules līf eallunga, mid þǣm þe hit cȳþeþ bēġu þing. Snoteras habbaþ ġefultumod hira wēnunge mid ġewritum of þǣm naman þāra æfterran ġegrafena biliþa, Turneres ōþrum mǣlingum, and þǣm fruman be Regule of þǣm þe Turner drōh. == Bæc-ġewri == [[File:Benjamin_West_(1738-1820)_-_The_Departure_of_Regulus_-_RCIN_405416_-_Royal_Collection.jpg|alt=Regulus walking through a crowd of kneeling figures|thumb|Ǣrist Regules fram Cartaine (1769), ġemǣled fram Benjamīne West, and ġegrafen fram Willelme Turner]] Regulus is ele-mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres J. M. W. Turner, mǣtende fēower-scort and nīgon healf centimettra ofer hund and twēntig and þrēo healf centimettra (35.2 in × 48.7 in). Þæt mǣling getācnaþ hȳðe, þe ymb-fealded þā mǣstan hwītan sunnan on þǣm midle. Sē titula biliþ, Marcus Atilius Regulus, wæs Rōmānisc hēah-ġerefa and hild-fruma þe cwieldode on þǣm ǣrestan Puniciscan Ġewinne. Hē wæs ġefangen fram Cartaina-fyrdum under þǣre Heafod-stōwe Bagradas Eā-ġefeohtes on 256 ǣr Chrīst, and wēnunge steorfaþ æfter-þam fram cynde-stefnum. Regulus wæs on his ealdres dæġum sē ealdormann þæs Cartainiscan legies, and hē is oft ġesæġd swā sē mǣsta hild-fruma betweox eallum Rōmāniscam hild-fruma. Hē blēow tō beonne ġeweorðod fram bēġem Rōme and Cartaine. Æfter þissum eald-ġesegenum, Regules hæftendas hine eft-sendedon tō Rōme-byriġ tō dǣlenne hæftlinga hwearfunge, ac æt his cyme hē lǣrde þā Rōmāne tō wiðsacan, þēah þe hē wiste þæt hē wǣre ōfslegen æfter his eft-cyme tō þǣre fēondlican byriġ Cartaine. Hē ġecēas þæt hē nōht abrǣce his āþ-wōd, and hwearf eft tō þǣre fēond-byriġ, æfter þǣm þā stǣru hwīlum to-syndriaþ. On mænigum ġewritum Regulus wæs ġewītnod mid þǣm þe his ǣg-hringas wǣron ōf-ādocode oþþe snōd-ġesowod open, ǣr þæm þe hē wæs ġenēded tō lōcienne on þā sunnan, þe hine tō āblendnesse ġelǣdde. Sume stǣr-wītan ēcnaþ mā details: Tuditanus sæġde þæt Regulus stearf fram slæp-līese, and Oliver Goldsmith cwæþ þæt hē wæs ġesett on fæt full scirpra nægla. Þēah þe hit ne wǣre gemǣne, Regulus wæs cūþ topic for mænigum mǣlerum under Turneres līfe. Mǣlinga swylce Salvator Rosan ''Regules Dēað'' and Benjamīnes Westes ''Sē Ǣrist Regules'' wǣron oft ǣwdu on Engla-lande under þǣm ǣrestan ġēarum þæs nīontēoþan ġēar-hunderte. Þās ġeweorc, ġehworfen ofer Regules sāwl-ġefeohte, getācnaþ hine swā cēafne, eþel-lufiendne hild-fruman and fyrðraþ wēnas æþelre wer-menniscnisse.  Ēala! mihtige beornas, hāl! þāra stīf-hȳdig sāwol furþum ofer hielfe tō wīd-drīfenne self-ġeweald. Swā Regulus, þone ǣlc wīte wēnode, æt-sōc selfum in-gang æt þǣm ġeate for þām þe hæftling þæs wlancan Cartaina ġewealdes, ac his rēþe sāwol nolde þā Rōmāne nīðerian. Nā wīf ne lēofe bearn, ne self, mihton ġehealdan mōmetes sprǣce,—lufu ġedyde hine cēafne, lufu his ēþles; for þām nāht elcor hē lufode,—ac for þǣre lufan hē cwall. —J. M. W. Turneres fers be Regule '''Wǣron wēnunge manige fruman of þǣm Turner ġeleornode be Regule. James Thomson, scop þe swīðlīce in-bryrde Turneres ġewritu, ġemynode Regulus on his fers-flocce ''Þā Tīda'' (''The Seasons''). Sē mǣst swutolienda fruma þe Turner wēnode habban be Regule wæs Oliver Goldsmithes ''Rōmānisc Stǣr'', on þǣm sēo wītnung Regules is beorhtlīce ġewriten. Innan þǣm blæde his 1786 ġe-ȳcednesse cōpian, Turner wrāt þā word "Regulus Return" betweox līste mæġena topic-manna. Turner ēac dǣlde fers tō Regules ēþel-lufan on 1811 leoþe þe hē wrāt tō ġefōgenne George Cookes ''Sūþ-Sǣ-Rīme'' ġegrafenum biliþum. Sē hlisa ofer Regules æþelnesse on þǣm ferse is ġelīc þæs Rōmāniscan scopes Horatiese wuldrunge þæs hild-fruman.''' == Stǣr == === On Rōme-byriġ === [[File:Claude_Lorrain_008.jpg|alt=A harbour scene|thumb|'''Claudes Lorraines ''Sē Scip-fang þǣre Cwēne fram Sceba''. ''Regulus'' wæs ġefōgen fram dēmerum tō þǣm ġeweorce Claudes.''']] '''Turner mǣlede ''Regulus'' under his faru tō Rōme-byriġ on þǣm ġēare 1828. Hē ōgan ġeweorc on ymbe eahta oþþe tȳn mǣlinga on eallum, ac æl ġefullodo wǣron feōwer: ''Regulus'', ''Sīehþ of Orvieto'', ''Palestrina'', and ''Gesiht of Medea''. Of þissum feōwer, ''Regulus'' wæs wēnunge sē ǣresta tō beonne ġefullod. Turner cwæþ þæt hēo wæs ġemācod tō ġestillienne þæt "ġeclafor" his ġefērena þāra þe wǣron in-bryrde mid his dǣdum. On æfteran Ġeōlmōnaþe 1828, Turner ġeheold lytle ǣwunge on þǣm Bold Trulli, mid þrīem his ġefullodena mǣlinga: ''Regulus'', ''Orvieto'', and ''Medea''. For earfoþnessum on dælinga gemētung-hringa for þǣm mǣlingum, hīe wǣron ǣwdu mid ġeolwum rāpe ġenæglod ymbsittendum þā rīmas ǣlces clay-clāþes.''' '''Sēo ǣwung ġefeng ymbe þūsend cuma, manige þāra wǣron Frencisce and Deniscan mǣleras þe unlufodon Turneres frēo smierunge ġemǣles. Æfter Charles Lock Eastlake, frēond Turneres þe wæs ætwerd æt þǣre ǣwunge, þā cumena wǣron dēmende þāra mǣlinga, findende manigfeald wōh and toswīðlicne ġelīcnesse tō ġeweorcum Claudes Lorraines (cūþ ānlīpum swā Claude). Ān sawu ġebrocen fram dēmerum under þǣre ǣwunge wæs sē ealda Leden cwide "Caccatum non est pictum" ('Hit is scearn; hit nīs mǣling!').''' === On Engla-lande === On Æfteran Ġeōlan 1828, Turner hwearf eft tō Lunden-byriġ, ġecōstiende tō scipienne his mǣlinga synderlīce, ġeasured for fīf hund gīnēam. Hē hopode þæt hīe cōmon ǣr ġenōh tō beonne ǣwed on þǣre 1829 ǣwunge þǣre Cyne-Academia Crafta, ac hīe cōmon ānlīpe on 20 Iulies, þrīem mōnaþum æfter þǣm þe hēo wæs ōpenod. On sumum mǣle ǣr 1837, Regules clay-clāþ wæs toswīðlīce ġederod. Þēah þe Turner sæġde on ġewrite tō þǣm mǣlere Willelme Linton þæt ealle his mǣlinga cōmon slīhte, hit is mæġenlic þæt Regulus wæs ġederod on þǣm eft-sīðe, and Turner nās his ġeornlīce swutolode tō bearhtme þone slite. Þis wēning is ġestrengod fram þǣm þætte Regulus ne wæs ǣwed manigum ġēarum æfter his faru tō Lunden-byriġ, þā hwīle þā ōþra Italisca mǣlinga swylce ''Orvieto'' and ''Palestrina'' wǣron ǣwdu sōna æfter þāra cyme. Hit is ēac mæġenlic þæt Regulus wæs ġederod on Lunden-byriġ on mænigum wīsum, swylce feallende on in-ærfe. Þæt derung wæs micel slit on þǣm ūp-weardum wynstran healf-hringe þæs mǣlinges, þe behealden micel þæs heofones. Hit wæs ġebēted þurh rīmung and eft-linung – wēnunge ġedōn fram Willelme Redmore Bigg – þǣr ōþer webb-clāþ wæs ġe-ȳced tō þǣm bæce þæs mǣlinges. Fēower-dǣl þæs clay-clāþes, befeallende mǣst heofones, wæs mid ealle eft-ġemǣled tō hȳdenne þæt derung. Ōþer ġe-ȳced slit is ġefunden rinnende rihte tō-emnes þæs mǣlinges midle, rihte on þǣm midle þǣre sunnan. Þis slit wæs ēac ġerīmed locen and ġehȳded mid ġemǣle.   Þǣm 28. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan 1837, sēo Bryttisce Stofung hēold hiera gēarlican ele-dæġ, tīd þǣr mǣleras bǣrodan and macodon ende-rihtinge tō hiera mǣlingum beforan ǣwtum hēah-ġeþingum ǣr hiera ǣwung ōpenode. Turner hæfde ōd-breded ''Regulus'' tō þǣre ǣwunge, ungelīclīce gecēas þurh his mōde þære Bryttiscan Stofunge swā stōwe tō cypenne un-wilnode mǣlinga, for þǣm micclan swiþe þe hē ǣr ġenom to rætienne þone clay-clāþ. Hit is mæġenlic þæt hē wolde ǣwian þæt mǣling tō tǣcanne hū þā lār Claudes mæġ beonne nīwoda. Hit is ēac wēning þæt siþðan stōw þære Cyne-Academia Crafta wæs ġeflitted fram Somerset Bold tō Trafalgar Square, hē hopode tō brucenne māran mǣlinga þǣr tō tyhtenne māre gimene. ''Regulus'', sē wæs lȳtel gelīcnesse tō þǣm ōþrum mǣlingum ǣwdum on þǣre ǣwunge, wæs uncwēme tō þissum mynte. Under þǣm ele-dæġe of 1839, Turner macede micel up-ġe-ēacnunga tō ''Regule''. Þēah þe hē wæs cūþ for manigum þissum latan hwearfungum tō his mǣlingum, sēo ofer-mǣling ''Regules'' is sē āna cynn þǣr wē habbaþ bēġe ġewritene and ġesihtlice swutolunga. Sē Englisca craftica John Gilbert ġeseah þone dryht-cyme, þe hē wrāt fīf and fēowertig ġēara æfter-þam on ġewrite tō George Scharf, þǣm stēore þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Þæt ġewrit wæs þā ġepubliod fram Scharfes æfter-gengan, Lionel Cust, on þǣre 1895 ġe-ȳcednesse þæs ''Sinc-Cræfte Bōce''. Gilbert sæġde þæt Turner brōhte manige micele swīn-hyrste brushas tō drīfenne hwīt-stān gemǣl on þæt midle þæs clay-clāþes tō macinge mistlicne hrōr, folgiende stih-līnan þe hē hæfde ġedrawen tō mearcienne þā lēoman þǣre sunnan. Hē ēac ġemearcode þæt, æt wyrcan-hringe, sēo sunne ġehūfode for þǣm mæġene ġemǣles þe wæs ġe-ȳced tō þǣre stōwe. Dōming ġedōn on 2012 is ġecīged manige þissra stēora on twēo. Nān māþm-swutolnes mæġ beonne ġefunden þæt stih-līnan wǣron ġedrawene for þǣm lēomum, and þæt mæġen þæs ōfer-mǣles ymb þā sunnan wæs un-ġenōh tō æfre wyrceanne ut-scūfendne hrōr. Þæt hwīt-stān gemǣl þe Gilbert sæġde wæs wēnunge megilp, þe wolde habban ġemacod þone færlīcan hwearf on lyfte þe hē ġeseah. [[File:Daniel_Wilson_-_Ancient_Carthage_-_The_Embarcation_of_Regulus_-_B1977.14.8032_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|alt=An engraving of Regulus|thumb|''Eald Cartaina – þæs Scip-fang Regules'' is mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres Daniel Wilson, ġemǣled on þǣm gēare 1840. Þæt biliþ getācnaþ þā mǣran tīd þāra fōre Regules fram Cartaina, þǣr sē eald-frod hild-fruma cyrreþ eft tō his wīte togeanes Rōme-byriġ, folgiende þā ēcan stǣr and Turneriscra lāra mid clǣnum lēome and hȳðelicum timbrum.]] Twā ōþra ġebeorhtene biliþu þæs dryht-cymes sindon on ōwer-lifiendum mǣlingum ġemācode under þǣm ele-dæġe. Sē Norþ-mann craftica Thomas Fearnley and sē Englisca craftica Charles West Cope bēġen macedon mǣlinga þǣre eft-mǣlinge, wēnunge swā lēoht-hyge camphafed. Þā mǣlinga getācnaþ Turner standende on bencge tō mǣlenne, ymbsitten fram lārum and healdinge fȳst-full brusha, þā hwīle þe hīe sweotoliaþ þā beorhtnesse ''Regules'' ġelīcnesse tō þǣre ymbsittendan stōwe. On Fearnleyes mǣlinge, ''Regulus'' sōþlīce þēonaþ swā lēoht-fruma þe scūfeþ scadu þurh þæt biliþ. Mænigum ġēarum æfter-þām, sē Scottisca craftica Daniel Wilson wæs ġebeden tō ġegrafenne ''Regulus'' æfter þǣm þe hē wæs ġelaþod tō Turneres bold-stede and ǣwed tō þǣre "Un-ġegangan ǣw-stōwe" þǣr þæt mǣling wæs ġeheolden. Þæt ġeweorc wæs earfoþlic þǣm nīwan ġegrafere, for þǣm mæġene and stīflican lēome on þǣre ġesihte. Sē copor-disc ġebrocen wæs lȳtel under healf-dǣl þæs clay-clāþes mycelnesse, and hæfde æl-ġelīce wæstm-ġemeat tō þǣm frum-mǣlinge. Tō rætienne þis, Wilson forlet þone nēhstan ūp-weardne and niþer-weardne dǣl þæs mǣlinges, and wīdnode þā ġesiht þurh ġe-ȳcunge ōþerra mæsta on þǣm wynstran healfe. [[File:Samuel_Bradshaw_-_Regulus_leaving_Carthage_-_B1977.14.13862_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|alt=An engraving of Regulus|thumb|''Regulus forlǣtende Cartaina'' (ymbe 1860-ġēar), Samuel Bradshaw]] ''Regulus'' wunode on Turneres āgenre ǣw-stōwe oþ his cwale on þǣm ġēare 1851. Þā eft-mǣlinga and rætinga macodon hit swīðlīce hīdan-feste tō þǣm yfelum wyrd-stylde þǣre ǣw-stōwe, þe be-hæfde dūst, eardiende cattas, and wǣtan. On 1856, þā lahlīcan ġeþingas þæs Turneres Cwides wǣron ġerihtode, and ''Regulus'' wearþ ān þāra ǣrestena hund mǣlinga ġeflitted tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge on Lunden-byriġ. Þǣm 28. dæġe Blotmōnaþes 1856, hit wæs ġeflitted tō þǣm grund-flōre Marlborough Boldes, þā ġebrocen swā ofer-stōw, and six mōnaþum æfter-þām wæs ġeleded ūp-weardes. On winter-mōnaþe 1859, sē Weard þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge Ralph Nicholson Wornum flitte ''Regulus'' tō þǣm Sūþ-Kensington Hūse, þǣr lȳtel rinc-ġegrafen biliþ wæs ġemācod fram [[Samuel Bradshaw]]. On winter-mōnaþe 1861, ''Regulus'' wæs ġeflitted tō þǣm Turneres Rūme on þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge tō fultumienne þā word þæs Turneres Cwides. === Stung un-ġewillud and ōþra derunga === Feorran nēah twǣm tīd-hyllum on æfter-nōne, þǣm 16. dæġe Ǣrran Ġeōlan 1863, Walter Stephenson īn-ēode on þæne Turneres Rūm þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Stephenson mæġe habban ġeworht swā rīc-ġerēfa, bōcere, cræftiga, oþþe stān-wrītere; hē wæs cūþ tō beonne hām-lēas and būtan cynne oþþe frēondum. Sē weard Edmund Paine ġemearcode þæt Stephenson wæs dōnde dwollīce ymbsittende ''Regulus'', and wrēgde hine tō Eleazer Dennin, þǣm stēore þǣre eard-wearde for þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Stephenson ġefelde þæt hē wæs ġeweardod and wunode stille for twǣm tīdum. Paine eft-ēode on þā biliþ-stōwe feorran nēah fōwer tīd-hyllum, æfter-þām Stephenson forþ-brōhte seax client freeze and stang þæt mǣling nigon sīðum, þyreligende þæne clay-clāþ fōwer sīðum and macigende slit ymbe 32 metera-mǣla (1.25 ynca) lang. Stephenson wæs ġefangen on þǣre stōwe, and ġewillendlīce sealde his seax mid ġemǣle giet on þǣre ecge. Stephenson þīnco tō habbanne beon on dǣle ġetyhted fram feondscipe togeanes Turnere, swā Dennin sæġde þæt hē cwad under frēgnunge: "Ic wæs swīðe ġebryrd. Sē mistlica hād þæs biliþes and sē un-lufa þe ic hæfde to þǣm menn macedon me hit dōn." Stephenson wæs ġefangen and tērod mid "willudum derunge ēnes Turneres biliþes on þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge". Hē wæs ġedēmed on þǣm 4. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan 1864, in Clerkenwell, þǣr hē andettedwēde scyldiġ. On þǣm 18. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan, hē wæs ġeseted tō syx mōnaþum heardra geswinces. Sē mǣling-bōtere George Morrill wæs ġelaþod on þǣm 28. dæġe tō eft-linenne ''Regulus'', þæt weorc hē ġefullode bi þǣm 9. dæġe Solmōnaþes. On þǣm 19. dæġe Solmōnaþes, Charles Buttery wæs ġelaþod tō macienne māran bētinga tō þǣm mǣlinge for eahta gīnēam. Hē ġefullode þis weorc hrædlīce, and bi þǣm 1. dæġe Ēaster-mōnaþes, ānlīpe fēower mōnaþum æfter þǣm stīð-cyme, ''Regulus'' wæs hweorfed eft tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Siþðan 1960, ''Regulus'' hæfð þearfe gehabt tō beonne niwōd fēower sīðum for floriende and cracigende gemǣle. On 1984, cumer stang þæt midle ''Regules'' clay-clāþes, macigende manige florius gemǣles tō feallenne of þǣm flōre. Hīe wǣron ġefengene fram þǣm flōre and eft-ġetēnode. === On þǣre Taten Biliþ-Stofunge === ''Regulus'' wæs ġeflitted tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge Bryttisces Cræftes, nū Taten Biliþ-Stofung, on þǣm ġēare 1929, þǣr hit wunaþ swā dǣl þǣre ǣwunge "JMW Turner: Faru on Europam". Siþðan þǣm ġeflite, ''Regulus'' is ġe-ǣwed æt manigum ōþrum biliþ-stōwum, ġe-ēacnod on sīðfæte fram þǣm Cræfte-Ġeþingie Mieran Brytene, and æt þǣre Cyne-Academia Crafta. On 2017, hit wæs ġe-ǣwed æt þǣre Frick-Gaderunge on Nīwan Eoforwīc-byriġ swā dǣl þæs dryht-cymes "Turneres Nīwe and Ealde Hȳða: Faru þurh Tīde". == On-fēng and Dōm-cræft == ''Regulus'' wæs swīðe cīdendlīc under Turneres līfe, tyhtende micelne dōm-cræft under his ǣwungum. Nōþylæs, þæt mǣling hæfde his fultumendas. Charles Lock Eastlake āsceortode þæt ġeweorc swā "mā Ītalisc þonne Ītalia sylf", and sē bōcere Herman Melville ġebohte rinc-ġegrafen biliþ fram Bradshawes ''Regulus forlǣtende Cartaina'' þe ǣrest wæs ġepubliod on þǣre 1859 gaderunge ''Þǣre Turneres Biliþ-Stofunge''. Under þisses mǣlinges ǣwunge on 1837, wrītere for þǣm ''The Spectator'' ġemetgod hit tō þǣm ġeweorcum Claudes and spræc be þǣre stīflicnesse þǣre sunnan, secgende þæt "hit is mid Turneres twēorfenum hrōrum - wē wūscodon þæt sēo sunne wǣre ūt of þǣm biliþe". Nīwe dōmeras habbaþ ġefæstnod on þǣre læssan stōwe Regules on þǣm mǣlinge ġelīcod tō þǣre sunnan. Sē biliþ-dōmere Karen Rosenberg sæġde þæt sēo sunne "ofer-scīneþ" Regulus, and sē lārēow Peter Conrad sæġde þæt sēo stōw Regules "ne mæġne", for þǣm þe sē staol þæs mǣlinges is on stede sē sunne-lēoma. ohn Ruskin, ān þāra mǣrostena fultumenda Turneres, for-hōgode ''Regulus''. Hē teohhode hit swā "wyrrestan æf-cyrre on þā ealdan flītinge mid Claude", ġelȳfende þæt hit bēġe efn-lǣhte and cīdde þā ġeweorc Claudes. Hē fōresette þæt þæt mǣling wǣre ǣwed on fēr-cysten swā bismor-mærc and bisen Turneres synna. Þes stīðlica un-lufa for ''Regule'' wunode for eallum Ruskins līfe, swā hē gelōmlīce spræc be his wammum on manigum ġewritum, mearc-bōcum, and bōcum. == Dōming and Smēaung == [[File:Turner_-_Regulus_(Regulus_descending_stairs_2).jpg|alt=A section of Regulus, with a small white figure in the centre|thumb|Mearc-dǣl þæs rincges þe is ġeteohhod tō beonne Regulus (midle)]] Manige hēafod-dǣlas þæs mǣlinges, ġe-ēacnod sēo stōw and þā rincgas, habbaþ beon subject tō flītinge. Under þǣre fōr-stefne þæs feond-scaþan Walter Stephenson, þæt mǣling wæs ġecweden fram dom-erecum and weardum swā ''Regulus forlǣtende Rōme-burg'', tōcnāwende þā stōwe tō beonne Rōme-burg. Þis is ġefultumod fram þǣm sōþe þæt Turneres hēafod-funtan be Regule, Oliver Goldsmithes ''Rōmānisce Stǣr'', fæstnoþ on Regules æftestan forþ-fare fram Rōme-burge. Nōþylæs, þā naman Wilsones and Bradshawes rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa, þæs æftran ġeweardod fram Turnere sylfum, þyncaþ tō tōcnāwenne þæt sēo stow neimþ stede on Cartaina, ǣr Regulus forlǣteþ for Rōme-burge. Sēo stōw Regules sylfes wearþ subject tō manigum tōcnāwingum. Regulus is hīlum ġetācnod swā lȳtel hwīt rincg on þǣm rihte-hælfe nīþer-stīgende stān-stæpas, þēah þæt gemetlice lȳtle ġeceap þæs rincges hæfþ for-lǣten manige dōmeras un-mihtige tō tōcnāwenne þæt dǣl. Sē Turneres lārēow John Gage fōresette þæt Regulus ne wæs sōþlīce on þǣm mǣlinge; on stede, æfter Gage, þæt mǣling sweotolaþ Regules āgenne ġesiht swā hē wæs beonde ġebblindod. Þis is ġefultumod fram Turneres gewuna tō ġesettenne þæne scawend swā þæne hēafod-rincg on his ōþrum ġeweorcum þæs ofermierces. Nōþylæs, þis smēaung is ġecīded. Sē biliþ-stǣrere Andrew Wilton ġelȳfde þæt þis ġerǣme wǣre gemetlice un-ġewunelīce for þǣre tīde, and mearcaþ þæt þā word-rihte naman þāra rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa tōcnāwaþ þæt Turner teohhode mā ġewunelīcne ġesiht. Sē bōclica lārēow Matthew Beaumont fōresette þriddan mihte for bēġum þǣre stōwe þæs mǣlinges and stōwe Regules. Hē cīdde þæt sēo landlīce and tīdlīce un-sweotolnes Regules tōcnāwþ þæt þæt mǣling ne mǣleþ ānne ānlīpne stund, ac on stede ġetācnaþ Regules ealle līf-fyrhto, Turner ġewittiglice mǣlende hit tō beonne bēġra ġesihta ætgædere. === Cræftlice Wyrda and Inn-bryrdninga === ''Regulus'' mæġe habban beon ġewyrcd fram manigum ōþrum mǣlingum, and mæġe habban beon ġedrawen on Turneres æftran ġeweorce. Under sīðfæte on 1820, Turner smēagde and mearcode Claudes ''Hȳð-ġesiht mid þǣre Villa Medici'' þā hwīle þe hē worhte on Florence Uffizi Biliþ-Stōwe. Þā twā mǣlinga habbaþ swīðe ġelīce cræftas, bēġ gemengende scipu and boldon ymbsittende hȳð. Turner mæġe ēac habban ġedrawen on ''Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan'', ān his āgenra ǣrran land-ġesihta ġeseted on þǣm ealdan Middel-niht-mere. Ġelīc thēoria fram J. Hillis Miller fōresette þæt sē ele-mearc ''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'', ġewunelīce ġelȳfed tō beonne fōre-mearc for ''Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan'', mæġe sōþlīce habban beon ġearwung for ''Regule''. Hē ġespēcolode þæt sē hōdeda rincg on ''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'' mæġe beon Regulus. Sē biliþ-stǣrere Gerald Finley ġemetgode ''Regulus'' tō Turneres 1833 mǣlinge ''Fontainebleau'', þe mǣleþ Napoleon Bonaparte standinge ofer stān-stæpas ġesete feor bæc on þǣm mǣlinge. Þis swīðe efn-lǣceþ þone rincg Regules on þǣre ealdan tōcnāwinge Regules ġesihte. Þis is ġefultumod fram Turneres hyġe-þancum be þǣm twǣm werum, swā hē tōcnēow bēġe menn tō beonne "wēapnlīce hild-fruman".<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_(1775-1851)_-_Claudian_Harbour_Scene,_Study_for_'Dido_Directing_the_Equipment_of_the_Fleet'_-_N03382_-_National_Gallery.jpg|alt=A seascape as seen from a harbour, the setting sun on the horizon|''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'' (ymbe 1827–1828), J. M. W. Turner File:Claude_Lorrain_-_Port_Scene_with_the_Villa_Medici_-_WGA04978.jpg|alt=A seascape as seen from a harbour, the setting sun on the horizon|''Hȳð mid þǣre Villa Medici (1637), Claude Lorrain'' File:Fontainebleau_The_Departure_of_Napoleon_by_J.M.W._Turner.jpg|alt=The front of a palace and its staircase, a crowd gathered around it|''Fontainebleau (1833), J. M. W. Turner'' File:Photograph_of_Carthage,_Dido_directing_the_Equipment_of_the_Fleet_by_JMW_Turner.png|alt=A seascape framed by buildings and vegetation|''[[Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan]]'' (1828), J. M. W. Turner </gallery>  * '''Ēac ġecweden swā ''Regulus Forlǣtende Rōme-burg tō Acyrrenne tō Cartaina'', oþþe ānlīplīce ''Regulus Forlǣtende Rōme-burg''.''' * '''Beaumont, ġetācnigende Powell, cwȳþ hit swā "Regulus Acyrreþ".''' * '''Þā hwīle þe John Gage ġetācnaþ þis lēoþ swā "Sē Sūþerna Sǣ-Ceast", þone ilcan naman swā sēo ġefēgde rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa gaderung, sē funta þe hē ġewissode ānlīpum ġetācnaþ þā fersas swā dǣlas fram un-namodum stycce ġewrites.''' * '''Finley secgeþ þæt sēo rinc-ġegrafene biliþ wæs ġemācod on 1840, þā hwīle þe Beaumont ġeseteþ þā tīde on 1838.''' * '''Sē coper-pāl þe Bradshaw ġegrōf on wæs ġewunelīce fēorða dǣl þæs mearces Wilsones pāles, þe sylf wæs healf þæs mearces þæs ǣrestan clay-clāþes.''' == Ġewissunga and Bōc-lāra == === Bōc-Lāra and Ġewrit-Gaderung ===   * '''Butlin, Martin; Joll, Evelyn (1977). ''Þā Mǣlinga J. M. W. Turneres''. Smēaunga on Bryttiscum Cræfte. Vol. 1: Fers-Ġewrit (1st ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-300-02130-5</nowiki>.''' * '''Finley, Gerald (1999). ''Engel on þǣre Sunnan: Turneres Ġesiht Stǣres''. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-7735-1747-2</nowiki>.''' * '''Gage, John (1969). ''Hīw on Turnere: Lēoþcræft and Sōþnes''. London: Studio Vista. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-289-79560-6</nowiki>.''' * '''Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). ''Sē Feall Cartaina: Þā Puniciscen Ġewinnas 265–146 BC''. London: Cassell. <nowiki>ISBN 0-304-36642-0</nowiki>.''' * '''Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony & Eidinow, Esther, eds. (2012). ''Sē Oxna-fordisca Ealda Word-Bōc'' (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8</nowiki>.''' * '''Miller, J. Hillis (1992). ''Biliþ-Wyrhta: Smēaunga on Cræfte and Sēawu''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-674-44357-8</nowiki>.''' * '''Powell, Cecilia (1987). ''Turner on þǣm Sūþ-Dǣle: Rōme-burg, Naples, Florence''. New Haven: Yale University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-300-03870-4</nowiki>.''' * '''Thornbury, Walter (1862). ''Þæt Līf J. M. W. Turneres'' (2nd ed.). London: Ward, Lock & Co.''' * '''Townsend, Joyce; Hellen, Rebecca & Warrell, Ian (2017). "Turneres ''Regulus'': Spell Wælhreofnesse, Bismres and Fǣlicnesse, Scīnend þurh Cræftlice Smēaunge". On Townsend, Joyce & Vandivere, Abbie (eds.). ''Smēagende þā Europiscan Biliþ-Cræftas 1800–1850: Mǣlinga, Wæstm-Cræft, Inn-Gegyrnd and Cræft''. London: Archetype Publications. pp. 109–124. <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-909492-52-3</nowiki>.''' * '''Wallace, Robert (1992). ''Melville and Turner: Hringas Lufan and Fǣrlicnesse''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-8203-1366-1</nowiki>.''' * '''Wilton, Andrew (1981). ''Turner and þæt Ofermierc''. London: University of Chicago Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-226-06189-2</nowiki>.''' * ==== Dæġ-Wīcera Ġewritu (Journals) ==== * '''Beaumont, Matthew (2020). "Rād Ġebblindod: Þæt Eall-Sēonde and þæt Un-Sēonde on Turneres ''Regule''". ''Bryttisc Cræft-Smēaunga'' (15). doi:10.17658/issn.2058-5462/issue-15/mbeaumont. ISSN 2058-5462.''' * '''Hellen, Rebecca (2014). "'Þrīe Dagas oþþe Mā...': Turneres Teohhung on Barm-Dæg and sē Lichamlica Fultum". ''Sē Bryttisca Cræft-Dǣl'' 15 (2): 47–53. ISSN 1467-2006. JSTOR 43492113.''' * '''Holcomb, Adele M. (1981). "Turner and þæt Ofermierc". ''RACAR: Canadisc Cræft-Sceawung'' 8 (2): 157–162. doi:10.7202/1075006ar. ISSN 0315-9906. JSTOR 42630258.''' ==== Dæġ-Mǣl Bōca (Magazines) ==== * '''Cust, Lionel (1895). "Þā Biliþ-Līces J. M. W. Turneres, R.A.". ''Sē Bōc-Scīte Cræftes''. Open Court Publishing Co. pp. 245–251. Ġe-hordod fram þǣm ǣrestan on 8 Sēr-Mōnaþ 2026. Ġe-fētt on 14 Winter-Mōnaþ 2024.''' 20qaplgi5sok0kj465r6dtuvdtftup6 232855 232852 2026-11-10T04:44:17Z Bryceybam 144190 232855 wikitext text/x-wiki   '''Regulus is ele-mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres J. M. W. Turner, þe nū stent on Tate Britain, on Lunden-byrig, and sēo þēod on his hand is tō beonne ġesæġd for þā mænigeigum hira þæt hē wæs ealdor mid ealdormannum under þǣm tīde. Hēo wæs ǣrest ġemǣled on þǣm ġēare 1829 and swīðlīce ofer-mǣled twiwa. Þæt mǣling is ġestaðolod ofer eald-ġesegenum be þǣm Rōmāniscan hēah-ġerefan and hild-fruman Marce Atilie Regule, on þǣre þe hē wæs ġefangen fram Cartaina-fyrdum and ōfslegen æfter þǣm þe hē forsōc tō hwearfienne hæftlingas. Eald-ġewritu Ēacnaþ þæt hē wæs ġewītnod mid þǣm þe hē wæs ġenēded tō fōre-lōcienne on þā sunnan, þe hine ablendode. Þæt mǣling getācnaþ hȳðe on Rōme oþþe Cartaino, mid scipum and boldum ymbsittendum þone garsecg. Hēo is ġewealdend fram þǣre mǣstan hwītan sunnan on þǣm midle.''' Turner ǣror mǣlede and ǣwde ''Regulus'' on Rōme-byriġ under his faru on þǣm ġēare 1828, æfter þǣm þe hēo wæs ġesended tō Lunden-byriġ, þǣr hē eardode. On sumum tīde under oþþe æfter þǣre scipunge, sēo ūp-lyft dǣl þæs clay-clāþes wæs to-doren, þe þorfte ġebētunge and eft-mǣlinge. Þæt geweorc wæs ġeheolden on Turneres āgenum māþm-hūse oð 1837, þā hēo wæs ofer-mǣled æt þǣm Brytiscan In-setene under diht-dæġe, mid þǣm mǣleras dydon hit forþ fast-mǣlinga and ġenspēonnon hira mǣlinga beforan diht-hyrde ǣr ǣwunge. Hēo æfter-þam ġeangode mid wīd-cūðnesse, and in-bryrdode twā ōþru ymb-mǣlinga and twā ġegrafena biliþ. ''Regulus'' wæs ġflitlic ġeweorc, swīðe ġecīdid under his ǣwungum and fram contemporaneous-mannum swylce Turneres fultumiend John Ruskin. On 1863, hēo wæs ġesticod fram wer þe wæs unġewercum mid Turneres cræfte and þǣm mǣlere selfum. Þæt mǣling hæfþ ēac ġedroren fram sprying-scellum ġemǣles. Nāh wētan snoteras be þǣm hwæt þæt mǣling sōþlīce getācnaþ. Sumere wēnaþ þæt þæt mǣling ætȳwde Regule faranne fram Cartaine tō Rōme, þenden ōþru feohtaþ þæt hit cȳþeþ his eft-cyme. Ōðer ġeflit is hwæðer Regulus is ān biliþ on þǣm mǣlinge, oþþe hwæðer hit is of his gesihþe þā hē wæs ablendod, oþþe hwæðer hit is ġesett tō getācnienne Regules līf eallunga, mid þǣm þe hit cȳþeþ bēġu þing. Snoteras habbaþ ġefultumod hira wēnunge mid ġewritum of þǣm naman þāra æfterran ġegrafena biliþa, Turneres ōþrum mǣlingum, and þǣm fruman be Regule of þǣm þe Turner drōh. == Bæc-ġewri == [[File:Benjamin_West_(1738-1820)_-_The_Departure_of_Regulus_-_RCIN_405416_-_Royal_Collection.jpg|alt=Regulus walking through a crowd of kneeling figures|thumb|Ǣrist Regules fram Cartaine (1769), ġemǣled fram Benjamīne West, and ġegrafen fram Willelme Turner]] Regulus is ele-mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres J. M. W. Turner, mǣtende fēower-scort and nīgon healf centimettra ofer hund and twēntig and þrēo healf centimettra (35.2 in × 48.7 in). Þæt mǣling getācnaþ hȳðe, þe ymb-fealded þā mǣstan hwītan sunnan on þǣm midle. Sē titula biliþ, Marcus Atilius Regulus, wæs Rōmānisc hēah-ġerefa and hild-fruma þe cwieldode on þǣm ǣrestan Puniciscan Ġewinne. Hē wæs ġefangen fram Cartaina-fyrdum under þǣre Heafod-stōwe Bagradas Eā-ġefeohtes on 256 ǣr Chrīst, and wēnunge steorfaþ æfter-þam fram cynde-stefnum. Regulus wæs on his ealdres dæġum sē ealdormann þæs Cartainiscan legies, and hē is oft ġesæġd swā sē mǣsta hild-fruma betweox eallum Rōmāniscam hild-fruma. Hē blēow tō beonne ġeweorðod fram bēġem Rōme and Cartaine. Æfter þissum eald-ġesegenum, Regules hæftendas hine eft-sendedon tō Rōme-byriġ tō dǣlenne hæftlinga hwearfunge, ac æt his cyme hē lǣrde þā Rōmāne tō wiðsacan, þēah þe hē wiste þæt hē wǣre ōfslegen æfter his eft-cyme tō þǣre fēondlican byriġ Cartaine. Hē ġecēas þæt hē nōht abrǣce his āþ-wōd, and hwearf eft tō þǣre fēond-byriġ, æfter þǣm þā stǣru hwīlum to-syndriaþ. On mænigum ġewritum Regulus wæs ġewītnod mid þǣm þe his ǣg-hringas wǣron ōf-ādocode oþþe snōd-ġesowod open, ǣr þæm þe hē wæs ġenēded tō lōcienne on þā sunnan, þe hine tō āblendnesse ġelǣdde. Sume stǣr-wītan ēcnaþ mā details: Tuditanus sæġde þæt Regulus stearf fram slæp-līese, and Oliver Goldsmith cwæþ þæt hē wæs ġesett on fæt full scirpra nægla. Þēah þe hit ne wǣre gemǣne, Regulus wæs cūþ topic for mænigum mǣlerum under Turneres līfe. Mǣlinga swylce Salvator Rosan ''Regules Dēað'' and Benjamīnes Westes ''Sē Ǣrist Regules'' wǣron oft ǣwdu on Engla-lande under þǣm ǣrestan ġēarum þæs nīontēoþan ġēar-hunderte. Þās ġeweorc, ġehworfen ofer Regules sāwl-ġefeohte, getācnaþ hine swā cēafne, eþel-lufiendne hild-fruman and fyrðraþ wēnas æþelre wer-menniscnisse.  Ēala! mihtige beornas, hāl! þāra stīf-hȳdig sāwol furþum ofer hielfe tō wīd-drīfenne self-ġeweald. Swā Regulus, þone ǣlc wīte wēnode, æt-sōc selfum in-gang æt þǣm ġeate for þām þe hæftling þæs wlancan Cartaina ġewealdes, ac his rēþe sāwol nolde þā Rōmāne nīðerian. Nā wīf ne lēofe bearn, ne self, mihton ġehealdan mōmetes sprǣce,—lufu ġedyde hine cēafne, lufu his ēþles; for þām nāht elcor hē lufode,—ac for þǣre lufan hē cwall. —J. M. W. Turneres fers be Regule '''Wǣron wēnunge manige fruman of þǣm Turner ġeleornode be Regule. James Thomson, scop þe swīðlīce in-bryrde Turneres ġewritu, ġemynode Regulus on his fers-flocce ''Þā Tīda'' (''The Seasons''). Sē mǣst swutolienda fruma þe Turner wēnode habban be Regule wæs Oliver Goldsmithes ''Rōmānisc Stǣr'', on þǣm sēo wītnung Regules is beorhtlīce ġewriten. Innan þǣm blæde his 1786 ġe-ȳcednesse cōpian, Turner wrāt þā word "Regulus Return" betweox līste mæġena topic-manna. Turner ēac dǣlde fers tō Regules ēþel-lufan on 1811 leoþe þe hē wrāt tō ġefōgenne George Cookes ''Sūþ-Sǣ-Rīme'' ġegrafenum biliþum. Sē hlisa ofer Regules æþelnesse on þǣm ferse is ġelīc þæs Rōmāniscan scopes Horatiese wuldrunge þæs hild-fruman.''' == Stǣr == === On Rōme-byriġ === [[File:Claude_Lorrain_008.jpg|alt=A harbour scene|thumb|'''Claudes Lorraines ''Sē Scip-fang þǣre Cwēne fram Sceba''. ''Regulus'' wæs ġefōgen fram dēmerum tō þǣm ġeweorce Claudes.''']] '''Turner mǣlede ''Regulus'' under his faru tō Rōme-byriġ on þǣm ġēare 1828. Hē ōgan ġeweorc on ymbe eahta oþþe tȳn mǣlinga on eallum, ac æl ġefullodo wǣron feōwer: ''Regulus'', ''Sīehþ of Orvieto'', ''Palestrina'', and ''Gesiht of Medea''. Of þissum feōwer, ''Regulus'' wæs wēnunge sē ǣresta tō beonne ġefullod. Turner cwæþ þæt hēo wæs ġemācod tō ġestillienne þæt "ġeclafor" his ġefērena þāra þe wǣron in-bryrde mid his dǣdum. On æfteran Ġeōlmōnaþe 1828, Turner ġeheold lytle ǣwunge on þǣm Bold Trulli, mid þrīem his ġefullodena mǣlinga: ''Regulus'', ''Orvieto'', and ''Medea''. For earfoþnessum on dælinga gemētung-hringa for þǣm mǣlingum, hīe wǣron ǣwdu mid ġeolwum rāpe ġenæglod ymbsittendum þā rīmas ǣlces clay-clāþes.''' '''Sēo ǣwung ġefeng ymbe þūsend cuma, manige þāra wǣron Frencisce and Deniscan mǣleras þe unlufodon Turneres frēo smierunge ġemǣles. Æfter Charles Lock Eastlake, frēond Turneres þe wæs ætwerd æt þǣre ǣwunge, þā cumena wǣron dēmende þāra mǣlinga, findende manigfeald wōh and toswīðlicne ġelīcnesse tō ġeweorcum Claudes Lorraines (cūþ ānlīpum swā Claude). Ān sawu ġebrocen fram dēmerum under þǣre ǣwunge wæs sē ealda Leden cwide "Caccatum non est pictum" ('Hit is scearn; hit nīs mǣling!').''' === On Engla-lande === On Æfteran Ġeōlan 1828, Turner hwearf eft tō Lunden-byriġ, ġecōstiende tō scipienne his mǣlinga synderlīce, ġeasured for fīf hund gīnēam. Hē hopode þæt hīe cōmon ǣr ġenōh tō beonne ǣwed on þǣre 1829 ǣwunge þǣre Cyne-Academia Crafta, ac hīe cōmon ānlīpe on 20 Iulies, þrīem mōnaþum æfter þǣm þe hēo wæs ōpenod. On sumum mǣle ǣr 1837, Regules clay-clāþ wæs toswīðlīce ġederod. Þēah þe Turner sæġde on ġewrite tō þǣm mǣlere Willelme Linton þæt ealle his mǣlinga cōmon slīhte, hit is mæġenlic þæt Regulus wæs ġederod on þǣm eft-sīðe, and Turner nās his ġeornlīce swutolode tō bearhtme þone slite. Þis wēning is ġestrengod fram þǣm þætte Regulus ne wæs ǣwed manigum ġēarum æfter his faru tō Lunden-byriġ, þā hwīle þā ōþra Italisca mǣlinga swylce ''Orvieto'' and ''Palestrina'' wǣron ǣwdu sōna æfter þāra cyme. Hit is ēac mæġenlic þæt Regulus wæs ġederod on Lunden-byriġ on mænigum wīsum, swylce feallende on in-ærfe. Þæt derung wæs micel slit on þǣm ūp-weardum wynstran healf-hringe þæs mǣlinges, þe behealden micel þæs heofones. Hit wæs ġebēted þurh rīmung and eft-linung – wēnunge ġedōn fram Willelme Redmore Bigg – þǣr ōþer webb-clāþ wæs ġe-ȳced tō þǣm bæce þæs mǣlinges. Fēower-dǣl þæs clay-clāþes, befeallende mǣst heofones, wæs mid ealle eft-ġemǣled tō hȳdenne þæt derung. Ōþer ġe-ȳced slit is ġefunden rinnende rihte tō-emnes þæs mǣlinges midle, rihte on þǣm midle þǣre sunnan. Þis slit wæs ēac ġerīmed locen and ġehȳded mid ġemǣle.   Þǣm 28. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan 1837, sēo Bryttisce Stofung hēold hiera gēarlican ele-dæġ, tīd þǣr mǣleras bǣrodan and macodon ende-rihtinge tō hiera mǣlingum beforan ǣwtum hēah-ġeþingum ǣr hiera ǣwung ōpenode. Turner hæfde ōd-breded ''Regulus'' tō þǣre ǣwunge, ungelīclīce gecēas þurh his mōde þære Bryttiscan Stofunge swā stōwe tō cypenne un-wilnode mǣlinga, for þǣm micclan swiþe þe hē ǣr ġenom to rætienne þone clay-clāþ. Hit is mæġenlic þæt hē wolde ǣwian þæt mǣling tō tǣcanne hū þā lār Claudes mæġ beonne nīwoda. Hit is ēac wēning þæt siþðan stōw þære Cyne-Academia Crafta wæs ġeflitted fram Somerset Bold tō Trafalgar Square, hē hopode tō brucenne māran mǣlinga þǣr tō tyhtenne māre gimene. ''Regulus'', sē wæs lȳtel gelīcnesse tō þǣm ōþrum mǣlingum ǣwdum on þǣre ǣwunge, wæs uncwēme tō þissum mynte. Under þǣm ele-dæġe of 1839, Turner macede micel up-ġe-ēacnunga tō ''Regule''. Þēah þe hē wæs cūþ for manigum þissum latan hwearfungum tō his mǣlingum, sēo ofer-mǣling ''Regules'' is sē āna cynn þǣr wē habbaþ bēġe ġewritene and ġesihtlice swutolunga. Sē Englisca craftica John Gilbert ġeseah þone dryht-cyme, þe hē wrāt fīf and fēowertig ġēara æfter-þam on ġewrite tō George Scharf, þǣm stēore þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Þæt ġewrit wæs þā ġepubliod fram Scharfes æfter-gengan, Lionel Cust, on þǣre 1895 ġe-ȳcednesse þæs ''Sinc-Cræfte Bōce''. Gilbert sæġde þæt Turner brōhte manige micele swīn-hyrste brushas tō drīfenne hwīt-stān gemǣl on þæt midle þæs clay-clāþes tō macinge mistlicne hrōr, folgiende stih-līnan þe hē hæfde ġedrawen tō mearcienne þā lēoman þǣre sunnan. Hē ēac ġemearcode þæt, æt wyrcan-hringe, sēo sunne ġehūfode for þǣm mæġene ġemǣles þe wæs ġe-ȳced tō þǣre stōwe. Dōming ġedōn on 2012 is ġecīged manige þissra stēora on twēo. Nān māþm-swutolnes mæġ beonne ġefunden þæt stih-līnan wǣron ġedrawene for þǣm lēomum, and þæt mæġen þæs ōfer-mǣles ymb þā sunnan wæs un-ġenōh tō æfre wyrceanne ut-scūfendne hrōr. Þæt hwīt-stān gemǣl þe Gilbert sæġde wæs wēnunge megilp, þe wolde habban ġemacod þone færlīcan hwearf on lyfte þe hē ġeseah. [[File:Daniel_Wilson_-_Ancient_Carthage_-_The_Embarcation_of_Regulus_-_B1977.14.8032_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|alt=An engraving of Regulus|thumb|''Eald Cartaina – þæs Scip-fang Regules'' is mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres Daniel Wilson, ġemǣled on þǣm gēare 1840. Þæt biliþ getācnaþ þā mǣran tīd þāra fōre Regules fram Cartaina, þǣr sē eald-frod hild-fruma cyrreþ eft tō his wīte togeanes Rōme-byriġ, folgiende þā ēcan stǣr and Turneriscra lāra mid clǣnum lēome and hȳðelicum timbrum.]] Twā ōþra ġebeorhtene biliþu þæs dryht-cymes sindon on ōwer-lifiendum mǣlingum ġemācode under þǣm ele-dæġe. Sē Norþ-mann craftica Thomas Fearnley and sē Englisca craftica Charles West Cope bēġen macedon mǣlinga þǣre eft-mǣlinge, wēnunge swā lēoht-hyge camphafed. Þā mǣlinga getācnaþ Turner standende on bencge tō mǣlenne, ymbsitten fram lārum and healdinge fȳst-full brusha, þā hwīle þe hīe sweotoliaþ þā beorhtnesse ''Regules'' ġelīcnesse tō þǣre ymbsittendan stōwe. On Fearnleyes mǣlinge, ''Regulus'' sōþlīce þēonaþ swā lēoht-fruma þe scūfeþ scadu þurh þæt biliþ. Mænigum ġēarum æfter-þām, sē Scottisca craftica Daniel Wilson wæs ġebeden tō ġegrafenne ''Regulus'' æfter þǣm þe hē wæs ġelaþod tō Turneres bold-stede and ǣwed tō þǣre "Un-ġegangan ǣw-stōwe" þǣr þæt mǣling wæs ġeheolden. Þæt ġeweorc wæs earfoþlic þǣm nīwan ġegrafere, for þǣm mæġene and stīflican lēome on þǣre ġesihte. Sē copor-disc ġebrocen wæs lȳtel under healf-dǣl þæs clay-clāþes mycelnesse, and hæfde æl-ġelīce wæstm-ġemeat tō þǣm frum-mǣlinge. Tō rætienne þis, Wilson forlet þone nēhstan ūp-weardne and niþer-weardne dǣl þæs mǣlinges, and wīdnode þā ġesiht þurh ġe-ȳcunge ōþerra mæsta on þǣm wynstran healfe. [[File:Samuel_Bradshaw_-_Regulus_leaving_Carthage_-_B1977.14.13862_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|alt=An engraving of Regulus|thumb|''Regulus forlǣtende Cartaina'' (ymbe 1860-ġēar), Samuel Bradshaw]] ''Regulus'' wunode on Turneres āgenre ǣw-stōwe oþ his cwale on þǣm ġēare 1851. Þā eft-mǣlinga and rætinga macodon hit swīðlīce hīdan-feste tō þǣm yfelum wyrd-stylde þǣre ǣw-stōwe, þe be-hæfde dūst, eardiende cattas, and wǣtan. On 1856, þā lahlīcan ġeþingas þæs Turneres Cwides wǣron ġerihtode, and ''Regulus'' wearþ ān þāra ǣrestena hund mǣlinga ġeflitted tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge on Lunden-byriġ. Þǣm 28. dæġe Blotmōnaþes 1856, hit wæs ġeflitted tō þǣm grund-flōre Marlborough Boldes, þā ġebrocen swā ofer-stōw, and six mōnaþum æfter-þām wæs ġeleded ūp-weardes. On winter-mōnaþe 1859, sē Weard þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge Ralph Nicholson Wornum flitte ''Regulus'' tō þǣm Sūþ-Kensington Hūse, þǣr lȳtel rinc-ġegrafen biliþ wæs ġemācod fram [[Samuel Bradshaw]]. On winter-mōnaþe 1861, ''Regulus'' wæs ġeflitted tō þǣm Turneres Rūme on þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge tō fultumienne þā word þæs Turneres Cwides. === Stung un-ġewillud and ōþra derunga === Feorran nēah twǣm tīd-hyllum on æfter-nōne, þǣm 16. dæġe Ǣrran Ġeōlan 1863, Walter Stephenson īn-ēode on þæne Turneres Rūm þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Stephenson mæġe habban ġeworht swā rīc-ġerēfa, bōcere, cræftiga, oþþe stān-wrītere; hē wæs cūþ tō beonne hām-lēas and būtan cynne oþþe frēondum. Sē weard Edmund Paine ġemearcode þæt Stephenson wæs dōnde dwollīce ymbsittende ''Regulus'', and wrēgde hine tō Eleazer Dennin, þǣm stēore þǣre eard-wearde for þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Stephenson ġefelde þæt hē wæs ġeweardod and wunode stille for twǣm tīdum. Paine eft-ēode on þā biliþ-stōwe feorran nēah fōwer tīd-hyllum, æfter-þām Stephenson forþ-brōhte seax client freeze and stang þæt mǣling nigon sīðum, þyreligende þæne clay-clāþ fōwer sīðum and macigende slit ymbe 32 metera-mǣla (1.25 ynca) lang. Stephenson wæs ġefangen on þǣre stōwe, and ġewillendlīce sealde his seax mid ġemǣle giet on þǣre ecge. Stephenson þīnco tō habbanne beon on dǣle ġetyhted fram feondscipe togeanes Turnere, swā Dennin sæġde þæt hē cwad under frēgnunge: "Ic wæs swīðe ġebryrd. Sē mistlica hād þæs biliþes and sē un-lufa þe ic hæfde to þǣm menn macedon me hit dōn." Stephenson wæs ġefangen and tērod mid "willudum derunge ēnes Turneres biliþes on þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge". Hē wæs ġedēmed on þǣm 4. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan 1864, in Clerkenwell, þǣr hē andettedwēde scyldiġ. On þǣm 18. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan, hē wæs ġeseted tō syx mōnaþum heardra geswinces. Sē mǣling-bōtere George Morrill wæs ġelaþod on þǣm 28. dæġe tō eft-linenne ''Regulus'', þæt weorc hē ġefullode bi þǣm 9. dæġe Solmōnaþes. On þǣm 19. dæġe Solmōnaþes, Charles Buttery wæs ġelaþod tō macienne māran bētinga tō þǣm mǣlinge for eahta gīnēam. Hē ġefullode þis weorc hrædlīce, and bi þǣm 1. dæġe Ēaster-mōnaþes, ānlīpe fēower mōnaþum æfter þǣm stīð-cyme, ''Regulus'' wæs hweorfed eft tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Siþðan 1960, ''Regulus'' hæfð þearfe gehabt tō beonne niwōd fēower sīðum for floriende and cracigende gemǣle. On 1984, cumer stang þæt midle ''Regules'' clay-clāþes, macigende manige florius gemǣles tō feallenne of þǣm flōre. Hīe wǣron ġefengene fram þǣm flōre and eft-ġetēnode. === On þǣre Taten Biliþ-Stofunge === ''Regulus'' wæs ġeflitted tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge Bryttisces Cræftes, nū Taten Biliþ-Stofung, on þǣm ġēare 1929, þǣr hit wunaþ swā dǣl þǣre ǣwunge "JMW Turner: Faru on Europam". Siþðan þǣm ġeflite, ''Regulus'' is ġe-ǣwed æt manigum ōþrum biliþ-stōwum, ġe-ēacnod on sīðfæte fram þǣm Cræfte-Ġeþingie Mieran Brytene, and æt þǣre Cyne-Academia Crafta. On 2017, hit wæs ġe-ǣwed æt þǣre Frick-Gaderunge on Nīwan Eoforwīc-byriġ swā dǣl þæs dryht-cymes "Turneres Nīwe and Ealde Hȳða: Faru þurh Tīde". == On-fēng and Dōm-cræft == ''Regulus'' wæs swīðe cīdendlīc under Turneres līfe, tyhtende micelne dōm-cræft under his ǣwungum. Nōþylæs, þæt mǣling hæfde his fultumendas. Charles Lock Eastlake āsceortode þæt ġeweorc swā "mā Ītalisc þonne Ītalia sylf", and sē bōcere Herman Melville ġebohte rinc-ġegrafen biliþ fram Bradshawes ''Regulus forlǣtende Cartaina'' þe ǣrest wæs ġepubliod on þǣre 1859 gaderunge ''Þǣre Turneres Biliþ-Stofunge''. Under þisses mǣlinges ǣwunge on 1837, wrītere for þǣm ''The Spectator'' ġemetgod hit tō þǣm ġeweorcum Claudes and spræc be þǣre stīflicnesse þǣre sunnan, secgende þæt "hit is mid Turneres twēorfenum hrōrum - wē wūscodon þæt sēo sunne wǣre ūt of þǣm biliþe". Nīwe dōmeras habbaþ ġefæstnod on þǣre læssan stōwe Regules on þǣm mǣlinge ġelīcod tō þǣre sunnan. Sē biliþ-dōmere Karen Rosenberg sæġde þæt sēo sunne "ofer-scīneþ" Regulus, and sē lārēow Peter Conrad sæġde þæt sēo stōw Regules "ne mæġne", for þǣm þe sē staol þæs mǣlinges is on stede sē sunne-lēoma. ohn Ruskin, ān þāra mǣrostena fultumenda Turneres, for-hōgode ''Regulus''. Hē teohhode hit swā "wyrrestan æf-cyrre on þā ealdan flītinge mid Claude", ġelȳfende þæt hit bēġe efn-lǣhte and cīdde þā ġeweorc Claudes. Hē fōresette þæt þæt mǣling wǣre ǣwed on fēr-cysten swā bismor-mærc and bisen Turneres synna. Þes stīðlica un-lufa for ''Regule'' wunode for eallum Ruskins līfe, swā hē gelōmlīce spræc be his wammum on manigum ġewritum, mearc-bōcum, and bōcum. == Dōming and Smēaung == [[File:Turner_-_Regulus_(Regulus_descending_stairs_2).jpg|alt=A section of Regulus, with a small white figure in the centre|thumb|Mearc-dǣl þæs rincges þe is ġeteohhod tō beonne Regulus (midle)]] Manige hēafod-dǣlas þæs mǣlinges, ġe-ēacnod sēo stōw and þā rincgas, habbaþ beon subject tō flītinge. Under þǣre fōr-stefne þæs feond-scaþan Walter Stephenson, þæt mǣling wæs ġecweden fram dom-erecum and weardum swā ''Regulus forlǣtende Rōme-burg'', tōcnāwende þā stōwe tō beonne Rōme-burg. Þis is ġefultumod fram þǣm sōþe þæt Turneres hēafod-funtan be Regule, Oliver Goldsmithes ''Rōmānisce Stǣr'', fæstnoþ on Regules æftestan forþ-fare fram Rōme-burge. Nōþylæs, þā naman Wilsones and Bradshawes rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa, þæs æftran ġeweardod fram Turnere sylfum, þyncaþ tō tōcnāwenne þæt sēo stow neimþ stede on Cartaina, ǣr Regulus forlǣteþ for Rōme-burge. Sēo stōw Regules sylfes wearþ subject tō manigum tōcnāwingum. Regulus is hīlum ġetācnod swā lȳtel hwīt rincg on þǣm rihte-hælfe nīþer-stīgende stān-stæpas, þēah þæt gemetlice lȳtle ġeceap þæs rincges hæfþ for-lǣten manige dōmeras un-mihtige tō tōcnāwenne þæt dǣl. Sē Turneres lārēow John Gage fōresette þæt Regulus ne wæs sōþlīce on þǣm mǣlinge; on stede, æfter Gage, þæt mǣling sweotolaþ Regules āgenne ġesiht swā hē wæs beonde ġebblindod. Þis is ġefultumod fram Turneres gewuna tō ġesettenne þæne scawend swā þæne hēafod-rincg on his ōþrum ġeweorcum þæs ofermierces. Nōþylæs, þis smēaung is ġecīded. Sē biliþ-stǣrere Andrew Wilton ġelȳfde þæt þis ġerǣme wǣre gemetlice un-ġewunelīce for þǣre tīde, and mearcaþ þæt þā word-rihte naman þāra rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa tōcnāwaþ þæt Turner teohhode mā ġewunelīcne ġesiht. Sē bōclica lārēow Matthew Beaumont fōresette þriddan mihte for bēġum þǣre stōwe þæs mǣlinges and stōwe Regules. Hē cīdde þæt sēo landlīce and tīdlīce un-sweotolnes Regules tōcnāwþ þæt þæt mǣling ne mǣleþ ānne ānlīpne stund, ac on stede ġetācnaþ Regules ealle līf-fyrhto, Turner ġewittiglice mǣlende hit tō beonne bēġra ġesihta ætgædere. === Cræftlice Wyrda and Inn-bryrdninga === ''Regulus'' mæġe habban beon ġewyrcd fram manigum ōþrum mǣlingum, and mæġe habban beon ġedrawen on Turneres æftran ġeweorce. Under sīðfæte on 1820, Turner smēagde and mearcode Claudes ''Hȳð-ġesiht mid þǣre Villa Medici'' þā hwīle þe hē worhte on Florence Uffizi Biliþ-Stōwe. Þā twā mǣlinga habbaþ swīðe ġelīce cræftas, bēġ gemengende scipu and boldon ymbsittende hȳð. Turner mæġe ēac habban ġedrawen on ''Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan'', ān his āgenra ǣrran land-ġesihta ġeseted on þǣm ealdan Middel-niht-mere. Ġelīc thēoria fram J. Hillis Miller fōresette þæt sē ele-mearc ''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'', ġewunelīce ġelȳfed tō beonne fōre-mearc for ''Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan'', mæġe sōþlīce habban beon ġearwung for ''Regule''. Hē ġespēcolode þæt sē hōdeda rincg on ''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'' mæġe beon Regulus. Sē biliþ-stǣrere Gerald Finley ġemetgode ''Regulus'' tō Turneres 1833 mǣlinge ''Fontainebleau'', þe mǣleþ Napoleon Bonaparte standinge ofer stān-stæpas ġesete feor bæc on þǣm mǣlinge. Þis swīðe efn-lǣceþ þone rincg Regules on þǣre ealdan tōcnāwinge Regules ġesihte. Þis is ġefultumod fram Turneres hyġe-þancum be þǣm twǣm werum, swā hē tōcnēow bēġe menn tō beonne "wēapnlīce hild-fruman".<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_(1775-1851)_-_Claudian_Harbour_Scene,_Study_for_'Dido_Directing_the_Equipment_of_the_Fleet'_-_N03382_-_National_Gallery.jpg|alt=A seascape as seen from a harbour, the setting sun on the horizon|''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'' (ymbe 1827–1828), J. M. W. Turner File:Claude_Lorrain_-_Port_Scene_with_the_Villa_Medici_-_WGA04978.jpg|alt=A seascape as seen from a harbour, the setting sun on the horizon|''Hȳð mid þǣre Villa Medici (1637), Claude Lorrain'' File:Fontainebleau_The_Departure_of_Napoleon_by_J.M.W._Turner.jpg|alt=The front of a palace and its staircase, a crowd gathered around it|''Fontainebleau (1833), J. M. W. Turner'' File:Photograph_of_Carthage,_Dido_directing_the_Equipment_of_the_Fleet_by_JMW_Turner.png|alt=A seascape framed by buildings and vegetation|''[[Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan]]'' (1828), J. M. W. Turner </gallery>  * '''Ēac ġecweden swā ''Regulus Forlǣtende Rōme-burg tō Acyrrenne tō Cartaina'', oþþe ānlīplīce ''Regulus Forlǣtende Rōme-burg''.''' * '''Beaumont, ġetācnigende Powell, cwȳþ hit swā "Regulus Acyrreþ".''' * '''Þā hwīle þe John Gage ġetācnaþ þis lēoþ swā "Sē Sūþerna Sǣ-Ceast", þone ilcan naman swā sēo ġefēgde rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa gaderung, sē funta þe hē ġewissode ānlīpum ġetācnaþ þā fersas swā dǣlas fram un-namodum stycce ġewrites.''' * '''Finley secgeþ þæt sēo rinc-ġegrafene biliþ wæs ġemācod on 1840, þā hwīle þe Beaumont ġeseteþ þā tīde on 1838.''' * '''Sē coper-pāl þe Bradshaw ġegrōf on wæs ġewunelīce fēorða dǣl þæs mearces Wilsones pāles, þe sylf wæs healf þæs mearces þæs ǣrestan clay-clāþes.''' == Ġewissunga and Bōc-lāra == === Bōc-Lāra and Ġewrit-Gaderung ===   * '''Butlin, Martin; Joll, Evelyn (1977). ''Þā Mǣlinga J. M. W. Turneres''. Smēaunga on Bryttiscum Cræfte. Vol. 1: Fers-Ġewrit (1st ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-300-02130-5</nowiki>.''' * '''Finley, Gerald (1999). ''Engel on þǣre Sunnan: Turneres Ġesiht Stǣres''. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-7735-1747-2</nowiki>.''' * '''Gage, John (1969). ''Hīw on Turnere: Lēoþcræft and Sōþnes''. London: Studio Vista. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-289-79560-6</nowiki>.''' * '''Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). ''Sē Feall Cartaina: Þā Puniciscen Ġewinnas 265–146 BC''. London: Cassell. <nowiki>ISBN 0-304-36642-0</nowiki>.''' * '''Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony & Eidinow, Esther, eds. (2012). ''Sē Oxna-fordisca Ealda Word-Bōc'' (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8</nowiki>.''' * '''Miller, J. Hillis (1992). ''Biliþ-Wyrhta: Smēaunga on Cræfte and Sēawu''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-674-44357-8</nowiki>.''' * '''Powell, Cecilia (1987). ''Turner on þǣm Sūþ-Dǣle: Rōme-burg, Naples, Florence''. New Haven: Yale University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-300-03870-4</nowiki>.''' * '''Thornbury, Walter (1862). ''Þæt Līf J. M. W. Turneres'' (2nd ed.). London: Ward, Lock & Co.''' * '''Townsend, Joyce; Hellen, Rebecca & Warrell, Ian (2017). "Turneres ''Regulus'': Spell Wælhreofnesse, Bismres and Fǣlicnesse, Scīnend þurh Cræftlice Smēaunge". On Townsend, Joyce & Vandivere, Abbie (eds.). ''Smēagende þā Europiscan Biliþ-Cræftas 1800–1850: Mǣlinga, Wæstm-Cræft, Inn-Gegyrnd and Cræft''. London: Archetype Publications. pp. 109–124. <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-909492-52-3</nowiki>.''' * '''Wallace, Robert (1992). ''Melville and Turner: Hringas Lufan and Fǣrlicnesse''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-8203-1366-1</nowiki>.''' * '''Wilton, Andrew (1981). ''Turner and þæt Ofermierc''. London: University of Chicago Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-226-06189-2</nowiki>.''' * ==== Dæġ-Wīcera Ġewritu (Journals) ==== * '''Beaumont, Matthew (2020). "Rād Ġebblindod: Þæt Eall-Sēonde and þæt Un-Sēonde on Turneres ''Regule''". ''Bryttisc Cræft-Smēaunga'' (15). doi:10.17658/issn.2058-5462/issue-15/mbeaumont. ISSN 2058-5462.''' * '''Hellen, Rebecca (2014). "'Þrīe Dagas oþþe Mā...': Turneres Teohhung on Barm-Dæg and sē Lichamlica Fultum". ''Sē Bryttisca Cræft-Dǣl'' 15 (2): 47–53. ISSN 1467-2006. JSTOR 43492113.''' * '''Holcomb, Adele M. (1981). "Turner and þæt Ofermierc". ''RACAR: Canadisc Cræft-Sceawung'' 8 (2): 157–162. doi:10.7202/1075006ar. ISSN 0315-9906. JSTOR 42630258.''' ==== Dæġ-Mǣl Bōca (Magazines) ==== * '''Cust, Lionel (1895). "Þā Biliþ-Līces J. M. W. Turneres, R.A.". ''Sē Bōc-Scīte Cræftes''. Open Court Publishing Co. pp. 245–251. Ġe-hordod fram þǣm ǣrestan on 8 Sēr-Mōnaþ 2026. Ġe-fētt on 14 Winter-Mōnaþ 2024.''' {{DEFAULTSORT:Regulus (Turner)}} njdvdi1i3a6hht2c3iasnjyp2500ap1 232856 232855 2026-11-10T04:45:19Z Bryceybam 144190 232856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:Regulus (Turner)}}   '''Regulus is ele-mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres J. M. W. Turner, þe nū stent on Tate Britain, on Lunden-byrig, and sēo þēod on his hand is tō beonne ġesæġd for þā mænigeigum hira þæt hē wæs ealdor mid ealdormannum under þǣm tīde. Hēo wæs ǣrest ġemǣled on þǣm ġēare 1829 and swīðlīce ofer-mǣled twiwa. Þæt mǣling is ġestaðolod ofer eald-ġesegenum be þǣm Rōmāniscan hēah-ġerefan and hild-fruman Marce Atilie Regule, on þǣre þe hē wæs ġefangen fram Cartaina-fyrdum and ōfslegen æfter þǣm þe hē forsōc tō hwearfienne hæftlingas. Eald-ġewritu Ēacnaþ þæt hē wæs ġewītnod mid þǣm þe hē wæs ġenēded tō fōre-lōcienne on þā sunnan, þe hine ablendode. Þæt mǣling getācnaþ hȳðe on Rōme oþþe Cartaino, mid scipum and boldum ymbsittendum þone garsecg. Hēo is ġewealdend fram þǣre mǣstan hwītan sunnan on þǣm midle.''' Turner ǣror mǣlede and ǣwde ''Regulus'' on Rōme-byriġ under his faru on þǣm ġēare 1828, æfter þǣm þe hēo wæs ġesended tō Lunden-byriġ, þǣr hē eardode. On sumum tīde under oþþe æfter þǣre scipunge, sēo ūp-lyft dǣl þæs clay-clāþes wæs to-doren, þe þorfte ġebētunge and eft-mǣlinge. Þæt geweorc wæs ġeheolden on Turneres āgenum māþm-hūse oð 1837, þā hēo wæs ofer-mǣled æt þǣm Brytiscan In-setene under diht-dæġe, mid þǣm mǣleras dydon hit forþ fast-mǣlinga and ġenspēonnon hira mǣlinga beforan diht-hyrde ǣr ǣwunge. Hēo æfter-þam ġeangode mid wīd-cūðnesse, and in-bryrdode twā ōþru ymb-mǣlinga and twā ġegrafena biliþ. ''Regulus'' wæs ġflitlic ġeweorc, swīðe ġecīdid under his ǣwungum and fram contemporaneous-mannum swylce Turneres fultumiend John Ruskin. On 1863, hēo wæs ġesticod fram wer þe wæs unġewercum mid Turneres cræfte and þǣm mǣlere selfum. Þæt mǣling hæfþ ēac ġedroren fram sprying-scellum ġemǣles. Nāh wētan snoteras be þǣm hwæt þæt mǣling sōþlīce getācnaþ. Sumere wēnaþ þæt þæt mǣling ætȳwde Regule faranne fram Cartaine tō Rōme, þenden ōþru feohtaþ þæt hit cȳþeþ his eft-cyme. Ōðer ġeflit is hwæðer Regulus is ān biliþ on þǣm mǣlinge, oþþe hwæðer hit is of his gesihþe þā hē wæs ablendod, oþþe hwæðer hit is ġesett tō getācnienne Regules līf eallunga, mid þǣm þe hit cȳþeþ bēġu þing. Snoteras habbaþ ġefultumod hira wēnunge mid ġewritum of þǣm naman þāra æfterran ġegrafena biliþa, Turneres ōþrum mǣlingum, and þǣm fruman be Regule of þǣm þe Turner drōh. == Bæc-ġewri == [[File:Benjamin_West_(1738-1820)_-_The_Departure_of_Regulus_-_RCIN_405416_-_Royal_Collection.jpg|alt=Regulus walking through a crowd of kneeling figures|thumb|Ǣrist Regules fram Cartaine (1769), ġemǣled fram Benjamīne West, and ġegrafen fram Willelme Turner]] Regulus is ele-mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres J. M. W. Turner, mǣtende fēower-scort and nīgon healf centimettra ofer hund and twēntig and þrēo healf centimettra (35.2 in × 48.7 in). Þæt mǣling getācnaþ hȳðe, þe ymb-fealded þā mǣstan hwītan sunnan on þǣm midle. Sē titula biliþ, Marcus Atilius Regulus, wæs Rōmānisc hēah-ġerefa and hild-fruma þe cwieldode on þǣm ǣrestan Puniciscan Ġewinne. Hē wæs ġefangen fram Cartaina-fyrdum under þǣre Heafod-stōwe Bagradas Eā-ġefeohtes on 256 ǣr Chrīst, and wēnunge steorfaþ æfter-þam fram cynde-stefnum. Regulus wæs on his ealdres dæġum sē ealdormann þæs Cartainiscan legies, and hē is oft ġesæġd swā sē mǣsta hild-fruma betweox eallum Rōmāniscam hild-fruma. Hē blēow tō beonne ġeweorðod fram bēġem Rōme and Cartaine. Æfter þissum eald-ġesegenum, Regules hæftendas hine eft-sendedon tō Rōme-byriġ tō dǣlenne hæftlinga hwearfunge, ac æt his cyme hē lǣrde þā Rōmāne tō wiðsacan, þēah þe hē wiste þæt hē wǣre ōfslegen æfter his eft-cyme tō þǣre fēondlican byriġ Cartaine. Hē ġecēas þæt hē nōht abrǣce his āþ-wōd, and hwearf eft tō þǣre fēond-byriġ, æfter þǣm þā stǣru hwīlum to-syndriaþ. On mænigum ġewritum Regulus wæs ġewītnod mid þǣm þe his ǣg-hringas wǣron ōf-ādocode oþþe snōd-ġesowod open, ǣr þæm þe hē wæs ġenēded tō lōcienne on þā sunnan, þe hine tō āblendnesse ġelǣdde. Sume stǣr-wītan ēcnaþ mā details: Tuditanus sæġde þæt Regulus stearf fram slæp-līese, and Oliver Goldsmith cwæþ þæt hē wæs ġesett on fæt full scirpra nægla. Þēah þe hit ne wǣre gemǣne, Regulus wæs cūþ topic for mænigum mǣlerum under Turneres līfe. Mǣlinga swylce Salvator Rosan ''Regules Dēað'' and Benjamīnes Westes ''Sē Ǣrist Regules'' wǣron oft ǣwdu on Engla-lande under þǣm ǣrestan ġēarum þæs nīontēoþan ġēar-hunderte. Þās ġeweorc, ġehworfen ofer Regules sāwl-ġefeohte, getācnaþ hine swā cēafne, eþel-lufiendne hild-fruman and fyrðraþ wēnas æþelre wer-menniscnisse.  Ēala! mihtige beornas, hāl! þāra stīf-hȳdig sāwol furþum ofer hielfe tō wīd-drīfenne self-ġeweald. Swā Regulus, þone ǣlc wīte wēnode, æt-sōc selfum in-gang æt þǣm ġeate for þām þe hæftling þæs wlancan Cartaina ġewealdes, ac his rēþe sāwol nolde þā Rōmāne nīðerian. Nā wīf ne lēofe bearn, ne self, mihton ġehealdan mōmetes sprǣce,—lufu ġedyde hine cēafne, lufu his ēþles; for þām nāht elcor hē lufode,—ac for þǣre lufan hē cwall. —J. M. W. Turneres fers be Regule '''Wǣron wēnunge manige fruman of þǣm Turner ġeleornode be Regule. James Thomson, scop þe swīðlīce in-bryrde Turneres ġewritu, ġemynode Regulus on his fers-flocce ''Þā Tīda'' (''The Seasons''). Sē mǣst swutolienda fruma þe Turner wēnode habban be Regule wæs Oliver Goldsmithes ''Rōmānisc Stǣr'', on þǣm sēo wītnung Regules is beorhtlīce ġewriten. Innan þǣm blæde his 1786 ġe-ȳcednesse cōpian, Turner wrāt þā word "Regulus Return" betweox līste mæġena topic-manna. Turner ēac dǣlde fers tō Regules ēþel-lufan on 1811 leoþe þe hē wrāt tō ġefōgenne George Cookes ''Sūþ-Sǣ-Rīme'' ġegrafenum biliþum. Sē hlisa ofer Regules æþelnesse on þǣm ferse is ġelīc þæs Rōmāniscan scopes Horatiese wuldrunge þæs hild-fruman.''' == Stǣr == === On Rōme-byriġ === [[File:Claude_Lorrain_008.jpg|alt=A harbour scene|thumb|'''Claudes Lorraines ''Sē Scip-fang þǣre Cwēne fram Sceba''. ''Regulus'' wæs ġefōgen fram dēmerum tō þǣm ġeweorce Claudes.''']] '''Turner mǣlede ''Regulus'' under his faru tō Rōme-byriġ on þǣm ġēare 1828. Hē ōgan ġeweorc on ymbe eahta oþþe tȳn mǣlinga on eallum, ac æl ġefullodo wǣron feōwer: ''Regulus'', ''Sīehþ of Orvieto'', ''Palestrina'', and ''Gesiht of Medea''. Of þissum feōwer, ''Regulus'' wæs wēnunge sē ǣresta tō beonne ġefullod. Turner cwæþ þæt hēo wæs ġemācod tō ġestillienne þæt "ġeclafor" his ġefērena þāra þe wǣron in-bryrde mid his dǣdum. On æfteran Ġeōlmōnaþe 1828, Turner ġeheold lytle ǣwunge on þǣm Bold Trulli, mid þrīem his ġefullodena mǣlinga: ''Regulus'', ''Orvieto'', and ''Medea''. For earfoþnessum on dælinga gemētung-hringa for þǣm mǣlingum, hīe wǣron ǣwdu mid ġeolwum rāpe ġenæglod ymbsittendum þā rīmas ǣlces clay-clāþes.''' '''Sēo ǣwung ġefeng ymbe þūsend cuma, manige þāra wǣron Frencisce and Deniscan mǣleras þe unlufodon Turneres frēo smierunge ġemǣles. Æfter Charles Lock Eastlake, frēond Turneres þe wæs ætwerd æt þǣre ǣwunge, þā cumena wǣron dēmende þāra mǣlinga, findende manigfeald wōh and toswīðlicne ġelīcnesse tō ġeweorcum Claudes Lorraines (cūþ ānlīpum swā Claude). Ān sawu ġebrocen fram dēmerum under þǣre ǣwunge wæs sē ealda Leden cwide "Caccatum non est pictum" ('Hit is scearn; hit nīs mǣling!').''' === On Engla-lande === On Æfteran Ġeōlan 1828, Turner hwearf eft tō Lunden-byriġ, ġecōstiende tō scipienne his mǣlinga synderlīce, ġeasured for fīf hund gīnēam. Hē hopode þæt hīe cōmon ǣr ġenōh tō beonne ǣwed on þǣre 1829 ǣwunge þǣre Cyne-Academia Crafta, ac hīe cōmon ānlīpe on 20 Iulies, þrīem mōnaþum æfter þǣm þe hēo wæs ōpenod. On sumum mǣle ǣr 1837, Regules clay-clāþ wæs toswīðlīce ġederod. Þēah þe Turner sæġde on ġewrite tō þǣm mǣlere Willelme Linton þæt ealle his mǣlinga cōmon slīhte, hit is mæġenlic þæt Regulus wæs ġederod on þǣm eft-sīðe, and Turner nās his ġeornlīce swutolode tō bearhtme þone slite. Þis wēning is ġestrengod fram þǣm þætte Regulus ne wæs ǣwed manigum ġēarum æfter his faru tō Lunden-byriġ, þā hwīle þā ōþra Italisca mǣlinga swylce ''Orvieto'' and ''Palestrina'' wǣron ǣwdu sōna æfter þāra cyme. Hit is ēac mæġenlic þæt Regulus wæs ġederod on Lunden-byriġ on mænigum wīsum, swylce feallende on in-ærfe. Þæt derung wæs micel slit on þǣm ūp-weardum wynstran healf-hringe þæs mǣlinges, þe behealden micel þæs heofones. Hit wæs ġebēted þurh rīmung and eft-linung – wēnunge ġedōn fram Willelme Redmore Bigg – þǣr ōþer webb-clāþ wæs ġe-ȳced tō þǣm bæce þæs mǣlinges. Fēower-dǣl þæs clay-clāþes, befeallende mǣst heofones, wæs mid ealle eft-ġemǣled tō hȳdenne þæt derung. Ōþer ġe-ȳced slit is ġefunden rinnende rihte tō-emnes þæs mǣlinges midle, rihte on þǣm midle þǣre sunnan. Þis slit wæs ēac ġerīmed locen and ġehȳded mid ġemǣle.   Þǣm 28. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan 1837, sēo Bryttisce Stofung hēold hiera gēarlican ele-dæġ, tīd þǣr mǣleras bǣrodan and macodon ende-rihtinge tō hiera mǣlingum beforan ǣwtum hēah-ġeþingum ǣr hiera ǣwung ōpenode. Turner hæfde ōd-breded ''Regulus'' tō þǣre ǣwunge, ungelīclīce gecēas þurh his mōde þære Bryttiscan Stofunge swā stōwe tō cypenne un-wilnode mǣlinga, for þǣm micclan swiþe þe hē ǣr ġenom to rætienne þone clay-clāþ. Hit is mæġenlic þæt hē wolde ǣwian þæt mǣling tō tǣcanne hū þā lār Claudes mæġ beonne nīwoda. Hit is ēac wēning þæt siþðan stōw þære Cyne-Academia Crafta wæs ġeflitted fram Somerset Bold tō Trafalgar Square, hē hopode tō brucenne māran mǣlinga þǣr tō tyhtenne māre gimene. ''Regulus'', sē wæs lȳtel gelīcnesse tō þǣm ōþrum mǣlingum ǣwdum on þǣre ǣwunge, wæs uncwēme tō þissum mynte. Under þǣm ele-dæġe of 1839, Turner macede micel up-ġe-ēacnunga tō ''Regule''. Þēah þe hē wæs cūþ for manigum þissum latan hwearfungum tō his mǣlingum, sēo ofer-mǣling ''Regules'' is sē āna cynn þǣr wē habbaþ bēġe ġewritene and ġesihtlice swutolunga. Sē Englisca craftica John Gilbert ġeseah þone dryht-cyme, þe hē wrāt fīf and fēowertig ġēara æfter-þam on ġewrite tō George Scharf, þǣm stēore þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Þæt ġewrit wæs þā ġepubliod fram Scharfes æfter-gengan, Lionel Cust, on þǣre 1895 ġe-ȳcednesse þæs ''Sinc-Cræfte Bōce''. Gilbert sæġde þæt Turner brōhte manige micele swīn-hyrste brushas tō drīfenne hwīt-stān gemǣl on þæt midle þæs clay-clāþes tō macinge mistlicne hrōr, folgiende stih-līnan þe hē hæfde ġedrawen tō mearcienne þā lēoman þǣre sunnan. Hē ēac ġemearcode þæt, æt wyrcan-hringe, sēo sunne ġehūfode for þǣm mæġene ġemǣles þe wæs ġe-ȳced tō þǣre stōwe. Dōming ġedōn on 2012 is ġecīged manige þissra stēora on twēo. Nān māþm-swutolnes mæġ beonne ġefunden þæt stih-līnan wǣron ġedrawene for þǣm lēomum, and þæt mæġen þæs ōfer-mǣles ymb þā sunnan wæs un-ġenōh tō æfre wyrceanne ut-scūfendne hrōr. Þæt hwīt-stān gemǣl þe Gilbert sæġde wæs wēnunge megilp, þe wolde habban ġemacod þone færlīcan hwearf on lyfte þe hē ġeseah. [[File:Daniel_Wilson_-_Ancient_Carthage_-_The_Embarcation_of_Regulus_-_B1977.14.8032_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|alt=An engraving of Regulus|thumb|''Eald Cartaina – þæs Scip-fang Regules'' is mǣling þæs Engliscan mǣleres Daniel Wilson, ġemǣled on þǣm gēare 1840. Þæt biliþ getācnaþ þā mǣran tīd þāra fōre Regules fram Cartaina, þǣr sē eald-frod hild-fruma cyrreþ eft tō his wīte togeanes Rōme-byriġ, folgiende þā ēcan stǣr and Turneriscra lāra mid clǣnum lēome and hȳðelicum timbrum.]] Twā ōþra ġebeorhtene biliþu þæs dryht-cymes sindon on ōwer-lifiendum mǣlingum ġemācode under þǣm ele-dæġe. Sē Norþ-mann craftica Thomas Fearnley and sē Englisca craftica Charles West Cope bēġen macedon mǣlinga þǣre eft-mǣlinge, wēnunge swā lēoht-hyge camphafed. Þā mǣlinga getācnaþ Turner standende on bencge tō mǣlenne, ymbsitten fram lārum and healdinge fȳst-full brusha, þā hwīle þe hīe sweotoliaþ þā beorhtnesse ''Regules'' ġelīcnesse tō þǣre ymbsittendan stōwe. On Fearnleyes mǣlinge, ''Regulus'' sōþlīce þēonaþ swā lēoht-fruma þe scūfeþ scadu þurh þæt biliþ. Mænigum ġēarum æfter-þām, sē Scottisca craftica Daniel Wilson wæs ġebeden tō ġegrafenne ''Regulus'' æfter þǣm þe hē wæs ġelaþod tō Turneres bold-stede and ǣwed tō þǣre "Un-ġegangan ǣw-stōwe" þǣr þæt mǣling wæs ġeheolden. Þæt ġeweorc wæs earfoþlic þǣm nīwan ġegrafere, for þǣm mæġene and stīflican lēome on þǣre ġesihte. Sē copor-disc ġebrocen wæs lȳtel under healf-dǣl þæs clay-clāþes mycelnesse, and hæfde æl-ġelīce wæstm-ġemeat tō þǣm frum-mǣlinge. Tō rætienne þis, Wilson forlet þone nēhstan ūp-weardne and niþer-weardne dǣl þæs mǣlinges, and wīdnode þā ġesiht þurh ġe-ȳcunge ōþerra mæsta on þǣm wynstran healfe. [[File:Samuel_Bradshaw_-_Regulus_leaving_Carthage_-_B1977.14.13862_-_Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg|alt=An engraving of Regulus|thumb|''Regulus forlǣtende Cartaina'' (ymbe 1860-ġēar), Samuel Bradshaw]] ''Regulus'' wunode on Turneres āgenre ǣw-stōwe oþ his cwale on þǣm ġēare 1851. Þā eft-mǣlinga and rætinga macodon hit swīðlīce hīdan-feste tō þǣm yfelum wyrd-stylde þǣre ǣw-stōwe, þe be-hæfde dūst, eardiende cattas, and wǣtan. On 1856, þā lahlīcan ġeþingas þæs Turneres Cwides wǣron ġerihtode, and ''Regulus'' wearþ ān þāra ǣrestena hund mǣlinga ġeflitted tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge on Lunden-byriġ. Þǣm 28. dæġe Blotmōnaþes 1856, hit wæs ġeflitted tō þǣm grund-flōre Marlborough Boldes, þā ġebrocen swā ofer-stōw, and six mōnaþum æfter-þām wæs ġeleded ūp-weardes. On winter-mōnaþe 1859, sē Weard þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge Ralph Nicholson Wornum flitte ''Regulus'' tō þǣm Sūþ-Kensington Hūse, þǣr lȳtel rinc-ġegrafen biliþ wæs ġemācod fram [[Samuel Bradshaw]]. On winter-mōnaþe 1861, ''Regulus'' wæs ġeflitted tō þǣm Turneres Rūme on þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge tō fultumienne þā word þæs Turneres Cwides. === Stung un-ġewillud and ōþra derunga === Feorran nēah twǣm tīd-hyllum on æfter-nōne, þǣm 16. dæġe Ǣrran Ġeōlan 1863, Walter Stephenson īn-ēode on þæne Turneres Rūm þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Stephenson mæġe habban ġeworht swā rīc-ġerēfa, bōcere, cræftiga, oþþe stān-wrītere; hē wæs cūþ tō beonne hām-lēas and būtan cynne oþþe frēondum. Sē weard Edmund Paine ġemearcode þæt Stephenson wæs dōnde dwollīce ymbsittende ''Regulus'', and wrēgde hine tō Eleazer Dennin, þǣm stēore þǣre eard-wearde for þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Stephenson ġefelde þæt hē wæs ġeweardod and wunode stille for twǣm tīdum. Paine eft-ēode on þā biliþ-stōwe feorran nēah fōwer tīd-hyllum, æfter-þām Stephenson forþ-brōhte seax client freeze and stang þæt mǣling nigon sīðum, þyreligende þæne clay-clāþ fōwer sīðum and macigende slit ymbe 32 metera-mǣla (1.25 ynca) lang. Stephenson wæs ġefangen on þǣre stōwe, and ġewillendlīce sealde his seax mid ġemǣle giet on þǣre ecge. Stephenson þīnco tō habbanne beon on dǣle ġetyhted fram feondscipe togeanes Turnere, swā Dennin sæġde þæt hē cwad under frēgnunge: "Ic wæs swīðe ġebryrd. Sē mistlica hād þæs biliþes and sē un-lufa þe ic hæfde to þǣm menn macedon me hit dōn." Stephenson wæs ġefangen and tērod mid "willudum derunge ēnes Turneres biliþes on þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge". Hē wæs ġedēmed on þǣm 4. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan 1864, in Clerkenwell, þǣr hē andettedwēde scyldiġ. On þǣm 18. dæġe Æfteran Ġeōlan, hē wæs ġeseted tō syx mōnaþum heardra geswinces. Sē mǣling-bōtere George Morrill wæs ġelaþod on þǣm 28. dæġe tō eft-linenne ''Regulus'', þæt weorc hē ġefullode bi þǣm 9. dæġe Solmōnaþes. On þǣm 19. dæġe Solmōnaþes, Charles Buttery wæs ġelaþod tō macienne māran bētinga tō þǣm mǣlinge for eahta gīnēam. Hē ġefullode þis weorc hrædlīce, and bi þǣm 1. dæġe Ēaster-mōnaþes, ānlīpe fēower mōnaþum æfter þǣm stīð-cyme, ''Regulus'' wæs hweorfed eft tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge. Siþðan 1960, ''Regulus'' hæfð þearfe gehabt tō beonne niwōd fēower sīðum for floriende and cracigende gemǣle. On 1984, cumer stang þæt midle ''Regules'' clay-clāþes, macigende manige florius gemǣles tō feallenne of þǣm flōre. Hīe wǣron ġefengene fram þǣm flōre and eft-ġetēnode. === On þǣre Taten Biliþ-Stofunge === ''Regulus'' wæs ġeflitted tō þǣre Þēodiscen Biliþ-Stofunge Bryttisces Cræftes, nū Taten Biliþ-Stofung, on þǣm ġēare 1929, þǣr hit wunaþ swā dǣl þǣre ǣwunge "JMW Turner: Faru on Europam". Siþðan þǣm ġeflite, ''Regulus'' is ġe-ǣwed æt manigum ōþrum biliþ-stōwum, ġe-ēacnod on sīðfæte fram þǣm Cræfte-Ġeþingie Mieran Brytene, and æt þǣre Cyne-Academia Crafta. On 2017, hit wæs ġe-ǣwed æt þǣre Frick-Gaderunge on Nīwan Eoforwīc-byriġ swā dǣl þæs dryht-cymes "Turneres Nīwe and Ealde Hȳða: Faru þurh Tīde". == On-fēng and Dōm-cræft == ''Regulus'' wæs swīðe cīdendlīc under Turneres līfe, tyhtende micelne dōm-cræft under his ǣwungum. Nōþylæs, þæt mǣling hæfde his fultumendas. Charles Lock Eastlake āsceortode þæt ġeweorc swā "mā Ītalisc þonne Ītalia sylf", and sē bōcere Herman Melville ġebohte rinc-ġegrafen biliþ fram Bradshawes ''Regulus forlǣtende Cartaina'' þe ǣrest wæs ġepubliod on þǣre 1859 gaderunge ''Þǣre Turneres Biliþ-Stofunge''. Under þisses mǣlinges ǣwunge on 1837, wrītere for þǣm ''The Spectator'' ġemetgod hit tō þǣm ġeweorcum Claudes and spræc be þǣre stīflicnesse þǣre sunnan, secgende þæt "hit is mid Turneres twēorfenum hrōrum - wē wūscodon þæt sēo sunne wǣre ūt of þǣm biliþe". Nīwe dōmeras habbaþ ġefæstnod on þǣre læssan stōwe Regules on þǣm mǣlinge ġelīcod tō þǣre sunnan. Sē biliþ-dōmere Karen Rosenberg sæġde þæt sēo sunne "ofer-scīneþ" Regulus, and sē lārēow Peter Conrad sæġde þæt sēo stōw Regules "ne mæġne", for þǣm þe sē staol þæs mǣlinges is on stede sē sunne-lēoma. ohn Ruskin, ān þāra mǣrostena fultumenda Turneres, for-hōgode ''Regulus''. Hē teohhode hit swā "wyrrestan æf-cyrre on þā ealdan flītinge mid Claude", ġelȳfende þæt hit bēġe efn-lǣhte and cīdde þā ġeweorc Claudes. Hē fōresette þæt þæt mǣling wǣre ǣwed on fēr-cysten swā bismor-mærc and bisen Turneres synna. Þes stīðlica un-lufa for ''Regule'' wunode for eallum Ruskins līfe, swā hē gelōmlīce spræc be his wammum on manigum ġewritum, mearc-bōcum, and bōcum. == Dōming and Smēaung == [[File:Turner_-_Regulus_(Regulus_descending_stairs_2).jpg|alt=A section of Regulus, with a small white figure in the centre|thumb|Mearc-dǣl þæs rincges þe is ġeteohhod tō beonne Regulus (midle)]] Manige hēafod-dǣlas þæs mǣlinges, ġe-ēacnod sēo stōw and þā rincgas, habbaþ beon subject tō flītinge. Under þǣre fōr-stefne þæs feond-scaþan Walter Stephenson, þæt mǣling wæs ġecweden fram dom-erecum and weardum swā ''Regulus forlǣtende Rōme-burg'', tōcnāwende þā stōwe tō beonne Rōme-burg. Þis is ġefultumod fram þǣm sōþe þæt Turneres hēafod-funtan be Regule, Oliver Goldsmithes ''Rōmānisce Stǣr'', fæstnoþ on Regules æftestan forþ-fare fram Rōme-burge. Nōþylæs, þā naman Wilsones and Bradshawes rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa, þæs æftran ġeweardod fram Turnere sylfum, þyncaþ tō tōcnāwenne þæt sēo stow neimþ stede on Cartaina, ǣr Regulus forlǣteþ for Rōme-burge. Sēo stōw Regules sylfes wearþ subject tō manigum tōcnāwingum. Regulus is hīlum ġetācnod swā lȳtel hwīt rincg on þǣm rihte-hælfe nīþer-stīgende stān-stæpas, þēah þæt gemetlice lȳtle ġeceap þæs rincges hæfþ for-lǣten manige dōmeras un-mihtige tō tōcnāwenne þæt dǣl. Sē Turneres lārēow John Gage fōresette þæt Regulus ne wæs sōþlīce on þǣm mǣlinge; on stede, æfter Gage, þæt mǣling sweotolaþ Regules āgenne ġesiht swā hē wæs beonde ġebblindod. Þis is ġefultumod fram Turneres gewuna tō ġesettenne þæne scawend swā þæne hēafod-rincg on his ōþrum ġeweorcum þæs ofermierces. Nōþylæs, þis smēaung is ġecīded. Sē biliþ-stǣrere Andrew Wilton ġelȳfde þæt þis ġerǣme wǣre gemetlice un-ġewunelīce for þǣre tīde, and mearcaþ þæt þā word-rihte naman þāra rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa tōcnāwaþ þæt Turner teohhode mā ġewunelīcne ġesiht. Sē bōclica lārēow Matthew Beaumont fōresette þriddan mihte for bēġum þǣre stōwe þæs mǣlinges and stōwe Regules. Hē cīdde þæt sēo landlīce and tīdlīce un-sweotolnes Regules tōcnāwþ þæt þæt mǣling ne mǣleþ ānne ānlīpne stund, ac on stede ġetācnaþ Regules ealle līf-fyrhto, Turner ġewittiglice mǣlende hit tō beonne bēġra ġesihta ætgædere. === Cræftlice Wyrda and Inn-bryrdninga === ''Regulus'' mæġe habban beon ġewyrcd fram manigum ōþrum mǣlingum, and mæġe habban beon ġedrawen on Turneres æftran ġeweorce. Under sīðfæte on 1820, Turner smēagde and mearcode Claudes ''Hȳð-ġesiht mid þǣre Villa Medici'' þā hwīle þe hē worhte on Florence Uffizi Biliþ-Stōwe. Þā twā mǣlinga habbaþ swīðe ġelīce cræftas, bēġ gemengende scipu and boldon ymbsittende hȳð. Turner mæġe ēac habban ġedrawen on ''Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan'', ān his āgenra ǣrran land-ġesihta ġeseted on þǣm ealdan Middel-niht-mere. Ġelīc thēoria fram J. Hillis Miller fōresette þæt sē ele-mearc ''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'', ġewunelīce ġelȳfed tō beonne fōre-mearc for ''Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan'', mæġe sōþlīce habban beon ġearwung for ''Regule''. Hē ġespēcolode þæt sē hōdeda rincg on ''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'' mæġe beon Regulus. Sē biliþ-stǣrere Gerald Finley ġemetgode ''Regulus'' tō Turneres 1833 mǣlinge ''Fontainebleau'', þe mǣleþ Napoleon Bonaparte standinge ofer stān-stæpas ġesete feor bæc on þǣm mǣlinge. Þis swīðe efn-lǣceþ þone rincg Regules on þǣre ealdan tōcnāwinge Regules ġesihte. Þis is ġefultumod fram Turneres hyġe-þancum be þǣm twǣm werum, swā hē tōcnēow bēġe menn tō beonne "wēapnlīce hild-fruman".<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_(1775-1851)_-_Claudian_Harbour_Scene,_Study_for_'Dido_Directing_the_Equipment_of_the_Fleet'_-_N03382_-_National_Gallery.jpg|alt=A seascape as seen from a harbour, the setting sun on the horizon|''Claudisc Hȳð-Ġesiht'' (ymbe 1827–1828), J. M. W. Turner File:Claude_Lorrain_-_Port_Scene_with_the_Villa_Medici_-_WGA04978.jpg|alt=A seascape as seen from a harbour, the setting sun on the horizon|''Hȳð mid þǣre Villa Medici (1637), Claude Lorrain'' File:Fontainebleau_The_Departure_of_Napoleon_by_J.M.W._Turner.jpg|alt=The front of a palace and its staircase, a crowd gathered around it|''Fontainebleau (1833), J. M. W. Turner'' File:Photograph_of_Carthage,_Dido_directing_the_Equipment_of_the_Fleet_by_JMW_Turner.png|alt=A seascape framed by buildings and vegetation|''[[Dido Dihtiende þā Ġerǣdu þæs Scip-flotan]]'' (1828), J. M. W. Turner </gallery>  * '''Ēac ġecweden swā ''Regulus Forlǣtende Rōme-burg tō Acyrrenne tō Cartaina'', oþþe ānlīplīce ''Regulus Forlǣtende Rōme-burg''.''' * '''Beaumont, ġetācnigende Powell, cwȳþ hit swā "Regulus Acyrreþ".''' * '''Þā hwīle þe John Gage ġetācnaþ þis lēoþ swā "Sē Sūþerna Sǣ-Ceast", þone ilcan naman swā sēo ġefēgde rinc-ġegrafenena biliþa gaderung, sē funta þe hē ġewissode ānlīpum ġetācnaþ þā fersas swā dǣlas fram un-namodum stycce ġewrites.''' * '''Finley secgeþ þæt sēo rinc-ġegrafene biliþ wæs ġemācod on 1840, þā hwīle þe Beaumont ġeseteþ þā tīde on 1838.''' * '''Sē coper-pāl þe Bradshaw ġegrōf on wæs ġewunelīce fēorða dǣl þæs mearces Wilsones pāles, þe sylf wæs healf þæs mearces þæs ǣrestan clay-clāþes.''' == Ġewissunga and Bōc-lāra == === Bōc-Lāra and Ġewrit-Gaderung ===   * '''Butlin, Martin; Joll, Evelyn (1977). ''Þā Mǣlinga J. M. W. Turneres''. Smēaunga on Bryttiscum Cræfte. Vol. 1: Fers-Ġewrit (1st ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-300-02130-5</nowiki>.''' * '''Finley, Gerald (1999). ''Engel on þǣre Sunnan: Turneres Ġesiht Stǣres''. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-7735-1747-2</nowiki>.''' * '''Gage, John (1969). ''Hīw on Turnere: Lēoþcræft and Sōþnes''. London: Studio Vista. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-289-79560-6</nowiki>.''' * '''Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). ''Sē Feall Cartaina: Þā Puniciscen Ġewinnas 265–146 BC''. London: Cassell. <nowiki>ISBN 0-304-36642-0</nowiki>.''' * '''Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony & Eidinow, Esther, eds. (2012). ''Sē Oxna-fordisca Ealda Word-Bōc'' (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8</nowiki>.''' * '''Miller, J. Hillis (1992). ''Biliþ-Wyrhta: Smēaunga on Cræfte and Sēawu''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-674-44357-8</nowiki>.''' * '''Powell, Cecilia (1987). ''Turner on þǣm Sūþ-Dǣle: Rōme-burg, Naples, Florence''. New Haven: Yale University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-300-03870-4</nowiki>.''' * '''Thornbury, Walter (1862). ''Þæt Līf J. M. W. Turneres'' (2nd ed.). London: Ward, Lock & Co.''' * '''Townsend, Joyce; Hellen, Rebecca & Warrell, Ian (2017). "Turneres ''Regulus'': Spell Wælhreofnesse, Bismres and Fǣlicnesse, Scīnend þurh Cræftlice Smēaunge". On Townsend, Joyce & Vandivere, Abbie (eds.). ''Smēagende þā Europiscan Biliþ-Cræftas 1800–1850: Mǣlinga, Wæstm-Cræft, Inn-Gegyrnd and Cræft''. London: Archetype Publications. pp. 109–124. <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-909492-52-3</nowiki>.''' * '''Wallace, Robert (1992). ''Melville and Turner: Hringas Lufan and Fǣrlicnesse''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-8203-1366-1</nowiki>.''' * '''Wilton, Andrew (1981). ''Turner and þæt Ofermierc''. London: University of Chicago Press. <nowiki>ISBN 0-226-06189-2</nowiki>.''' * ==== Dæġ-Wīcera Ġewritu (Journals) ==== * '''Beaumont, Matthew (2020). "Rād Ġebblindod: Þæt Eall-Sēonde and þæt Un-Sēonde on Turneres ''Regule''". ''Bryttisc Cræft-Smēaunga'' (15). doi:10.17658/issn.2058-5462/issue-15/mbeaumont. ISSN 2058-5462.''' * '''Hellen, Rebecca (2014). "'Þrīe Dagas oþþe Mā...': Turneres Teohhung on Barm-Dæg and sē Lichamlica Fultum". ''Sē Bryttisca Cræft-Dǣl'' 15 (2): 47–53. ISSN 1467-2006. JSTOR 43492113.''' * '''Holcomb, Adele M. (1981). "Turner and þæt Ofermierc". ''RACAR: Canadisc Cræft-Sceawung'' 8 (2): 157–162. doi:10.7202/1075006ar. ISSN 0315-9906. JSTOR 42630258.''' ==== Dæġ-Mǣl Bōca (Magazines) ==== * '''Cust, Lionel (1895). "Þā Biliþ-Līces J. M. W. Turneres, R.A.". ''Sē Bōc-Scīte Cræftes''. Open Court Publishing Co. pp. 245–251. Ġe-hordod fram þǣm ǣrestan on 8 Sēr-Mōnaþ 2026. Ġe-fētt on 14 Winter-Mōnaþ 2024.''' {{DEFAULTSORT:Regulus (Turner)}} ce3omftdyrtmb4y1oul292dcsu4qj86