Wikibooks enwikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.46.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikibooks Wikibooks talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Cookbook Cookbook talk Transwiki Transwiki talk Wikijunior Wikijunior talk Subject Subject talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 10 4632199 4245612 2026-04-25T08:59:42Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632199 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Organic Chemistry/Haloalkanes|<< Haloalkanes]] |'''Alkenes'''| [[Organic Chemistry/Alkynes|Alkynes >>]] Alkenes are [[Organic Chemistry/Glossary#A|aliphatic]] [[Organic Chemistry/Glossary#H|hydrocarbons]] containing carbon-carbon double bonds and general formula C_nH_2n. =Naming Alkenes= Alkenes are named as if they were alkanes, but the "-ane" suffix is changed to "-ene". If the alkene contains only one double bond and that double bond is terminal (the double bond is at one end of the molecule or another) then it is not necessary to place any number in front of the name. <blockquote> '''butane:''' C₄H₁₀ (CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃)<br> '''butene:''' C₄H₈ (CH₂=CHCH₂CH₃) </blockquote> If the double bond is not terminal (if it is on a carbon somewhere in the center of the chain) then the carbons should be numbered in such a way as to give the first of the two double-bonded carbons the lowest possible number, and that number should precede the "ene" suffix with a dash, as shown below. <blockquote> '''correct:''' pent-2-ene (CH₃CH=CHCH₂CH₃)<br> '''incorrect:''' pent-3-ene (CH₃CH₂CH=CHCH₃)<br> ''The second one is incorrect because flipping the formula horizontally results in a lower number for the alkene.'' </blockquote> If there is more than one double bond in an alkene, all of the bonds should be numbered in the name of the molecule - even terminal double bonds. The numbers should go from lowest to highest, and be separated from one another by a comma. The IUPAC numerical prefixes are used to indicate the number of double bonds. <blockquote> '''octa-2,4-diene:''' CH₃CH=CHCH=CHCH₂CH₂CH₃<br> '''deca-1,5-diene:''' CH₂=CHCH₂CH₂CH=CHCH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃ </blockquote> Note that the numbering of "2-4" above yields a molecule with two double bonds separated by just one single bond. Double bonds in such a condition are called "conjugated", and they represent an enhanced stability of conformation, so they are energetically favored as reactants in many situations and combinations. ==EZ Notation== Earlier in stereochemistry, we discussed cis/trans notation where cis- means same side and trans- means opposite side. Alkenes can present a unique problem, however in that the cis/trans notation sometimes breaks down. The first thing to keep in mind is that alkenes are planar and there's no rotation of the bonds, as we'll discuss later. So when a substituent is on one side of the double-bond, it stays on that side. [[Image:EZNotation3.png|thumb|400px|center|cis-but-2-ene and trans-but-2-ene]] The above example is pretty straight-forward. On the left, we have two methyl groups on the same side, so it's cis-but-2-ene. And on the right, we have them on opposite sides, so we have trans-but-2-ene. So in this situation, the cis/trans notation works and, in fact, these are the correct names. [[Image:EZNotation5.png|thumb|759px|center|(E)-3-methylpent-2-ene and (Z)-3-methylpent-2-ene]] From the example above, how would you use cis and trans? Which is the same side and which is the opposite side? Whenever an alkene has 3 or 4 differing substituents, one must use the what's called the EZ nomenclature, coming from the German words, Entgegen (opposite) and Zusammen (same). {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | '''E''': Entgegen, opposite sides of double bond<br> '''Z''': Zusammen, same sides (zame zides) of double bond |} Let's begin with (Z)-3-methylpent-2-ene. We begin by dividing our alkene into left and right halves. On each side, we assign a substituent as being either a high priority or low priority substituent. The priority is based on the atomic number of the substituents. So on the left side, hydrogen is the lowest priority because its atomic number is 1 and carbon is higher because its atomic number is 6. On the right side, we have carbon substituents on both the top and bottom, so we go out to the next bond. On to the top, there's another carbon, but on the bottom, a hydrogen. So the top gets high priority and the bottom gets low priority. Because the high priorities from both sides are on the same side, they are Zusammen (as a mnemonic, think 'Zame Zide'). Now let's look at (E)-3-methylpent-2-ene. On the left, we have the same substituents on the same sides, so the priorities are the same as in the Zusammen version. However, the substituents are reversed on the right side with the high priority substituent on the bottom and the low priority substituent on the top. Because the High and Low priorities are opposite on the left and right, these are Entgegen, or opposite. The system takes a little getting used to and it's usually easier to name an alkene than it is to write one out given its name. But with a little practice, you'll find that it's quite easy. ===Comparison of E-Z with cis-trans=== {| BORDER |- | || |- | (''Z'')-but-2-ene || (''E'')-but-2-ene |- |[[Image:Cis-2-butene.svg|200px]]||[[Image:Trans-2-butene.svg|200px]] |- | ''cis''-but-2-ene || ''trans''-but-2-ene |} To a certain extent, the Z configuration can be regarded as the ''cis-'' isomer and the E as the ''trans-'' isomers. This correspondence is exact only if the two carbon atoms are identically substituted. In general, cis-trans should only be used if each double-bonded carbon atom has a hydrogen atom (i.e. R-CH=CH-R'). [http://goldbook.iupac.org/C01093.html IUPAC Gold book on cis-trans notation.] [http://goldbook.iupac.org/E01882.html IUPAC Gold book on E-Z notation.] =Properties= Alkenes are molecules with carbons bonded to hydrogens which contain at least two sp² hybridized carbon atoms. That is, to say, at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond, where the carbon atoms, in addition to an electron pair shared in a ''sigma'' (&sigma;) bond, share one pair of electrons in a ''pi'' (&pi;) bond between them. The general formula for an aliphatic alkene is: C_nH_2n -- ''e.g.'' C₂H₄ ''or'' C₃H₆ ==Diastereomerism== ===Restricted rotation=== Because of the characteristics of pi-bonds, alkenes have very limited rotation around the double bonds between two atoms. In order for the alkene structure to rotate the pi-bond would first have to be broken - which would require about 60 or 70 kcal of energy per mol. For this reason alkenes have different chemical properties based on which side of the bond each atom is located. For example, but-2-ene exists as two [[Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Diastereomers|diastereomers]]: {| style="margin:0 auto;" BORDER |- | || |- | (''Z'')-but-2-ene || (''E'')-But-2-ene |- |[[Image:Cis-2-butene.svg|200px]]||[[Image:Trans-2-butene.svg|200px]] |- | ''cis''-but-2-ene || ''trans''-but-2-ene |} =Relative stability= Observing the reaction of the addition of hydrogen to 1-butene, (Z)-2-butene, and (E)-2-butene, we can see that all of the products are butane. The difference between the reactions is that each reaction has a different energy: -30.3 kcal/mol for 1-butene, -28.6 kcal/mol for (Z)-2-butene and -27.6 kcal/mol for (E)-2-butene. This illustrates that there are differences in the stabilities of the three species of butene isomers, due to the difference in how much energy can be released by reducing them. The relative stability of alkenes may be estimated based on the following concepts: *An internal alkene (the double bond ''not'' on the terminal carbon) is more stable than a terminal alkene (the double bond ''is'' on a terminal carbon). Internal alkenes are more stable than terminal alkenes because they are connected to more carbons on the chain. Since a terminal alkene is located at the end of the chain, the double bond is only connected to one carbon, and is called primary (1°). Primary carbons are the least stable. In the middle of a chain, a double bond could be connected to two carbons. This is called secondary (2°). The most stable would be quaternary (4°). *In general, the more and the bulkier the alkyl groups on a sp²-hybridized carbon in the alkene, the more stable that alkene is. *A trans double bond is more stable than a cis double bond. =Reactions= ==Preparation== There are several methods for creating alkenes.<ref>IIT Chemistry by Dr.O.P.Agrawal and Avinash Agrawal</ref> Some of these methods, such as the Wittig reaction, we'll only describe briefly in this chapter and instead, cover them in more detail later in the book. For now, it's enough to know that they are ways of creating alkenes. ===Dehydrohalogenation of Haloalkanes=== [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_-_Dehydrohalogenation3.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene by dehydrohalogenation]] Alkyl halides are converted into alkenes by dehydrohalogenation: elimination of the elements of hydrogen halide. Dehydrohalogenation involves removal of the halogen atom together with a hydrogen atom from a carbon adjacent to the one bearing the halogen. It uses the E2 elimination mechanism that we'll discuss in detail at the end of this chapter The haloalkane must have a hydrogen and halide 180° from each other on neighboring carbons. If there is no hydrogen 180° from the halogen on a neighboring carbon, the reaction will not take place. It is not surprising that the reagent required for the elimination of what amounts to a molecule of acid is a strong base for example: alcoholic KOH. In some cases this reaction yields a single alkene. and in other cases yield a mixture. n-Butyl chloride, for example, can eliminate hydrogen only from C-2 and hence yields only 1-butene. sec-Butyl chloride, on the other hand, can eliminate hydrogen from either C-l or C-3 and hence yields both 1-butene and 2-butene. Where the two alkenes can be formed, 2-butene is the chief product. ===Dehalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides=== [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_from_vicinal_dihalides2.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene via debromination of vicinal dihalides using Sodium Iodide]] [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_from_vicinal_dihalides1.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene via debromination of vicinal dihalides using Zinc]] The dehalogenation of vicinal dihalides (halides on two neighboring carbons, think "vicinity") is another method for synthesizing alkenes. The reaction can take place using either sodium iodide in a solution of acetone, or it can be performed using zinc dust in a solution of either heated ethanol or acetic acid. This reaction can also be performed with magnesium in ether, though the mechanism is different as this actually produces, as an intermediate, a Grignard reagent that reacts with itself and causes an elimination, resulting in the alkene.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} ===Dehydration of alcohols=== [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_-_Dehydration_of_alcohol.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene by dehydration of an alcohol]] An alcohol is converted into an alkene by dehydration: elimination of a molecule of water. Dehydration requires the presence of an acid and the application of heat. It is generally carried out in either of two ways, heating the alcohol with sulfuric or phosphoric acid to temperatures as high as 200, or passing the alcohol vapor over alumina, Al₂O₃ , at 350-400, alumina here serving as a Lewis acid. Ease of dehydration of alcohols : 3° > 2° > 1° Where isomeric alkenes can be formed, we again find the tendency for one isomer to predominate. Thus, sec-butyl alcohol, which might yield both 2-butene and 1-butene, actually yields almost exclusively the 2-isomer The formation of 2-butene from n-butyl alcohol illustrates a characteristic of dehydration that is not shared by dehydrohalogenalion: the double bond can be formed at a position remote from the carbon originally holding the -OH group. This characteristic is accounted for later. It is chiefly because of the greater certainty as to where the double bond will appear that dehydrohalogeation is often preferred over dehydration as a method of making alkenes. ===Reduction of Alkynes=== Reduction of an alkyne to the double-bond stage can yield either a cis-alkene or a trans-alkene, unless the triple bond is at the end of a chain. Just which isomer predominates depends upon the choice of reducing agent. Predominantly trans-alkene is obtained by reduction of alkynes with sodium or lithium in liquid ammonia. Almost entirely cis-alkene (as high as 98%) is obtained by hydrogenation of alkynes with several different catalysts : a specially prepared palladium called Lindlar's catalyst; or a nickel boride called P-2 catalyst. Each of these reactions is, then, highly stereoselective. The stereoselectivity in the cis-reduction of alkynes is attributed, in a general way, to the attachment of two hydrogens to the same side of an alkyne sitting on the catalyst surface; presumably this same stereochemistry holds for the hydrogenation of terminal alkynes which cannot yield cis- and trans-alkenes. ===Wittig Reaction=== [[Image:Wittig_reactions.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene via Wittig reaction]] ==Markovnikov's Rule== Before we continue discussing reactions, we need to take a detour and discuss a subject that's very important in Alkene reactions, "Markovnikov's Rule." This is a simple rule stated by the Russian Vladmir Markovnikov in 1869, as he was showing the orientation of addition of HBr to alkenes. His rule states:"When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give an alkyl halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents, and the halogen to the carbon of the alkene with the fewer number of hydrogen substituents" (This rule is often compared to the phrase: "The rich get richer and the poor get poorer." Aka, the Carbon with the most Hydrogens gets another Hydrogen and the one with the least Hydrogens gets the halogen) This means that the nucleophile of the electrophile-nucleophile pair is bonded to the position most stable for a carbocation, or partial positive charge in the case of a transition state. ===Examples=== <math> CH_2=CH-CH_3 + H-Br -> CH3-CHBr-CH_3 </math> Here the Br attaches to the middle carbon over the terminal carbon, because of Markovnikov's rule, and this is called a Markovnikov product. ===Markovnikov product=== The product of a reaction that follows Markovnikov's rule is called a Markovnikov product. ===Markovnikov addition=== Markovnikov addition is an addition reaction which follows Markovnikov's rule, producing a Markovnikov product. ===Anti-Markovnikov addition=== Certain reactions produce the opposite of the Markovnikov product, yielding what is called anti-Markovnikov product. That is, hydrogen ends up on the more substituted carbon of the double bond. The hydroboration/oxidation reaction that we'll discuss shortly, is an example of this, as are reactions that are conducted in peroxides. A modernized version of Markovnikov's rule often explains the "anti-Markovnikov" behavior. The original Markovnikov rule predicts that the hydrogen (an electrophile) being added across a double bond will end up on the carbon with more hydrogens. Generalizing to all electrophiles, it is really the electrophile which ends up on the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogens. Usually hydrogen plays the role of the electrophile; however, hydrogen can also act as an nucleophile in some reactions. The following expansion of Markovnikov's rule is more versatile: "When an alkene undergoes electrophilic addition, the electrophile adds to the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogen substituents. The nucleophile adds to the more highly substituated carbon." Or more simply: "The species that adds first adds to the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogens." The fact that some reactions reliably produce anti-Markovnikov products is actually a powerful tool in organic chemistry. For example, in the reactions we discuss below, we'll show two different ways of creating alcohols from alkenes: Oxymercuration-Reduction and Hydroboration/Oxidation. Oxymercuration produces a Markovnikov product while Hydroboration produces an anti-Markovnikov product. This gives the organic chemist a choice in products without having to be stuck with a single product that might not be the most desired. ===Why it works=== Markovnikov's rule works because of the stability of [[Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Carbocations|carbocation intermediates]]. Experiments tend to reveal that carbocations are planar molecules, with a carbon that has three substituents at 120° to each other and a vacant <i>p</i> orbital that is perpendicular to it in the 3rd plane. The <i>p</i> orbital extends above and below the trisubstituent plane. This leads to a stabilizing effect called hyperconjugation. Hyperconjugation is what happens when there is an unfilled (antibonding or vacant) C-C &pi; orbital and a filled C-H &sigma; bond orbital next to each other. The result is that the filled C-H &sigma; orbital interacts with the unfilled C-C &pi; orbital and stabilizes the molecule. The more highly substituted the molecule, the more chances there are for hyperconjugation and thus the more stable the molecule is. Another stabilizing effect is an [[Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Inductive effect|inductive effect]]. ===Exceptions to the Rule=== There are a few exceptions to the Markovnikov rule, and these are of tremendous importance to organic synthesis. # HBr in Hydrogen Peroxide: Due to formation of free radicals, and the mechanism in which it reacts, the alkyl free radical forms at the middle atom, where it is most stable, and a hydrogen attaches itself here. Note here hydrogen addition is the second step, unlike in the above example. ==Addition reactions== ===Hydroboration=== Hydroboration is a very useful reaction in Alkenes, not as an end product so much as an intermediate product for further reactions. The primary one we'll discuss below is the Hydroboration/Oxidation reaction which is actually a hydroboration reaction followed by a completely separate oxidation reaction. [[Image:Hydroboration_mechanism_in_alkene.png|759px|thumb|center|Hydroboration mechanism]] The addition of BH₃ is a concerted reaction in that several bonds are broken and formed at the same time. Hydroboration happens in what's called [[Organic_Chemistry/Glossary#S|syn-addition]] because the boron and one of its hydrogens attach to the same side of the alkene at the same time. As you can see from the transition state in the center of the image, this produces a sort of box between the two alkene carbons and the boron and its hydrogen. In the final step, the boron, along with its other two hydrogens, remains attached to one carbon and the other hydrogen attaches to the adjacent carbon. This description is fairly adequate, however, the reaction actually continues to happen and the -BH₂ continue to react with other alkenes giving an R₂BH and then again, until you end up with a complex of the boron atom attached to 3 alkyl groups, or R₃B. This trialkyl-boron complex is then used in other reactions to produce various products. {| style="margin: 0 auto;" |[[Image:Borane-state.png|150px|thumb|B₂H₆ complex]]||[[Image:Bh3-thf-complex.png|150px|thumb|BH₃-THF complex]] |} Borane, in reality, is not stable as BH₃. Boron, in this configuration has only 6 electrons and wants 8, so in its natural state it actually creates the B₂H₆ complex shown on the left. Furthermore, instead of using B₂H₆ itself, BH₃ is often used in a complex with tetrahydrofuran (THF) as shown in the image on the right.In either situation, the result of the reactions are the same. ===Hydroboration/Oxidation=== <ref name=McMurry>Organic Chemistry, John McMurry</ref> [[Image:Hydroboration_oxdation_of_alkene.png|500px|thumb|center|Hydroboration/Oxidation reaction]] With the reagent diborane, (BH₃)₂, alkenes undergo hydroboration to yield alkylboranes, R₃B, which on oxidation give alcohols.The reaction procedure is simple and convenient, the yields are exceedingly high, and the products are ones difficult to obtain from alkenes in anyother way. Diborane is the dimer of the hypothetical BH3 (borane) and, in the reactions that concern us, acts much as though it were BH₃ . Indeed, in tetrahydrofuran, one of the solvents used for hydroboration, the reagent exists as the monomer, in the form of an acid-base complex with the solvent. Hydroboration involves addition to the double bond of BH₃ (or, in following stages, BH₂R and BHR₂), with hydrogen becoming attached to one doubly-bonded carbon, and boron to the other. The alkylborane can then undergo oxidation, in which the boron is replaced by -OH. Thus, the two-stage reaction process of hydroboration-oxidation permits, in effect, the addition to the carbon-carbon double bond of the elements of H-OH. Reaction is carried out in an ether, commonly tetrahydrofuran or "diglyme" (diethylene glycol methyl ether, CH₃OCH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂OCH₃). Diborane is commercially available in tetrahydrofuran solution. The alkylboranes are not isolated, but are simply treated in situ with alkaline hydrogen peroxide. =====Stereochemistry and Orientation===== Hydroboration-oxidation, then, converts alkenes into alcohols. Addition is highly regiospecific; the preferred product here, however, is exactly opposite to the one formed by oxymercuration-demercuration or by direct acid-catalyzed hydration. The hydroboration-oxidation process gives products corresponding to <b>anti-Markovnikov</b> addition of water to the carbon-carbon double bond. The reaction of 3,3-dimethyl-l -butene illustrates a particular advantage of the method. Rearrangement does not occur in hydroboration evidently because carbonium ions are not intermediates and hence the method can be used without the complications that often accompany other addition reactions. The reaction of 1,2-dimethylcyclopentene illustrates the stereochemistry of the synthesis: hydroboration-oxidation involves overall<b> syn addition</b>. ===Oxymercuration/Reduction=== <ref name=McMurry/> [[Image:Oxymercuration_reduction.png|500px|thumb|center|Oxymercuration/Reduction of 1-propene]] Alkenes react with mercuric acetate in the presence of water to give hydroxymercurial compounds which on reduction yield alcohols. The first stage, oxymercuration, involves addition to the carbon-carbon double bond of -OH and -HgOAc. Then, in reduction, the -HgOAc is replaced by -H. The reaction sequence amounts to hydration of the alkene, but is much more widely applicable than direct hydration. The two-stage process of oxymercuration/reduction is fast and convenient, takes place under mild conditions, and gives excellent yields often over 90%. The alkene is added at room temperature to an aqueous solution of mercuric acetate diluted with the solvent tetrahydrofuran. Reaction is generally complete within minutes. The organomercurial compound is not isolated but is simply reduced in situ by sodium borohydride, NaBH₄. (The mercury is recovered as a ball of elemental mercury.) Oxymercuration/reduction is highly regiospecific, and gives alcohols corresponding to Markovnikov addition of water to the carbon-carbon double bond. Oxymercuration involves electrophilic addition to the carbon-carbon double bond, with the mercuric ion acting as electrophile. The absence of rearrangement and the high degree of stereospecificity (typically anti) in the oxymercuration step argues against an open carbonium ion as intermediate. Instead, it has been proposed, there is formed a cyclic mercurinium ion, analogous to the bromonium and chloronium ions involved in the addition of halogens. In 1971, Olah reported spectroscopic evidence for the preparation of stable solutions of such mercurinium ions. The mercurinium ion is attacked by the nucleophilic solvent water, in the present case to yield the addition product. This attack is back-side (unless prevented by some structural feature) and the net result is anti addition, as in the addition of halogens. Attack is thus of the S_N2 type; yet the orientation of addition shows that the nucleophile becomes attached to the more highly substituted carbon as though there were a free carbonium ion intermediate. As we shall see, the transition state in reactions of such unstable threemembered rings has much S_N1 character. Reduction is generally not stereospecific and can, in certain special cases, be accompanied by rearrangement. Despite the stereospecificity of the first stage, then, the overall process is not,in general, stereospecific. Rearrangements can occur, but are not common. The reaction of 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene illustrates the absence of the rearrangements that are typical of intermediate carbonium ions. ===Diels-Alder Reaction=== The Diels–Alder reaction is a reaction (specifically, a cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene, commonly termed the dienophile, to form a substituted cyclohexene system. The reaction can proceed even if some of the atoms in the newly formed ring are not carbon. Some of the Diels–Alder reactions are reversible; the decomposition reaction of the cyclic system is then called the retro-Diels–Alder. [[Image: Diels-Alder (1,3-butadiene + ethylene) red.svg|400px|thumb|center|Diels-alder for 1,3-butadiene-Ethylene]] The Diels–Alder reaction is generally considered one of the more useful reactions in organic chemistry since it requires very little energy to create a cyclohexene ring, which is useful in many other organic reactions A concerted, single-step mechanism is almost certainly involved; both new carbon-carbon bonds are partly formed in the same transition state, although not necessarily to the same extent. The Diels-Alder reaction is the most important example of cycloaddition. Since reaction involves a system of 4 π electrons (the diene) and a system of 2 π it electrons (the dienophile), it is known as a [4 + 2] cycloaddition. ===Catalytic addition of hydrogen=== Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes produce the corresponding alkanes. The reaction is carried out under pressure in the presence of a metallic catalyst. Common industrial catalysts are based on platinum, nickel or palladium, but for laboratory syntheses, [[w:Raney nickel|Raney nickel]] (formed from an alloy of nickel and aluminium) is often employed. The catalytic hydrogenation of ethylene to yield ethane proceeds thusly: :CH₂=CH₂ + H₂ + catalyst → CH₃-CH₃ ===Electrophilic addition=== Most addition reactions to alkenes follow the mechanism of electrophilic addition. An example is the [[w:Prins reaction|Prins reaction]], where the electrophile is a carbonyl group. ====Halogenation==== Addition of elementary bromine or chlorine in the presence of an organic solvent to alkenes yield vicinal dibromo- and dichloroalkanes, respectively. The decoloration of a solution of bromine in water is an analytical test for the presence of alkenes: CH₂=CH₂ + Br₂ → BrCH₂-CH₂Br The reaction works because the high electron density at the double bond causes a temporary shift of electrons in the Br-Br bond causing a temporary induced dipole. This makes the Br closest to the double bond slightly positive and therefore an electrophile. ====Hydrohalogenation==== Addition of hydrohalic acids like HCl or HBr to alkenes yield the corresponding haloalkanes. :an example of this type of reaction is: CH₃CH=CH₂ + HBr → CH₃-CHBr-CH₃ If the two carbon atoms at the double bond are linked to a different number of hydrogen atoms, the halogen is found preferentially at the carbon with less hydrogen substituents (Markovnikov's rule). Addition of a carbene or carbenoid yields the corresponding cyclopropane ===Oxidation=== Alkenes are oxidized with a large number of oxidizing agents. In the presence of oxygen, alkenes burn with a bright flame to form carbon dioxide and water. Catalytic oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with percarboxylic acids yields epoxides. Reaction with ozone in ozonolysis leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two aldehydes or ketones: R₁-CH=CH-R₂ + O₃ → R₁-CHO + R₂-CHO + H₂O This reaction can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene. ===Polymerization=== Polymerization of alkenes is an economically important reaction which yields polymers of high industrial value, such as the plastics polyethylene and polypropylene. Polymerization can either proceed via a free-radical or an ionic mechanism. =Substitution and Elimination Reaction Mechanisms= ==Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions== Nucleophilic substitution reactions ('''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''') are very closely related to the '''E1''' and '''E2''' elimination reactions, discussed later in this section, and it is generally a good idea to learn the reactions together, as there are parallels in reaction mechanism, preferred substrates, and the reactions sometimes compete with each other. It's important to understand that substitution and elimination reactions are not associated with a specific compound or mixture so much as they're a representation of how certain reactions take place. At times, combinations of these mechanisms may occur together in the same reaction or may compete against each other, with influences such as solvent or nucleophile choice being the determining factor as to which reaction will dominate. {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Note</H3> In the notation '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2, ''' :'''S''' stands for ''substitution'' (something takes the place of something else)<br> :'''N''': stands for ''nucleophilic'' (a '''nucleophile''' displaces another nucleophile)<br> :'''1''': stands for ''unimolecular'' (the concentration of only one kind of molecule determines the rate of the reaction)<br> :'''2''': stands for ''bimolecular'' (the concentration of two types of molecules determine the rate of the reaction) |} In nucleophilic substitution, a '''nucleophile''' attacks a molecule and takes the place of another nucleophile, which then leaves. The nucleophile that leaves is called the '''leaving group'''. Nucleophilic substitutions ''require '' #a '''nucleophile''' (such as a Lewis base) #an '''electrophile''' with a '''leaving group''' A '''leaving group''' is a charged or neutral moiety (group) which breaks free. ===S_N1 vs S_N2=== One of the main differences between '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' is that the '''S_N1''' reaction is a 2-step reaction, initiated by disassociation of the leaving group. The '''S_N2''' reaction, on the other hand, is a 1-step reaction where the attacking nucleophile, because of its higher affinity for and stronger bonding with the carbon, forces the leaving group to leave. These two things happen in a single step. These two different mechanisms explain the difference in reaction rates between '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' reactions. '''S_N1''' reactions are dependent on the leaving group disassociating itself from the carbon. It is the rate-limiting step and thus, the reaction rate is a first-order reaction whose rate depends solely on that step. :<math>Rate = k[RX]</math> Alternatively, in '''S_N2''' reactions, the single step of the nucleophile coming together with the reactant from the opposite side of the leaving group, is the key to its rate. Because of this, the rate is dependent on both the concentration of the nucleophile as well as the concentration of the reactant. The higher these two concentrations, the more frequent the collisions. Thus the reaction rate is a second-order reaction: :<math>Rate = k[Nu:][RX]</math> (where Nu: is the attacking nucleophile) ===S_N2 Reactions=== There are primarily 3 things that affect whether an '''S_N2''' reaction will take place or not. The most important is structure. That is whether the alkyl halide is on a methyl, primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. The other two components that determine whether an '''S_N2''' reaction will take place or not, are the nucleophilicity of the nucleophile and the solvent used in the reaction. {| WIDTH="99%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>Reactivity Due to Structure of S_N2</H3> CH₃X > RCH₂X > R₂CHX >> R₃CX |} The structure of the alkyl halide has a great effect on mechanism. CH₃X & RCH₂X are the preferred structures for '''S_N2'''. R₂CHX can undergo the '''S_N2''' under the proper conditions (see below), and R₃CX rarely, if ever, is involved in '''S_N2''' reactions. [[Image:SN2CompleteReactionMechanism3.png|frame|center|S_N2 nucleophilic substitution of bromine with a generic nucleophile]] The reaction takes place by the nucleophile attacking from the opposite side of the bromine atom. Notice that the other 3 bonds are all pointed away from the bromine and towards the attacking nucleophile. When these 3 bonds are hydrogen bonds, there's very little steric hinderance of the approaching nucleophile. However, as the number of R groups increases, so does the steric hinderance, making it more difficult for the nucleophile to get close enough to the [[w:alpha carbon|α-carbon]], to expel the bromine atom. In fact, tertiary carbons (R₃CX) are so sterically hindered as to prevent the '''S_N2''' mechanism from taking place at all. In the case of this example, a secondary α-carbon, there is still a great deal of steric hinderance and whether the '''S_N2''' mechanism will happen will depend entirely on what the nucleophile and solvent are. '''S_N2''' reactions are preferred for methyl halides and primary halides. Another important point to keep in mind, and this can be seen clearly in the example above, during an '''S_N2''' reaction, the molecule undergoes an inversion. The bonds attached to the α-carbon are pushed away as the nucleophile approaches. During the transition state, these bonds become planar with the carbon and, as the bromine leaves and the nucleophile bonds to the α-carbon, the other bonds fold back away from the nucleophile. This is particularly important in [[Organic_Chemistry/Chirality|chiral]] or pro-chiral molecules, where an R configuration will be converted into an S configuration and vice versa. As you'll see below, this is in contrast to the results of '''S_N1''' reactions. '''Examples:''' :OH^- + CH₃—Cl → HO—CH₃ + Cl^- OH- is the nucleophile, Cl is the electrophile, HOCH3 is the product, and Cl- is the leaving group. or, :Na⁺I^- + CH₃-Br → I-CH₃ + Na⁺Br^- The above reaction, taking place in acetone as the solvent, sodium and iodide disassociate almost completely in the acetone, leaving the iodide ions free to attack the CH-Br molecules. The negatively charged iodide ion, a nucleophile, attacks the methyl bromide molecule, forcing off the negatively charged bromide ion and taking its place. The bromide ion is the leaving group. ====Nucleophilicity==== Nucleophilicity is the rate at which a nucleophile displaces the leaving group in a reaction. Generally, nucleophilicity is stronger, the larger, more polarizable, and/or the less stable the nucleophile. No specific number or unit of measure is used. All other things being equal, nucleophiles are generally compared to each other in terms of relative reactivity. For example, a particular strong nucleophile might have a relative reactivity of 10,000 that of a particular weak nucleophile. These relationships are generalities as things like solvent and substrate can affect the relative rates, but they are generally good guidelines for which species make the best nucleophiles. All nucleophiles are [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Acids and bases|Lewis bases]]. In '''S_N2''' reactions, the preferred nucleophile is a strong nucleophile that is a weak base. Examples of these are N₃^-, RS^-, I^-, Br^-, and CN^-. Alternatively, a strong nucleophile that's also a strong base can also work. However, as mentioned earlier in the text, sometimes reaction mechanisms compete and in the case of a strong nucleophile that's a strong base, the '''S_N2''' mechanism will compete with the '''E2''' mechanism. Examples of strong nucleophiles that are also strong bases, include RO^- and OH^-. {| WIDTH="99%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>List of descending nucleophilicities</H3> I^- > Br^- > Cl^- >> F^- > -SeH > -OH > H₂O |} ====Leaving Group==== Leaving group is the group on the substrate that leaves. In the case of an alkyl halide, this is the halide ion that leaves the carbon atom when the nucleophile attacks. The tendency of the nucleophile to leave is {| WIDTH="25%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>Relative Reactivity of Leaving Groups</H3> I^- > Br^- > Cl^- >> F^- |} Fluoride ions are very poor leaving groups because they bond very strongly and are very rarely used in alkyl halide substitution reactions. Reactivity of a leaving group is related to its basicity with stronger bases being poorer leaving groups. ====Solvent==== The solvent can play an important role in '''S_N2''' reactions, particularly in '''S_N2''' involving secondary alkyl halide substrates, where it can be the determining factor in mechanism. Solvent can also have a great effect on reaction rate of '''S_N2''' reactions. The '''S_N2''' mechanism is preferred when the solvent is an aprotic, [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Electronegativity|polar]] solvent. That is, a solvent that is polar, but without a polar hydrogen. Polar, protic solvents would include water, alcohols, and generally, solvents with polar NH or OH bonds. Good aprotic, polar solvents are [[w:Hexamethylphosphoramide|HMPA]], CH₃CN, [[w:Dimethyl sulfoxide|DMSO]], and [[w:Dimethylformamide|DMF]]. A polar solvent is preferred because it better allows the dissociation of the halide from the alkyl group. A protic solvent with a polar hydrogen, however, forms a 'cage' of hydrogen-bonded solvent around the nucleophile, hindering its approach to the substrate. {| WIDTH="58%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>Relative Reactivity of Solvents</H3> HMPA > CH₃CN > DMF > DMSO >> H₂O |} ===S_N1 Reactions=== The '''S_N1''' mechanism is very different from the '''S_N2''' mechanism. In some of its preferences, its exactly the opposite and, in some cases, the results of the reaction can be significantly different. Like the '''S_N2''' mechanism, structure plays an important role in the '''S_N1''' mechanism. The role of structure in the '''S_N1''' mechanism, however, is quite different and because of this, the reactivity of structures is more or less reversed. {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Reactivity Due to Structure of S_N1</H3> CH₃X < RCH₂X << R₂CHX < R₃CX |} The '''S_N1''' mechanism is preferred for tertiary alkyl halides and, depending on the solvent, may be preferred in secondary alkyl halides. The '''S_N1''' mechanism does not operate on primary alkyl halides or methyl halides. To understand why this is so, let's take a look at how the '''S_N1''' mechanism works. [[Image:SN1CompleteMechanism2.png|frame|center|S_N1 nucleophilic substitution of a generic halide with a water molecule to produce an alcohol.]] At the top of the diagram, the first step is the spontaneous dissociation of the halide from the alkyl halide. Unlike the '''S_N2''' mechanism, where the attacking nucleophile causes the halide to leave, the '''S_N1''' mechanism depends on the ability of the halide to leave on its own. This requires certain conditions. In particular, the stability of the [[Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Carbocations|carbocation]] is crucial to the ability of the halide to leave. Since we know tertiary carbocations are the most stable, they are the best candidates for the '''S_N1''' mechanism. And with appropriate conditions, secondary carbocations will also operate by the '''S_N1''' mechanism. Primary and methyl carbocations however, are not stable enough to allow this mechanism to happen. Once the halide has dissociated, the water acts as a nucleophile to bond to the carbocation. In the'''S_N2''' reactions, there is an inversion caused by the nucleophile attacking from the opposite side while the halide is still bonded to the carbon. In the '''S_N1''' mechanism, since the halide has left, and the bonds off of the α-carbon have become planar, the water molecule is free to attack from either side. This results in, primarily, a [[w:Racemic|racemic]] mixture. In the final step, one of the hydrogens of the bonded water molecule is attacked by another water molecule, leaving an alcohol. ''Note: Racemic mixtures imply entirely equal amounts of mixture, however this is rarely the case in '''S_N1'''. There is a slight tendency towards attack from the opposite side of the halide. This is the result some steric hinderence from the leaving halide which is sometimes close enough to the leaving side to block the nucleophile's approach from that side.'' ====Solvent==== Like the '''S_N2''' mechanism, the '''S_N1''' is affected by solvent as well. As with structure, however, the reasons differ. In the '''S_N1''' mechanism, a polar, protic solvent is used. The polarity of the solvent is associated with the dielectric constant of the solvent and solutions with high dielectric constants are better able to support separated ions in solution. In '''S_N2''' reactions, we were concerned about polar hydrogen atoms "caging" our nucleophile. This still happens with a polar protic solvent in '''S_N1''' reactions, so why don't we worry about it? You have to keep in mind the mechanism of the reaction. The first step, and more importantly, the rate-limiting step, of the '''S_N1''' reaction, is the ability to create a stable carbocation by getting the halide anion to leave. With a polar protic solvent, just as with a polar aprotic solvent,we're creating a stable cation, however it's the polar hydrogens that stabilize the halide anion and make it better able to leave. Improving the rate-limiting step is always the goal. The "caging" of the nucleophile is unrelated to the rate-limiting step and even in its "caged" state, the second step, the attack of the nucleophile, is so much faster than the first step, that the "caging" can simply be ignored. ===Summary=== '''S_N1''', '''S_N2''', '''E1''', and '''E2''', are all reaction mechanisms, not reactions themselves. They are mechanisms used by a number of different reactions. Usually in organic chemistry, the goal is to synthesize a product. In cases where you have possibly competing mechanisms, and this is particularly the case where an '''S_N1''' and an '''E1''' reaction are competing, the dominating mechanism is going to decide what your product is, so knowing the mechanisms and which conditions favor one over the other, will determine your product. In other cases, knowing the mechanism allows you to set up an environment favorable to that mechanism. This can mean the difference between having your product in a few minutes, or sometime around the next ice age. So when you're designing a synthesis for a product, you need to consider, I want to get product Y, so what are my options to get to Y? Once you know your options and you've decided on a reaction, then you need to consider the mechanism of the reaction and ask yourself, how do I create conditions that are going to make this happen correctly and happen quickly? ==Elimination Reactions== Nucleophilic substitution reactions and Elimination reactions share a lot of common characteristics, on top of which, the '''E1''' and '''S_N1''' as well as '''E2''' and '''S_N2''' reactions can sometimes compete and, since their products are different, it's important to understand them both. Without understanding both kinds of mechanisms, it would be difficult to get the product you desire from a reaction. In addition, the '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' reactions will be referenced quite a bit by way of comparison and contrast, so it's probably best to read that section first and then continue here. Elimination reactions are the mechanisms for creating alkene products from [[Organic_Chemistry/Haloalkanes|haloalkane]] reactants. '''E1''' and '''E2''' elimination, unlike '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' substitution, mechanisms do not occur with methyl halides because the reaction creates a double bond between two carbon atoms and methylhalides have only one carbon. {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Note</H3> In the notation '''E1''' and '''E2''', :'''E''' stands for ''elimination''<br> :'''1''': stands for ''unimolecular'' (the concentration of only one kind of molecule determines the rate of the reaction)<br> :'''2''': stands for ''bimolecular'' (the concentration of two types of molecules determine the rate of the reaction) |} ===E1 vs E2=== ==== Reaction rates ==== '''E1''' and '''E2''' are two different pathways to creating alkenes from haloalkanes. As with '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' reactions, one of the key differences is in the reaction rate, as it provides great insight into the mechanisms. '''E1''' reactions, like '''S_N1''' reactions are 2-step reactions. Also like '''S_N1''' reactions, the rate-limiting step is the dissociation of the halide from its alkane, making it a first-order reaction, depending on the concentration of the haloalkane, with a reaction rate of: :<math>Rate = k[RX]</math> On the other hand, '''E2''' reactions, like '''S_N2''' reactions are 1-step reactions. And again, as with '''S_N2''' reactions, the rate limiting step is the ability of a nucleophile to attach to the alkane and displace the halide. Thus it is a second-order reaction that depends on the concentrations of both the nucleophile and haloalkane, with a reaction rate of: :<math>Rate = k[Nu:][RX]</math> (where Nu: is the attacking nucleophile) ==== Zaitsev's Rule ==== [[Organic_Chemistry/Glossary#W, X, Y, Z|Zaitsev's rule]] (sometimes spelled "Saytzeff") states that in an elimination reaction, when multiple products are possible, the most stable alkene is the major product. That is to say, the most highly substituted alkene (the alkene with the most non-hydrogen substituents) is the major product. Both '''E1''' and '''E2''' reactions produce a mixture of products, when possible, but generally follow Zaitsev's rule. We'll see below why '''E1''' reactions follow Zaitsev's rule more reliably and tend to produce a purer product. [[Image:Dehydrohalogenation_of_(S)-2-bromo-3-methylbutane_small.png|frame|center|'''Dehydrohalogenation reaction of (S)-2-bromo-3-methylbutane''']] The above image represents two possible pathways for the dehydrohalogenation of (S)-2-bromo-3-methylbutane. The two potential products are 2-methylbut-2-ene and 3-methylbut-1-ene. The images on the right are simplified drawings of the molecular product shown in the images in the center. As you can see on the left, the bromine is on the second carbon and in an '''E1''' or '''E2''' reaction, the hydrogen could be removed from either the 1st or the 3rd carbon. Zaitsev's rule says that the hydrogen will be removed predominantly from the 3rd carbon. In reality, there will be a mixture, but most of the product will be 2-methylbut-2-ene by the '''E1''' mechanism. By the '''E2''' reaction, as we'll see later, this might not necessarily be the case. ===E2=== {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Reactivity Due to Structure of E2</H3> RCH₂X > R₂CHX >> R₃CX |} The '''E2''' mechanism is concerted and highly stereospecific, because it can occur only when the H and the leaving group X are in an anti-coplanar position. That is, in a Newman projection, the H and X must be 180°, or in the anti-configuration. This behaviour stems from the best overlap of the 2''p'' orbitals of the adjacent carbons when the pi bond has to be formed. If the H and the leaving group cannot be brought into this position due to the structure of the molecule, the ''E2'' mechanism will not take place. [[Image:E2-eliminationmechanism.png|frame|center|'''Mechanism of E2 elimination. Note the anti-coplanarity of the X-C-C-H atoms''']] Therefore, only molecules having accessible H-X anti-coplanar conformations can react via this route. Furthermore, the '''E2''' mechanism will operate contrary to Zaitsev's rule if the only anti-coplanar hydrogen from the leaving group results in the least stable alkene. A good example of how this can happen is by looking at how cyclohexane and cyclohexene derivatives might operate in '''E2''' conditions. [[Image:E2-Elimination_with_sterics_sample3.png|frame|center|'''E2''' with preferential elimination]] Let's look at the example above. The reactant we're using is 1-chloro-2-isopropylcyclohexane. The drawing at the top left is one conformation and the drawing below is after a ring flip. In the center are Newman projections of both conformations and the drawings on the right, the products. If we assume we're treating the 1-chloro-2-isopropylcyclohexane with a strong base, for example CH₃CH₂O^- (ethanolate), the mechanism that dominates is '''E2'''. There are 3 hydrogens off of the carbons adjacent to our chlorinated carbon. The red and the green ones are two of them. The third would be hard to show but is attached to the same carbon as the red hydrogen, angled a little down from the plane and towards the viewer. The red hydrogen is the only hydrogen that's 180° from the chlorine atom, so it's the only one eligible for the '''E2''' mechanism. Because of this, the product is going to be only 3-isopropylcylcohex-1-ene. Notice how this is contrary to Zaitsev's rule which says the most substituted alkene is preferred. By his rule, 1-isopropylcyclohexene should be our primary product, as that would leave the most substituted alkene. However it simply can't be produced because of the steric hindrance. The images below shows the molecule after a ring flip. In this conformation, no product is possible. As you can see from the Newman projection, there are no hydrogens 180° from the chlorine atom. So it's important, when considering the '''E2''' mechanism, to understand the geometry of the molecule. Sometimes the geometry can be used to your advantage to preferentially get a single product. Other times it will prevent you from getting the product you want, and you'll need to consider a different mechanism to get your product. ''Note: Often the word '''periplanar''' is used instead of '''coplanar'''. '''Coplanar''' implies precisely 180 degree separation and "peri-", from Greek for "near", implies near 180 degrees. Periplanar may actually be more accurate. In the case of the 1-chloro-3-isopropylcyclohexane example, because of molecular forces, the chlorine atom is actually slightly less than 180 degrees from both the hydrogen and the isopropyl group, so in this case, '''periplanar''' might be a more correct term.'' ===E1=== [[Image:E1EliminationReaction.png|frame|center|E1 elimination of an alkyl halide by a base]] The '''E1''' mechanism begins with the dissociation of the leaving group from an alkyl, producing a carbocation on the alkyl group and a leaving anion. This is the same way the '''S_N1''' reaction begins, so the same thing that helps initiate that step in '''S_N1''' reactions, help initiate the step in '''E1''' reactions. More specifically, secondary and tertiary carbocations are preferred because they're more stable than primary carbocations. The choice of solvent is the same as '''S_N1''' as well; a polar protic solvent is preferred because the polar aspect stabilizes the carbocation and the protic aspect stabilizes the anion. What makes the difference between whether the reaction takes the '''S_N1''' or '''E1''' pathway then, must depend on the second step; the action of the nucleophile. In '''S_N1''' reactions, a strong nucleophile that's a weak base is preferred. The nucleophile will then attack and bond to the carbocation. In '''E1''' reactions, a strong nucleophile is still preferred. The difference is that a strong nucleophile that's also a strong base, causes the nucleophile to attack the hydrogen at the β-carbon instead of the α-carbocation. The nucleophile/base then extracts the hydrogen causing the bonding electrons to fall in and produce a pi bond with the carbocation. Because the hydrogen and the leaving group are lost in two separate steps and the fact that it has no requirements as to geometry, the '''E1''' mechanism more reliably produces products that follow Zaitsev's rule. =References= <references/> ---- [[Organic Chemistry/Haloalkanes|<< Haloalkanes]] |'''Alkenes'''| [[Organic Chemistry/Alkynes|Alkynes >>]] {{BookCat}} ks84h20xx1w5kb7bfzv14gv4ctme5rq 0 987 4632191 3565952 2026-04-25T08:40:06Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632191 wikitext text/x-wiki <small><< [[Botany#Detailed_Contents|Contents Page]] | << [[Botany/Introduction_Botany|Chapter 1]] | </small>Chapter 2<small> | [[Botany/Plant_tissues|Chapter 3]] >>|</small> ---- {{center|1=<big><big>Chapter 2. Plant Cells</big></big>}} ---- == Introduction == [[image:lupe.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A loupe (left) and a hand-lens (right) - tools used by botanists in the field]] A '''cell''' is a very basic structure of all living systems, consisting of '''protoplasm''' within a containing '''cell membrane'''. Only entities such as viruses&mdash; on the boundary between non-living chemicals and living systems&mdash;lack cells or basic cell structure. All plants, including very simple plants called ''algae'', and all animals are made up of cells, and these are organized in various ways to create structure and function in an organism. Biologists recognize two basic types of cells: '''prokaryotic''' and '''eukaryotic'''. ''Prokaryotic cells'' are structurally more simple. They are found only in single-celled and some simple, multicellular organisms (all bacteria and some algae, which all belong to Bacteria and Archaea domains). ''Eukaryotic cells'' are found in most algae, all higher plants, fungi, and animals (Eukarya domain). Thus, differences between these two cell types are critical to how an organism is classified, and an important consideration in the evolutionary sequence of life on the planet Earth. == Plant Cell Structure == [[File:Simple diagram of plant cell (en).svg|thumb|right|200px|The structure of a plant cell]] Nearly all cells are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. As always there are some exceptions, but generally magnification is required to detect a cellular structure. In plants, a good hand-lens or loupe (see photo at right) will sometimes suffice, but in working with cells or observing how cells are organized to form tissues and structures, a high power '''[[Wikipedia:en:Microscope|microscope]]''' is used. * Read about [[Wikipedia:en:Cell (biology)|Cells]] ~ <small>You may wish to follow some or all links to "Main articles" as these provide detail that may interest you; or you might return to explore further should questions arise later in the course.</small> * Read [[Wikipedia:en:Plant_cell|Plant cells]] <small>and, at minimum, articles at the following links (but ignore, for now, the topic of <u>Plant Cell Types</u>):</small> **[[Wikipedia:en:Cell_wall|Cell Wall]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Protoplasm|Protoplasm and cytoplasm]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Vacuole|Vacuole]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Ergastic substances|Ergastic substances]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Plastid|Plastids]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Chloroplast|Chloroplasts]] :Also note that the textbook, ''[[Cell Biology]]'', is available at ''WikiBooks'' and can be used as a more detailed reference. You should read the [[Cell Biology/Introduction|Introductory Chapter]] (all subsections) at this time. {{mono|Questions}}: #''Can you think of reasons why ''macroscopic'' organisms are multicellular?'' <small>(Macroscopic means large, in the sense of "not microscopic")</small> == Basic Cell Function == You should, by now, have a general appreciation for the complexity of cellular structure. Improvements in microscopy, especially development of the [[Wikipedia:en:Electron_microscope|Electron microscope]], have revealed that cells are not merely membranous sacks containing fluid of gel-like consistency. The degree of organization of the '''cytoplasm''' into '''organelles''' and their '''membranes''' should have you convinced that much (perhaps most) of what is really going on around you on this planet is occurring at a scale that is simply inaccessible to your eyes. And while you cannot be expected to directly observe chemical reactions at a molecular scale, contemplate that you cannot, even with powerful optics, directly observe most of the structure where these reactions are somehow controlled to produce outcomes favorable to life&mdash;indeed, are life. Hopefully, as you acquire knowledge and become a biologist&mdash;a botanist&mdash;you will learn to recognize the relevant phenomena by their macroscopic expressions (that which you can readily observe with the unaided eye). To appreciate basic cell function, it is necessary to first list the processes or outcomes that cells must accomplish to further existence. More specialized functions will be discussed under plant cell structure, as our interest must eventually focus on plants. For now, recall that in your reading you have already encountered these several basic abilities of cells: *'''Metabolism''' involves taking in of raw material to use in building up cell components and breaking down of other molecules to provide energy for various growth processes; byproducts may be released. *'''Protein biosynthesis''' by transcription of DNA to RNA and then translation to protein, used in growth or released for use elsewhere by the organism. *'''Reproduction''' by cell division. Now explore each in turn. Think initially of a single-celled organism with no special abilities, only a "will" to stay alive and perpetuate itself. Remember, the environment will not be kind. The cell must grow and reproduce to counter the tendency of outside forces to breakdown molecular structure and destroy life. Then consider the situation where a cell is part of a multicellular organism, and may be performing more limited and specialized functions. *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Cell_metabolism|Cell metabolism]] (<small>Follow links and read at least these articles</small>): ** [[Wikipedia:en:Metabolic pathway|Metabolic pathway]] (<small>Links need not be followed</small>) ** [[Wikipedia:en:Cellular respiration|Cell respiration]] (<small>Follows all links</small>) *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Protein_biosynthesis|Protein biosynthesis]] (<small>Follow links as necessary to understand process and terminology; Also included is:</small>) ** [[Wikipedia:en:Gene_expression|Gene expression]] *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Cell_division|Cell reproduction]] (<small>The following links are included:</small>) ** [[Wikipedia:en:Mitosis|Mitosis]] ** [[Wikipedia:en:Cell_cycle|Cell cycle]] <tt>Questions</tt>: #''Have you been able to discern a relationship between genes and basic cell function? If so, is this also a basic cell function, and where do we list it?'' == Plant Cell Specializations == We will learn about the cells of algae and other organisms (e.g., bacteria and fungi) traditionally covered within Botany in later chapters on those organisms (Chapters 5 - 7). Here, we concentrate on the cells of plants. The simplest type of plant cell is called a '''parenchyma cell''' and most of the basic metabolic and reproductive processes of the plant occur in these cells. A term for ''parenchyma'' cells with chloroplasts, is '''chlorenchyma cells'''. Other plant cell types that we shall be considering are: *'''Collenchyma''' ~ living cells with thickened walls for increased support *'''Sclerenchyma''' ~ lignified dead cells forming fibers for increased support *'''Epidermal''' ~ surface covering *'''Cork''' *'''Xylem tracheid''' ~ single long (up to 1 mm) thin cells for transporting water and support *'''Xylem vessel''' ~ cells form individual elements in an even longer (up to 1 meter in extreme cases) tube for transporting water *'''Meristematic cells''' ~ growth *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Parenchyma|Parenchyma cell]] ---- [[Botany/Microscopy_laboratory|Laboratory Exercises]] for Chapter 2 >><br> <big>[[Botany/Plant_cells_discussion|Discussion of questions]] for Chapter 2</big> >>> ===Energy=== How does plant cells get its energy? It gets its energy nutrients. With those nutrients, they gather the energy through sunlight. They use photosynthesis to convert materials into energy for the plants to power its cells. *[[/Photosynthesis|Photosynthesis]]. Read more here about it. ---- <center> {{BotanyTOC}} </center> {{BookCat}} 12g544ln579aanlbvxxrds0yk89joxl 4632192 4632191 2026-04-25T08:40:43Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632192 wikitext text/x-wiki <small><< [[Botany#Detailed_Contents|Contents Page]] | << [[Botany/Introduction_Botany|Chapter 1]] | </small>Chapter 2<small> | [[Botany/Plant_tissues|Chapter 3]] >>|</small> ---- {{center|1=<big><big>Chapter 2. Plant Cells</big></big>}} ---- == Introduction == [[image:lupe.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A loupe (left) and a hand-lens (right) - tools used by botanists in the field]] A '''cell''' is a very basic structure of all living systems, consisting of '''protoplasm''' within a containing '''cell membrane'''. Only entities such as viruses&mdash; on the boundary between non-living chemicals and living systems&mdash;lack cells or basic cell structure. All plants, including very simple plants called ''algae'', and all animals are made up of cells, and these are organized in various ways to create structure and function in an organism. Biologists recognize two basic types of cells: '''prokaryotic''' and '''eukaryotic'''. ''Prokaryotic cells'' are structurally more simple. They are found only in single-celled and some simple, multicellular organisms (all bacteria and some algae, which all belong to Bacteria and Archaea domains). ''Eukaryotic cells'' are found in most algae, all higher plants, fungi, and animals (Eukarya domain). Thus, differences between these two cell types are critical to how an organism is classified, and an important consideration in the evolutionary sequence of life on the planet Earth. == Plant Cell Structure == [[File:Simple diagram of plant cell (en).svg|thumb|right|200px|The structure of a plant cell]] Nearly all cells are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. As always there are some exceptions, but generally magnification is required to detect a cellular structure. In plants, a good hand-lens or loupe (see photo at right) will sometimes suffice, but in working with cells or observing how cells are organized to form tissues and structures, a high power '''[[Wikipedia:en:Microscope|microscope]]''' is used. * Read about [[Wikipedia:en:Cell (biology)|Cells]] ~ <small>You may wish to follow some or all links to "Main articles" as these provide detail that may interest you; or you might return to explore further should questions arise later in the course.</small> * Read [[Wikipedia:en:Plant_cell|Plant cells]] <small>and, at minimum, articles at the following links (but ignore, for now, the topic of <u>Plant Cell Types</u>):</small> **[[Wikipedia:en:Cell_wall|Cell Wall]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Protoplasm|Protoplasm and cytoplasm]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Vacuole|Vacuole]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Ergastic substances|Ergastic substances]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Plastid|Plastids]] **[[Wikipedia:en:Chloroplast|Chloroplasts]] :Also note that the textbook, ''[[Cell Biology]]'', is available at ''WikiBooks'' and can be used as a more detailed reference. You should read the [[Cell Biology/Introduction|Introductory Chapter]] (all subsections) at this time. {{mono|Questions}}: #''Can you think of reasons why ''macroscopic'' organisms are multicellular?'' <small>(Macroscopic means large, in the sense of "not microscopic")</small> == Basic Cell Function == You should, by now, have a general appreciation for the complexity of cellular structure. Improvements in microscopy, especially development of the [[Wikipedia:en:Electron_microscope|Electron microscope]], have revealed that cells are not merely membranous sacks containing fluid of gel-like consistency. The degree of organization of the '''cytoplasm''' into '''organelles''' and their '''membranes''' should have you convinced that much (perhaps most) of what is really going on around you on this planet is occurring at a scale that is simply inaccessible to your eyes. And while you cannot be expected to directly observe chemical reactions at a molecular scale, contemplate that you cannot, even with powerful optics, directly observe most of the structure where these reactions are somehow controlled to produce outcomes favorable to life&mdash;indeed, are life. Hopefully, as you acquire knowledge and become a biologist&mdash;a botanist&mdash;you will learn to recognize the relevant phenomena by their macroscopic expressions (that which you can readily observe with the unaided eye). To appreciate basic cell function, it is necessary to first list the processes or outcomes that cells must accomplish to further existence. More specialized functions will be discussed under plant cell structure, as our interest must eventually focus on plants. For now, recall that in your reading you have already encountered these several basic abilities of cells: *'''Metabolism''' involves taking in of raw material to use in building up cell components and breaking down of other molecules to provide energy for various growth processes; byproducts may be released. *'''Protein biosynthesis''' by transcription of DNA to RNA and then translation to protein, used in growth or released for use elsewhere by the organism. *'''Reproduction''' by cell division. Now explore each in turn. Think initially of a single-celled organism with no special abilities, only a "will" to stay alive and perpetuate itself. Remember, the environment will not be kind. The cell must grow and reproduce to counter the tendency of outside forces to breakdown molecular structure and destroy life. Then consider the situation where a cell is part of a multicellular organism, and may be performing more limited and specialized functions. *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Cell_metabolism|Cell metabolism]] (<small>Follow links and read at least these articles</small>): ** [[Wikipedia:en:Metabolic pathway|Metabolic pathway]] (<small>Links need not be followed</small>) ** [[Wikipedia:en:Cellular respiration|Cell respiration]] (<small>Follows all links</small>) *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Protein_biosynthesis|Protein biosynthesis]] (<small>Follow links as necessary to understand process and terminology; Also included is:</small>) ** [[Wikipedia:en:Gene_expression|Gene expression]] *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Cell_division|Cell reproduction]] (<small>The following links are included:</small>) ** [[Wikipedia:en:Mitosis|Mitosis]] ** [[Wikipedia:en:Cell_cycle|Cell cycle]] {{mono|Questions}}: #''Have you been able to discern a relationship between genes and basic cell function? If so, is this also a basic cell function, and where do we list it?'' == Plant Cell Specializations == We will learn about the cells of algae and other organisms (e.g., bacteria and fungi) traditionally covered within Botany in later chapters on those organisms (Chapters 5 - 7). Here, we concentrate on the cells of plants. The simplest type of plant cell is called a '''parenchyma cell''' and most of the basic metabolic and reproductive processes of the plant occur in these cells. A term for ''parenchyma'' cells with chloroplasts, is '''chlorenchyma cells'''. Other plant cell types that we shall be considering are: *'''Collenchyma''' ~ living cells with thickened walls for increased support *'''Sclerenchyma''' ~ lignified dead cells forming fibers for increased support *'''Epidermal''' ~ surface covering *'''Cork''' *'''Xylem tracheid''' ~ single long (up to 1 mm) thin cells for transporting water and support *'''Xylem vessel''' ~ cells form individual elements in an even longer (up to 1 meter in extreme cases) tube for transporting water *'''Meristematic cells''' ~ growth *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Parenchyma|Parenchyma cell]] ---- [[Botany/Microscopy_laboratory|Laboratory Exercises]] for Chapter 2 >><br> <big>[[Botany/Plant_cells_discussion|Discussion of questions]] for Chapter 2</big> >>> ===Energy=== How does plant cells get its energy? It gets its energy nutrients. With those nutrients, they gather the energy through sunlight. They use photosynthesis to convert materials into energy for the plants to power its cells. *[[/Photosynthesis|Photosynthesis]]. Read more here about it. ---- {{center/top}} {{BotanyTOC}} {{center/end}} {{BookCat}} mwi4etfstkggf84bt9vt4rc2k55kia8 0 989 4632193 4021069 2026-04-25T08:41:45Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632193 wikitext text/x-wiki <small><< [[Botany#Contents|Contents Page]] | << [[Botany/Plant_tissues|Chapter 3]] | </small>Chapter 4<small> | [[Botany/Plant_reproduction|Chapter 5]] >>|</small> ---- {{center|<big><big>Chapter 4. Plant Vegetative Organs</big></big>}} ---- <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;text-align:center;">[[image:Parrotfeather_reduced.jpg|Myriophyllum aquaticum]]<br><small>''The parrot's feather, an aquatic plant (Myriophyllum aquaticum)<br>Click to [[Media:Parrotfeather.jpg| enlarge]] picture''</small></div> == Introduction == As was noted in the previous [[Botany/Plant_tissues|chapter]], most plant cells are specialized to a greater or lesser degree, and arranged together in '''tissues'''. A tissue can be ''simple'' or ''complex'' depending upon whether it is composed of one or more than one type of cell. Tissues are further arranged or combined into '''organs''' that carry out life functions of the organism. Plant organs include the '''leaf''', '''stem''', '''root''', and '''reproductive structures'''. The first three are sometimes called the ''vegetative organs'' and are the subject of exploration in this chapter. Reproductive organs will be covered in [[Botany/Plant_reproduction|Chapter 5]]. The relationships of the organs within a plant body to each other remains an unsettled subject within plant morphology. The fundamental question is whether these are truly different structures, or just modifications of one basic structure (Eames, 1936; Esau, 1965). The plant body is an integrated, functional unit, so the division of a plant into organs is largely conceptual, providing a convenient way of approaching plant form and function. A boundary between stem and leaf is particularly difficult to make, so botanists sometimes use the word '''shoot''' to refer to the stem and its appendages (Esau, 1965). == The Leaf == The plant leaf is an organ whose shape promotes efficient gathering of light for photosynthesis. The form of the leaf must also be balanced against the fact that most of the loss of water a plant might suffer is going to occur at its leaves (transpiration). Leaves are extremely variable in terms of their size, shape, and adornments (such as small hairs on the face of the leaf). Although the leaves of most plants carry out the same basic functions, there is nonetheless an amazing variety of leaf sizes, shapes, margin types, forms of attachment, ornamentation (hairs), and color. Examine the [[Botany/Leaves (forms)|Leaves (forms)]] page to learn the extensive terminology used to describe this variation. Consider that there are functional reasons for the modifications from a "basic" type. == The Stem == The stem arises during development of the embryo as part of the ''hypocotyl-root axis'', at the upper end of which are one or more cotyledons and the shoot primordium. * Read: [[Wikipedia:en:Plant_stem|Stem]] == The Root == [[File:Roots - Fibrous (PSF).png|thumb|left|150px|Fibrous root ]] [[File:Roots - Taproot (PSF).png|thumb|150px|Taproots]] The root is the (typically) underground part of the plant axis specialized for both anchoring the plant and absorbing water and minerals. Basically, there are two types of roots normally spotted for plants grown on ground namely : '''taproot''' and '''fibrous''' root * Read: [[Wikipedia:en:Root|Root]] (<small>Follow any links for terms you do not understand and to gain a complete picture of root structural variation</small>) ::Be sure to read about and understand the meaning of each (at a minimum) of the following terms: '''adventitious roots''', '''endodermis''', '''epidermis''', '''gravitropism''', '''root cap''', '''root hair''', '''stele''', '''taproot'''. Most of the material you have read discusses the root organ as found in the angiosperms (flowering plants). However, among the vascular plants, only Psilotales lack such an organ, having instead rhizomes that bear hair-like absorbing structures called '''rhizoids''' (Eames, 1936 in Esau, 1965). '''Questions''': 4-1. At this point the conceptual differences between cell types, tissues, organs, and organisms may be somewhat confusing. Using the leaf as an example, describe this structure in a way that considers the cell types, tissues, and organs for that part of the leaf where photosynthesis is concentrated. ---- :<Big>[[Botany/Plant_structure_laboratory|Laboratory Exercises]] for Chapter 4 >></big> :<big>[[Botany/Plant_structure_discussion|Discussion of questions]] for Chapter 4 >>></big> ---- {{center/top}} {{BotanyTOC}} {{center/end}} {{BookCat}} 1beljn140prjji08f3n08m6oajrel31 0 1026 4632194 3588350 2026-04-25T08:42:47Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632194 wikitext text/x-wiki <small><< [[Botany#Contents|Contents Page]] | [[Botany/Plant structure|Chapter 4]] | </small>Chapter 5<small> | [[Botany/Plant_morphology|Chapter 6]] >></small> ---- {{center|<big><big>Chapter 5. Plant Reproduction</big></big>}} ---- [[Image:P Morc D1252.JPG|right|thumb|360px|Noni (''Morinda citrifolia'') flowers and fruit. Note stages of progressive maturation shown from a cluster of flowers to an accessory fruit.]] == Vegetative Reproduction == Vegetative reproduction is a type of '''asexual reproduction'''&mdash;other terms that apply are ''vegetative propagation,'' ''clonal growth'', or ''vegetative multiplication''. Vegetative '''growth''' is enlargement of the individual plant; vegetative reproduction is any process that results in new plant "individuals" without production of seeds (see ''The Seed'' below) or spores. It is both a natural process in many, many species as well as one utilized or encouraged by horticulturists and farmers to obtain quantities of economically valuable plants. In this respect, it is a form of cloning that has been carried out by humankind for thousands of years and by "plants" for hundreds of millions of years. *Read [[Wikipedia:en:Vegetative_reproduction|Vegetative Reproduction]] (<small>Follow all links</small>) == Sexual Reproduction == === The Flower === The '''flower''' is the reproductive organ of plants classified as ''angiosperms''&mdash;that is, the flowering plants comprising the '''Division Magnoliophyta'''. All plants have the means and corresponding structures for reproducing sexually, and these other cases will be explored in later chapters. However, because '''flowering plants''' are the most conspicuous plants in almost all terrestrial environments, we justifiably devote this chapter to the flowering plants alone. You will learn how other plant groups (and non-plant groups, such as fungi) reproduce sexually in Section II of ''The Guide''. The basic function of a flower is to produce '''seeds''' through '''sexual reproduction'''. Seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary method in most plants by which individuals of the species are dispersed across the landscape. Actual dispersal is, in most species, a function of the '''fruit''': structural parts that typically surround the seed. But the seed contains the germ of life of the next generation. * Read [[Wikipedia:en:Plant sexuality|Plant sexuality]] (<small>Follow links you find interesting, concentrating on acquiring a grasp of the terminology</small>) * Read [[Wikipedia:en:Flower|The Flower]] (<small>Follow links you find interesting, but at minimum read each of the following articles</small>) ** Read [[Wikipedia:en:Sepal|calyx]] - the sepals ** Read [[Wikipedia:en:Petal|corolla]] - the petals ** Read [[Wikipedia:en:Stamen|androecium]] - the stamens ** Read [[Wikipedia:en:Carpel|gynoecium]] - the pistil(s) ::Be sure to read about and understand the meaning of each of the following terms: '''androecium''', '''anthesis''', '''calyx''', '''carpel''', '''corolla''', '''gynoecium''', '''inferior ovary''', '''nectary''', '''perigynous''', '''petal''', '''pistil''', '''pollen''', '''sepal''', '''stamen''', '''superior ovary''', '''syncarpous'''. * Read [[Wikipedia:en:Inflorescence|Inflorescence]] ::Be sure to read about and understand the meaning of each of the following terms: '''bract''', '''inflorescence''', '''panicle''', '''raceme''', '''spadix''', '''spikelet'''. === Questions === # Do you think the flower structure is in any way responsible for the considerable success of flowering plants in populating the earth? === The Seed and Germination === the primary purpose of the seed is one of preserving the continuity of life&mdash;starting a new generation in a new physical location. For large plants (shrubs and trees), this can be especially important because successful germination and growth close to the parent may be difficult or impossible; the established plant monopolizes light and water resources in its immediate vicinity. Seeds can also serve the function of overwintering or surviving harsh conditions. The entire generation&mdash;every individual&mdash;may die in the Fall or the dry season. In many annual species, only the seed exists during unfavorable dry or cold conditions. * [[Wikipedia:en:Seed|The Seed]] (<small>Follow all links on anatomy and function</small>) ** Read [[Wikipedia:en:Germination|Germination]] {{todo|an explanation of clonal reproduction of plants... through genets, rhizomes or whatever.}} === The Fruit === The fruit is the actual agent of dispersal in most flowering plants. * [[Wikipedia:en:Fruit|The Fruit]] ---- :<big>[[Botany/Plant_reproduction_laboratory_flower|Laboratory Exercises (flowers)]] for Chapter 5 >></big> :<big>[[Botany/Plant_reproduction_laboratory_seed|Laboratory Exercises (seeds)]] for Chapter 5 >></big> :<big>[[Botany/Plant_reproduction_discussion|Discussion of questions]] for Chapter 5 >></big> ---- {{center/top}} {{BotanyTOC}} {{center/end}} {{BookCat}} hdrn6q6v2b71g6hj8bchkgy8l1d9fuh 0 4329 4632178 4538435 2026-04-25T08:06:23Z ~2026-25343-73 3579019 Very minor change of what I consider to be awkward wording. 4632178 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Haskell-Logo.svg|250px|right|Haskell Logo]] {{Print version}} {{Collection}} {{PDF version}} {{E-Book Reader PDF version|Haskell eBook Reader.pdf}} {{Featured book}} {{Book search|float=right}} '''Haskell''' is a [[Computer Programming/Functional programming|functional programming]] language. It is distinct in a few ways: * Haskell is ''pure''. A function when invoked using the same arguments will return the same result every time. * Haskell is ''lazy''. Evaluations are performed only when needed. * Haskell provides a modern type system with state-of-the-art features like type classes and generalized algebraic data types (soon enough, terms like those will roll smoothly off your tongue). Haskell is enjoyable to use because dealing with pure functions makes code much easier to reason about, and the advanced type system helps catch both silly and profound mistakes. Our aim in this book is to introduce you to the Haskell programming language &mdash; from the very basics to advanced features &mdash; and to computer programming in general. We urge seasoned programmers to be especially patient with this process. The languages you are familiar with are likely to differ greatly from Haskell, and the habits acquired from those languages might make it difficult to understand how things work &mdash; Haskell is simple, but different. Learning to see the world through the warped mindset of a functional programmer is an adventure in a brave new world, which brings knowledge valuable far beyond the boundaries of any language. == Overview == The book is divided into three sections: a Beginner's Track, an Advanced Track, and a section called ''Haskell in Practice''. The last section, which covers practical use cases, depends only on the Beginner's Track. Seasoned programmers may read [[/Overview|the overview]] to quickly evaluate what makes Haskell unique and different from other languages. {{Info|Please contribute! Anyone, regardless of Haskell competency, can help out. Spend five minutes improving a module and save someone else hours of time. Check out the [[/Notes for contributors|notes for contributors]]. Even if you get confused by a page, tell us about it on the discussion page (politely, of course).}} == Beginner's Track == This section introduces you to Haskell basics and some commonly used libraries. At the end of this track, you should be able to write simple Haskell programs. Most chapters include exercises, with solutions, for your practice. {| cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid MediumAquamarine; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.8em 0; vertical-align: top; width: 100%;" | style="border-right: 1px dashed MediumAquamarine; vertical-align: top;" | === Haskell Basics === * {{Haskell chapter/Haskell Basics|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed MediumAquamarine; vertical-align: top;" | === Elementary Haskell === * {{Haskell chapter/Elementary Haskell|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed MediumAquamarine; vertical-align: top;" | === Intermediate Haskell === * {{Haskell chapter/Intermediate Haskell|sep= *}} | style="vertical-align: top;" | === Monads === * {{Haskell chapter/Monads|sep=*|subsep=&nbsp;-&nbsp;|breaksep= **|firstsep= *}} |} == Advanced Track == This section introduces wider functional programming concepts such as different data structures and type theory. It will also cover more practical topics like concurrency. {| cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid SlateBlue; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.8em 0; vertical-align: top; width: 100%;" | style="border-right: 1px dashed SlateBlue; vertical-align: top;" | === Welcome to Haskell === * {{Haskell chapter/Advanced Haskell|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed SlateBlue; vertical-align: top;" | === Fun with Types === * {{Haskell chapter/Fun with Types|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed SlateBlue; vertical-align: top;" | === Wider Theory === * {{Haskell chapter/Wider Theory|sep= *}} | style="vertical-align: top;" | === Haskell Performance === * {{Haskell chapter/Haskell Performance|sep= *}} |} == Haskell in Practice == Day-to-day issues of working with Haskell include items such as knowing the standard libraries, building graphical interfaces, and working with databases. You should be able to jump directly to this section from the beginner's track. {| cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid gold; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.8em 0; width: 100%;" | style="border-right: 1px dashed gold; vertical-align: top;" | === Libraries Reference === * {{Haskell chapter/Libraries Reference|sep=*|subsep=&nbsp;-&nbsp;|breaksep= **|firstsep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed gold; vertical-align: top;" | === General Practices === * {{Haskell chapter/General Practices|sep= *}} | style="vertical-align: top;" | === Specialised Tasks === * {{Haskell chapter/Specialised Tasks|sep= *}} |} == Appendices == * [[/Syntactic sugar/]] * [[/Solutions|Answers to exercises]] * [[/Authors/|Authors and Acknowledgements]] == About the book == * [[/Notes for contributors/]] * [[/Style conventions/]] * [[/To do/]] * [[:{{BOOKCATEGORY|Haskell}}/Templates|Templates for the Haskell wikibook]] * [[/Experimental Modules/|Experimental Modules]] * [[/List of topics/|List of topics]] == Other Haskell tutorials == * [https://wiki.haskell.org/Meta-tutorial Haskell Meta-tutorial] &mdash; the tutorial to find other tutorials * [http://www.learnyouahaskell.com/Chapters Learn You a Haskell for Great Good] &mdash; Tutorial aimed at beginners who may have experience in imperative programming languages but haven't programmed in a functional language before. Available online at no charge (CC BY-NC-SA license); also released as a conventional book. * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/ Real World Haskell] &mdash; an O'Reilly book, available online at no charge (CC BY-NC license). Built around case studies of practical applications. == Tutorials that have been incorporated into the Haskell Wikibook == The following may be read independently, but their content has been imported and adapted already into the Wikibook here * [[Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours]] &mdash; An alternate approach to teaching Haskell (and perhaps Scheme), aimed at a more advanced audience (though not necessarily one that knows how to program!) * [[/YAHT|Yet Another Haskell Tutorial]] &mdash; aimed at beginners and takes a practical approach to things. == Additional resources == * [http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Learning_Haskell Learning Haskell] at haskell.org * [https://github.com/sdiehl/wiwinwlh What I Wish I Knew When Learning Haskell] — A wide-ranging collection of concise summaries of many intermediate and advanced Haskell topics. Released in the public domain. <!-- * [http://dohaskell.com/ Do Haskell] — An index site for articles about Haskell topics --><!-- Dead link. To be replaced with a comparable resource as soon as it matures enough.--> {{Shelves|Haskell programming language}} {{Alphabetical|H}} {{Status|75%}} [[de:Funktionale Programmierung mit Haskell]] [[es:Haskell]] [[fr:Programmation Haskell]] [[ja:Haskell]] [[pl:Haskell]] [[pt:Haskell]] [[ru:HaskellWikiBook]] [[zh:Haskell]] gh2qv98dk1vh4yfobqhdb21ef1rhf6e 4632183 4632178 2026-04-25T08:11:02Z ~2026-25343-73 3579019 Made wording more precise. 4632183 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Haskell-Logo.svg|250px|right|Haskell Logo]] {{Print version}} {{Collection}} {{PDF version}} {{E-Book Reader PDF version|Haskell eBook Reader.pdf}} {{Featured book}} {{Book search|float=right}} '''Haskell''' is a [[Computer Programming/Functional programming|functional programming]] language. It is distinct in a few ways: * Haskell is ''pure''. A function when invoked using the same arguments will return the same result every time. * Haskell is ''lazy''. Evaluations are performed only when needed. * Haskell provides a modern type system with state-of-the-art features like type classes and generalized algebraic data types (soon enough, terms like those will roll smoothly off your tongue). Haskell is enjoyable to use because dealing with pure functions makes code much easier to reason about, and the advanced type system helps catch silly mistakes that may have profound consequences. Our aim in this book is to introduce you to the Haskell programming language &mdash; from the very basics to advanced features &mdash; and to computer programming in general. We urge seasoned programmers to be especially patient with this process. The languages you are familiar with are likely to differ greatly from Haskell, and the habits acquired from those languages might make it difficult to understand how things work &mdash; Haskell is simple, but different. Learning to see the world through the warped mindset of a functional programmer is an adventure in a brave new world, which brings knowledge valuable far beyond the boundaries of any language. == Overview == The book is divided into three sections: a Beginner's Track, an Advanced Track, and a section called ''Haskell in Practice''. The last section, which covers practical use cases, depends only on the Beginner's Track. Seasoned programmers may read [[/Overview|the overview]] to quickly evaluate what makes Haskell unique and different from other languages. {{Info|Please contribute! Anyone, regardless of Haskell competency, can help out. Spend five minutes improving a module and save someone else hours of time. Check out the [[/Notes for contributors|notes for contributors]]. Even if you get confused by a page, tell us about it on the discussion page (politely, of course).}} == Beginner's Track == This section introduces you to Haskell basics and some commonly used libraries. At the end of this track, you should be able to write simple Haskell programs. Most chapters include exercises, with solutions, for your practice. {| cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid MediumAquamarine; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.8em 0; vertical-align: top; width: 100%;" | style="border-right: 1px dashed MediumAquamarine; vertical-align: top;" | === Haskell Basics === * {{Haskell chapter/Haskell Basics|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed MediumAquamarine; vertical-align: top;" | === Elementary Haskell === * {{Haskell chapter/Elementary Haskell|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed MediumAquamarine; vertical-align: top;" | === Intermediate Haskell === * {{Haskell chapter/Intermediate Haskell|sep= *}} | style="vertical-align: top;" | === Monads === * {{Haskell chapter/Monads|sep=*|subsep=&nbsp;-&nbsp;|breaksep= **|firstsep= *}} |} == Advanced Track == This section introduces wider functional programming concepts such as different data structures and type theory. It will also cover more practical topics like concurrency. {| cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid SlateBlue; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.8em 0; vertical-align: top; width: 100%;" | style="border-right: 1px dashed SlateBlue; vertical-align: top;" | === Welcome to Haskell === * {{Haskell chapter/Advanced Haskell|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed SlateBlue; vertical-align: top;" | === Fun with Types === * {{Haskell chapter/Fun with Types|sep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed SlateBlue; vertical-align: top;" | === Wider Theory === * {{Haskell chapter/Wider Theory|sep= *}} | style="vertical-align: top;" | === Haskell Performance === * {{Haskell chapter/Haskell Performance|sep= *}} |} == Haskell in Practice == Day-to-day issues of working with Haskell include items such as knowing the standard libraries, building graphical interfaces, and working with databases. You should be able to jump directly to this section from the beginner's track. {| cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid gold; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.8em 0; width: 100%;" | style="border-right: 1px dashed gold; vertical-align: top;" | === Libraries Reference === * {{Haskell chapter/Libraries Reference|sep=*|subsep=&nbsp;-&nbsp;|breaksep= **|firstsep= *}} | style="border-right: 1px dashed gold; vertical-align: top;" | === General Practices === * {{Haskell chapter/General Practices|sep= *}} | style="vertical-align: top;" | === Specialised Tasks === * {{Haskell chapter/Specialised Tasks|sep= *}} |} == Appendices == * [[/Syntactic sugar/]] * [[/Solutions|Answers to exercises]] * [[/Authors/|Authors and Acknowledgements]] == About the book == * [[/Notes for contributors/]] * [[/Style conventions/]] * [[/To do/]] * [[:{{BOOKCATEGORY|Haskell}}/Templates|Templates for the Haskell wikibook]] * [[/Experimental Modules/|Experimental Modules]] * [[/List of topics/|List of topics]] == Other Haskell tutorials == * [https://wiki.haskell.org/Meta-tutorial Haskell Meta-tutorial] &mdash; the tutorial to find other tutorials * [http://www.learnyouahaskell.com/Chapters Learn You a Haskell for Great Good] &mdash; Tutorial aimed at beginners who may have experience in imperative programming languages but haven't programmed in a functional language before. Available online at no charge (CC BY-NC-SA license); also released as a conventional book. * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/ Real World Haskell] &mdash; an O'Reilly book, available online at no charge (CC BY-NC license). Built around case studies of practical applications. == Tutorials that have been incorporated into the Haskell Wikibook == The following may be read independently, but their content has been imported and adapted already into the Wikibook here * [[Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours]] &mdash; An alternate approach to teaching Haskell (and perhaps Scheme), aimed at a more advanced audience (though not necessarily one that knows how to program!) * [[/YAHT|Yet Another Haskell Tutorial]] &mdash; aimed at beginners and takes a practical approach to things. == Additional resources == * [http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Learning_Haskell Learning Haskell] at haskell.org * [https://github.com/sdiehl/wiwinwlh What I Wish I Knew When Learning Haskell] — A wide-ranging collection of concise summaries of many intermediate and advanced Haskell topics. Released in the public domain. <!-- * [http://dohaskell.com/ Do Haskell] — An index site for articles about Haskell topics --><!-- Dead link. To be replaced with a comparable resource as soon as it matures enough.--> {{Shelves|Haskell programming language}} {{Alphabetical|H}} {{Status|75%}} [[de:Funktionale Programmierung mit Haskell]] [[es:Haskell]] [[fr:Programmation Haskell]] [[ja:Haskell]] [[pl:Haskell]] [[pt:Haskell]] [[ru:HaskellWikiBook]] [[zh:Haskell]] rzmpcehn0sqcrvlv9clngdpwir2szf9 0 7109 4632189 2483147 2026-04-25T08:37:42Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632189 wikitext text/x-wiki The Diels-Alder reaction, named after the German chemists who developed it, is a method for producing simple ring compounds. {{center|1=[[image:Dielsalder.png|A diene adds to a dienophile in a simple Diels-Alder Reaction]]<br>''Mechanism of a reaction between a diene and a dienophile''}} In the Diels-Alder reaction, a conjugated diene reacts with a dienophile. The dienophile is named for its affinity to react with the diene. Because dienes and dienophiles are often gases, this reaction usually takes place in a sealed container at elevated pressure and temperature. The temperature required by this reaction can be reduced by the presence of electron-witdrawing groups attached to the dienophile. In some cases, such as furan and maleic anhydride, or cyclopentadiene and acrolein, the reaction will take place at room temperature in an ethoxyethane solution. The reaction shown above is highly unlikely due to the lack of substituents on the diene and dienophile. The dienophile will usually have a carbonyl, nitro, or other electron-withdrawing group attached. Any substituents attached to the diene or dienophile will end up in the final product. {{center|1=[[image:Dielsalder2.png|A substituated dienophile reacts to form a product with the same substituents.]]<br>''Notice that the product retains the same basic cyclohexene structure. The substituents simply extend from the ring.''}} Alkynes can also react as dienophiles. Diels-Alder reactions can sometimes reverse themselves through Retro-Diels-Alder reactions. For example, dicyclopentadiene can be cracked to form 1,3-cyclopentadiene by thermal dissociation. Retro reactions occur under situations where the fragments are stable by themselves. <noinclude> ---- Read more about [[w:Kurt Alder|Kurt Alder]] and [[w:Otto Diels|Otto Diels]] in the [[w:Main Page|Wikipedia]]. ---- </noinclude> {{BookCat}} nl33ncdyas2nwowhlefcpdcjocqi651 0 13513 4632198 4375016 2026-04-25T08:58:29Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632198 wikitext text/x-wiki There are several spectroscopic techniques which can be used to identify organic molecules: infrared (IR), mass spectroscopy (MS) UV/visible spectroscopy (UV/Vis) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). IR, NMR and UV/vis spectroscopy are based on observing the frequencies of electromagnetic radiation absorbed and emitted by molecules. MS is based on measuring the mass of the molecule and any fragments of the molecule which may be produced in the MS instrument. ==UV/Vis Spectroscopy== UV/Vis spectroscopy is an absorption spectroscopy technique that utilizes electromagnetic radiation in the 10 nm to 700 nm range. The energy associated with light between these wavelengths can be absorbed by both non-bonding n-electrons and π-electrons residing within a molecular orbital. This absorption of energy causes the promotion of an electron from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). More specifically, the electron is said to undergo either an n→π* transition or π→π* transition. It is also this absorption of visible light energy that gives rise to the perceived color of pigmented compounds. As a result of this phenomena, UV/Vis is a technique often employed in organic chemistry in order to identify the presence of free electrons or double (π) bonds within a molecule. The wavelength that is most absorbed by the molecule is known as the λ-max, and it is this number that can be used to make comparative analysis of different molecules. This spectroscopic technique can also be used to identify some molecules with large conjugated π-systems or carbonyl groups by utilizing the Woodward-Fieser rules, which relies on a set of empirical values to predict the λ-max of a compound. ==NMR Spectroscopy== Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy is one of the most useful analytical techniques for determining the structure of an organic compound. There are two main types of NMR, ¹H-NMR (Proton NMR) and ¹³C-NMR (Carbon NMR). NMR is based on the fact that the nuclei of atoms have a quantized property called spin. When a magnetic field is applied to a ¹H or ¹³C nucleus, the nucleus can align either with (spin +1/2) or against (spin -1/2) the applied magnetic field. These two states have different potential energies and the energy difference depends on the strength of the magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field about a nucleus, however, depends on the chemical environment around the nucleus. For example, the negatively charged electrons around and near the nucleus can shield the nucleus from the magnetic field, lowering the strength of the effective magnetic field felt by the nucleus. This, in turn, will lower the energy needed to transition between the +1/2 and -1/2 states. Therefore, the transition energy will be lower for nuclei attached to electron donating groups (such as alkyl groups) and higher for nuclei attached to electron withdrawing groups (such as a hydroxyl group). In an NMR machine, the compound being analyzed is placed in a strong magnetic field and irradiated with radio waves to cause all the ¹H and ¹³C nuclei to occupy the higher energy -1/2 state. As the nuclei relax back to the +1/2 state, they release radio waves corresponding to the energy of the difference between the two spin states. The radio waves are recorded and analyzed by computer to give an intensity versus frequency plot of the sample. This information can then be used to determine the structure of the compound. '''Aromatics in H-NMR''' '''Electron Donating Groups vs. Electron Withdrawing Groups''' On monosubstituted rings, electron donating groups resonate at high chemical shifts. Electron donating groups increase the electron density by releasing electrons into a reaction center, thus stabilizing the carbocation. An example of an electron donating group is methyl (-CH3). Accordingly, electron withdrawing groups are represented at low chemical shifts. Electron withdrawing groups pull electrons away from a reacting center. This can stabilize an electron rich carbanion. Some examples of electron withdrawing groups are halogens (-Cl, -F) and carboxylic acid (-COOH). Looking at the H NMR spectrum of ethyl benzene, we see that the methyl group is the most electron withdrawing, so it appears at the lowest chemical shift. The aromatic phenyl group is the most electron donating, so it has the highest chemical shift. [[Image:ethyl.gif]] [[Image:phenol.gif]] '''Disubstituted Rings''' The sum of integrated intensity values for the entire aromatic region shows how many substituents are attached to the ring, so a total value of 4 indicates that the ring has 2 substituents. When a benzene ring has two substituent groups, each exerts an influence on following substitution reactions. The site at which a new substituent is introduced depends on the orientation of the existing groups and their individual directing effects. For a disubstituted benzene ring, there are three possible NMR patterns. [[Image:omp.gif]] Note that para-substituted rings usually show two symmetric sets of peaks that look like doublets. The order of these peaks is dependent on the nature of the two substituents. For example, the three NMR spectra of chloronitrobenzene isomers are below: [[Image:ortho.gif]] [[Image:meta.gif]] [[Image:para.gif]] =Mass Spectrometry= A mass spectroscope measures the exact mass of ions, relative to the charge. Many times, some form of separation is done beforehand, enabling a spectrum to be collected on a relatively pure sample. An organic sample can be introduced into a mass spectroscope and ionised. This also breaks some molecules into smaller fragments. The resulting mass spectrum shows: 1) The heaviest ion is simply the ionised molecule itself. We can simply record its mass. 2) Other ions are fragments of the molecule and give information about its structure. Common fragments are: {| style="margin:0 auto;" |'''species''' |'''formula''' |'''mass''' |- |methyl |CH₃⁺ |15 |- |ethyl |C₂H₅⁺ |29 |- |phenyl |C₆H₅⁺ |77 |} =Infrared spectroscopy.= Absorbing infrared radiation makes covalent bonds vibrate. Different types of bond absorb different wavelengths of infrared: Instead of wavelength, infrared spectroscopists record the wavenumber; the number of waves that fit into 1 cm. (This is easily converted to the energy of the wave.) For some reason the spectra are recorded backwards (from 4000 to 500 cm^-1 is typical), often with a different scale below 1000 cm^-1 (to see the fingerprint region more clearly) and upside-down (% radiation transmitted is recorded instead of the absorbance of radiation). The wavenumbers of the absorbed IR radiation are characteristic of many bonds, so IR spectroscopy can determine which functional groups are contained in the sample. For example, the carbonyl (C=O) bond will absorb at 1650-1760cm^-1. == Summary of absorptions of bonds in organic molecules == [[w:Infrared Spectroscopy Correlation Table]] {| |'''Bond''' |'''Minimum wavenumber''' (cm^-1) |'''Maximum wavenumber''' (cm^-1) |'''Functional group''' (and other notes) |- |C-O |1000 |1300 |Alcohols and esters |- |N-H |1580 |1650 |Amine or amide |- |C=C |1610 |1680 |Alkenes |- |C=O |1650 |1760 |Aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, amides |- |O-H |2500 |3300 |Carboxylic acids (very broad band) |- |C-H |2850 |3000 |Alkane |- |C-H |3050 |3150 |Alkene (Compare intensity to alkane for rough idea of relative number of H atoms involved.) |- |O-H |3230 |3550 |H-bonded in alcohols |- |N-H |3300 |3500 |Amine or amide |- |O-H |3580 |3670 |Free –OH in alcohols (only in samples diluted with non-polar solvent) |} Absorptions listed in cm^-1. [[Image:IR_summary_version_2.svg|centre|frame]] == Typical method == <ref>[[w:Infrared_spectroscopy|Wikipedia article.]]</ref> [[Image:IR_spectroscopy_apparatus.svg|thumbnail|centre|400px|Typical apparatus]] A beam of infra-red light is produced and split into two separate beams. One is passed through the sample, the other passed through a reference which is often the substance the sample is dissolved in. The beams are both reflected back towards a detector, however first they pass through a splitter which quickly alternates which of the two beams enters the detector. The two signals are then compared and a printout is obtained. A reference is used for two reasons: *This prevents fluctuations in the output of the source affecting the data *This allows the effects of the solvent to be negated (the reference is usually a pure form of the solvent the sample is in). =References & notes= <References/> [http://www.aist.go.jp/RIODB/SDBS/cgi-bin/cre_index.cgi SDBS] is a free on-line database of Spectral analysis including many IR, NMR and MS graphs. {{BookCat}} g900b5je43w30zq3f272q0fuy2mx8xm 0 15392 4632190 3111373 2026-04-25T08:39:06Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632190 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Atomic_structure|< Atomic Structure]] | [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Bonding|Bonding >]] ---- </noinclude> Whenever two atoms form a bond, the nucleus of each atom attracts the other's electrons. '''Electronegativity''' is a measure of the strength of this attraction. ===Periodic trends=== Several traits of atoms are said to have "periodic trends", meaning that different atoms in a period have identifiable relationships to one another based on their position. Is that confusing? Think of the periodic table as a group picture, maybe of a very large basketball team. Each period is a row of players in the picture, and the "photographer" has decided to arrange the "players" by their characteristics. Of course, no conscious effort was made to arrange the periodic table by any characteristic other than number of protons, but some properties are consistent in its layout regardless. Atomic size is one characteristic that shows a periodic trend. In case of atomic radius the "photographer" (Mendeleev and others since) decided to arrange "players" (atoms) by size with the very shortest and smallest players at the top right. As you go left to right along a row (a period) the atoms get sequentially smaller and smaller. Fluorine is smaller than carbon, and carbon is smaller than magnesium. This is due to the number of protons in the nucleus increasing, while the increasing number of electrons are unable to shield one another from the attractive force of the positive charge from the nucleus. '''REMEMBER''': ''largest'' > Li > Be > B > C > N > O > F > Ne > ''smallest'' Another characteristic with a periodic trend is ionization energy. This is the amount of energy necessary to remove one electron from an atom. Since all the atoms favor an electron configuration of a noble gas, the atoms at the extreme left of the table will give up their first electron most readily. (In almost all cases, a metal will readily give up its first electron.) The halogens, which need only one more electron to fill their outer shells, require a great deal of energy to give up an electron because they would be much more stable if they gained one electron instead. Ionization energy is the opposite of atomic radius, therefore, because it increases from left to right across a period. '''REMEMBER''': ''least energy to ionize'' < Li < Be < B < C < N < O < F < Ne < ''most energy to ionize'' Electronegativity is perhaps the most important periodic trend, and it is not related to ionization energy directly -- but its trend is the same, increasing from left to right. Also, the elements in a group (like the halogen group) gain stability as they grow in atomic number, so the smallest member of an electronegative group is often the most electronegative. In general, it can be said that among periods (rows) or groups (columns) of the periodic table, the closer an element is to fluorine, the more electronegative it will be. For Group VIIA (the aforementioned halogens) of the periodic table, you memorize the following relationships: '''REMEMBER''': ''most electronegative'' > F > Cl > Br > I > ''least electronegative'' And '''REMEMBER''': ''least electronegative'' < Li < Be < B < C < N < O < F < ''most electronegative'' (Notice that the noble gas Neon is not on the electronegativity chart. In its non-ionized form, a noble gas is usually treated as if it has no electronegativity at all.) ===Electronegativities of atoms common in organic chemistry=== * C - 2.55 * H - 2.20 * N - 3.04 * O - 3.44 * P - 2.19 * S - 2.58 * Cl - 3.16 * Br - 2.96 * F - 3.98 Higher numbers represent a stronger attraction of electrons. When atoms of similar electronegativity bond, a nonpolar [[Wikipedia:covalent|covalent]] bond is the result. <table WIDTH="75%"><tr><td style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign=top> <H2>Common nonpolar bonds</H2> C-C H-C </td></tr></table> When atoms of slightly different electronegativities bond, a polar covalent bond results. <table WIDTH="75%"><tr><td style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign=top> <H2>Common polar bonds</H2> &delta;⁺ C-O &delta;^- &delta;⁺ C-N &delta;^- &delta;^- O-H &delta;⁺ &delta;^- N-H &delta;⁺ &delta;^- and &delta;⁺ represent partial charges </td></tr></table> When atoms of very different electronegativities bond, an ionic bond results. = Electronegativity content from Wikipedia = <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:Electronegativity|Electronegativity]] </small></div> Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved. Atoms with similar electronegativities will share an electron with each other and form a covalent bond. However, if the difference is too great, the electron will be permanently transferred to one atom and an ionic bond will form. Furthermore, in a covalent bond if one atom pulls slightly harder than the other, a polar covalent bond will form. The reverse of electronegativity, the ability of an atom to lose electrons, is known as electropositivity. Two scales of electronegativity are in common use: the Pauling scale (proposed in 1932) and the Mulliken scale (proposed in 1934). Another proposal is the Allred-Rochow scale. == Pauling scale == The Pauling scale was devised in 1932 by Linus Pauling. On this scale, the most electronegative chemical element (fluorine) is given an electronegativity value of 3.98 (textbooks often state this value to be 4.0); the least electronegative element (francium) has a value of 0.7, and the remaining elements have values in between. On the Pauling scale, hydrogen is arbitrarily assigned a value of 2.1 or 2.2. 'δEN' is the difference in electronegativity between two atoms or elements. Bonds between atoms with a large electronegativity difference (greater than or equal to 1.7) are usually considered to be ionic, while values between 1.7 and 0.4 are considered polar covalent. Values below 0.4 are considered non-polar covalent bonds, and electronegativity differences of 0 indicate a completely non-polar covalent bond. == Mulliken scale == The Mulliken scale was proposed by Robert S. Mulliken in 1934. On the Mulliken scale, numbers are obtained by averaging ionization potential and electron affinity. Consequently, the Mulliken electronegativities are expressed directly in energy units, usually electron volts. == Electronegativity trends == Each element has a characteristic electronegativity ranging from 0 to 4 on the Pauling scale. The most strongly electronegative element, fluorine, has an electronegativity of 3.98 while weakly electronegative elements, such as lithium, have values close to 1. The least electronegative element is francium at 0.7. In general, the degree of electronegativity decreases down each group and increases across the periods, as shown below. Across a period, non-metals tend to gain electrons and metals tend to lose them due to the atom striving to achieve a stable octet. Down a group, the nuclear charge has less effect on the outermost shells. Therefore, the most electronegative atoms can be found in the upper, right hand side of the periodic table, and the least electronegative elements can be found at the bottom left. Consequently, in general, atomic radius decreases across the periodic table, but ionization energy increases. {| style="margin:0 auto; width:80%; text-align:center" ! colspan=20 | &rarr; Atomic radius decreases &rarr; Ionization energy increases &rarr; Electronegativity increases &rarr; |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Periodic table group|'''Group''']] | [[w:Alkali metal|'''1''']] | [[w:Alkaline earth|'''2''']] | [[w:Group 3 element|'''3''']] | [[w:Group 4 element|'''4''']] | [[w:Group 5 element|'''5''']] | [[w:Group 6 element|'''6''']] | [[w:Group 7 element|'''7''']] | [[w:Group 8 element|'''8''']] | [[w:Group 9 element|'''9''']] | [[w:Group 10 element|'''10''']] | [[w:Coinage metal|'''11''']] | [[w:Group 12 element|'''12''']] | [[w:Boron group|'''13''']] | [[w:Carbon group|'''14''']] | [[w:Pnictogen|'''15''']] | [[w:Chalcogen|'''16''']] | [[w:Halogen|'''17''']] | [[w:Noble gas|'''18''']] |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Periodic table period|'''Period''']] | colspan=19 | |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Period 1 element|'''1''']] | bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[w:Hydrogen|H]]<br/>2.20 | colspan=16 | | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Helium|He]]<br/>&nbsp; |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Period 2 element|'''2''']] | bgcolor="#ffe900" | [[w:Lithium|Li]]<br/>0.98 | bgcolor="#ffbb00" | [[w:Beryllium|Be]]<br/>1.57 | colspan=10 | | bgcolor="#ff9700" | [[w:Boron|B]]<br/>2.04 | bgcolor="#ff6f00" | [[w:Carbon|C]]<br/>2.55 | bgcolor="#ff4900" | [[w:Nitrogen|N]]<br/>3.04 | bgcolor="#ff2a00" | [[w:Oxygen|O]]<br/>3.44 | bgcolor="#ff0000" | [[w:Fluorine|F]]<br/>3.98 | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Neon|Ne]]<br/>&nbsp; |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Period 3 element|'''3''']] | bgcolor="#ffed00" | [[w:Sodium|Na]]<br/>0.93 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Magnesium|Mg]]<br/>1.31 | colspan=10 | | bgcolor="#ffb800" | [[w:Aluminium|Al]]<br/>1.61 | bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[w:Silicon|Si]]<br/>1.90 | bgcolor="#ff8b00" | [[w:Phosphorus|P]]<br/>2.19 | bgcolor="#ff6d00" | [[w:Sulfur|S]]<br/>2.58 | bgcolor="#ff4000" | [[w:Chlorine|Cl]]<br/>3.16 | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Argon|Ar]]<br/>&nbsp; |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Period 4 element|'''4''']] | bgcolor="#fff600" | [[w:Potassium|K]]<br/>0.82 | bgcolor="#ffe800" | [[w:Calcium|Ca]]<br/>1.00 | bgcolor="#ffcc00" | [[w:Scandium|Sc]]<br/>1.36 | bgcolor="#ffbe00" | [[w:Titanium|Ti]]<br/>1.54 | bgcolor="#ffb700" | [[w:Vanadium|V]]<br/>1.63 | bgcolor="#ffb400" | [[w:Chromium|Cr]]<br/>1.66 | bgcolor="#ffbd00" | [[w:Manganese|Mn]]<br/>1.55 | bgcolor="#ffa700" | [[w:Iron|Fe]]<br/>1.83 | bgcolor="#ffa300" | [[w:Cobalt|Co]]<br/>1.88 | bgcolor="#ffa100" | [[w:Nickel|Ni]]<br/>1.91 | bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[w:Copper|Cu]]<br/>1.90 | bgcolor="#ffb500" | [[w:Zinc|Zn]]<br/>1.65 | bgcolor="#ffa900" | [[w:Gallium|Ga]]<br/>1.81 | bgcolor="#ff9900" | [[w:Germanium|Ge]]<br/>2.01 | bgcolor="#ff8c00" | [[w:Arsenic|As]]<br/>2.18 | bgcolor="#ff6f00" | [[w:Selenium|Se]]<br/>2.55 | bgcolor="#ff4f00" | [[w:Bromine|Br]]<br/>2.96 | bgcolor="#ff4c00" | [[w:Krypton|Kr]]<br/>3.00 |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Period 5 element|'''5''']] | bgcolor="#fff600" | [[w:Rubidium|Rb]]<br/>0.82 | bgcolor="#ffec00" | [[w:Strontium|Sr]]<br/>0.95 | bgcolor="#ffd700" | [[w:Yttrium|Y]]<br/>1.22 | bgcolor="#ffce00" | [[w:Zirconium|Zr]]<br/>1.33 | bgcolor="#ffb900" | [[w:Niobium|Nb]]<br/>1.6 | bgcolor="#ff8d00" | [[w:Molybdenum|Mo]]<br/>2.16 | bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[w:Technetium|Tc]]<br/>1.9 | bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[w:Ruthenium|Ru]]<br/>2.2 | bgcolor="#ff8400" | [[w:Rhodium|Rh]]<br/>2.28 | bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[w:Palladium|Pd]]<br/>2.20 | bgcolor="#ff9f00" | [[w:Silver|Ag]]<br/>1.93 | bgcolor="#ffb200" | [[w:Cadmium|Cd]]<br/>1.69 | bgcolor="#ffab00" | [[w:Indium|In]]<br/>1.78 | bgcolor="#ff9d00" | [[w:Tin|Sn]]<br/>1.96 | bgcolor="#ff9600" | [[w:Antimony|Sb]]<br/>2.05 | bgcolor="#ff9200" | [[w:Tellurium|Te]]<br/>2.1 | bgcolor="#ff6700" | [[w:Iodine|I]]<br/>2.66 | bgcolor="#ff6b00" | [[w:Xenon|Xe]]<br/>2.6 |- align="CENTER" | [[w:Period 6 element|'''6''']] | bgcolor="#fff800" | [[w:Caesium|Cs]]<br/>0.79 | bgcolor="#fff000" | [[w:Barium|Ba]]<br/>0.89 | *<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Hafnium|Hf]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffc100" | [[w:Tantalum|Ta]]<br/>1.5 | bgcolor="#ff7e00" | [[w:Tungsten|W]]<br/>2.36 | bgcolor="#ffa200" | [[w:Rhenium|Re]]<br/>1.9 | bgcolor="#ff8a20" | [[w:Osmium|Os]]<br/>2.2 | bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[w:Iridium|Ir]]<br/>2.20 | bgcolor="#ff8400" | [[w:Platinum|Pt]]<br/>2.28 | bgcolor="#ff7000" | [[w:Gold|Au]]<br/>2.54 | bgcolor="#ff9a00" | [[w:Mercury (element)|Hg]]<br/>2.00 | bgcolor="#ffb700" | [[w:Thallium|Tl]]<br/>1.62 | bgcolor="#ff8000" | [[w:Lead|Pb]]<br/>2.33 | bgcolor="#ff9800" | [[w:Bismuth|Bi]]<br/>2.02 | bgcolor="#ff9a00" | [[w:Polonium|Po]]<br/>2.0 | bgcolor="#ff8a00" | [[w:Astatine|At]]<br/>2.2 | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Radon|Rn]]<br/>&nbsp; |- align=CENTER | [[w:Period 7 element|'''7''']] | bgcolor="#ffff00" | [[w:Francium|Fr]]<br/>0.7 | bgcolor="#ffef00" | [[w:Radium|Ra]]<br/>0.9 | **<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Rutherfordium|Rf]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Dubnium|Db]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Seaborgium|Sg]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Bohrium|Bh]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Hassium|Hs]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Meitnerium|Mt]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Darmstadtium|Ds]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Roentgenium|Rg]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununbium|Uub]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununtrium|Uut]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununquadium|Uuq]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununpentium|Uup]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununhexium|Uuh]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununseptium|Uus]]<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Ununoctium|Uuo]]<br/>&nbsp; |- align=CENTER | |- align=CENTER | [[w:Lanthanides|Lanthanides]] | *<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[w:Lanthanum|La]]<br/>1.1 | bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[w:Cerium|Ce]]<br/>1.12 | bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[w:Praseodymium|Pr]]<br/>1.13 | bgcolor="#ffdd00" | [[w:Neodymium|Nd]]<br/>1.14 | bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[w:Promethium|Pm]]<br/>1.13 | bgcolor="#ffda00" | [[w:Samarium|Sm]]<br/>1.17 | bgcolor="#ffd800" | [[w:Europium|Eu]]<br/>1.2 | bgcolor="#ffd800" | [[w:Gadolinium|Gd]]<br/>1.2 | bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[w:Terbium|Tb]]<br/>1.1 | bgcolor="#ffd700" | [[w:Dysprosium|Dy]]<br/>1.22 | bgcolor="#ffd600" | [[w:Holmium|Ho]]<br/>1.23 | bgcolor="#ffd500" | [[w:Erbium|Er]]<br/>1.24 | bgcolor="#ffd400" | [[w:Thulium|Tm]]<br/>1.25 | bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[w:Ytterbium|Yb]]<br/>1.1 | bgcolor="#ffd300" | [[w:Lutetium|Lu]]<br/>1.27 |- align=CENTER | [[w:Actinides|Actinides]] | **<br/>&nbsp; | bgcolor="#ffe000" | [[w:Actinium|Ac]]<br/>1.1 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Thorium|Th]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffc100" | [[w:Protactinium|Pa]]<br/>1.5 | bgcolor="#ffca00" | [[w:Uranium|U]]<br/>1.38 | bgcolor="#ffcc00" | [[w:Neptunium|Np]]<br/>1.36 | bgcolor="#ffd200" | [[w:Plutonium|Pu]]<br/>1.28 | bgcolor="#ffde00" | [[w:Americium|Am]]<br/>1.13 | bgcolor="#ffd200" | [[w:Curium|Cm]]<br/>1.28 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Berkelium|Bk]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Californium|Cf]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Einsteinium|Es]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Fermium|Fm]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Mendelevium|Md]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#ffd000" | [[w:Nobelium|No]]<br/>1.3 | bgcolor="#bbbbbb" | [[w:Lawrencium|Lr]]<br/>&nbsp; |- align="CENTER" | colspan=20 | |} {{center|1=[[w:Periodic table|Periodic table]] of electronegativity using the [[w:Pauling scale|Pauling scale]]}} <noinclude> ---- [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry|<< Foundational concepts]] | [[Organic_Chemistry/Foundational_concepts_of_organic_chemistry/Atomic_structure|< Atomic Structure]] | Electronegativity | [[Organic_Chemistry/Foundational_concepts_of_organic_chemistry/Bonding|Bonding >]] | [[Organic Chemistry/Alkanes|Alkanes >>]] </noinclude> {{BookCat}} 9umxx3115kno0c70sdtvjswe2ccobkh 0 37415 4632104 4619813 2026-04-24T20:47:27Z ~2026-25266-05 3578922 4632104 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |Ware Opening |eco=[[Chess/ECOA|A00]] |parent=[[../|Starting position]] }} == 1. a4?! · Ware opening == '''1. a4?!''' is an unorthodox opening. It does not help White to develop their pieces or stake a claim to the centre. It is almost like White has passed their first turn: functionally, they are playing a tempo down. It is most common with beginners who think that their rooks are powerful pieces, and wouldn't it be good to develop them first? Unfortunately, rook lifting (a4, Ra3, Rd3 etc) is too slow and gives Black plenty of time to develop all their minor pieces. Rooks come alive later in the game, when files begin to open. After 1. a4, Black gets to decide which pawn to put in the centre. [[/1...e5|'''1...e5''']] is the main line (as much as there is a "main line"), taking space and opening the a3-f8 diagonal for Black's bishop. As long as White responds with something like 2. e4 then they do not fall too far behind and the game is even. A classic beginner blunder (called sometimes the '''meadow hay trap''') marries the plan of an early rook lift with a lack of board vision: 2. Ra3?? Bxa3. [[/1...d5|'''1...d5''']] is also very sound. [[/1...a5|'''1...a5?!''']], which might be called the "symmetrical variation", at worst fails to capitalise on White's irregular play. === History === 1. a4 is named for [[w:Preston Ware|Preston Ware]] who played it in 1880 during the 5th American Chess Congress.<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1255664 Ware v Congdon, 1880. Chessgames.com]</ref><ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1255734 Ware v Delmar, 1880. Chessgames.com]</ref> With the black pieces he played 1...a5.<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1255680 Mackenzie v Ware, 1880. Chessgames.com]</ref> Contemporaries of Ware called 1. a4 the '''meadow hay opening'''.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The fifth American chess congress and its international tourney. |journal=The American Chess Journal |date=1880-04-01 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hn43v8 |volume=1 |issue=3}}</ref> [[w:Magnus Carlsen|Magnus Carlsen]] played it against [[w:Teimour Radjabov|Teimour Radjabov]] in the 2012 World Blitz Championship, apparently as an in-joke referencing Radjabov's comment, "Everyone is getting tired. You might as well start with 1. a4 and you can still beat them."<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1671724 Carlsen v Radjabov, 2012. Chessgames.com]</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/grischuk-wins-2nd-world-blitz-title-in-astana|publisher=ChessVibes|title=Grischuk wins 2nd World Blitz title in Astana|date=10 July 2012|access-date=11 July 2012|archive-date=12 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712124143/http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/grischuk-wins-2nd-world-blitz-title-in-astana|url-status=dead}}</ref> In May 2024, the opening gained notoriety after Grandmaster [[w:Brandon Jacobson|Brandon Jacobson]], under the pseudonym Viih_Sou, won a sixty-nine game blitz match against [[w:Daniel Naroditsky|Daniel Naroditsky]] by playing 1. a4 and 2. Ra3? with White and 1...a5 & 2...Ra6? with Black every game, voluntarily sacrificing the exchange. Chess.com banned Viih_Sou for fair play violations and the line became known as the "banned gambit" or "Viih_Sou gambit". Jacobson took to [[w:Reddit|Reddit]] to reveal their identity and deny allegations of cheating.<ref>{{Cite web |title=An offer you can't refuse... |url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/an-offer-you-can-t-refuse |last=Ris |first=Robert |date=2024-05-05 |website=ChessBase}}</ref><ref>[https://www.reddit.com/r/chess/comments/1claxsm/its_me_viih_sou/ ''It's me. Viih_Sou.''] Brandon Jacobson, Reddit.com/r/chess. </ref> Brandon Jacobson went on to win with 1. a4 (though not 2. Ra3?) against [[w:Hikaru Nakamura|Hikaru Nakamura]] in the 2024 World Rapid Championship.<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=2817219 Jacobson v Nakamura, 2024. Chessgames.com]</ref> == Theory table == {{ChessTable}} <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">1</th> <th align="left">2</th> <th align="left">3</th> <th align="left">4</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Crab Variation</th> <td>...<br>[[/1...e5|e5]]</td> <td>h4<br>-</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Symmetric Variation</th> <td>...<br>[[/1...a5|a5]]</td> <td>=<br></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Wing Gambit Accepted</th> <td>...<br>[[/1...b5|b5]]</td> <td>axb5<br>Bb7</td> <td><br></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Wing Gambit Declined</th> <td>...<br>[[/1...b5|b5]]</td> <td>a5<br>-</td> <td><br></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Cologne Gambit</th> <td>...<br>[[/1...b6|b6]]</td> <td>d4<br>d5</td> <td>Nc3<br>Nd7</td> <td>=/+<br></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Ware Gambit</th> <td>...<br>e5</td> <td>a5<br>d5</td> <td>e3<br>f5</td> <td>a6<br>-</td> <td>=/+<br></td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} === See also === {{Wikipedia|Ware Opening}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} [[fi:Shakkiaapinen/Peli/1. a4]] pbyq6ce8o685r9wb6io7kdc6qhist30 0 63842 4632070 4000511 2026-04-24T12:58:06Z ~2026-25009-95 3578837 /* {{French/Section|Vocabulary|More descriptions of people|supplementary-id=french-more-descriptions-of-people}} */ 4632070 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{French/Lessons/Level one/Header||La description}}</noinclude> {{French/Lesson objective| : ''C'est un ouvrage intéressant.'' | : ''Cette personne-là est extrêmement polie.'' }} == {{French/Section|Dialogue|<!-- title here -->}} == Mark is describing someone: 'Il est blond. Il est assez petit. Il est très intelligent. Il est sympa.' George is describing someone: 'Elle est assez grosse. Elle est très amusante et assez patiente.' Chantal is describing a group of her friends: 'Ils sont extrêmement amusants. Ils sont assez forts.' == {{French/Section|Grammar|Adjectives|Les adjectifs}} == Like articles, French adjectives match the nouns that they modify in gender and number. === Regular formation === Most adjective changes occur in the following manner: * Feminine: add an ''-e'' to the masculine form *: ''un garçon intéressant'' → ''une fille intéressant'''e''''' *: ''un ami amusant'' → ''une amie amusant'''e''''' *: ''un camion lent'' → ''une voiture lent'''e''''' * Plural: add an ''-s'' to the singular form *: ''un garçon intéressant'' → ''des garçons intéressant'''s''''' *: ''une fille intéressante'' → ''des filles intéressante'''s''''' === Pronunciation === Generally, the final consonant is pronounced only when it comes before an ''-e''. Most adjectives, such as those above, are affected by this rule. * Masculine pronunciation: *: {{French/Word|intéressant|IPA=/ɛ̃.te.ʁɛ.sɑ̃/|audio=Fr-intéressant.ogg}} *: {{French/Word|amusant|IPA=/a.my.zɑ̃/|audio=Fr-amusant.ogg}} *: {{French/Word|lent|IPA=/lɑ̃/|audio=Fr-lent.ogg}} * Feminine pronunciation: *: {{French/Word|intéressant'''e'''|IPA=/ɛ̃.te.ʁɛ.sɑ̃t/}} *: {{French/Word|amusant'''e'''|IPA=/a.my.zɑ̃t/}} *: {{French/Word|lent'''e'''|IPA=/lɑ̃t/}} With plural adjectives, the ''-s'' ending is not pronounced, so the adjective will sound exactly the same as the singular form. === {{French/Section|Grammar|Exceptions and irregularities|supplementary-id=french-adjective-exceptions}} === <div id='french-adjective-exceptions'> Adjectives that end in ''e'' in the masculine form do not change in gender. When an adjective, such as ''gros'', ends in ''-s'', it does not change in the masculine plural form. Sometimes the final consonant is doubled in the feminine form. {| {{French/Table|audio=French Grammar - Describing People.ogg|columns=4}} ! Masculine ending || Feminine ending || Examples |- ! -e || -e | difficile, inutile, juste, libre, musculaire, passible, propre, rare, solide, superbe, volontaire |- ! -n || -n | zen |- ! -c || -che | blanc, franc |- ! -eau || -elle | beau, nouveau |- ! -el || -elle | démentiel, habituel, individuel |- ! -er || -ère | dernier, fier, gaucher, premier |- ! -et || -ète | complet |- ! -eur || -euse | accrocheur, joueur, prometteur |- ! -eux || -euse | chanceux, ennuyeux, miraculeux, sérieux, talentueux |- ! -g || -gue | long |- ! -if || -ive | décisif, défensif, définitif, offensif, poussif, sportif |- ! -n || -nne | aérien, bon, européen, moyen |- ! -s || -sse | gros |- ! -ul || -ulle | nul |}</div> <!-- /french-adjective-exceptions --> == {{French/Section|Vocabulary|Describing people|Décrire des personnes}} == {| {{French/Table|audio=French Grammar - Describing People.ogg|columns=4}} ! Masculine singular || Feminine singular || Masculine plural || Feminine plural |- ! colspan=4 | Size and weight |- | Il est petit.||Elle est petit'''e'''.||Ils sont petit'''s'''.||Elles sont petit'''es'''. |- | Il est grand.||Elle est grand'''e'''.||Ils sont grand'''s'''.||Elles sont grand'''es'''. |- | Il est maigre.||Elle est maigre.||Ils sont maigre'''s'''.||Elles sont maigre'''s'''. |- | Il est gros.||Elle est gros'''se'''.||Ils sont gros.||Elles sont gros'''ses'''. |- ! colspan=4 | Hair color |- | Il est blond.||Elle est blond'''e'''.||Ils sont blond'''s'''.||Elles sont blond'''es'''. |- | Il est brun.||Elle est brun'''e'''.||Ils sont brun'''s'''.||Elles sont brun'''es'''. |- ! colspan=4 | Attitude and personality |- | Il est intelligent.||Elle est intelligent'''e'''.||Ils sont intelligent'''s'''.||Elles sont intelligent'''es'''. |- | Il est intéressant.||Elle est intéressant'''e'''.||Ils sont intéressant'''s'''.||Elles sont intéressant'''es'''. |- | Il est amusant.||Elle est amusant'''e'''.||Ils sont amusant'''s'''.||Elles sont amusant'''es'''. |} == {{French/Section|Vocabulary|Adverbs expressing degree}} == {| {{French/Translations table|audio=French/Grammar/Adverbs expressing degree.ogg}} | assez || {{audio|Fr-assez-ca-Montréal.ogg|/a.se/}} || rather, enough || J'ai assez de stylos. || I've got enough pens. |- | très || {{audio|Fr-très.ogg|/tʁɛ/}} || very || C’est un homme très dynamique. || It's a very energetic man. |- | vraiment || {{audio|Fr-vraiment.ogg|/vʁɛ.mɑ̃/}} || truly, really || Il est vraiment intelligent. || He is really intelligent. |- | extrêmement || {{audio|Fr-extrêmement.ogg|/ɛk.stʁɛm.mɑ̃/}} || extremely || C’est un homme extrêmement poli. || This is an extremely polite man. |- | fort || {{audio|Fr-fort.ogg|/fɔʁ/}} || strongly || Il est fort amoureux d'elle. || He is strongly in love with her. |} == {{French/Section|Vocabulary|Common adjectives}} == {| {{French/Translations table|audio=French Vocabulary - Common Adjectives.ogg}} ! colspan=6 | Attitude and personality |- | sympa{{French/Section|(s)}}<br />sympathique{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-sympa.ogg|/sɛ̃.pa/}}<br />{{audio|Fr-sympathique.ogg|/sɛ̃.pa.tik/}} || nice, likable, pretty<br />nice, friendly, sympathetic || C’est un hôtel sympa. || It's a nice hotel. |- | amusant{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-amusant.ogg|/a.my.zɑ̃/}} || funny || C'est une comédie amusante.<br />C'est un livre amusant. || It's a funny comedy.<br />It is a fun book. |- | intelligent{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-intelligent.ogg|/ɛ̃teliʒɑ̃/}} || intelligent || Il est intelligent. || He's intelligent. |- | intéressant{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-intéressant.ogg|/ɛ̃.te.ʁɛ.sɑ̃/}} || interesting || C'est un ouvrage intéressant. || It's an interesting work. |- | patient{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-patient.ogg|/pa.sjɑ̃/}} || patient || Soit plus patient. || Be more patient. |- | sociable{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-patient.ogg|/sɔ.sjabl/}} || sociable || L’homme est un animal sociable. || Man is a social animal. |- | timide{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-timide.ogg|/ti.mid/}} || timid, shy || Il est timide avec les femmes. || He is shy with women. |- | dynamique{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{fr/IPA|/di.na.mik/}} || energetic || C’est un homme très dynamique. || It's a very energetic man. |- | gentil{{French/Section|(le)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-gentil.ogg|/ʒɑ̃ti/}} || kind, gentle, cute, charming || C’est une gentille petite ville. || It's a charming little town. |- | strict{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-strict.ogg|/stʁikt/}} || strict || Cet enseignant est strict. || This teacher is strict. |- | fort{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-fort.ogg|/fɔʁ/}} || strong, skilled || Léon est vraiment grand et fort. || Léon is truly big and strong. |- ! colspan=6 | Size and weight |- | gros{{French/Section|(se)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-gros.ogg|/ɡʁɔ/}} || fat || Cet animal est gros. || This animal is fat. |- | petit{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-petit.ogg|/pǝ.ti/}} || small, little || un petit verre de vin<br />un petit garçon || a small glass of wine<br />a little boy |- | moyenne || {{audio|Fr-moyen.ogg|/mwa.jɛ̃/}} || average || Alice est de taille moyenne. || Alice is of average height. |- | grand{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-grand.ogg|/ɡʁɑ̃/}} || tall || Il est grand. || He is tall. |- ! colspan=6 | Actions |- | bon{{French/Section|(ne)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-bon.ogg|/bɔ̃/}} || good, right || C'est un bon livre. || It's a good book. |- | mauvais{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-mauvais.ogg|/mo.vɛ/|[mo'vɛ]}} || bad, wrong || Karl est mauvais orateur. || Karl is a bad orator. |- ! colspan=6 | Difficulty |- | facile{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-facile.ogg|/fa.sil/}} || easy || C’est une chose facile. || It's easy. (It's an easy thing.) |- | difficile{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-difficile.ogg|/difisil/}} || difficult || C'est un travail difficile. || It's hard work. |} === {{French/Section|Examples|supplementary-id=french-common-adjectives-examples}} === <div id='french-common-adjectives-examples'> {| {{French/Translations table|audio=French/Vocabulary/Examples with common adjectives.ogg}} | Une physionomie sympathique.<br />Une physionomie intéressante. || A friendly face.<br />An interesting face. || |- | C’est un homme d’une conversation amusante. || This is a man of amusing conversation. || |- | Cette jeune personne est fort intéressante. || This young person is very interesting. || |- | L’homme est un être intelligent. || Man is an intelligent being. || |- | C'est une pièce intéressante, sur un sujet intéressant. || It's an interesting play, on an interesting topic. || |- | Je suis fort en anglais. || I am good at English. || lit: I am strong in English. |- | Le gros bout et le petit bout. || The big end and the little end. || |- | C’est un homme de petite taille.<br />Yves est de taille moyenne. || This is a man of small size.<br />Yves is of average size. || |- | L'âge moyen de la population française. || The average age of the French population. || |- | Ce meuble est de bon goût. || This item of furniture is tasteful. || lit: This item of furniture is of good taste. |- | Elle est de bonne humeur.<br />Elle est de mauvaise humeur. || She's in a good mood.<br />She's in a bad mood. || lit: She is of good mental state. |- | Cet air est mauvais pour vous. || This air is bad for you. || |- | L’exécution en est facile. || The execution {{French/Section|(of it)}} is easy. || |- | C'est un cheval difficile. || It's a difficult horse. || |- | Quelle bonne idée ! || What a good idea! || |- | Vous êtes trop bon(s). || You're too good. || |- | Cette phrase est facile à traduire. || This sentence is easy to translate. || |- | C'est un problème difficile à résoudre. || It is a difficult problem to solve. || |- | C'est une entreprise difficile à exécuter. || It is a difficult task to perform. || |- | Amélie est la personne la plus amusante au monde.<br />Hector est l’homme le plus patient au monde. || Amelie is the funniest person in the world.<br />Hector is the most patient man in the world. || |- | Les souris sont moins grosses que les rats. || Mice are leaner than rats. || lit: Mice are less fat than rats. |}</div> <!-- /french-common-adjectives-examples --> == {{French/Section|Grammar|Demonstrative adjectives}} == The adjectives ''ce'', ''cet'', and ''cette'' mean ''this'' or ''that'', and the adjective ''ces'' means ''these'' or ''those''. The adjective used must agree in gender and number with the noun it modifies: {| {{French/Table|columns=3}} | || Singular || Plural |- | Masculine ! Ce ! rowspan=3 | Ces |- | Masculine, beginning with a vowel or silent ''h'' ! Cet |- | Feminine ! Cette |} To be more precise or to avoid ambiguity, {{French/Word|-ci|en=here}} or {{French/Word|-là|en=there}} can be inserted after the noun: : {{French/Word|cet homme-ci|en=this man}} : {{French/Word|cet homme-là|en=that man}} === Examples === {| {{French/Translations table|audio=French/Grammar/Examples with demonstrative adjectives.ogg}} | Ce vin est mauvais. || || This wine is bad. || ''le vin'' is maculine |- | Ce garçon est patient. || || This boy is patient. || ''le garçon'' is masculine |- | Cet enfant est fort intelligent. || || This child is very intelligent. || ''l'enfant'' is masculine, but begins with a vowel |- | Cet homme est poli. || || This man is polite. || ''l'homme'' is masculine, but begins with a silent ''h'' |- | Cette personne est très sympathique. || || This person is very nice. || ''la personne'' is feminine |- | Ces femmes sont amusantes. || || These women are funny. || ''les femmes'' is plural |} == {{French/Section|Vocabulary|More descriptions of people|supplementary-id=french-more-descriptions-of-people}} == <div id='french-more-descriptions-of-people'> {| {{French/Translations table|audio=French/Vocabulary/More descriptions of people.ogg}} | calme{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-calme.ogg|kalm/}} || calm || Il est calme. || He is calm. |- | curieux {{French/Section|(curieuse(s))}} || {{audio|Fr-curieux.ogg|/ky.ʁjø/|[kyʁjø]}} || curious || Un esprit curieux. || An inquiring mind. |- | différent{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-différent.ogg|/difeʁɑ̃/}} || different || Ces deux couleurs sont diffèrentes. || These two colors are different. |- | doux {{French/Section|(douce(s))}} || {{audio|Fr-doux.ogg|/du/}} || mild, soft, gentle || Cet oreiller est doux. || This pillow is mild. |- | énervé{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|/e.nɛʁ.ve/}} || irritated || Alfred est énervé. || Alfred is irritated. |- | handicapé{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|/ɑ̃.di.ka.pe/}} || handicapped || Il est handicapé. || He is handicapped. |- | inséparable{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|/ɛ̃.se.pa.ʁabl/}} || inseparable || Les deux amis sont inséparables. || The two friends are inseparable. |- | jaloux {{French/Section|(jalouse(s))}} || {{audio|Fr-jaloux.ogg|/ʒa.lu/}} || jealous || Je ne suis pas quelqu'un de jaloux. || I am not someone that is jealous. |- | muet{{French/Section|(s)}} {{French/Section|(muette(s))}} || {{audio|r-muet.ogg|/mɥɛ/}} || mute || Tu n'es pas muet. || You're not mute. |- | poli{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-poli.ogg|/pɔ.li/}} || polite || C’est un homme extrêmement poli. || This is an extremely polite man. |- | propre{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|/pʁɔpʁ/}} || proper, suitable || La signification propre d’un mot. || The proper meaning of a word. |- | roux {{French/Section|(rousse(s))}} || {{audio|Fr-roux.ogg|/ʁu/}} || ginger, red {{French/Section|(hair)}} || Une femme aux cheveux roux. || A woman with red hair. |- | sage{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-sage.ogg|/saʒ/}} || prudent, cautious, judicious || Un sage homme, une sage politique. || A wise man, a wise policy. |- | sérieux {{French/Section|(sérieuse(s))}} || {{audio|Fr-sérieux.ogg|/se.ʁjø/}} || serious || Un homme sérieux, une conversation sérieuse. || A serious man, a serious conversation. |- | sourd{{French/Section|(e)(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-sourd.ogg|/suʁ/}} || deaf || Il est sourd et muet. || He is deaf and mute. |- | tranquille{{French/Section|(s)}} || {{audio|Fr-tranquille.ogg|/tʁɑ̃.kil/}} || calm, quiet || Cet enfant est très tranquille.<br />La mer est tranquille. || This child is very quiet.<br />The sea is calm. |} === Examples === {| {{French/Translations table|audio=French/Vocabulary/Examples with more descriptions of people.ogg}} | Ce sont deux hommes bien différents. || These are two very different men. |- | Cette laine est vraiment très douce. || This wool is very soft. |- | Les noms sont inséparables des choses. || Names are inseparable from things. |- | Certains devoirs sont inséparables de certaines fonctions. || Some duties are inseparable from certain functions. |- | Ce bois est propre à la construction. || This wood is suitable for construction. |- | Les voisins sont fort tranquilles. || The neighbors are very quiet. |}</div> <!-- /french-more-descriptions-of-people --> == {{French/Section|Dialogue|<!-- title here -->}} == Natasha is describing a friend: 'Elle est très forte, elle est grande, et elle est intelligente.' Marc is describing someone: 'Il est handicapé; il est sourd et muet.' Jules is describing a group of his friends: 'Ils sont très polis, attachants et sincères.' == {{French/Section|Exercises}} == {{French/Exercise list | title = Regular gender and plurality | ''un homme petit'' → ''une femme _______'' | ''un homme petit'' → ''une femme '''petite''''' | ''un ami blond'' → ''des amis _______'' | ''un ami blond'' → ''des amis '''blonds''''' | ''un garçon amusant'' → ''une fille _______'' | ''un garçon amusant'' → ''une fille '''amusante''''' | ''des hommes patients'' → ''des personnes _______'' | ''des hommes patients'' → ''des personnes '''patientes''''' }} {{French/Exercise list | title = Irregular gender and plurality | ''un homme sympa'' → ''une femme _______'' | ''un homme sympa'' → ''une femme '''sympa''''' | ''un ami sympathique'' → ''des amis _______'' | ''un ami sympathique'' → ''des amis '''sympathiques''''' | ''un garçon gentil'' → ''une fille _______'' | ''un garçon gentil'' → ''une fille '''gentille''''' | ''des hommes gros'' → ''des personnes _______'' | ''des hommes gros'' → ''des personnes '''grosses''''' }} {{sectstub}} <noinclude>{{French/Lessons/Level one|To be|Family}}</noinclude> atemp4bxsa182ov7mvxm2lbrl7lyx58 0 74140 4632208 4629748 2026-04-25T10:07:54Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632208 wikitext text/x-wiki {{center|<big><big><big><big>'''Algebraic Geometry : Introduction'''</big></big></big></big>}} ==What is Algebraic Geometry?== '''Algebraic Geometry''' is a branch of [[w:Mathematics|mathematics]] that combines [[abstract algebra]] with [[geometry]] - more precisely; it is the study of algebraic objects using geometrical tools. It can be seen as a combination of [[w:linear algebra|linear algebra]] ("''systems of linear equations in several variables''"), and [[w:algebra|algebra]] ("''study of polynomial equations in one variable''" (though not exclusively)). Perhaps another description is that algebraic geometry is the study of polynomial functions and the spaces on which those polynomial functions are defined (known as algebraic varieties). Therefore, the starting point for algebraic geometry is the study of the solutions of systems of polynomial equations: {{center|<math>f_i(X_1,X_2,...,X_n) = 0, i = 1,2,...,m, f_i \in k[X_1,X_2,...,X_n]</math>}} The theorems for polynomial equations depend on whether or not the field <math>k</math> is [[w:Algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]] and whether <math>k</math> has [[w:Characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] 0. For example, let <math>k = \mathbb{Q}</math> and <math>f (X_1,X_2,X_3) = X_1^n+X_2^n-X_3^n </math>. This is [[w:Fermat's Last Theorem|Fermat's Last Theorem]] - and if <math>n \ge 3</math> then only trivial solutions to the problem exist. What questions can be asked of this system of polynomial equations? It is not possible in many circumstances to note all the solutions explicitly (remember that a single polynomial equation cannot be solved in general exactly if it's degree is greater than 4 - see [[w:Abel–Ruffini theorem|Abel–Ruffini theorem]]) - so most study is dedicated towards the geometrical structure of the set of solutions to these equations. ===Notation=== Throughout the book, a ring will generally be taken as a [[w:commutative ring|commutative ring]] with identity, and <math>k</math> will represent an algebraically closed field. ==Preliminaries== In order to progress in the subject, we must review some results from [[w:commutative algebra|commutative algebra]] (i.e. the study of commutative rings). ==History== The field of algebraic geometry was first developed by Islamic mathematicians, such as the Persian mathematician [[w:Omar Khayyám|Omar Khayyám]]. {{BookCat}} 5z8q76esp457faxc9ywuvwq92nssfrr 0 77340 4632093 4627294 2026-04-24T16:40:52Z WeelkyWikiReader 3474871 4632093 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Byzantine Musical Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !width="4%"|U+!!width="6%"|0!!width="6%"|1!!width="6%"|2!!width="6%"|3!!width="6%"|4!!width="6%"|5!!width="6%"|6!!width="6%"|7!!width="6%"|8!!width="6%"|9!!width="6%"|A!!width="6%"|B!!width="6%"|C!!width="6%"|D!!width="6%"|E!!width="6%"|F |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D00x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSILI|&#x1d000;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DASEIA|&#x1d001;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PERISPOMENI|&#x1d002;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OXEIA EKFONITIKON|&#x1d003;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OXEIA DIPLI|&#x1d004;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL VAREIA EKFONITIKON|&#x1d005;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL VAREIA DIPLI|&#x1d006;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KATHISTI|&#x1d007;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SYRMATIKI|&#x1d008;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PARAKLITIKI|&#x1d009;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YPOKRISIS|&#x1d00a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YPOKRISIS DIPLI|&#x1d00b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KREMASTI|&#x1d00c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APESO EKFONITIKON|&#x1d00d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL EXO EKFONITIKON|&#x1d00e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TELEIA|&#x1d00f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D01x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA|&#x1d010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOSTROFOS|&#x1d011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOSTROFOS DIPLI|&#x1d012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SYNEVMA|&#x1d013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THITA|&#x1d014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OLIGON ARCHAION|&#x1d015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON ARCHAION|&#x1d016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSILON|&#x1d017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHAMILON|&#x1d018;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL VATHY|&#x1d019;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ISON ARCHAION|&#x1d01a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMA ARCHAION|&#x1d01b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA ARCHAION|&#x1d01c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SAXIMATA|&#x1d01d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PARICHON|&#x1d01e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL STAVROS APODEXIA|&#x1d01f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D02x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OXEIAI ARCHAION|&#x1d020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL VAREIAI ARCHAION|&#x1d021;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APODERMA ARCHAION|&#x1d022;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOTHEMA|&#x1d023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KLASMA|&#x1d024;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL REVMA|&#x1d025;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PIASMA ARCHAION|&#x1d026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TINAGMA|&#x1d027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ANATRICHISMA|&#x1d028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SEISMA|&#x1d029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SYNAGMA ARCHAION|&#x1d02a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SYNAGMA META STAVROU|&#x1d02b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OYRANISMA ARCHAION|&#x1d02c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMA|&#x1d02d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEMOI|&#x1d02e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DYO|&#x1d02f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D03x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIA|&#x1d030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TESSERA|&#x1d031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMATA|&#x1d032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APESO EXO NEO|&#x1d033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA ARCHAION|&#x1d034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIFTHORA|&#x1d035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKON ARCHAION|&#x1d036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KATAVA TROMIKON|&#x1d037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PELASTON|&#x1d038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSIFISTON|&#x1d039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KONTEVMA|&#x1d03a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHOREVMA ARCHAION|&#x1d03b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL RAPISMA|&#x1d03c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PARAKALESMA ARCHAION|&#x1d03d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PARAKLITIKI ARCHAION|&#x1d03e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ICHADIN|&#x1d03f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D04x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL NANA|&#x1d040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PETASMA|&#x1d041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KONTEVMA ALLO|&#x1d042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKON ALLO|&#x1d043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL STRAGGISMATA|&#x1d044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GRONTHISMATA|&#x1d045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ISON NEO|&#x1d046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OLIGON NEO|&#x1d047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OXEIA NEO|&#x1d048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PETASTI|&#x1d049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KOUFISMA|&#x1d04a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PETASTOKOUFISMA|&#x1d04b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMOKOUFISMA|&#x1d04c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PELASTON NEO|&#x1d04d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA NEO ANO|&#x1d04e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMA NEO ANO|&#x1d04f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D05x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YPSILI|&#x1d050;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOSTROFOS NEO|&#x1d051;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOSTROFOI SYNDESMOS NEO|&#x1d052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YPORROI|&#x1d053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMOYPORROON|&#x1d054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ELAFRON|&#x1d055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHAMILI|&#x1d056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MIKRON ISON|&#x1d057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL VAREIA NEO|&#x1d058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PIASMA NEO|&#x1d059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSIFISTON NEO|&#x1d05a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OMALON|&#x1d05b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ANTIKENOMA|&#x1d05c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LYGISMA|&#x1d05d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PARAKLITIKI NEO|&#x1d05e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PARAKALESMA NEO|&#x1d05f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D06x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ETERON PARAKALESMA|&#x1d060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KYLISMA|&#x1d061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ANTIKENOKYLISMA|&#x1d062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKON NEO|&#x1d063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL EKSTREPTON|&#x1d064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SYNAGMA NEO|&#x1d065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SYRMA|&#x1d066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHOREVMA NEO|&#x1d067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL EPEGERMA|&#x1d068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SEISMA NEO|&#x1d069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL XIRON KLASMA|&#x1d06a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKOPSIFISTON|&#x1d06b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSIFISTOLYGISMA|&#x1d06c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKOLYGISMA|&#x1d06d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKOPARAKALESMA|&#x1d06e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSIFISTOPARAKALESMA|&#x1d06f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D07x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKOSYNAGMA|&#x1d070;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSIFISTOSYNAGMA|&#x1d071;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGOSYNTHETON|&#x1d072;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARGOSYNTHETON|&#x1d073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ETERON ARGOSYNTHETON|&#x1d074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OYRANISMA NEO|&#x1d075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMATISMOS ESO|&#x1d076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMATISMOS EXO|&#x1d077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMA APLOUN|&#x1d078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THES KAI APOTHES|&#x1d079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KATAVASMA|&#x1d07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ENDOFONON|&#x1d07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFEN KATO|&#x1d07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFEN ANO|&#x1d07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL STAVROS|&#x1d07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KLASMA ANO|&#x1d07f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D08x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIPLI ARCHAION|&#x1d080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMA ARCHAION|&#x1d081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMA ALLO|&#x1d082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMA NEO|&#x1d083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APODERMA NEO|&#x1d084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APLI|&#x1d085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIPLI|&#x1d086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIPLI|&#x1d087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TETRAPLI|&#x1d088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KORONIS|&#x1d089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA ENOS CHRONOU|&#x1d08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA DYO CHRONON|&#x1d08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA TRION CHRONON|&#x1d08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA TESSARON CHRONON|&#x1d08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA IMISEOS CHRONOU|&#x1d08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON NEO ANO|&#x1d08f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D09x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON PARESTIGMENON ARISTERA|&#x1d090;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON PARESTIGMENON DEXIA|&#x1d091;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON|&#x1d092;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON PARESTIGMENON ARISTERA KATO|&#x1d093;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON PARESTIGMENON ARISTERA ANO|&#x1d094;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON PARESTIGMENON DEXIA|&#x1d095;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIGORGON|&#x1d096;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARGON|&#x1d097;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIDIARGON|&#x1d098;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIARGON|&#x1d099;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI POLI ARGI|&#x1d09a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI ARGOTERI|&#x1d09b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI ARGI|&#x1d09c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI METRIA|&#x1d09d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI MESI|&#x1d09e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI GORGI|&#x1d09f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D0Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI GORGOTERI|&#x1d0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI POLI GORGI|&#x1d0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PROTOS ICHOS|&#x1d0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA ALLI PROTOS ICHOS|&#x1d0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA DEYTEROS ICHOS|&#x1d0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA ALLI DEYTEROS ICHOS|&#x1d0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TRITOS ICHOS|&#x1d0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TRIFONIAS|&#x1d0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TETARTOS ICHOS|&#x1d0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TETARTOS LEGETOS ICHOS|&#x1d0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA LEGETOS ICHOS|&#x1d0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PLAGIOS ICHOS|&#x1d0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ISAKIA TELOUS ICHIMATOS|&#x1d0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOSTROFOI TELOUS ICHIMATOS|&#x1d0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FANEROSIS TETRAFONIAS|&#x1d0ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FANEROSIS MONOFONIAS|&#x1d0af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D0Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FANEROSIS DIFONIAS|&#x1d0b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA VARYS ICHOS|&#x1d0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PROTOVARYS ICHOS|&#x1d0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PLAGIOS TETARTOS ICHOS|&#x1d0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORTHMIKON N APLOUN|&#x1d0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORTHMIKON N DIPLOUN|&#x1d0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ENARXIS KAI FTHORA VOU|&#x1d0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIFONON|&#x1d0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIFTHORON|&#x1d0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA ARCHAION DEYTEROU ICHOU|&#x1d0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI PA|&#x1d0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI NANA|&#x1d0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA NAOS ICHOS|&#x1d0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI DI|&#x1d0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA SKLIRON DIATONON DI|&#x1d0be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI KE|&#x1d0bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D0Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI ZO|&#x1d0c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI NI KATO|&#x1d0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI NI ANO|&#x1d0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA MALAKON CHROMA DIFONIAS|&#x1d0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA MALAKON CHROMA MONOFONIAS|&#x1d0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FHTORA SKLIRON CHROMA VASIS|&#x1d0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA SKLIRON CHROMA SYNAFI|&#x1d0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA NENANO|&#x1d0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHROA ZYGOS|&#x1d0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHROA KLITON|&#x1d0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHROA SPATHI|&#x1d0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA I YFESIS TETARTIMORION|&#x1d0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA ENARMONIOS ANTIFONIA|&#x1d0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS TRITIMORION|&#x1d0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS TRITIMORION|&#x1d0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS TETARTIMORION|&#x1d0cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D0Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS APLI DYO DODEKATA|&#x1d0d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS MONOGRAMMOS TESSERA DODEKATA|&#x1d0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS DIGRAMMOS EX DODEKATA|&#x1d0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS TRIGRAMMOS OKTO DODEKATA|&#x1d0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS APLI DYO DODEKATA|&#x1d0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS MONOGRAMMOS TESSERA DODEKATA|&#x1d0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS DIGRAMMOS EX DODEKATA|&#x1d0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS TRIGRAMMOS OKTO DODEKATA|&#x1d0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GENIKI DIESIS|&#x1d0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GENIKI YFESIS|&#x1d0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI APLI MIKRI|&#x1d0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI APLI MEGALI|&#x1d0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI DIPLI|&#x1d0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI THESEOS|&#x1d0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS|&#x1d0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS DISIMOU|&#x1d0df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D0Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS TRISIMOU|&#x1d0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS TETRASIMOU|&#x1d0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS|&#x1d0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS DISIMOU|&#x1d0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS TRISIMOU|&#x1d0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS TETRASIMOU|&#x1d0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGRAMMA GG|&#x1d0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIFTOGGOS OU|&#x1d0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL STIGMA|&#x1d0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO PA|&#x1d0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO VOU|&#x1d0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO GA|&#x1d0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO DI|&#x1d0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO KE|&#x1d0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO ZO|&#x1d0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO NI|&#x1d0ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D0Fx |style="background:#d0ff66"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA NEO MESO|&#x1d0f0;}}||style="background:#d0ff66"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMA NEO MESO|&#x1d0f1;}}||style="background:#d0ff66"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA NEO KATO|&#x1d0f2;}}||style="background:#d0ff66"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMA NEO KATO|&#x1d0f3;}}||style="background:#d0ff66"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KLASMA KATO|&#x1d0f4;}}||style="background:#d0ff66"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON NEO KATO|&#x1d0f5;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Musical Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D10x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SINGLE BARLINE|&#x1d100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE BARLINE|&#x1d101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINAL BARLINE|&#x1d102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSE FINAL BARLINE|&#x1d103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DASHED BARLINE|&#x1d104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHORT BARLINE|&#x1d105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LEFT REPEAT SIGN|&#x1d106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL RIGHT REPEAT SIGN|&#x1d107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEAT DOTS|&#x1d108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DAL SEGNO|&#x1d109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DA CAPO|&#x1d10a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEGNO|&#x1d10b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CODA|&#x1d10c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEATED FIGURE-1|&#x1d10d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEATED FIGURE-2|&#x1d10e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEATED FIGURE-3|&#x1d10f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D11x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FERMATA|&#x1d110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FERMATA BELOW|&#x1d111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREATH MARK|&#x1d112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CAESURA|&#x1d113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BRACE|&#x1d114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BRACKET|&#x1d115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE-LINE STAFF|&#x1d116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TWO-LINE STAFF|&#x1d117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL THREE-LINE STAFF|&#x1d118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FOUR-LINE STAFF|&#x1d119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FIVE-LINE STAFF|&#x1d11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIX-LINE STAFF|&#x1d11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIX-STRING FRETBOARD|&#x1d11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FOUR-STRING FRETBOARD|&#x1d11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF|&#x1d11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OTTAVA ALTA|&#x1d11f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D12x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OTTAVA BASSA|&#x1d120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL C CLEF|&#x1d121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF|&#x1d122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF OTTAVA ALTA|&#x1d123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF OTTAVA BASSA|&#x1d124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DRUM CLEF-1|&#x1d125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DRUM CLEF-2|&#x1d126;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STRESS|&nbsp;&#x1d127;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING UNSTRESS|&nbsp;&#x1d128;}}||style="background:#75ffab"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MULTIPLE MEASURE REST|&#x1d129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE SHARP|&#x1d12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE FLAT|&#x1d12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT UP|&#x1d12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT DOWN|&#x1d12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NATURAL UP|&#x1d12e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NATURAL DOWN|&#x1d12f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D13x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHARP UP|&#x1d130;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHARP DOWN|&#x1d131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER TONE SHARP|&#x1d132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER TONE FLAT|&#x1d133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMMON TIME|&#x1d134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CUT TIME|&#x1d135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL OTTAVA ALTA|&#x1d136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL OTTAVA BASSA|&#x1d137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUINDICESIMA ALTA|&#x1d138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUINDICESIMA BASSA|&#x1d139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MULTI REST|&#x1d13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL WHOLE REST|&#x1d13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF REST|&#x1d13c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER REST|&#x1d13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL EIGHTH REST|&#x1d13e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTEENTH REST|&#x1d13f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D14x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL THIRTY-SECOND REST|&#x1d140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTY-FOURTH REST|&#x1d141;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE HUNDRED TWENTY-EIGHTH REST|&#x1d142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL X NOTEHEAD|&#x1d143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PLUS NOTEHEAD|&#x1d144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CIRCLE X NOTEHEAD|&#x1d145;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE NOTEHEAD WHITE|&#x1d146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE NOTEHEAD BLACK|&#x1d147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP WHITE|&#x1d148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP BLACK|&#x1d149;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD LEFT WHITE|&#x1d14a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD LEFT BLACK|&#x1d14b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD RIGHT WHITE|&#x1d14c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD RIGHT BLACK|&#x1d14d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD DOWN WHITE|&#x1d14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD DOWN BLACK|&#x1d14f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D15x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP RIGHT WHITE|&#x1d150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP RIGHT BLACK|&#x1d151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MOON NOTEHEAD WHITE|&#x1d152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MOON NOTEHEAD BLACK|&#x1d153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE-ROUND NOTEHEAD DOWN WHITE|&#x1d154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE-ROUND NOTEHEAD DOWN BLACK|&#x1d155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PARENTHESIS NOTEHEAD|&#x1d156;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL VOID NOTEHEAD|&#x1d157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NOTEHEAD BLACK|&#x1d158;}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NULL NOTEHEAD|&#x1d159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLUSTER NOTEHEAD WHITE|&#x1d15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLUSTER NOTEHEAD BLACK|&#x1d15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREVE|&#x1d15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL WHOLE NOTE|&#x1d15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF NOTE|&#x1d15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER NOTE|&#x1d15f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D16x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL EIGHTH NOTE|&#x1d160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTEENTH NOTE|&#x1d161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL THIRTY-SECOND NOTE|&#x1d162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTY-FOURTH NOTE|&#x1d163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE HUNDRED TWENTY-EIGHTH NOTE|&#x1d164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STEM|&nbsp;&#x1d165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING SPRECHGESANG STEM|&nbsp;&#x1d166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-1|&nbsp;&#x1d167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-2|&nbsp;&#x1d168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-3|&nbsp;&#x1d169;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-1|&#x1d16a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-2|&#x1d16b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-3|&#x1d16c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING AUGMENTATION DOT|&nbsp;&#x1d16d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-1|&nbsp;&#x1d16e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-2|&nbsp;&#x1d16f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D17x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-3|&nbsp;&#x1d170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-4|&nbsp;&#x1d171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-5|&nbsp;&#x1d172;}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN BEAM|[BEGIN<br />BEAM]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END BEAM|[END<br />BEAM]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN TIE|[BEGIN<br />TIE]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END TIE|[END<br />TIE]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN SLUR|[BEGIN<br />SLUR]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END SLUR|[END<br />SLUR]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN PHRASE|[BEGIN<br />PHR.]}}||style="font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END PHRASE|[END<br />PHR.]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING ACCENT|&nbsp;&#x1d17b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STACCATO|&nbsp;&#x1d17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TENUTO|&nbsp;&#x1d17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STACCATISSIMO|&nbsp;&#x1d17e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING MARCATO|&nbsp;&#x1d17f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D18x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING MARCATO-STACCATO|&nbsp;&#x1d180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING ACCENT-STACCATO|&nbsp;&#x1d181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING LOURE|&nbsp;&#x1d182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ARPEGGIATO UP|&#x1d183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ARPEGGIATO DOWN|&#x1d184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING DOIT|&nbsp;&#x1d185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING RIP|&nbsp;&#x1d186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLIP|&nbsp;&#x1d187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING SMEAR|&nbsp;&#x1d188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING BEND|&nbsp;&#x1d189;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING DOUBLE TONGUE|&nbsp;&#x1d18a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TRIPLE TONGUE|&nbsp;&#x1d18b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL RINFORZANDO|&#x1d18c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SUBITO|&#x1d18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL Z|&#x1d18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PIANO|&#x1d18f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D19x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MEZZO|&#x1d190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FORTE|&#x1d191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CRESCENDO|&#x1d192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DECRESCENDO|&#x1d193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GRACE NOTE SLASH|&#x1d194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GRACE NOTE NO SLASH|&#x1d195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TR|&#x1d196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TURN|&#x1d197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL INVERTED TURN|&#x1d198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TURN SLASH|&#x1d199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TURN UP|&#x1d19a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-1|&#x1d19b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-2|&#x1d19c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-3|&#x1d19d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-4|&#x1d19e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-5|&#x1d19f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D1Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-6|&#x1d1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-7|&#x1d1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-8|&#x1d1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-9|&#x1d1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-10|&#x1d1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-11|&#x1d1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HAUPTSTIMME|&#x1d1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NEBENSTIMME|&#x1d1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END OF STIMME|&#x1d1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DEGREE SLASH|&#x1d1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING DOWN BOW|&#x1d1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING UP BOW|&#x1d1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING HARMONIC|&#x1d1ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING SNAP PIZZICATO|&#x1d1ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PEDAL MARK|&#x1d1ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PEDAL UP MARK|&#x1d1af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D1Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF PEDAL MARK|&#x1d1b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GLISSANDO UP|&#x1d1b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GLISSANDO DOWN|&#x1d1b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL WITH FINGERNAILS|&#x1d1b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DAMP|&#x1d1b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DAMP ALL|&#x1d1b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MAXIMA|&#x1d1b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA|&#x1d1b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREVIS|&#x1d1b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIBREVIS WHITE|&#x1d1b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIBREVIS BLACK|&#x1d1ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MINIMA|&#x1d1bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MINIMA BLACK|&#x1d1bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIMINIMA WHITE|&#x1d1bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIMINIMA BLACK|&#x1d1be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FUSA WHITE|&#x1d1bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D1Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FUSA BLACK|&#x1d1c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA PERFECTA REST|&#x1d1c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA IMPERFECTA REST|&#x1d1c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREVIS REST|&#x1d1c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIBREVIS REST|&#x1d1c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MINIMA REST|&#x1d1c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIMINIMA REST|&#x1d1c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS PERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE PERFECTA|&#x1d1c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS PERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA|&#x1d1c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS PERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE PERFECTA DIMINUTION-1|&#x1d1c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE PERFECTA|&#x1d1ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA|&#x1d1cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA DIMINUTION-1|&#x1d1cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA DIMINUTION-2|&#x1d1cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA DIMINUTION-3|&#x1d1ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CROIX|&#x1d1cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D1Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GREGORIAN C CLEF|&#x1d1d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GREGORIAN F CLEF|&#x1d1d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE B|&#x1d1d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL VIRGA|&#x1d1d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PODATUS|&#x1d1d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLIVIS|&#x1d1d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SCANDICUS|&#x1d1d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLIMACUS|&#x1d1d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TORCULUS|&#x1d1d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PORRECTUS|&#x1d1d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PORRECTUS FLEXUS|&#x1d1da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SCANDICUS FLEXUS|&#x1d1db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TORCULUS RESUPINUS|&#x1d1dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PES SUBPUNCTIS|&#x1d1dd;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN C CLEF|&#x1d1de;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN END OF PIECE|&#x1d1df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D1Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN FINAL NOTE|&#x1d1e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN RECITATIVE MARK|&#x1d1e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN WHOLE NOTE|&#x1d1e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN HALF NOTE|&#x1d1e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN QUARTER NOTE STEM DOWN|&#x1d1e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN QUARTER NOTE STEM UP|&#x1d1e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN EIGHTH NOTE STEM DOWN|&#x1d1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN EIGHTH NOTE STEM UP|&#x1d1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN FLAT SIGN|&#x1d1e8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SORI|&#x1d1e9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KORON|&#x1d1ea;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP|&#x1d1eb;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE AND A HALF SHARP|&#x1d1ec;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT|&#x1d1ed;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT AND FLAT|&#x1d1ee;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP UP|&#x1d1ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D1Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP DOWN|&#x1d1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE AND A HALF SHARP UP|&#x1d1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE AND A HALF SHARP DOWN|&#x1d1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT UP|&#x1d1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT DOWN|&#x1d1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT AND FLAT UP|&#x1d1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT AND FLAT DOWN|&#x1d1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT TWO WITH STROKE|&#x1d1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT FOUR WITH STROKE|&#x1d1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT FIVE WITH STROKE|&#x1d1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT SIX WITH STROKE|&#x1d1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT SEVEN WITH STROKE|&#x1d1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT NINE WITH STROKE|&#x1d1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT FIVE WITH LOW STROKE|&#x1d1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT SEVEN WITH LOW STROKE|&#x1d1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA REST|&#x1d1ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Ancient Greek Musical Notation''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#75ff6f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D20x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-1|&#x1d200;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-2|&#x1d201;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-3|&#x1d202;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-4|&#x1d203;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-5|&#x1d204;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-6|&#x1d205;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-7|&#x1d206;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-8|&#x1d207;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-9|&#x1d208;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-10|&#x1d209;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-11|&#x1d20a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-12|&#x1d20b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-13|&#x1d20c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-14|&#x1d20d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-15|&#x1d20e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-16|&#x1d20f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#75ff6f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D21x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-17|&#x1d210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-18|&#x1d211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-19|&#x1d212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-20|&#x1d213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-21|&#x1d214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-22|&#x1d215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-23|&#x1d216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-24|&#x1d217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-50|&#x1d218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-51|&#x1d219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-52|&#x1d21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-53|&#x1d21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-54|&#x1d21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-1|&#x1d21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-2|&#x1d21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-4|&#x1d21f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#75ff6f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D22x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-5|&#x1d220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-7|&#x1d221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-8|&#x1d222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-11|&#x1d223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-12|&#x1d224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-13|&#x1d225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-14|&#x1d226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-17|&#x1d227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-18|&#x1d228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-19|&#x1d229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-23|&#x1d22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-24|&#x1d22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-25|&#x1d22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-26|&#x1d22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-27|&#x1d22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-29|&#x1d22f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#75ff6f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D23x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-30|&#x1d230;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-32|&#x1d231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-36|&#x1d232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-37|&#x1d233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-38|&#x1d234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-39|&#x1d235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-40|&#x1d236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-42|&#x1d237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-43|&#x1d238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-45|&#x1d239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-47|&#x1d23a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-48|&#x1d23b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-49|&#x1d23c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-50|&#x1d23d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-51|&#x1d23e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-52|&#x1d23f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D24x |style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-53|&#x1d240;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-54|&#x1d241;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GREEK MUSICAL TRISEME|&#x1d242;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GREEK MUSICAL TETRASEME|&#x1d243;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GREEK MUSICAL PENTASEME|&#x1d244;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK MUSICAL LEIMMA|&#x1d245;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Musical Symbols Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D25x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-6|&nbsp;&#x1d250;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-7|&nbsp;&#x1d251;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-8|&nbsp;&#x1d252;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TWO HUNDRED FIFTY-SIXTH REST|&#x1d253;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FIVE HUNDRED TWELFTH REST|&#x1d254;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE THOUSAND TWENTY- FOURTH REST|&#x1d255;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT WITH STROKE|&#x1d256;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT WITH DOUBLE STROKE|&#x1d257;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT WITH DOUBLE STEM|&#x1d258;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP WITH STROKE|&#x1d259;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHARP WITH STROKE|&#x1d25a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-4|&nbsp;&#x1d25b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-5|&nbsp;&#x1d25c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-4|&#x1d25d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-5|&#x1d25e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING BUZZ ROLL STEM|&nbsp;&#x1d25f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D26x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIPLE FLAT|&#x1d260;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SUSPENSION|&#x1d261;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HEAVY DOUBLE BARLINE|&#x1d262;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SYSTEM DIVIDER|&#x1d263;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NIENTE|&#x1d264;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CRESCENDO WITH RING|&#x1d265;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DECRESCENDO WITH RING|&#x1d266;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD WHOLE|&#x1d267;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD WHITE|&#x1d268;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD BLACK|&#x1d269;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD HALF-FILLED|&#x1d26a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGULAR FERMATA|&#x1d26b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE TRIANGULAR FERMATA|&#x1d26c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE FERMATA|&#x1d26d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE SQUARE FERMATA|&#x1d26e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HENZE LONG FERMATA|&#x1d26f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D27x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HENZE SHORT FERMATA|&#x1d270;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CURLEW|&#x1d271;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SALZEDO BREATH MARK|&#x1d272;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORGAN PEDAL HEEL|&#x1d273;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORGAN PEDAL TOE|&#x1d274;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OPTIONALLY OTTAVA BASSA|&#x1d275;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE G CLEF|&#x1d276;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OTTAVA BASSA WITH C CLEF|&#x1d277;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL C CLEF OTTAVA BASSA|&#x1d278;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF QUINDICESIMA ALTA|&#x1d279;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF QUINDICESIMA BASSA|&#x1d27a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF QUINDICESIMA ALTA|&#x1d279;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF QUINDICESIMA BASSA|&#x1d27a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL C CLEF QUINDICESIMA BASSA|&#x1d27d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TABLATURE CLEF|&#x1d27e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ARPEGGIATO UP WITH ARROW|&#x1d27f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D28x |style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STEM BOW BEHIND BRIDGE|&nbsp;&#x1d280;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STEM BOW ON TOP OF BRIDGE|&nbsp;&#x1d281;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D29x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D2Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D2Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kaktovik Numerals''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D2Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL ZERO|&#x1d2c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL ONE|&#x1d2c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL TWO|&#x1d2c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL THREE|&#x1d2c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FOUR|&#x1d2c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FIVE|&#x1d2c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SIX|&#x1d2c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SEVEN|&#x1d2c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL EIGHT|&#x1d2c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL NINE|&#x1d2c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL TEN|&#x1d2ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL ELEVEN|&#x1d2cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL TWELVE|&#x1d2cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL THIRTEEN|&#x1d2cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FOURTEEN|&#x1d2ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FIFTEEN|&#x1d2cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D2Dx |style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SIXTEEN|&#x1d2d0;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SEVENTEEN|&#x1d2d1;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL EIGHTTEEN|&#x1d2d2;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL NINETEEN|&#x1d2d3;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Mayan Numerals''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D2Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL ZERO|&#x1d2e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL ONE|&#x1d2e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL TWO|&#x1d2e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL THREE|&#x1d2e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FOUR|&#x1d2e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FIVE|&#x1d2e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SIX|&#x1d2e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SEVEN|&#x1d2e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL EIGHT|&#x1d2e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL NINE|&#x1d2e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL TEN|&#x1d2ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL ELEVEN|&#x1d2eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL TWELVE|&#x1d2ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL THIRTEEN|&#x1d2ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FOURTEEN|&#x1d2ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FIFTEEN|&#x1d2ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D2Fx |style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SIXTEEN|&#x1d2f0;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SEVENTEEN|&#x1d2f1;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL EIGHTEEN|&#x1d2f2;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL NINETEEN|&#x1d2f3;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tai Xuan Jing Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#92ff6c" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D30x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MONOGRAM FOR EARTH|&#x1d300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR HEAVENLY EARTH|&#x1d301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR HUMAN EARTH|&#x1d302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR EARTHLY HEAVEN|&#x1d303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR EARTHLY HUMAN|&#x1d304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR EARTH|&#x1d305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CENTRE|&#x1d306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FULL CIRCLE|&#x1d307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR MIRED|&#x1d308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR BARRIER|&#x1d309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR KEEPING SMALL|&#x1d30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONTRARIETY|&#x1d30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ASCENT|&#x1d30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR OPPOSITION|&#x1d30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR BRANCHING OUT|&#x1d30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DEFECTIVENESS OR DISTORTION|&#x1d30f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#92ff6c" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D31x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIVERGENCE|&#x1d310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR YOUTHFULNESS|&#x1d311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR INCREASE|&#x1d312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PENETRATION|&#x1d313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR REACH|&#x1d314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONTACT|&#x1d315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR HOLDING BACK|&#x1d316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR WAITING|&#x1d317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FOLLOWING|&#x1d318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ADVANCE|&#x1d319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RELEASE|&#x1d31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RESISTANCE|&#x1d31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR EASE|&#x1d31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR JOY|&#x1d31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONTENTION|&#x1d31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ENDEAVOUR|&#x1d31f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#92ff6c" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D32x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DUTIES|&#x1d320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CHANGE|&#x1d321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DECISIVENESS|&#x1d322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR BOLD RESOLUTION|&#x1d323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PACKING|&#x1d324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR LEGION|&#x1d325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CLOSENESS|&#x1d326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR KINSHIP|&#x1d327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GATHERING|&#x1d328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR STRENGTH|&#x1d329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PURITY|&#x1d32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FULLNESS|&#x1d32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RESIDENCE|&#x1d32c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR LAW OR MODEL|&#x1d32d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RESPONSE|&#x1d32e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GOING TO MEET|&#x1d32f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#92ff6c" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D33x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ENCOUNTERS|&#x1d330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR STOVE|&#x1d331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GREATNESS|&#x1d332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ENLARGEMENT|&#x1d333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PATTERN|&#x1d334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RITUAL|&#x1d335;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FLIGHT|&#x1d336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR VASTNESS OR WASTING|&#x1d337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONSTANCY|&#x1d338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR MEASURE|&#x1d339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ETERNITY|&#x1d33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR UNITY|&#x1d33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIMINISHMENT|&#x1d33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CLOSED MOUTH|&#x1d33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GUARDEDNESS|&#x1d33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GATHERING IN|&#x1d33f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#92ff6c" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D34x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR MASSING|&#x1d340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ACCUMULATION|&#x1d341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR EMBELLISHMENT|&#x1d342;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DOUBT|&#x1d343;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR WATCH|&#x1d344;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR SINKING|&#x1d345;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR INNER|&#x1d346;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DEPARTURE|&#x1d347;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DARKENING|&#x1d348;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIMMING|&#x1d349;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR EXHAUSTION|&#x1d34a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR SEVERANCE|&#x1d34b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR STOPPAGE|&#x1d34c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR HARDNESS|&#x1d34d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR COMPLETION|&#x1d34e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CLOSURE|&#x1d34f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D35x |style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FAILURE|&#x1d350;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR AGGRAVATION|&#x1d351;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR COMPLIANCE|&#x1d352;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ON THE VERGE|&#x1d353;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIFFICULTIES|&#x1d354;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR LABOURING|&#x1d355;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FOSTERING|&#x1d356;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Counting Rod Numerals''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#72ff8a" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D36x |{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT ONE|&#x1d360;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT TWO|&#x1d361;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT THREE|&#x1d362;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d363;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d364;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT SIX|&#x1d365;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d366;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d367;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT NINE|&#x1d368;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT ONE|&#x1d369;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT TWO|&#x1d36a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT THREE|&#x1d36b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d36c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d36d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT SIX|&#x1d36e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d36f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D37x |style="background:#72ff8a"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d370;}}||style="background:#72ff8a"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT NINE|&#x1d371;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK ONE|&#x1d372;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK TWO|&#x1d373;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK THREE|&#x1d374;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK FOUR|&#x1d375;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK FIVE|&#x1d376;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TALLY MARK ONE|&#x1d377;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TALLY MARK FIVE|&#x1d378;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D38x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D39x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D3Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D3Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D3Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D3Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D3Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D3Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D40x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL A|&#x1d400;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL B|&#x1d401;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL C|&#x1d402;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL D|&#x1d403;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL E|&#x1d404;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL F|&#x1d405;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL G|&#x1d406;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL H|&#x1d407;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL I|&#x1d408;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL J|&#x1d409;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL K|&#x1d40a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL L|&#x1d40b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL M|&#x1d40c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL N|&#x1d40d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL O|&#x1d40e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL P|&#x1d40f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D41x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Q|&#x1d410;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL R|&#x1d411;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL S|&#x1d412;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL T|&#x1d413;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL U|&#x1d414;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL V|&#x1d415;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL W|&#x1d416;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL X|&#x1d417;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Y|&#x1d418;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Z|&#x1d419;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL A|&#x1d41a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL B|&#x1d41b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL C|&#x1d41c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL D|&#x1d41d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL E|&#x1d41e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL F|&#x1d41f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D42x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL G|&#x1d420;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL H|&#x1d421;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL I|&#x1d422;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL J|&#x1d423;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL K|&#x1d424;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL L|&#x1d425;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL M|&#x1d426;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL N|&#x1d427;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL O|&#x1d428;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL P|&#x1d429;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL Q|&#x1d42a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL R|&#x1d42b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL S|&#x1d42c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL T|&#x1d42d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL U|&#x1d42e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL V|&#x1d42f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D43x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL W|&#x1d430;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL X|&#x1d431;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL Y|&#x1d432;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL Z|&#x1d433;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL A|&#x1d434;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL B|&#x1d435;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL C|&#x1d436;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL D|&#x1d437;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL E|&#x1d438;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL F|&#x1d439;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL G|&#x1d43a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL H|&#x1d43b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL I|&#x1d43c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL J|&#x1d43d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL K|&#x1d43e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL L|&#x1d43f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D44x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL M|&#x1d440;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL N|&#x1d441;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL O|&#x1d442;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL P|&#x1d443;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&#x1d444;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL R|&#x1d445;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL S|&#x1d446;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL T|&#x1d447;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL U|&#x1d448;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL V|&#x1d449;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL W|&#x1d44a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL X|&#x1d44b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&#x1d44c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&#x1d44d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL A|&#x1d44e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL B|&#x1d44f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D45x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL C|&#x1d450;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL D|&#x1d451;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL E|&#x1d452;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL F|&#x1d453;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL G|&#x1d454;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL I|&#x1d456;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL J|&#x1d457;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL K|&#x1d458;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL L|&#x1d459;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL M|&#x1d45a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL N|&#x1d45b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL O|&#x1d45c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL P|&#x1d45d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL Q|&#x1d45e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL R|&#x1d45f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D46x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL S|&#x1d460;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL T|&#x1d461;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL U|&#x1d462;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL V|&#x1d463;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL W|&#x1d464;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL X|&#x1d465;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL Y|&#x1d466;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL Z|&#x1d467;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL A|&#x1d468;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL B|&#x1d469;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL C|&#x1d46a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL D|&#x1d46b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL E|&#x1d46c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL F|&#x1d46d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL G|&#x1d46e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL H|&#x1d46f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D47x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL I|&#x1d470;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL J|&#x1d471;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL K|&#x1d472;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL L|&#x1d473;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL M|&#x1d474;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL N|&#x1d475;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL O|&#x1d476;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL P|&#x1d477;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&#x1d478;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL R|&#x1d479;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL S|&#x1d47a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL T|&#x1d47b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL U|&#x1d47c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL V|&#x1d47d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL W|&#x1d47e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL X|&#x1d47f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D48x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&#x1d480;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&#x1d481;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL A|&#x1d482;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL B|&#x1d483;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL C|&#x1d484;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL D|&#x1d485;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL E|&#x1d486;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL F|&#x1d487;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL G|&#x1d488;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL H|&#x1d489;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL I|&#x1d48a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL J|&#x1d48b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL K|&#x1d48c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL L|&#x1d48d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL M|&#x1d48e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL N|&#x1d48f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D49x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL O|&#x1d490;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL P|&#x1d491;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL Q|&#x1d492;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL R|&#x1d493;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL S|&#x1d494;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL T|&#x1d495;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL U|&#x1d496;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL V|&#x1d497;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL W|&#x1d498;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL X|&#x1d499;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL Y|&#x1d49a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL Z|&#x1d49b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL A|&#x1d49c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL C|&#x1d49e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL D|&#x1d49f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D4Ax |style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL G|&#x1d4a2;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL J|&#x1d4a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL K|&#x1d4a6;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL N|&#x1d4a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL O|&#x1d4aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL P|&#x1d4ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Q|&#x1d4ac;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL S|&#x1d4ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL T|&#x1d4af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D4Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL U|&#x1d4b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL V|&#x1d4b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL W|&#x1d4b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL X|&#x1d4b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Y|&#x1d4b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Z|&#x1d4b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL A|&#x1d4b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL B|&#x1d4b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL C|&#x1d4b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL D|&#x1d4b9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL F|&#x1d4bb;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL H|&#x1d4bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL I|&#x1d4be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL J|&#x1d4bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D4Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL K|&#x1d4c0;}}||style="background:#92ff6c"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL L|&#x1d4c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL M|&#x1d4c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL N|&#x1d4c3;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL P|&#x1d4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL Q|&#x1d4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL R|&#x1d4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL S|&#x1d4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL T|&#x1d4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL U|&#x1d4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL V|&#x1d4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL W|&#x1d4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL X|&#x1d4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL Y|&#x1d4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL Z|&#x1d4cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D4Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL A|&#x1d4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL B|&#x1d4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL C|&#x1d4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL D|&#x1d4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL E|&#x1d4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL F|&#x1d4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL G|&#x1d4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL H|&#x1d4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL I|&#x1d4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL J|&#x1d4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL K|&#x1d4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL L|&#x1d4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL M|&#x1d4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL N|&#x1d4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL O|&#x1d4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL P|&#x1d4df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D4Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL Q|&#x1d4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL R|&#x1d4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL S|&#x1d4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL T|&#x1d4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL U|&#x1d4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL V|&#x1d4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL W|&#x1d4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL X|&#x1d4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL Y|&#x1d4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL Z|&#x1d4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL A|&#x1d4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL B|&#x1d4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL C|&#x1d4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL D|&#x1d4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL E|&#x1d4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL F|&#x1d4ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D4Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL G|&#x1d4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL H|&#x1d4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL I|&#x1d4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL J|&#x1d4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL K|&#x1d4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL L|&#x1d4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL M|&#x1d4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL N|&#x1d4f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL O|&#x1d4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL P|&#x1d4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL Q|&#x1d4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL R|&#x1d4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL S|&#x1d4fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL T|&#x1d4fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL U|&#x1d4fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL V|&#x1d4ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D50x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL W|&#x1d500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL X|&#x1d501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL Y|&#x1d502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL Z|&#x1d503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL A|&#x1d504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL B|&#x1d505;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL D|&#x1d507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL E|&#x1d508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL F|&#x1d509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL G|&#x1d50a;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL J|&#x1d50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL K|&#x1d50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL L|&#x1d50f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D51x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL M|&#x1d510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL N|&#x1d511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL O|&#x1d512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL P|&#x1d513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL Q|&#x1d514;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL S|&#x1d516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL T|&#x1d517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL U|&#x1d518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL V|&#x1d519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL W|&#x1d51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL X|&#x1d51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL Y|&#x1d51c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL A|&#x1d51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL B|&#x1d51f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D52x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL C|&#x1d520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL D|&#x1d521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL E|&#x1d522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL F|&#x1d523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL G|&#x1d524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL H|&#x1d525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL I|&#x1d526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL J|&#x1d527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL K|&#x1d528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL L|&#x1d529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL M|&#x1d52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL N|&#x1d52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL O|&#x1d52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL P|&#x1d52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL Q|&#x1d52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL R|&#x1d52f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D53x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL S|&#x1d530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL T|&#x1d531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL U|&#x1d532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL V|&#x1d533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL W|&#x1d534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL X|&#x1d535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL Y|&#x1d536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL Z|&#x1d537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL A|&#x1d538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL B|&#x1d539;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL D|&#x1d53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL E|&#x1d53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL F|&#x1d53d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL G|&#x1d53e;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D54x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL I|&#x1d540;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL J|&#x1d541;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL K|&#x1d542;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL L|&#x1d543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL M|&#x1d544;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL O|&#x1d546;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL S|&#x1d54a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL T|&#x1d54b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL U|&#x1d54c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL V|&#x1d54d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL W|&#x1d54e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL X|&#x1d54f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D55x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL Y|&#x1d550;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL A|&#x1d552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL B|&#x1d553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL C|&#x1d554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL D|&#x1d555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL E|&#x1d556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL F|&#x1d557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL G|&#x1d558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL H|&#x1d559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL I|&#x1d55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL J|&#x1d55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL K|&#x1d55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL L|&#x1d55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL M|&#x1d55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL N|&#x1d55f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D56x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL O|&#x1d560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL P|&#x1d561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL Q|&#x1d562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL R|&#x1d563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL S|&#x1d564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL T|&#x1d565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL U|&#x1d566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL V|&#x1d567;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL W|&#x1d568;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL X|&#x1d569;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL Y|&#x1d56a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL Z|&#x1d56b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL A|&#x1d56c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL B|&#x1d56d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL C|&#x1d56e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL D|&#x1d56f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D57x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL E|&#x1d570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL F|&#x1d571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL G|&#x1d572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL H|&#x1d573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL I|&#x1d574;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL J|&#x1d575;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL K|&#x1d576;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL L|&#x1d577;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL M|&#x1d578;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL N|&#x1d579;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL O|&#x1d57a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL P|&#x1d57b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL Q|&#x1d57c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL R|&#x1d57d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL S|&#x1d57e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL T|&#x1d57f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D58x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL U|&#x1d580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL V|&#x1d581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL W|&#x1d582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL X|&#x1d583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL Y|&#x1d584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL Z|&#x1d585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL A|&#x1d586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL B|&#x1d587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL C|&#x1d588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL D|&#x1d589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL E|&#x1d58a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL F|&#x1d58b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL G|&#x1d58c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL H|&#x1d58d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL I|&#x1d58e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL J|&#x1d58f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D59x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL K|&#x1d590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL L|&#x1d591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL M|&#x1d592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL N|&#x1d593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL O|&#x1d594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL P|&#x1d595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL Q|&#x1d596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL R|&#x1d597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL 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|----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D5Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL W|&#x1d5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL X|&#x1d5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL Y|&#x1d5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL Z|&#x1d5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL A|&#x1d5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL B|&#x1d5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL C|&#x1d5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL D|&#x1d5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL E|&#x1d5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL F|&#x1d5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL G|&#x1d5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL H|&#x1d5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL 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CAPITAL E|&#x1d640;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL F|&#x1d641;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL G|&#x1d642;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL H|&#x1d643;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL I|&#x1d644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL J|&#x1d645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL K|&#x1d646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL L|&#x1d647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL M|&#x1d648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL N|&#x1d649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL O|&#x1d64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL P|&#x1d64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&#x1d64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL R|&#x1d64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL S|&#x1d64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL T|&#x1d64f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D65x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL U|&#x1d650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL V|&#x1d651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL W|&#x1d652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL X|&#x1d653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&#x1d654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&#x1d655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL A|&#x1d656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL B|&#x1d657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL C|&#x1d658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL D|&#x1d659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL E|&#x1d65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL F|&#x1d65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL G|&#x1d65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL H|&#x1d65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL I|&#x1d65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL J|&#x1d65f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D66x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL K|&#x1d660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL L|&#x1d661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL M|&#x1d662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL N|&#x1d663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL O|&#x1d664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL P|&#x1d665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL Q|&#x1d666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL R|&#x1d667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL S|&#x1d668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL T|&#x1d669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL U|&#x1d66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL V|&#x1d66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL W|&#x1d66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL X|&#x1d66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL Y|&#x1d66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL Z|&#x1d66f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D67x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL A|&#x1d670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL B|&#x1d671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL C|&#x1d672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL D|&#x1d673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL E|&#x1d674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL F|&#x1d675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL G|&#x1d676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL H|&#x1d677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL I|&#x1d678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL J|&#x1d679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL K|&#x1d67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL L|&#x1d67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL M|&#x1d67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL N|&#x1d67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL O|&#x1d67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL P|&#x1d67f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D68x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL Q|&#x1d680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL R|&#x1d681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL S|&#x1d682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL T|&#x1d683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL U|&#x1d684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL V|&#x1d685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL W|&#x1d686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL X|&#x1d687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL Y|&#x1d688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL Z|&#x1d689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL A|&#x1d68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL B|&#x1d68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL C|&#x1d68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL D|&#x1d68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL E|&#x1d68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL F|&#x1d68f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D69x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL G|&#x1d690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL H|&#x1d691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL I|&#x1d692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL J|&#x1d693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL K|&#x1d694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL L|&#x1d695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL M|&#x1d696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL N|&#x1d697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL O|&#x1d698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL P|&#x1d699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL Q|&#x1d69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL R|&#x1d69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL S|&#x1d69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL T|&#x1d69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL U|&#x1d69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL V|&#x1d69f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D6Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL W|&#x1d6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL X|&#x1d6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL Y|&#x1d6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL Z|&#x1d6a3;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL DOTLESS I|&#x1d6a4;}}||style="background:#75ff6f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL DOTLESS J|&#x1d6a5;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL LIGATURE LONG S WITH DESCENDER S|&#x1d6a6;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ALPHA|&#x1d6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL BETA|&#x1d6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL GAMMA|&#x1d6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL DELTA|&#x1d6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL EPSILON|&#x1d6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ZETA|&#x1d6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ETA|&#x1d6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL THETA|&#x1d6af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D6Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL IOTA|&#x1d6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL KAPPA|&#x1d6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL LAMDA|&#x1d6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL MU|&#x1d6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL NU|&#x1d6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL XI|&#x1d6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL OMICRON|&#x1d6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL PI|&#x1d6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL RHO|&#x1d6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL SIGMA|&#x1d6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL TAU|&#x1d6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL UPSILON|&#x1d6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL PHI|&#x1d6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL CHI|&#x1d6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL PSI|&#x1d6bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D6Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL OMEGA|&#x1d6c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD NABLA|&#x1d6c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ALPHA|&#x1d6c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL BETA|&#x1d6c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL GAMMA|&#x1d6c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL DELTA|&#x1d6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL EPSILON|&#x1d6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ZETA|&#x1d6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ETA|&#x1d6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL THETA|&#x1d6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL IOTA|&#x1d6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL KAPPA|&#x1d6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL LAMDA|&#x1d6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL MU|&#x1d6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL NU|&#x1d6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL XI|&#x1d6cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D6Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL OMICRON|&#x1d6d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL PI|&#x1d6d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL RHO|&#x1d6d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&#x1d6d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL SIGMA|&#x1d6d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL TAU|&#x1d6d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL UPSILON|&#x1d6d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL PHI|&#x1d6d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL CHI|&#x1d6d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL PSI|&#x1d6d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL OMEGA|&#x1d6da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&#x1d6db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD EPSILON SYMBOL|&#x1d6dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d6dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD KAPPA SYMBOL|&#x1d6de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD PHI SYMBOL|&#x1d6df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D6Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD RHO SYMBOL|&#x1d6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD PI SYMBOL|&#x1d6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL ALPHA|&#x1d6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL BETA|&#x1d6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA|&#x1d6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL DELTA|&#x1d6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL EPSILON|&#x1d6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL ZETA|&#x1d6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL ETA|&#x1d6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL THETA|&#x1d6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL IOTA|&#x1d6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL KAPPA|&#x1d6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL LAMDA|&#x1d6ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL MU|&#x1d6ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL NU|&#x1d6ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL XI|&#x1d6ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D6Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL OMICRON|&#x1d6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL PI|&#x1d6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL RHO|&#x1d6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d6f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA|&#x1d6f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL TAU|&#x1d6f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL UPSILON|&#x1d6f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL PHI|&#x1d6f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL CHI|&#x1d6f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL PSI|&#x1d6f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL OMEGA|&#x1d6fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC NABLA|&#x1d6fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ALPHA|&#x1d6fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL BETA|&#x1d6fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL GAMMA|&#x1d6fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL DELTA|&#x1d6ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D70x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL EPSILON|&#x1d700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ZETA|&#x1d701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ETA|&#x1d702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL THETA|&#x1d703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL IOTA|&#x1d704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL KAPPA|&#x1d705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL LAMDA|&#x1d706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL MU|&#x1d707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL NU|&#x1d708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL XI|&#x1d709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL OMICRON|&#x1d70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL PI|&#x1d70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL RHO|&#x1d70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&#x1d70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL SIGMA|&#x1d70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL TAU|&#x1d70f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D71x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL UPSILON|&#x1d710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL PHI|&#x1d711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL CHI|&#x1d712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL PSI|&#x1d713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL OMEGA|&#x1d714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&#x1d715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC EPSILON SYMBOL|&#x1d716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC KAPPA SYMBOL|&#x1d718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC PHI SYMBOL|&#x1d719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC RHO SYMBOL|&#x1d71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC PI SYMBOL|&#x1d71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ALPHA|&#x1d71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL BETA|&#x1d71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA|&#x1d71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL DELTA|&#x1d71f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D72x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL EPSILON|&#x1d720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ZETA|&#x1d721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ETA|&#x1d722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA|&#x1d723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL IOTA|&#x1d724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL KAPPA|&#x1d725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL LAMDA|&#x1d726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL MU|&#x1d727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL NU|&#x1d728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL XI|&#x1d729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMICRON|&#x1d72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PI|&#x1d72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL RHO|&#x1d72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA|&#x1d72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL TAU|&#x1d72f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D73x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL UPSILON|&#x1d730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PHI|&#x1d731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL CHI|&#x1d732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PSI|&#x1d733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMEGA|&#x1d734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC NABLA|&#x1d735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL ALPHA|&#x1d736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL BETA|&#x1d737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL GAMMA|&#x1d738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL DELTA|&#x1d739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL EPSILON|&#x1d73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL ZETA|&#x1d73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL ETA|&#x1d73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL THETA|&#x1d73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL IOTA|&#x1d73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL KAPPA|&#x1d73f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D74x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL LAMDA|&#x1d740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL MU|&#x1d741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL NU|&#x1d742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL XI|&#x1d743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMICRON|&#x1d744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL PI|&#x1d745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL RHO|&#x1d746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&#x1d747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL SIGMA|&#x1d748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL TAU|&#x1d749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL UPSILON|&#x1d74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL PHI|&#x1d74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL CHI|&#x1d74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL PSI|&#x1d74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMEGA|&#x1d74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&#x1d74f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D75x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC EPSILON SYMBOL|&#x1d750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC KAPPA SYMBOL|&#x1d752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC PHI SYMBOL|&#x1d753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC RHO SYMBOL|&#x1d754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC PI SYMBOL|&#x1d755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL ALPHA|&#x1d756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL BETA|&#x1d757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL GAMMA|&#x1d758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL DELTA|&#x1d759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL EPSILON|&#x1d75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL ZETA|&#x1d75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL ETA|&#x1d75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL THETA|&#x1d75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL IOTA|&#x1d75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL KAPPA|&#x1d75f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D76x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL LAMDA|&#x1d760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL MU|&#x1d761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL NU|&#x1d762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL XI|&#x1d763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL OMICRON|&#x1d764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL PI|&#x1d765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL RHO|&#x1d766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL SIGMA|&#x1d768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL TAU|&#x1d769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL UPSILON|&#x1d76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL PHI|&#x1d76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL CHI|&#x1d76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL PSI|&#x1d76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL OMEGA|&#x1d76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD NABLA|&#x1d76f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D77x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL ALPHA|&#x1d770;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL BETA|&#x1d771;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL GAMMA|&#x1d772;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL DELTA|&#x1d773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL EPSILON|&#x1d774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL ZETA|&#x1d775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL ETA|&#x1d776;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL THETA|&#x1d777;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL IOTA|&#x1d778;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL KAPPA|&#x1d779;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL LAMDA|&#x1d77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL MU|&#x1d77b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL NU|&#x1d77c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL XI|&#x1d77d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL OMICRON|&#x1d77e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL PI|&#x1d77f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D78x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL RHO|&#x1d780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&#x1d781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL SIGMA|&#x1d782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL TAU|&#x1d783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL UPSILON|&#x1d784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL PHI|&#x1d785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL CHI|&#x1d786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL PSI|&#x1d787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL OMEGA|&#x1d788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&#x1d789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD EPSILON SYMBOL|&#x1d78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD KAPPA SYMBOL|&#x1d78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD PHI SYMBOL|&#x1d78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD RHO SYMBOL|&#x1d78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD PI SYMBOL|&#x1d78f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D79x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ALPHA|&#x1d790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL BETA|&#x1d791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA|&#x1d792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL DELTA|&#x1d793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL EPSILON|&#x1d794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ZETA|&#x1d795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ETA|&#x1d796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA|&#x1d797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL IOTA|&#x1d798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL KAPPA|&#x1d799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL LAMDA|&#x1d79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL MU|&#x1d79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL NU|&#x1d79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL XI|&#x1d79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMICRON|&#x1d79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PI|&#x1d79f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D7Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL RHO|&#x1d7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA|&#x1d7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL TAU|&#x1d7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL UPSILON|&#x1d7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PHI|&#x1d7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL CHI|&#x1d7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PSI|&#x1d7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMEGA|&#x1d7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC NABLA|&#x1d7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL ALPHA|&#x1d7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL BETA|&#x1d7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL GAMMA|&#x1d7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL DELTA|&#x1d7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL EPSILON|&#x1d7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL ZETA|&#x1d7af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D7Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL ETA|&#x1d7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL THETA|&#x1d7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL IOTA|&#x1d7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL KAPPA|&#x1d7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL LAMDA|&#x1d7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL MU|&#x1d7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL NU|&#x1d7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL XI|&#x1d7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMICRON|&#x1d7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL PI|&#x1d7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL RHO|&#x1d7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&#x1d7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL SIGMA|&#x1d7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL TAU|&#x1d7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL UPSILON|&#x1d7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL PHI|&#x1d7bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D7Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL CHI|&#x1d7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL PSI|&#x1d7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMEGA|&#x1d7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&#x1d7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC EPSILON SYMBOL|&#x1d7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC THETA SYMBOL|&#x1d7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC KAPPA SYMBOL|&#x1d7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC PHI SYMBOL|&#x1d7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC RHO SYMBOL|&#x1d7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC PI SYMBOL|&#x1d7c9;}}||style="background:#72ff8a"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL DIGAMMA|&#x1d7ca;}}||style="background:#72ff8a"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL DIGAMMA|&#x1d7cb;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT ZERO|&#x1d7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT ONE|&#x1d7cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D7Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT TWO|&#x1d7d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT THREE|&#x1d7d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d7d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d7d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT SIX|&#x1d7d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d7d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d7d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT NINE|&#x1d7d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT ZERO|&#x1d7d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT ONE|&#x1d7d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT TWO|&#x1d7da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT THREE|&#x1d7db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d7dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d7dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT SIX|&#x1d7de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d7df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D7Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT NINE|&#x1d7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1d7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT ONE|&#x1d7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT TWO|&#x1d7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT THREE|&#x1d7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT SIX|&#x1d7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT NINE|&#x1d7eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT ZERO|&#x1d7ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT ONE|&#x1d7ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT TWO|&#x1d7ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT THREE|&#x1d7ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d0ff66" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D7Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT SIX|&#x1d7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT NINE|&#x1d7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT ZERO|&#x1d7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT ONE|&#x1d7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT TWO|&#x1d7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT THREE|&#x1d7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT FOUR|&#x1d7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT FIVE|&#x1d7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT SIX|&#x1d7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1d7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1d7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT NINE|&#x1d7ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sutton SignWriting''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D80x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX|&#x1d800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX|&#x1d801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX|&#x1d802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL INDEX|&#x1d803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX|&#x1d804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX|&#x1d805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX BENT|&#x1d806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX BENT|&#x1d807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER INDEX BENT|&#x1d808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX RAISED KNUCKLE|&#x1d809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX CUPPED|&#x1d80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED|&#x1d80b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED LOW|&#x1d80c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX HINGE|&#x1d80d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE|&#x1d80e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE|&#x1d80f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D81x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE BENT|&#x1d810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RAISED KNUCKLES|&#x1d811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE HINGED|&#x1d812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX UP MIDDLE HINGED|&#x1d813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED MIDDLE UP|&#x1d814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED|&#x1d815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED INDEX BENT|&#x1d816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED MIDDLE BENT|&#x1d817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED CUPPED|&#x1d818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED HINGED|&#x1d819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CROSSED|&#x1d81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE CROSSED|&#x1d81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE BENT OVER INDEX|&#x1d81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX BENT OVER MIDDLE|&#x1d81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB|&#x1d81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE THUMB|&#x1d81f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D82x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE STRAIGHT THUMB BENT|&#x1d820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE BENT THUMB STRAIGHT|&#x1d821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB BENT|&#x1d822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE HINGED SPREAD THUMB SIDE|&#x1d823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX UP MIDDLE HINGED THUMB SIDE|&#x1d824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX UP MIDDLE HINGED THUMB CONJOINED|&#x1d825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED MIDDLE UP THUMB SIDE|&#x1d826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE UP SPREAD THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB CUPPED|&#x1d828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB CIRCLED|&#x1d829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB HOOKED|&#x1d82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB HINGED|&#x1d82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN INDEX MIDDLE STRAIGHT|&#x1d82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB SIDE|&#x1d82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB SIDE CONJOINED|&#x1d82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB SIDE BENT|&#x1d82f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D83x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB HOOKED INDEX UP|&#x1d830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB HOOKED MIDDLE UP|&#x1d831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED HINGED THUMB SIDE|&#x1d832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CROSSED THUMB SIDE|&#x1d833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED CUPPED THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB CUPPED INDEX UP|&#x1d836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CUPPED MIDDLE UP|&#x1d837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB CIRCLED INDEX UP|&#x1d838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB CIRCLED INDEX HINGED|&#x1d839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB ANGLED OUT MIDDLE UP|&#x1d83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB ANGLED IN MIDDLE UP|&#x1d83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CIRCLED MIDDLE UP|&#x1d83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB CONJOINED HINGED|&#x1d83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED OUT|&#x1d83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED|&#x1d83f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D84x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED OUT INDEX UP|&#x1d840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED OUT INDEX CROSSED|&#x1d841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED INDEX UP|&#x1d842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB HOOKED MIDDLE HINGED|&#x1d843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS|&#x1d844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS BENT|&#x1d845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS HINGED|&#x1d846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED|&#x1d847;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED SPLIT|&#x1d848;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED|&#x1d849;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED BENT|&#x1d84a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED|&#x1d84b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&#x1d84c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&#x1d84d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD FOUR BENT|&#x1d84e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD FOUR BENT|&#x1d84f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D85x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD BENT|&#x1d850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD BENT|&#x1d851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&#x1d853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP FIVE FINGERS SPREAD OPEN|&#x1d854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE FIVE FINGERS SPREAD OPEN|&#x1d855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&#x1d856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD HINGED|&#x1d857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD HINGED THUMB SIDE|&#x1d858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD HINGED NO THUMB|&#x1d859;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT|&#x1d85a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT BETWEEN PALM FACINGS|&#x1d85b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL|&#x1d85c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT THUMB SIDE|&#x1d85d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL THUMB SIDE|&#x1d85e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT THUMB BENT|&#x1d85f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D86x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT INDEX THUMB SIDE|&#x1d861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT CENTRE|&#x1d862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT CENTRE THUMB SIDE|&#x1d863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT CENTRE THUMB SIDE BENT|&#x1d864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT LITTLE|&#x1d865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW|&#x1d866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW THUMB SIDE|&#x1d867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW NO THUMB|&#x1d868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK CURLICUE|&#x1d86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK|&#x1d86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN|&#x1d86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP|&#x1d86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN THUMB SIDE|&#x1d86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP THUMB SIDE|&#x1d86f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D87x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN NO THUMB|&#x1d870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP NO THUMB|&#x1d871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE OPEN|&#x1d874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE|&#x1d875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE|&#x1d876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL|&#x1d877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL THUMB SIDE|&#x1d878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL NO THUMB|&#x1d879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN|&#x1d87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE|&#x1d87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE SMALL|&#x1d87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN THUMB SIDE|&#x1d87f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D88x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE THUMB SIDE|&#x1d880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN NO THUMB|&#x1d881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE NO THUMB|&#x1d882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE THUMB SIDE TOUCHING INDEX|&#x1d883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE THUMB BETWEEN MIDDLE RING|&#x1d884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE|&#x1d885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RING|&#x1d886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE RING|&#x1d887;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX MIDDLE RING|&#x1d888;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX MIDDLE RING|&#x1d889;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE|&#x1d88a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RING BENT|&#x1d88b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RING CONJOINED|&#x1d88c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX MIDDLE RING CONJOINED|&#x1d88d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN|&#x1d88e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN RIPPLE STRAIGHT|&#x1d88f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D89x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN RIPPLE CURVED|&#x1d890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN OTHERS CIRCLED|&#x1d891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE UP|&#x1d892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER LITTLE UP|&#x1d893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE LITTLE UP|&#x1d894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL LITTLE UP|&#x1d895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE UP|&#x1d896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE RAISED KNUCKLE|&#x1d897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE BENT|&#x1d898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE TOUCHES THUMB|&#x1d899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE THUMB|&#x1d89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE THUMB|&#x1d89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE INDEX THUMB|&#x1d89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE INDEX THUMB|&#x1d89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE INDEX THUMB INDEX THUMB OUT|&#x1d89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE INDEX THUMB INDEX THUMB|&#x1d89f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D8Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE INDEX|&#x1d8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE LITTLE INDEX|&#x1d8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE INDEX|&#x1d8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE INDEX|&#x1d8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&#x1d8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&#x1d8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&#x1d8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE RING|&#x1d8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&#x1d8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CROSS LITTLE|&#x1d8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE CROSS LITTLE|&#x1d8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING DOWN|&#x1d8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE RING DOWN INDEX THUMB HOOK MIDDLE|&#x1d8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE RING DOWN MIDDLE THUMB INDEX CROSS|&#x1d8ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING UP|&#x1d8ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING RAISED KNUCKLE|&#x1d8af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D8Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING LITTLE|&#x1d8b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL RING LITTLE|&#x1d8b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING MIDDLE|&#x1d8b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING MIDDLE CONJOINED|&#x1d8b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING MIDDLE RAISED KNUCKLES|&#x1d8b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING INDEX|&#x1d8b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING THUMB|&#x1d8b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK RING THUMB|&#x1d8b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX RING LITTLE|&#x1d8ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX RING LITTLE|&#x1d8bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE INDEX RING LITTLE ON|&#x1d8bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK INDEX RING LITTLE OUT|&#x1d8bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK INDEX RING LITTLE IN|&#x1d8be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK INDEX RING LITTLE UNDER|&#x1d8bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D8Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX RING LITTLE|&#x1d8c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX RING LITTLE|&#x1d8c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX RING LITTLE OUT|&#x1d8c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX RING LITTLE|&#x1d8c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE DOWN|&#x1d8c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE MIDDLE|&#x1d8c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE UP|&#x1d8c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE MIDDLE UP|&#x1d8c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE RAISED KNUCKLE|&#x1d8c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE UP THUMB SIDE|&#x1d8c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE THUMB|&#x1d8ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB LITTLE|&#x1d8cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE LITTLE|&#x1d8cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE MIDDLE RING LITTLE ON|&#x1d8cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D8Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE OUT|&#x1d8d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE IN|&#x1d8d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&#x1d8d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE BENT|&#x1d8d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED|&#x1d8d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED SIDE|&#x1d8d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED OUT|&#x1d8d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED IN|&#x1d8d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED|&#x1d8da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX HINGED|&#x1d8db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE|&#x1d8dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB SIDE|&#x1d8dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE THUMB DIAGONAL|&#x1d8de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE THUMB CONJOINED|&#x1d8df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D8Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE THUMB BENT|&#x1d8e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE INDEX BENT|&#x1d8e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE BOTH BENT|&#x1d8e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE INDEX HINGE|&#x1d8e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB FORWARD INDEX STRAIGHT|&#x1d8e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB FORWARD INDEX BENT|&#x1d8e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB HOOK|&#x1d8e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CURLICUE|&#x1d8e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CURVE THUMB INSIDE|&#x1d8e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW INDEX THUMB CURVE THUMB INSIDE|&#x1d8e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CURVE THUMB UNDER|&#x1d8ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CIRCLE|&#x1d8eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX THUMB|&#x1d8ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX THUMB OPEN|&#x1d8ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB OPEN|&#x1d8ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB LARGE|&#x1d8ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D8Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB|&#x1d8f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB SMALL|&#x1d8f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX THUMB OUT|&#x1d8f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX THUMB IN|&#x1d8f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX THUMB|&#x1d8f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB|&#x1d8f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB HEEL|&#x1d8f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB SIDE DIAGONAL|&#x1d8f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB SIDE CONJOINED|&#x1d8f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB SIDE BENT|&#x1d8f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB FORWARD|&#x1d8fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN INDEX MIDDLE|&#x1d8fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN MIDDLE RING|&#x1d8fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN RING LITTLE|&#x1d8fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER TWO FINGERS|&#x1d8fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB OVER TWO FINGERS|&#x1d8ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D90x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER THREE FINGERS|&#x1d900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER FOUR FINGERS|&#x1d901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB OVER FOUR RAISED KNUCKLES|&#x1d902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST|&#x1d903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST HEEL|&#x1d904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TOUCH SINGLE|&#x1d905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TOUCH MULTIPLE|&#x1d906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TOUCH BETWEEN|&#x1d907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING GRASP SINGLE|&#x1d908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING GRASP MULTIPLE|&#x1d909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING GRASP BETWEEN|&#x1d90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING STRIKE SINGLE|&#x1d90b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING STRIKE MULTIPLE|&#x1d90c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING STRIKE BETWEEN|&#x1d90d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BRUSH SINGLE|&#x1d90e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BRUSH MULTIPLE|&#x1d90f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D91x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BRUSH BETWEEN|&#x1d910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING RUB SINGLE|&#x1d911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING RUB MULTIPLE|&#x1d912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING RUB BETWEEN|&#x1d913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SURFACE SYMBOLS|&#x1d914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SURFACE BETWEEN|&#x1d915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE LARGE SINGLE|&#x1d916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE SMALL SINGLE|&#x1d917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE LARGE MULTIPLE|&#x1d918;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE SMALL MULTIPLE|&#x1d919;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE SEQUENTIAL|&#x1d91a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK LARGE SINGLE|&#x1d91b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK SMALL SINGLE|&#x1d91c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK LARGE MULTIPLE|&#x1d91d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK SMALL MULTIPLE|&#x1d91e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK SEQUENTIAL|&#x1d91f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D92x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE FLICK ALTERNATING|&#x1d920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN LARGE|&#x1d921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN SMALL|&#x1d922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP SEQUENTIAL|&#x1d923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE DOWN SEQUENTIAL|&#x1d924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN ALTERNATING LARGE|&#x1d925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN ALTERNATING SMALL|&#x1d926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE SIDE TO SIDE SCISSORS|&#x1d927;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE FINGER CONTACT|&#x1d928;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE FINGER CONTACT|&#x1d929;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT SMALL|&#x1d92a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT MEDIUM|&#x1d92b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGE|&#x1d92c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGEST|&#x1d92d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE WRIST FLEX|&#x1d92e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE STRAIGHT|&#x1d92f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D93x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE WRIST FLEX|&#x1d930;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING|&#x1d931;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&#x1d932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CROSS|&#x1d933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE STRAIGHT MOVEMENT|&#x1d934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE WRIST FLEX|&#x1d935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING|&#x1d936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&#x1d937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BEND SMALL|&#x1d938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BEND MEDIUM|&#x1d939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BEND LARGE|&#x1d93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER SMALL|&#x1d93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER MEDIUM|&#x1d93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER LARGE|&#x1d93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER ROTATION|&#x1d93e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CHECK SMALL|&#x1d93f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D94x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CHECK MEDIUM|&#x1d940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CHECK LARGE|&#x1d941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BOX SMALL|&#x1d942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BOX MEDIUM|&#x1d943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BOX LARGE|&#x1d944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ZIGZAG SMALL|&#x1d945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ZIGZAG MEDIUM|&#x1d946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ZIGZAG LARGE|&#x1d947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE PEAKS SMALL|&#x1d948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE PEAKS MEDIUM|&#x1d949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE PEAKS LARGE|&#x1d94a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE|&#x1d94b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE|&#x1d94c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING|&#x1d94d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE|&#x1d94e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE|&#x1d94f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D95x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING|&#x1d950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE SHAKING|&#x1d951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ARM SPIRAL SINGLE|&#x1d952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ARM SPIRAL DOUBLE|&#x1d953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ARM SPIRAL TRIPLE|&#x1d954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY SMALL|&#x1d955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY MEDIUM|&#x1d956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY LARGE|&#x1d957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY LARGEST|&#x1d958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS SMALL|&#x1d959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS MEDIUM|&#x1d95a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS LARGE|&#x1d95b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS LARGEST|&#x1d95c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY SMALL|&#x1d95d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY MEDIUM|&#x1d95e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY LARGE|&#x1d95f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D96x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY LARGEST|&#x1d960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS SMALL|&#x1d961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS MEDIUM|&#x1d962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS LARGE|&#x1d963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS LARGEST|&#x1d964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT SMALL|&#x1d965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT MEDIUM|&#x1d966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGE|&#x1d967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGEST|&#x1d968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE WRIST FLEX|&#x1d969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE STRAIGHT|&#x1d96a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE WRIST FLEX|&#x1d96b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING|&#x1d96c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&#x1d96d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CROSS|&#x1d96e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE STRAIGHT MOVEMENT|&#x1d96f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D97x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE WRIST FLEX|&#x1d970;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING MOVEMENT|&#x1d971;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&#x1d972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BEND|&#x1d973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CORNER SMALL|&#x1d974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CORNER MEDIUM|&#x1d975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CORNER LARGE|&#x1d976;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CHECK|&#x1d977;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BOX SMALL|&#x1d978;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BOX MEDIUM|&#x1d979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BOX LARGE|&#x1d97a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ZIGZAG SMALL|&#x1d97b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ZIGZAG MEDIUM|&#x1d97c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ZIGZAG LARGE|&#x1d97d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE PEAKS SMALL|&#x1d97e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE PEAKS MEDIUM|&#x1d97f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D98x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE PEAKS LARGE|&#x1d980;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE|&#x1d981;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE|&#x1d982;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING|&#x1d983;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE|&#x1d984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE|&#x1d985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING|&#x1d986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE SHAKING|&#x1d987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER SMALL|&#x1d988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER MEDIUM|&#x1d989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER LARGE|&#x1d98a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER LARGEST|&#x1d98b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE SMALL|&#x1d98c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE MEDIUM|&#x1d98d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE LARGE|&#x1d98e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE LARGEST|&#x1d98f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D99x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE THREE-QUARTER CIRCLE SMALL|&#x1d990;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE THREE-QUARTER CIRCLE MEDIUM|&#x1d991;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP SMALL|&#x1d992;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP MEDIUM|&#x1d993;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP LARGE|&#x1d994;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP SMALL|&#x1d995;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP MEDIUM|&#x1d996;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP LARGE|&#x1d997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE DOUBLE SMALL|&#x1d999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE DOUBLE MEDIUM|&#x1d99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE DOUBLE LARGE|&#x1d99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE TRIPLE SMALL|&#x1d99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE TRIPLE MEDIUM|&#x1d99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE TRIPLE LARGE|&#x1d99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE THEN STRAIGHT|&#x1d99f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D9Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVED CROSS SMALL|&#x1d9a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVED CROSS MEDIUM|&#x1d9a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE|&#x1d9a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE|&#x1d9a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATE|&#x1d9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SHAKING|&#x1d9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING FRONT WALL|&#x1d9ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D9Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING CHEST|&#x1d9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE DIAGONAL PATH SMALL|&#x1d9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE DIAGONAL PATH MEDIUM|&#x1d9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE DIAGONAL PATH LARGE|&#x1d9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING CEILING SMALL|&#x1d9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING CEILING LARGE|&#x1d9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING LARGE DOUBLE|&#x1d9ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING SMALL TRIPLE|&#x1d9bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING LARGE TRIPLE|&#x1d9bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING SMALL SINGLE|&#x1d9bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING LARGE SINGLE|&#x1d9be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D9Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING LARGE DOUBLE|&#x1d9c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING CEILING SMALL|&#x1d9c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING CEILING LARGE|&#x1d9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE HITTING CEILING|&#x1d9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE HITTING CEILING|&#x1d9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING CEILING|&#x1d9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING FLOOR SMALL|&#x1d9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING FLOOR LARGE|&#x1d9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR LARGE DOUBLE|&#x1d9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR TRIPLE SMALL TRIPLE|&#x1d9ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR TRIPLE LARGE TRIPLE|&#x1d9cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR SMALL SINGLE|&#x1d9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR LARGE SINGLE|&#x1d9cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR LARGE DOUBLE|&#x1d9cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D9Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING FLOOR SMALL|&#x1d9d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING FLOOR LARGE|&#x1d9d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE HITTING FLOOR|&#x1d9d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE HITTING FLOOR|&#x1d9d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING FLOOR|&#x1d9d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE SMALL|&#x1d9d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE MEDIUM|&#x1d9d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE LARGE|&#x1d9d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE LARGEST|&#x1d9d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE COMBINED|&#x1d9d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP SMALL|&#x1d9da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP SMALL|&#x1d9db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE SNAKE|&#x1d9dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE SMALL|&#x1d9dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE LARGE|&#x1d9de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE|&#x1d9df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D9Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE|&#x1d9e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING|&#x1d9e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SHAKING PARALLEL|&#x1d9e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE SMALL SINGLE|&#x1d9e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE MEDIUM SINGLE|&#x1d9e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE MEDIUM DOUBLE|&#x1d9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL SMALL SINGLE|&#x1d9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL MEDIUM SINGLE|&#x1d9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL LARGE SINGLE|&#x1d9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL SMALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL MEDIUM DOUBLE|&#x1d9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL LARGE DOUBLE|&#x1d9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WRIST CIRCLE FRONT SINGLE|&#x1d9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WRIST CIRCLE FRONT DOUBLE|&#x1d9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WRIST CIRCLE HITTING WALL SINGLE|&#x1d9ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1D9Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WRIST CIRCLE HITTING WALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE FINGER CIRCLES SINGLE|&#x1d9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE FINGER CIRCLES DOUBLE|&#x1d9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE FINGER CIRCLES HITTING WALL SINGLE|&#x1d9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE FINGER CIRCLES HITTING WALL DOUBLE|&#x1d9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC ARROWHEAD SMALL|&#x1d9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC ARROWHEAD LARGE|&#x1d9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC FAST|&#x1d9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC SLOW|&#x1d9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC TENSE|&#x1d9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC RELAXED|&#x1d9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC SIMULTANEOUS|&#x1d9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC SIMULTANEOUS ALTERNATING|&#x1d9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC EVERY OTHER TIME|&#x1d9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC GRADUAL|&#x1d9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD|&#x1d9ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD RIM|&#x1da00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT|&#x1da01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TILT|&#x1da02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT|&#x1da03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE|&#x1da04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE|&#x1da05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT CIRCLE|&#x1da06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FACE DIRECTION POSITION NOSE FORWARD TILTING|&#x1da07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FACE DIRECTION POSITION NOSE UP OR DOWN|&#x1da08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FACE DIRECTION POSITION NOSE UP OR DOWN TILTING|&#x1da09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEBROWS STRAIGHT UP|&#x1da0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEBROWS STRAIGHT NEUTRAL|&#x1da0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEBROWS STRAIGHT DOWN|&#x1da0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS NEUTRAL DOWN|&#x1da0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS DOWN NEUTRAL|&#x1da0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS UP NEUTRAL|&#x1da0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS NEUTRAL UP|&#x1da10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FOREHEAD NEUTRAL|&#x1da11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FOREHEAD CONTACT|&#x1da12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FOREHEAD WRINKLED|&#x1da13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES OPEN|&#x1da14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES SQUEEZED|&#x1da15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES CLOSED|&#x1da16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYE BLINK SINGLE|&#x1da17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYE BLINK MULTIPLE|&#x1da18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES HALF OPEN|&#x1da19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES WIDE OPEN|&#x1da1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES HALF CLOSED|&#x1da1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES WIDENING MOVEMENT|&#x1da1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYE WINK|&#x1da1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYELASHES UP|&#x1da1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYELASHES DOWN|&#x1da1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYELASHES FLUTTERING|&#x1da20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT|&#x1da21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT DOUBLE|&#x1da22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT ALTERNATING|&#x1da23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT|&#x1da24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT DOUBLE|&#x1da25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT ALTERNATING|&#x1da26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE CURVED|&#x1da27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE CURVED|&#x1da28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE CIRCLING|&#x1da29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING CHEEKS PUFFED|&#x1da2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING CHEEKS NEUTRAL|&#x1da2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING CHEEKS SUCKED|&#x1da2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TENSE CHEEKS HIGH|&#x1da2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TENSE CHEEKS MIDDLE|&#x1da2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TENSE CHEEKS LOW|&#x1da2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EARS|&#x1da30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE NEUTRAL|&#x1da31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE CONTACT|&#x1da32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE WRINKLES|&#x1da33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE WIGGLES|&#x1da34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR BLOWING OUT|&#x1da35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR SUCKING IN|&#x1da36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR BLOW SMALL ROTATIONS|&#x1da37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR SUCK SMALL ROTATIONS|&#x1da38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BREATH INHALE|&#x1da39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BREATH EXHALE|&#x1da3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CLOSED NEUTRAL|&#x1da3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CLOSED FORWARD|&#x1da3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CLOSED CONTACT|&#x1da3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH SMILE|&#x1da3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH SMILE WRINKLED|&#x1da3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH SMILE OPEN|&#x1da40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH FROWN|&#x1da41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH FROWN WRINKLED|&#x1da42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH FROWN OPEN|&#x1da43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN CIRCLE|&#x1da44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN FORWARD|&#x1da45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN WRINKLED|&#x1da46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN OVAL|&#x1da47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN OVAL WRINKLED|&#x1da48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN OVAL YAWN|&#x1da49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN RECTANGLE|&#x1da4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN RECTANGLE WRINKLED|&#x1da4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN RECTANGLE YAWN|&#x1da4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH KISS|&#x1da4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH KISS FORWARD|&#x1da4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH KISS WRINKLED|&#x1da4f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH TENSE|&#x1da50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH TENSE FORWARD|&#x1da51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH TENSE SUCKED|&#x1da52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIPS PRESSED TOGETHER|&#x1da53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIP LOWER OVER UPPER|&#x1da54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIP UPPER OVER LOWER|&#x1da55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CORNERS|&#x1da56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH WRINKLES SINGLE|&#x1da57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH WRINKLES DOUBLE|&#x1da58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE STICKING OUT FAR|&#x1da59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE LICKING LIPS|&#x1da5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE TIP BETWEEN LIPS|&#x1da5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE TIP TOUCHING INSIDE MOUTH|&#x1da5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE INSIDE MOUTH RELAXED|&#x1da5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE MOVES AGAINST CHEEK|&#x1da5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE CENTRE STICKING OUT|&#x1da5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE CENTRE INSIDE MOUTH|&#x1da60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH|&#x1da61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH MOVEMENT|&#x1da62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON TONGUE|&#x1da63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON TONGUE MOVEMENT|&#x1da64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON LIPS|&#x1da65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON LIPS MOVEMENT|&#x1da66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH BITE LIPS|&#x1da67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE JAW|&#x1da68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE JAW|&#x1da69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NECK|&#x1da6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAIR|&#x1da6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EXCITEMENT|&#x1da6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SHOULDER HIP SPINE|&#x1da6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SHOULDER HIP POSITIONS|&#x1da6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING WALLPLANE SHOULDER HIP MOVE|&#x1da6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLOORPLANE SHOULDER HIP MOVE|&#x1da70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SHOULDER TILTING FROM WAIST|&#x1da71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TORSO-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT STRETCH|&#x1da72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TORSO-WALLPLANE CURVED BEND|&#x1da73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TORSO-FLOORPLANE TWISTING|&#x1da74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING UPPER BODY TILTING FROM HIP JOINTS|&#x1da75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB COMBINATION|&#x1da76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-1|&#x1da77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-2|&#x1da78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-3|&#x1da79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-4|&#x1da7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-5|&#x1da7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-6|&#x1da7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-7|&#x1da7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FINGER|&#x1da7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION-WALLPLANE SPACE|&#x1da7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION-FLOORPLANE SPACE|&#x1da80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION HEIGHT|&#x1da81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION WIDTH|&#x1da82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION DEPTH|&#x1da83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION HEAD NECK|&#x1da84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION TORSO|&#x1da85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION LIMBS DIGITS|&#x1da86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING COMMA|&#x1da87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FULL STOP|&#x1da88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SEMICOLON|&#x1da89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING COLON|&#x1da8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING PARENTHESIS|&#x1da8b;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DA9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-2|[SW F2]}}||style="background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-3|[SW F3]}}||style="background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-4|[SW F4]}}||style="background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-5|[SW F5]}}||style="background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-6|[SW F6]}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%" !style="background:#ffffff;font-size:133%"|1DAAx |style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-2|[SW R2]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-3|[SW R3]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-4|[SW R4]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-5|[SW R5]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-6|[SW R6]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-7|[SW R7]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-8|[SW R8]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-9|[SW R9]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-10|[SW R10]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-11|[SW R11]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-12|[SW R12]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-13|[SW R13]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-14|[SW R14]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-15|[SW R15]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-16|[SW R16]}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DABx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DACx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DADx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DAEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DAFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows Extended''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN EQUALS SIGN|&#x1db00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN EQUALS SIGN WITH DOUBLE VERTICALS|&#x1db01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN EQUALS SIGN WITH SMALL S|&#x1db02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN GREATER-THAN SIGN|&#x1db03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN LESS-THAN SIGN|&#x1db04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN GREATER-THAN WITH SMALL P|&#x1db05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN LESS-THAN WITH SMALL P|&#x1db06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN GREATER-LESS-THAN SIGN|&#x1db07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERTED SQUARE LEFT OPEN BOX OPERATOR|&#x1db08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERTED SQUARE RIGHT OPEN BOX OPERATOR|&#x1db09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO-LINE GREATER-THAN SIGN|&#x1db0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO-LINE LESS-THAN SIGN|&#x1db0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMMENSURABILITY|&#x1db0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMMENSURABILITY|&#x1db0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMMENSURABILITY IN SQUARE|&#x1db0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMMENSURABILITY IN SQUARE|&#x1db0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CARTESIAN EQUALS SIGN|&#x1db10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN CONGRUENCE SIGN|&#x1db11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN CONGRUENCE SIGN WITH VERTICAL BAR|&#x1db12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN CONGRUENCE SIGN-2|&#x1db13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN INVERTED CONGRUENCE SIGN-2|&#x1db14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN INVERTED CONGRUENCE SIGN-2 WITH HORIZONTAL BAR|&#x1db15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN INVERTED CONGRUENCE SIGN-2 WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BAR|&#x1db16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN COINCIDENCE SIGN|&#x1db17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERTED LAZY S OVER LAZY S|&#x1db18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN SIMILARITY|&#x1db19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN SIMILARITY-2|&#x1db1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN DISSIMILARITY|&#x1db1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACIT SYMBOL|&#x1db1c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DB9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DBAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DBBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DBCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DBDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DBEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DBFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DC9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DCAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DCBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DCCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DCDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DCEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DCFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DD9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DDAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DDBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DDCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DDDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DDEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DDFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DE9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DEAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DEBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DECx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DEDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DEEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DEFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Latin Extended-G''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER FENG DIGRAPH WITH TRILL|&#x1df00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER REVERSED SCRIPT G|&#x1df01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED G|&#x1df02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER REVERSED K|&#x1df03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL L WITH BELT|&#x1df04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER LEZH WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED Y WITH BELT|&#x1df06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER REVERSED ENG|&#x1df07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED R WITH LONG LEG AND RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH HOOK AND RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER RETROFLEX CLICK WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER ESH WITH DOUBLE BAR|&#x1df0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER ESH WITH DOUBLE BAR AND CURL|&#x1df0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T WITH CURL|&#x1df0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER INVERTED GLOTTAL STOP WITH CURL|&#x1df0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER STRETCHED C WITH CURL|&#x1df0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED K|&#x1df10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH FISHHOOK|&#x1df11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER DEZH DIGRAPH WITH PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH BELT AND PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER ENG WITH PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED R WITH PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH FISHHOOK AND PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TESH DIGRAPH WITH PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER EZH WITH PALATAL HOOK|&#x1df18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER DEZH DIGRAPH WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH STROKE AND RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TESH DIGRAPH WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&#x1df1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH CURL|&#x1df1e;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&#x1df25;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&#x1df26;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&#x1df27;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&#x1df28;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&#x1df29;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&#x1df2a;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DF9x |style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH SMALL SLASH|&#x1df90;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH DESCENDING LOOP|&#x1df91;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH RIGHT LOOP|&#x1df92;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER D ROTUNDA WITH CROSSING LOOP|&#x1df93;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER R ROTUNDA WITH LOOP|&#x1df94;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LIGATURE LONG S WITH DESCENDER S|&#x1df95;}}||style="background:#c8a36f"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER LONG S WITH TOP LOOP|&#x1df96;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DFAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DFBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DFCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DFDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DFEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1DFFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} 15xn8iyp87i4l7p4mfxqgofft6zr9d3 0 82126 4632200 4313658 2026-04-25T09:05:13Z ~2026-25343-73 3579019 typo 4632200 wikitext text/x-wiki == Installing Haskell == Haskell is a ''programming language'', i.e. a language in which humans can express how computers should behave. It's like writing a cooking recipe: you write the recipe and the computer executes it. To use Haskell programs, you need a special program called a Haskell ''compiler''. A compiler takes code written in Haskell and translates it into ''machine code'', a more elementary language that the computer understands. Using the cooking analogy, you write a recipe (your Haskell program) and a cook (a compiler program) does the work of putting together actual ingredients into an edible dish (an executable file). Of course, you can't easily get the recipe from a final dish (and you can't get the Haskell code from the executable after it's compiled). To get started, visit [https://www.haskell.org/downloads haskell.org/downloads] for the latest instructions. The current recommended way is to use [https://haskell.org/ghcup GHCup]. Use it to install the latest recommended version of GHC, <code>cabal</code> (not <code>stack</code>), and the Haskell language server. You should use <code>cabal</code> to install any Haskell library you need. We will cover using <code>cabal</code> in depth in [[Haskell/Packaging]] {{body note|1= Linux users: '''It is heavily, heavily discouraged to install anything pertaining to Haskell using your system's package repositories and package manager (unless you're using Fedora or NixOS). Specifically distributions like Arch Linux and Debian manage Haskell packages very badly, and will lead to a bad experience with the tooling. Use GHCup and Cabal as noted above.''' }} To just test some Haskell basics without downloading and installing, there is a [https://play.haskell.org/ playground] which includes a few packages by default. Most instructions here on the Wikibook will also work on the playground, though it doesn't accept user input. == First code == After installation, we will do our first Haskell coding with the program called '''GHCi''' (the 'i' stands for 'interactive'). Depending on your operating system, perform the following steps: * On Windows: Click Start, then Run, then type 'cmd' and hit Enter, then type <code>ghci</code> and hit Enter once more. * On MacOS: Open the application "Terminal" found in the "Applications/Utilities" folder, type the letters <code>ghci</code> into the window that appears, and hit the Enter key. * On Linux: Open a terminal and run <code>ghci</code>. You should get output that looks something like the following: <pre> GHCi, version 8.10.7: http://www.haskell.org/ghc/ :? for help Prelude> </pre> The first bit is GHCi's version, and tells your how to get help in GHCi. The <code>Prelude&gt;</code> bit is known as the ''prompt''. This is where you enter commands, and GHCi will respond with their results. The prompt also tells you that the current loaded module is <code>Prelude</code>, which gives you access to most of the built-in functions. Now let's try some basic arithmetic: {{Haskell/GHCi|1= Prelude> 2 + 2 4 Prelude> 5 + 4 * 3 17 Prelude> 2 ^ 5 32 }} These operators match most other programming languages: <code>+</code> is addition, <code>*</code> is multiplication, and <code>^</code> is exponentiation (raising to the power of, or <math>a ^ b</math>). As shown in the second example, Haskell follows standard order of math operations (e.g. multiplication before addition). Now you know how to use Haskell as a calculator. Actually, Haskell is ''always'' a calculator — just a really powerful one, able to deal not only with numbers but also with other objects like characters, lists, functions, trees, and even other programs (if you aren't familiar with these terms yet, don't worry). To leave GHCi once you are done, use <code>:quit</code> (or just <code>:q</code>): {{Haskell/GHCi| Prelude> :quit Leaving GHCi. }} GHCi is a powerful development environment. As we progress, we will learn how to load files with source code into GHCi and evaluate different parts of them. Assuming you're clear on everything so far (if not, use the talk page and help us improve this Wikibook!), then you are ready for the next chapter where we will introduce some of the basic concepts of Haskell and make our first Haskell functions. {{Haskell navigation|chapter=Haskell Basics|noexercises=1}} {{Auto category}} {{Haskell/Interlanguage|ja|Haskell/Getting set up}} {{Haskell/Interlanguage|pt|Haskell/Instalação e aritmética}} 6u38eqtx9rf7hf2jd6xm6cuuz1rz6dw 0 89109 4632096 4612925 2026-04-24T17:19:06Z ~2026-25069-84 3578880 4632096 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Human Physiology}} This appendix does not provide answers to the review questions posted at the end of each chapter; it is a collection of questions provided at the end of each chapter. ==Homeostasis== {{TextBox| '''1. Meaning of Homeostasis:''' :A) contributor and provider :B) expand :C) same or constant :D) receiver {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) same or constant'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. What is the normal pH value for body fluid?''' :A) 7.15-7.25 :B) 7.35-7.45 :C) 7.55- 7.65 :D) 7.00-7.35 :E) 6.5-7.5 {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) 7.35-7.45'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. An example of the urinary system working with the respiratory system to regulate blood pH would be''' :A) When you hold your breath the kidneys will remove CO₂ from your blood :B) If you exercise a lot your urine will become more acidic :C) If you have emphysema the kidneys will remove fewer bicarbonate ions from circulation :D) If you hyperventilate the kidneys will counteract the alkalinity by adding hydrogen ions into the blood stream :E) None of the above-the urinary system never works with the respiratory system {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) If you have emphysema the kidneys will remove fewer bicarbonate ions from circulation'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. The urge to breathe comes in direct response to:''' :A) How long it has been since you last took a breath :B) The oxygen concentration of your surrounding environment :C) The build-up of nitrogen within your blood stream :D) The pH of your blood :E) The build-up of blood pressure that occurs when you don't breathe {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) The pH of your blood'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. In response to a bacterial infection my body's thermostat is raised. I start to shiver and produce more body heat. When my body temperature reaches 101 degrees, I stop shivering and my body temperature stops going up. This is an example of:''' :A) Negative feedback :B) A malfunctioning control system :C) Positive feedback :D) A negative impact {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) Negative feedback'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Which of the following is an example of a positive feedback?''' :A) Shivering to warm up in a cold winter storm :B) A cruise control set on your car applies more gas when going up a hill :C) You sweat on a hot summer's day and the blood vessels in your skin vasodilate :D) You get cut and platelets form a clot. This in turn activates the fibrin clotting system and more blood forms clots {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) You get cut and platelets form a clot. This in turn activates the fibrin clotting system and more blood forms clots'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Where is the body's "thermostat" found?''' :A) Within the nervous system, in the Hypothalamus :B) Within the integumentary system, in the skin :C) Within the brain, in the corpus callosum :D) Within the Urinary system, in the kidneys {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) Within the nervous system, in the Hypothalamus'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. What system has little to contribute to the homeostasis of the organism?''' :A) Urinary System :B) Reproductive System :C) Respiratory System :D) Nervous System {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) Reproductive System'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. Select the ''phrase(s)'' below that best describe(s) homeostasis.''' :A) Fluctuating within a homeostatic range :B) Maintaining a constant internal environment :C) Dynamic equilibrium :D) Deviating {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) Maintaining a constant internal environment'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. In which part of the nephron does ADH act?''' :A) PCT :B) DCT :C) Loop of Henle :D) None {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) DCT'''}} }} ==Cell physiology== {{TextBox| '''1. What is a cell?''' :A) The largest living units within our bodies :B) Enzymes that "eat" bacteria :C) Microscopic fundamental units of all living things :D) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. List two functions of the cell membrane''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''Separates internal metabolic events from the external environment.''' :'''Controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Match the following organelles with their function:''' {{Multicol}} :1. Mitochondria :2. Vacuoles :3. Cilia :4. Smooth ER :5. Golgi Apparatus {{Multicol-break}} :A) Movement of the cell :B) Lipid synthesis and transport :C) "Powerhouse" of the cell, makes ATP :D) Storage areas, mainly found in plant cells :E) Packages and distributes cellular products {{Multicol-end}} {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''1. Mitochondria -> C) "Powerhouse" of the cell, makes ATP''' :'''2. Vacuoles -> D) Storage areas, mainly found in plant cells''' :'''3. Cilia -> A) Movement of the cell''' :'''4. Smooth ER -> B) Lipid synthesis and transport''' :'''5. Golgi Apparatus -> E) Packages and distributes cellular products''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''4. The diffusion of H₂O across a semi permeable or selectively permeable membrane is termed''' :A) Active transport :B) Diffusion :C) Osmosis :D) Endocytosis {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Oxygen enters a cell via?''' :A) Diffusion :B) Filtration :C) Osmosis :D) Active transport {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. The term used to describe, "cell eating" is?''' :A) Exocytosis :B) Phagocytosis :C) Pinocytosis :D) DiffusionUpdate questions style and merge with answers {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Which of the following requires energy?''' :A) Diffusion :B) Osmosis :C) Active transport :D) Facilitated diffusion {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. Protein synthesis occurs at the''' :A) Mitochondria :B) Lysosomes :C) Within the nucleus :D) Ribosomes {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. Which of the following is not found in the cell membrane?''' :A) Cholesterol :B) Phospholipids :C) Proteins :D) Galactose :E) Nucleic acids {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==Integumentary System== {{TextBox| '''1. Name all of the parts of the integumentary system.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''The integumentary system consists of the skin, the subcutaneous tissue below the skin, hair, nails, and assorted glands.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Name the cells that produce melanin and describe its function.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''<u>Melanocytes</u>. These are cells located in the bottom layer of the skin's epidermis and in the middle layer of the eye, the uvea. Through a process called <u>melanogenesis</u>, these cells produce melanin, a pigment in the skin, eyes, and hair.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Name and describe the importance of the cutaneous senses.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''The cutaneous senses are touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain. Their purpose is to provide the central nervous system with information about the external environment and its effect on the skin.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Explain how sweating helps maintain normal body temperature.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''Eccrine sweat glands are coiled tubular glands derived from the outer layer of skin but extending into the inner layer. The sweat glands are controlled by sympathetic cholinergic nerves which are controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus senses core temperature directly, and also has input from temperature receptors in the skin and modifies the sweat output, along with other thermoregulatory processes.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Explain where on the body hair has important functions and describe these functions.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''Hair on the scalp provides insulation from cold for the head.''' :'''The hair of eyelashes and eyebrows helps keep dust and perspiration out of the eyes.''' :'''Hair in our nostrils helps keep dust out of the nasal cavities.''' :'''Any other hair on our bodies no longer serves a function, but is an evolutionary remnant.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''6. What is a melanoma?''' :A) The outermost layer of skin :B) A type of nail disease :C) A malignant tumor that originates in melanocytes :D) The lower most layer of skin {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''C) A malignant tumor that originates in melanocytes''' }} }} ==The Nervous System== {{TextBox| '''1. The junction between one neuron and the next, or between a neuron and an effector is called:''' :A) Synapse :B) Dendrite :C) Neurotransmitter :D) Ventricle :E) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. A fast excitatory synapses follows this order:''' :A) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (3) binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in. :B) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (3) binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and negative ions move in. :C) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor amino acid (3) binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in. :D) (1) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (2) neurotransmitter released (3) binding of the transmitter opens pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in. :E) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Resting potential is''' :A) Excess positive ions accumulate inside the plasma membrane :B) Excess negative ions accumulate inside the plasma membrane :C) Excess positive ions accumulate outside the plasma membrane :D) Both B & C :E) Both A & C {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Sensory neurons have:''' :A) Short dendrite and long axon :B) Short dendrite and short axon :C) Long dendrite and short axon :D) Long dendrite and long axon :E) Their axons and dendrites may be either long or short {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. ________blocks Acetylcholine receptor sites causing muscle relaxation.''' :A) Novocain :B) Curare :C) Nicotine :D) Nerve gases {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Transmission across a synapse is dependent on the release of _______?''' :A) Neurotransmitters :B) Synaptic vesicle :C) Neuromuscular tissue :D) Receptor proteins {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Motor neurons take messages''' :A) from the muscle fiber to the central nervous system :B) away from the central nervous system to the central nervous system :C) that are classified :D) away from the central nervous system to muscle fiber {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. The medulla oblongata helps to regulate which of the following:''' :A) Breathing :B) Heartbeat :C) Sneezing :D) Vomiting :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. The nervous systems main components are what?''' :A) Synapses and Spinal cord :B) Neurons and Synapses :C) Brain and Neurons :D) Brain and Spinal cord {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. Explain what LTP does to enhance communication between two neurons, on the postsynaptic end.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''More receptors, such as AMPA receptors, are added and existing ones are sensitized via phosphorylation. Dendritic spine number and surface area is increased as well.''' }} }} {{TextBox| '''11. Explain what LTP does to enhance communication between two neurons, on the presynaptic end.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop| :'''If the retrograde messenger theory is correct, presynaptic cells participate in the enhancement by increasing the probability of synaptic vesicle release. (Please remember the retrograde messenger is theoretical, I just thought it should be included here)''' }} }} == Senses Critical Thinking == === Vision === 1. Explain why you are normally unaware of your blind spot. :*Since your eyes are looking from different angles, they see each other's blind spot and your brain combines the two images. 2. Stare at a bright light for 10 seconds and then stare at a white sheet of paper. What do you observe and why? :*You should observe a negative afterimage. This happens when the rod/cone (mostly cone) cells in your eye adapt to the stimulus and lose their sensitivity, leaving you with the negative of the color that was adapted to. 3. What is it that makes things "disappear" when you are staring at them at night, and how do you make them reappear? :*There are no rods in the fovea, so little light is picked up when you stare directly at the object. To make it reappear, just don't look right at it. 4. Name what rods are sensitive to and also what cones are sensitive to. :*Rods are more sensitive to lower light levels, but lack color-seeing ability. Cones work in brighter light and perceive color (blue, green, red). 5. Explain how Deadly Nightshade works :*Normally, the parasympathetic nervous system constricts the pupil as needed with acetylcholine. The atropine in nightshade is a competitive agonist on the same receptor as the one that accepts acetylcholine. Basically: the atropine takes up all of the places for acetylcholine to bind, and the pupils dilate. === Hearing === 1. Explain how the pitch of sound is coded. How is the loudness of sound coded? 2. What do the three semicircular canals in the inner ear enable us to do? How do they accomplish this? :*Each of the three fluid filled canals is on a different plane. Movement is detected on these planes when the fluid inside moves around, vibrating cilia on the cupula which sends it on to the brain. 3. What does the eustachian tube do? What does the eustachian tube have to do with a middle ear infection? :*The eustachian tube is to keep pressure in the middle ear the same as atmospheric pressure. If the tube is blocked, the gases in the ear will diffuse back into the surrounding tissues and a vacuum will be made. Eventually, this will pull fluid in and if it becomes infected... You have an ear infection. 4. What is the advantage of having a oval window? Sound transducted from air to a more dense medium (endolymph, in scala media where the organ of cortis is placed) would be partially reflected and greatly weakened if not for the ossicular bones that transfer the vibration from membrana tymphani trough malleus, incus and stapes to the foramen ovale where it puts the liquids of cochlea in motion. This motion is then transferred trough membrana vestibularis to membrana basilaris, which in turn puts the haircells in motion. This leads to a bending of the stereocills, fastened to membrana tectori, and as a result; a depolarization of the afferent sensory fibre receptor of n. cochlearis through release of glutamate. The loss of energy in transduction is partially re-gained by the size of membr. tympani compared to the size of foramen ovale and the rotation of the ossicular bones. == Senses == {{TextBox| '''1. Located under the hardest bone in the body, these control not only hearing but also a sense of gravity and motion:''' :A) The incus and the stapes :B) The pinna and the ear drum :C) The vestibular nerve and the semicircular canals :D) The eustachian tube and the stapes {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. The retina does the following''' :A) allows vision in light and dark, using cones and rods :B) Gives depth perception using binocular vision :C) Contains the ciliary muscles that control the shape of the lens :D) Protects and supports the shape of the eye {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. This is the reason that we stop feeling the clothes that we are wearing''' :A) Merkel’s Discs are somewhat rigid in structure, and the fact that they are not encapsulated, causes them to have a sustained response :B) Meissner’s corpuscle are rapidly adapting or phasic, the action potentials generated quickly decrease and eventually cease :C) Ruffini corpuscles is a class of slowly adapting mechanoreceptor :D) Pacinian corpuscles allow sodium ions to influx in, creating a receptor potential {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. When eating a piece of candy, I will use the following to sense that it is sweet''' :A) Fungiform papillae :B) Filiform papillae :C) Foliate papillae :D) Circumvallate papillae :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. If I have a cold, food may not taste as good to me because''' :A) The nerve fibrils are not functioning properly :B) My food will taste the same; taste and smell have nothing in common :C) Papilla become blocked by mucus and are unable to function :D) Olfaction, taste and trigeminal receptors together contribute to the flavor of my food {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Walking from a well lit room into a dark room would cause the following to occur''' :A) The sclera in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark :B) The extraocular muscles in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark :C) The cones in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark :D) the rods in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Hair cells in the ear''' :A) Are the actual sensory receptors that will fire off action potentials when they are disturbed :B) Show a graded response, instead of the spikes typical of other neurons :C) “Rub” against the overhanging tectorial membrane :D) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. Eyesight decreases with age because''' :A) Older eyes receive much less light at the retina :B) There are numerous eye diseases that can affect an older eye :C) The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age :D) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. Teens walking off of a roller coaster in Magic Mountain seem to have vertigo because''' :A) The fluid in the auricle has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision :B) the fluid in the cochlea has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision :C) The fluid in the tympanic membrane has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision :D) The fluid in the stirrup has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. These receptors react to foods treated with monosodium glutamate''' :A) Salt :B) Sour :C) Bitter :D) Sweet :E) Umami {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. What senses fall under the category of chemoreception?''' :A) Hearing and smell :B) Touch and hearing :C) Vision and taste :D) Taste and smell {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==The Muscular System== {{TextBox| '''1. Smooth Muscle is''' :A) Voluntary and Spindle Shaped :B) Voluntary and Striated :C) Involuntary and Spindle Shaped :D) Involuntary and Striated {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Skeletal Muscle is''' :A) Voluntary and Spindle Shaped :B) Voluntary and Striated :C) Involuntary and Spindle Shaped :D) Involuntary and Striated {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Cardiac Muscle is''' :A) Voluntary and Spindle Shaped :B) Voluntary and Striated :C) Involuntary and Spindle Shaped :D) Involuntary and Striated {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Which type of muscle cell is multinucleated?''' :A) Cardiac :B) Smooth :C) Skeletal :D) All of the Above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. What is an example of a smooth muscle?''' :A) Masseter (Face) :B) Bladder :C) Heart :D) Pronator Teres (Forearm) :E) Rectus Abdominis (belly) {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Each myosin filament is surrounded by ____ actin filaments.''' :A) Two :B) Four :C) Six :D) Eight :E) Seven {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. The muscular system is controlled by what system?''' :A) The cardiovascular system :B) The integumentary System :C) The Nervous system :D) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. How many types of muscle are there?''' :A) Two :B) Three (cardiac, smooth and skeletal) :C) Four :D) Five {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==Blood physiology== {{TextBox| '''1. Taking aspirin every day can reduce the risk of heart disease because:''' :A) it is a powerful vasodilator :B) it blocks pain receptors in heart tissue :C) it stops ventricular fibrillation :D) it loosens plaque on arterial walls :E) it prevents platelet clumping {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''E) it prevents platelet clumping'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. A hematocrit measures percentage of:''' :A) White blood cells :B) Plasma :C) Platelets :D) Red blood cells {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) Red blood cells'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Fred's blood type is O- and Ginger's is B+. Fred and Ginger have a son who is AB+. What do you conclude?''' :A) If they have a second child Ginger needs to have RhoGam shot :B) There is no risk to a second child, unless it has a negative blood type :C) If the child needs a blood transfusion Fred could provide it safely, but not Ginger :D) Fred is not the boy’s father {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) Fred is not the boy’s father'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Which blood component plays the largest role in maintaining the osmotic pressure of blood?''' :A) albumin :B) carbon dioxide :C) white blood cells :D) fibrinogen :E) globulins {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) albumin'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. If you hold your breath for one minute''' :A) The kidneys will increase sodium ion reabsorption :B) Hydrogen-ion concentration in the blood will increase :C) Your heart rate will greatly slow :D) Hemoglobin will bind to oxygen more strongly {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) Hydrogen-ion concentration in the blood will increase'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Most of the carbon dioxide produced by tissues is transported to the lungs as:''' :A) Small gas bubbles in the plasma :B) Gas bound to hemoglobin in the red blood cells :C) Bicarbonate ions in the plasma :D) Gas bound to white blood cells and albumin :E) Gas transported through the lymphatic system {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) Bicarbonate ions in the plasma'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. To prevent blood loss after a tissue injury, blood vessels first''' :A) Form a platelet plug :B) Form a clot :C) Initiate the coagulation cascade :D) Constrict and form barriers {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) Constrict and form barriers'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. You take a blood sample from a male cyclist at the end of a long race. The hematocrit is 60%. The most likely conclusion is:''' :A) This is within normal range for most adult males :B) This cyclist is anemic :C) This low of a hematocrit could indicate liver damage or leukemia :D) The cyclist is dehydrated :E) The cyclist has been taking pharmaceutical erythropoietin {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) The cyclist is dehydrated'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. In a normal blood sample, which of the following cells will be the most abundant?''' :A) Neutrophils :B) Basophils :C) Eosinophils :D) Monocytes :E) Lymphocytes {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) Neutrophils'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. A bag of donated blood does not clot because''' :A) There is not enough oxygen :B) It cannot dry out :C) It is kept refrigerated :D) There is no free calcium :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. What is the primary function of blood?'''' :A) Supply nutrients to tissues :B) Remove waste products :C) To keep your body at one consistent temperature :D) A and B :E) B and C {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''12. What is the main component of the Red blood cell?''' :A) Albumin :B) Globulins :C) Hemoglobin :D) Nucleus {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==The cardiovascular system== {{TextBox| '''1. This conducts electricity like nerves''' :A) Epicardium :B) Pericardium :C) Myocardium :D) Subvalaular Apparatus :E) None of these, only nerves conduct electricity {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. This carries the most blood at any given time in the body''' :A) Veins :B) Capillary Beds :C) Veins :D) Aorta :E) Vena Cava {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. The following contract together to pump blood''' :A) Right atrium with the right ventricle and left atrium with the left ventricle :B) Right atrium with left atrium and right ventricles with left ventricle :C) Tricuspid valve and mitral valve :D) Aorta and pulmonary artery :E) Aorta, pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. This is the pacemaker of the heart''' :A) AV node :B) Purkinje fibers :C) AV Bundle :D) SA node :E) None of these, a pacemaker is surgically inserted {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. When reading an EKG, this letter shows the depolarization from the AV node down to the AV bundle''' :A) S :B) P :C) U :D) T :E) Q {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. The T wave in an EKG shows''' :A) Resting potential :B) Atrial depolarization :C) SA node excitation :D) Ventricle repolarization :E) Purkinje Excitation {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Blood pressure is the measure of pressure exerted by the blood on''' :A) Walls of the blood vessels :B) Arteries :C) Veins :D) Aorta {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. Systolic Pressure is''' :A) An average of 120 mm Hg :B) Lowers steadily during ventricle systole :C) The highest when blood is being pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta :D) An average of 80 mm Hg :E) Both A and C :F) Both B and D {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. The heart has how many chambers?''' :A) One :B) Two :C) Three :D) Four (two ventricles and two atria) :E) Five {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) Four (two ventricles and two atria)'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. End diastolic volume in human''' :A)120mL :B)50mL :C)70mL :D)100mL {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==The Immune System== {{TextBox| '''1. When neutrophils and macrophages squeeze out of capillaries to fight off infection it is called:''' :A) phagocytosis :B) hemolysis :C) interleukin :D) diapedesis :E) folliculitis {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. During a great battle between your WBC's and an aggressive microbe, an inflammatory response has been initiated. Reddness and edema has kicked in what else does the body do to protect itself?''' :A) Histamine cause vasodilation :B) Hypothalmus raises the thermostat :C) Neutrophils engulf and destroy the microbe :D) Living and dead WBC and bacteria accumulate :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Specificity and memory are associated with which body defense mechanism?''' :A) inflammatory response :B) phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils :C) interferon :D) T cell and B cell responses :E) anatomical barriers in the body {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. An additional chemical defense found in tears and saliva?''' :A) T lymphocytes :B) saline :C) lysozyme :D) EFC {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Which of the following does complement protein perform''' :A) They cause antibody release :B) T cell development :C) The release if histamine :D) Promotes tissue repair :E) Mast cell degranulation {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Which substance induces fever?''' :A) Pyrogen :B) Pus :C) Monocytes :D) Edema :E) Interferon {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Major function(s) of the lymphatic system is/are?''' :A) provide route for return of extracellular fluid :B) act as drain off for inflammatory response :C) render surveillance, recognition , and protection against foreign materials via lymphocytes, phagocytes, and antibodies. :D) a and c :E) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. An antigen is:''' :A) a chemical messenger that is released by virus infected cells :B) a lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity :C) something that coats the inside of lungs, causing infection :D) a protein or other molecule that is recognized as non-self :E) a thick yellow-white fluid {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. A foreign substance, usually a protein, that stimulates the immune system to react, such as by producing antibodies is a ______________.''' :A) allergen :B) antigen :C) histamine :D) mast cell :E) interferon {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. When a macrophage ingests an invading bacteria and takes the antigen to a lymph node, what happens next?''' :A) the macrophage will present it to the first B-cell it encounters, and the B-cell will in turn change its surface receptors to match the antigen :B) a B-cell will only become activated if it already has a match for the antigen :C) a matching B-cell will become activated into a cytotoxic T-cell :D) the cells of the lymph node will release histamine :E) the lymph node will increase production of neutrophils {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. What is the most common portal of entry for diseases, into the body?''' :A) Respiratory system :B) Endocrine system :C) Hematacrit system :D) Any opening into the body. {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''12. This gland shrinks in size during adulthood, and has hormones that function in maturation of T-lymphocytes:''' :A) lymph nodes :B) thymus :C) spleen :D) GALT :E) tonsils {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''13. Which of the following is not a mechanical factor to protect the skin and mucous membranes from infection?''' :A) Layers of cells :B) Tears :C) Saliva :D) Lysozyme :E) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''14. Where is the site of maturation for a B cell?''' :A) thymus :B) bone marrow :C) pancreas :D) cortex {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''15. Nonspecific resistance is''' :A) The body's ability to ward off diseases. :B) The body's defenses against any kind of pathogen. :C) The body's defense against a particular pathogen. :D) The lack of resistance. :E) None of the above. {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''16. What is an Antibody?''' :A) An antimicrobial substance applied to a living tissue to prevent infection. :B) Programmed cell death :C) A protein generated by the immune system in response to a foreign substance. :D) A chemical involved in inflammation. {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==The Urinary System== {{TextBox| '''1. While reading a blood test I notice a high level of creatinine, I could assume from this that''' :A) There is a possibility of a UTI :B) There is a possibility of diabetes :C) There is a possibility of kidney failure :D) There is nothing wrong, this is normal {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) There is a possibility of kidney failure'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Direct control of water excretion in the kidneys is controlled by''' :A) Anti-diuretic hormone :B) The medulla oblongata :C) Blood plasma :D) Sodium amounts in the blood :E) Cells {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) Anti-diuretic hormone'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Nephron''' :A) Eliminate wastes from the body :B) Regulate blood volume and pressure :C) Control levels of electrolytes and metabolites :D) Regulate blood pH :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''E) All of the above'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. If I am dehydrated, my body will increase''' :A) ATP :B) CDP :C) Diluted urine :D) ADH :E) ADP {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) CDP'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Which part of the nephron removes water, ions and nutrients from the blood?''' :A) vasa recta :B) loop of henle :C) proximal convoluted tubule :D) peritubular capillaries :E) glomerulus {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''E) glomerulus'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Kidneys have a direct effect on which of the following''' :A) Blood pressure :B) How much water a person excretes :C) Total blood volume :D) pH :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''E) All of the above'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Why do substances in the glomerulus enter the Bowman's capsule?''' :A) the magnetic charge of the Bowman's capsule attracts the substances :B) the substances are actively transported into the Bowman's capsule :C) blood pressure of the glomerulus is so great that most substances in blood move into capsule {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) blood pressure of the glomerulus is so great that most substances in blood move into capsule'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. What happens in tubular excretion?''' :A) urine bonds are formed between the wastes :B) wastes are diffused from the tubule :C) wastes move into the distal convoluted tubule from the blood :D) blood pressure forces wastes away from the kidney {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) wastes move into the distal convoluted tubule from the blood'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. The countercurrent exchange system includes_________and_________.''' :A) glomerulus and macula densa :B) proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule :C) loop of Henle and collecting tubule :D) afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole :E) ureters and bladder {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) glomerulus and macula densa'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. The function of the loop of the nephron in the process of urine formation is:''' :A) reabsorption of water :B) production of filtrate :C) reabsorption of solutes :D) secretion of solutes {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) reabsorption of water'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. Name the six important roles of the kidneys.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==The respiratory system== {{TextBox| '''1. This is total lung capacity''' :A) Vital capacity :B) Tidal volume :C) Expiratory reserve volume :D) Inspiratory reserve volume {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) Vital capacity'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Involuntary breathing is caused by the''' :A) Pituitary gland :B) Exocrine gland :C) Cerebral cortex :D) Medulla oblongata :E) Endocrine gland {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) Medulla oblongata'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Carbon monoxide is dangerous because''' :A) It binds strongly to hemoglobin, making it unavailable to oxygen :B) It binds strongly to plasma, making it unavailable to carbon dioxide :C) It raises the blood’s pH level, causing a person to hyperventilate :D) Carbon monoxide is not harmfull, we have it in our bodies normally {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) It binds strongly to hemoglobin, making it unavailable to oxygen'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Clubbing of the fingers could be a sign of''' :A) A viral infection :B) An upper respiratory infection :C) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease :D) Nothing, it’s inherited {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. The need to breathe is caused by''' :A) A decrease in blood pH :B) An increase in blood pH :C) A decrease in blood oxygen levels :D) A decrease in carbon dioxide levels {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A) A decrease in blood pH'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. A person more susceptible to Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease would be''' :A) A long time smoker :B) A long time fireman :C) A child whose parents smoke :D) A farmer that deals with pesticides :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''E) All of the above'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. The exchange of gases between the blood within the capillaries and tissue fluid surrounding the body's cells is called?''' :A) external respiration :B) cell metabolism :C) cellular respiration :D) internal respiration {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) internal respiration'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. The medulla oblongata and pons regulate and measure what?''' :A) The pH level of your blood :B) Your body temperature :C) The amount of O2 in your blood :D) The amount of air in your lungs {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. About how many alveoli are there in the lungs?''' :A) 300 million :B) 300 billion :C) 300 trillion :D) 300 thousand :E) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. In relation to atmospheric pressure, intrapleural pressure is:''' :A) more pressurized :B) less pressurized :C) about the same {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) less pressurized'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. Hemoglobin gives up oxygen when the environment is more _______''' :A) Acidic :B) Alkaline :C) Icey :D) Open {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''A)Acidic'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''12. The sac that surrounds your lungs is called what?''' :A) Diaphragm :B) Visceral Pleura :C) Pulmonary Thorax :D) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''B) Visceral Pleura'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''13. In what cellular organelle is the oxygen actually consumed and carbon dioxide produced?''' :A) Nucleus :B) Cytoplasm :C) Microfilaments :D) Mitochondria {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''14. Which of these are protective reflexes?''' :A) Hiccuping :B) Sobbing :C) Sneezing :D) Itching {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''15. Where does gas exchange take place?''' :A) Bronchioles :B) Conchae :C) Pulmonary Capillaries :D) Roots of the Lungs {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''16. When you hyperventilate you release large amounts of CO2 and drop your O2 levels. As a result you loose the urge to breathe and may pass out. This is called what?''' :A) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease :B) Asthma :C) Shallow water black out :D) Pulmonary Fibrosis {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) Shallow water black out'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''17. Acidosis is when you blood pH is below?''' :A) 7.05 :B) 7.15 :C) 7.25 :D) 7.35 {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) 7.35'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''18. When we exhale deeply some air is still left in the lungs, this air left is called?''' :A) Tidal Volume :B) Vital Capacity :C) Expiratory reserve Volume :D) Residual Volume {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''D) Residual Volume'''}} }} ==The gastrointestinal system== {{TextBox| '''1. This is released in the duodenum in response to acidic chyme''' :A) Cholecystokinin :B) Gastrin :C) Secretin :D) Peptide {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''C) Secretin'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. In the GI tract, this layer is responsible for absorption and secretions''' :A) Mucosa :B) Sub mucosa :C) Muscularis :D) Serosa {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. This digestive enzyme is produced in the salivary glands and the pancreas''' :A) Maltase :B) Amylase :C) Pepsin :D) Nuclease :E) Lipase {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. This keeps the chyme in the stomach until it reaches the right consistency to pass into the small intestine''' :A) Esophageal sphincter :B) Intrinsic sphincter :C) Cardiac sphincter :D) Pyloric sphincter {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. The site where most of the chemical and mechanical digestion is carried out''' :A) Pylorus :B) Fundus :C) Stomach :D) Large intestine :E) Small intestine {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Parietal cells secret''' :A) Serotonin :B) Mucus :C) Pepsinogen :D) Hydrochloric Acid :E) Gastrin {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. The cells at the base of fundic or oxyntic glands''' :A) Chief cells :B) G cells :C) Argentaffin cells :D) Goblet cells :E) Parietal cells {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach is controlled by''' :A) Nervous system :B) Pancreas :C) Various digestive system hormones :D) Liver :E) Both the nervous system and various digestive system hormones {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. The function of the Ileum is''' :A) Absorb nutrients :B) Absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts :C) To introduce bile and pancreatic juices :D) Absorb alcohol and aspirin {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. The liver does this''' :A) Glycogen storage :B) Plasma protein synthesis :C) Bile production :D) Drug detoxification :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. How many layers is the G.I tract composed of?''' :A)Two :B)Three :C)Four (mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa) :D)Five {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''12. Name the 7 accessory organs.''' :Salivary glands, parotid gland, submandibular gland, sublingual gland, tongue, teeth, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, vermiform appendix {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==Nutrition== {{TextBox| '''1. Nonessential amino acids''' :A) are stored in the body :B) are only needed occasionally :C) can be produced in the body :D) can be taken in supplements {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Micronutrients include''' :A) minerals and vitamins :B) lipids and fatty acids :C) amino acids and proteins :D) vitamins and minerals {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. The body requires amino acids to''' :A) produce new red blood cells :B) produce new protein :C) replace damaged red blood cells :D) replace damaged protein :E) A and C :F) B and D {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. The function of lipids''' :A) store energy :B) organ protection :C) temperature regulator :D) emulsifiers :E) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. This vitamin is a vital component of the reproductive process and lowers the risk of getting cancer''' :A) B12 :B) Folic Acid :C) Niacin :D) Thiamine :E) Retinol {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. This vitamin is needed to make red blood cells''' :A) B1 :B) B2 :C) B6 :D) B12 {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. This participates in the synthesis of hemoglobin and melanin''' :A) Copper :B) Chloride :C) Calcium :D) Iron :E) Iodine {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. I go to visit my grandmother and see that she has multiple bruises- from this I may assume that''' :A) she has a vitamin A deficiency :B) she is old and just clumsy :C) she has a vitamin K deficiency :D) she has scurvy :E) she has rickets {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. As a pirate I may get scurvy because''' :A) I am not getting enough vegetables on the ship :B) I am not getting enough fruit on the ship :C) I am eating too much fish on the ship :D) I am getting too much sun on the ship :E) I am drinking too much rum on the ship {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. I am taking anticoagulant medication and it doesn't seem to be working, this could be because''' :A) I have too much vitamin A :B) I have too much B12 :C) I have too much sodium :D) I have too much vitamin E :E) I have too much vitamin K {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. Which of these are fat soluble?''' :A) Vitamin K :B) Vitamin E :C) Vitamin D :D) Vitamin A :E) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==The endocrine system== {{TextBox| '''1. My child just fell and was hurt, the anxious feeling that I feel is caused by''' :A) glucagon :B) insulin :C) epinephrine :D) adrenocorticotropic :E) None of these {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. All of Bob’s life he has had to take insulin shots, this is caused because''' :A) his beta cells don’t function correctly :B) his alpha cells don’t function correctly :C) his DA hormone isn’t functioning correctly :D) his GHRH hormone isn’t functioning correctly {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. The reason iodine is in salt is''' :A) to prevent diabetes :B) to prevent simple goiters :C) to prevent addison’s disease :D) to prevent cushing syndrome {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. All hormones react to a negative feedback except''' :A) progesterone :B) estrogen :C) prolactin :D) oxytocin :E) none of these {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. If I have a high blood calcium level it may be due to''' :A) calcitonin :B) parathyroid :C) glucocorticoids :D) glucagon {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Hormones that are lipids that are synthesized from cholesterol''' :A) protien :B) amino acid-derived :C) polypeptide :D) steroids :E) eicosanoids {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. This type of hormone must bind to a receptor protein on the plasma membrane of the cell''' :A) water soluble :B) lipid soluble :C) steroid :D) polypeptide :E) a and d :F) b and c {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. Endocrine glands release hormones in response to''' :A) Hormones from other endocrine glands :B) Chemical characteristics of the blood :C) Neural stimulation :D) All of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. The anterior pituitary secretes''' :A) oxytocin :B) endorphins :C) ADH :D) TRH {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. Chief cells produce''' :A) epinephrine :B) glucagon :C) insulin :D) mineralocoticoids :E) parathyroid hormone {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. Name the eight major endocrine glands.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas, testes/ovaries, adrenal gland, pineal gland'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''12. Name the four major groups hormones can be chemically classified into.''' {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|:'''Amino acid-derived, polypeptides/proteins, steroids, eicosanoids, glycoprotein, amines'''}} }} ==The male reproductive system== {{TextBox| '''1. This is needed to make immature sperm mature''' :A) Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) :B) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) :C) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) :D) Testosterone {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''B) Luteinizing Hormone (LH), C) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), & D) Testosterone'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. This part of the penis becomes engorged with blood in an erection''' :A) corpora cavernosum :B) fibrous envelope :C) septum pectiniforme :D) integument :E) dorsal veins {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''A) corpora cavernosum'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. What percentage (%) of semen originates from the seminal vesicles?''' :A) 2-5% :B) <1% :C) 65-75% :D) 25-30% {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''C) 65-75%'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. The entire process of sperm formation takes about''' :A) 5-6 weeks :B) 7-8 weeks :C) 3-4 weeks :D) 9-10 weeks {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''D) 9-10 weeks'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Hyper activation occurs when''' :A) the sperm are introduced into the urethra :B) the sperm are ejaculated into the vaginal canal :C) the sperm begin to interact with the fertilizing layer of an egg cell :D) the sperm reach the cervix {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''C) the sperm begin to interact with the fertilizing layer of an egg cell'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. It takes sperm ___________ weeks to travel through the epididymis''' :A) 6-8 :B) 1-3 :C) 2-4 :D) 4-6 {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''D) 4-6'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. While singing in the choir, Ben suddenly notices his voice is constantly cracking. This is caused by''' :A) puberty :B) LH :C) estrogen :D) androgens {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''A) puberty & D) androgens'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. In sexual homology, the glans penis in the male is equal to _____________ in the female''' :A) clitoral hood :B) clitoris :C) clitoral glans :D) clitoral crura {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''B) clitoris'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. In sexual homology, the ___________ in the male is equal to the fallopian tubes in the female''' :A) testis :B) appendix testis :C) vas deferens :D) seminal vesicle :E) efferent ducts {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''B) appendix testis'''}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. Joe has a bulge in the groin area that seems to get worse when he lifts things. This most likely is''' :A) epididymitis :B) testicular cancer :C) varicocele :D) hydrocele :E) inguinal hernia {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|'''E) inguinal hernia'''}} }} ==The female reproductive system== {{TextBox| '''1. In homology, the __________ in the female is equal to the penis in the male''' :A) labia majora :B) clitoral hood :C) clitoris :D) labia minora :E) none of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. This contains some of the strongest muscles in the human body''' :A) uterus :B) clitoris :C) cervix :D) labia majora {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. This protects the vaginal and urethral openings''' :A) labia majora :B) labia minora :C) clitoris :D) urethra {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Sally has noticed that her cervical mucus has changed and now resembles egg whites- from this Sally could assume''' :A) her period will begin soon :B) nothing, this is a normal occurrence :C) she has a yeast infection :D) she is ovulating {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Debbie recently went to the OBGYN and was diagnosed with PCOD (polycystic ovary syndrome) because of this she has''' :A) nothing, its normal in women :B) antisperm antibodies :C) an overproduction of LH :D) leaking of milk from her mammary glands :E) problems becoming pregnant {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Angie went to the doctor because she has had pain in her leg recently- this could be caused by''' :A) ovulation pain :B) her period that will be starting tomorrow :C) premenstrual syndrome :D) a blood clot resulting from her birth control pill {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Sue recently started her period and has noticed that they are very heavy and painful, and that they are inconsistent in their timing. One explanation could be''' :A) endometriosis :B) ovarian cancer :C) candidiasis :D) toxic shock syndrome :E) amenorrhea {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. Mary is getting married and is not ready to become a mother- she chooses this birth control because of its high effectiveness''' :A) natural family planning :B) a diaphragm :C) contraceptive injections :D) a spermicide foam {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. The release of LH in woman causes''' :A) menstruation :B) ovulation :C) increase of endometrial lining :D) decrease of endometrial lining :E) nothing LH only does something in the male reproductive system {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. When the ovaries stop producing estrogen, this occurs''' :A) ovulation :B) implantation :C) premenstrual syndrome :D) menopause {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. Infertility affects what percentage of couples?''' :A) 5% :B) 10% :C) 15% :D) 20% {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''12. What is the only 100% effective form of birth control?''' :A) Tubal ligation :B) IUD :C) Natural family planning :D) Abstinence {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==Pregnancy and birth== {{TextBox| '''1. Is at this stage that an egg implants in the uterine lining''' :A) morula :B) zygote :C) blastocyst :D) embryoblast {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Which part of the embryoblast will become the central nervous system in development''' :A) ectoderm :B) mesoderm :C) endoderm {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. This hormone is only produced in the human body when a woman is pregnant''' :A) estrogen :B) HCG :C) progesterone :D) FSH :E) LH {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. By this week of pregnancy, the beginnings of all major organs have formed''' :A) 4 :B) 7 :C) 5 :D) 6 :E) 8 {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Stem cells are found in the embryoblast and use of them is very controversial, another place to find stem cells that are usable to treat leukemia and other disorders is the''' :A) morula :B) chorion :C) amnion :D) amniotic fluid :E) umbilical cord {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. The cervix dilates on an average of ______ per hour in the active phase of labor''' :A) 1 mm :B) 2 mm :C) 1 cm :D) 2 cm {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. The contractions of the uterus are stimulated by the release of''' :A) oxytocin :B) FSH :C) LH :D) prolactin :E) estrogen {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. A sign of pre-labor is''' :A) irregular contractions :B) pain in the front only :C) loss of the mucus plug :D) contractions stop during rest {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. This is the most common complication of pregnancy''' :A) preclampcia :B) miscarriage :C) smoking :D) Rh factor :E) teratogens {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. Sue decides to breastfeed because she has been told that colostrum contains''' :A) high protein :B) low fat :C) immunoglobulins :D) all of the above :E) none of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''11. What is the first milk, after birth, called?''' :A) thrush :B) mastitis :C) colostrum :D) milk let down {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==Genetics and inheritance== {{TextBox| '''1. DNA is found on''' :A) mitochondria :B) ribosomes :C) chromosomes :D) cytoplasm :E) endoplasmic reticulum {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. Even though each cell has identical copies of all of the same genes, different cells __________ or ___________ different genes''' :A) express, repress :B) genotype, phenotype :C) dominate, recessive {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. In diploid organisms, a dominant allele on one chromosome will''' :A) show the expression of a recessive allele :B) mask the expression of a recessive allele :C) show that there are dominant alleles on both chromosomes :D) none of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. Transcription occurs in the''' :A) cytoplasm :B) golgi apparatus :C) mitochondria :D) nucleus {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. This is the start codon and is found at the beginning of each mRNA''' :A) AGU :B) GAU :C) UAG :D) GUA :E) AUG {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. Sara was born with cystic fibrosis, from this we could assume that''' :A) all of her siblings also have cystic fibrosis :B) only her dad is a carrier :C) only her mom is a carrier :D) both of her parents are carriers {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Jesse was born with a flattened face, almond eyes and less muscle tone; it could be assumed that he has''' :A) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 21 :B) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 19 :C) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 20 :D) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 22 :E) No chromosome abnormality, these are his inherited traits {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. The most common inherited disease is''' :A) hemochromatosis :B) cystic fibrosis :C) sickle cell anemia :D) hemophilia :E) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. Being a carrier of sickle cell anemia means that the person will''' :A) also be a carrier of hemophilia :B) be resistant to malaria :C) have children that all have sickle cell anemia :D) have children that all have malaria :E) none of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. Hemophilia is''' :A) a Y linked disease :B) an XY linked disease :C) an X linked disease {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} ==Development: birth through death== {{TextBox| '''1. Growth is the most rapid in''' :A) puberty :B) childhood :C) infancy :D) adulthood :E) Growth is always the same {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''2. This hormone stimulates puberty''' :A) GnRH :B) LH :C) FSH :D) TSH {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''3. Compared to girls' early growth spurt, growth __________in boys and __________''' :A) is quicker, lasts longer :B) accelerates more slowly, lasts longer :C) is slower, shorter :D) None of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''4. This quality symbolizes adulthood in most cultures''' :A) stability :B) method/tact :C) endurance :D) objectivity :E) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''5. Susie has a very hard time keeping friends, according to Maslow, this could be because''' :A) as a child she had a supportive family :B) she likes to help solve the problems of others :C) as a teenager her self-esteem was low :D) as a baby she wasn’t breastfed :E) as a child she lived in an environment that never made her feel safe {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''6. According to Maslow, in order for me to reach my full potential of self-actualization I must first''' :A) feel safe :B) gain self-esteem :C) have friendship :D) have food :E) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''7. Humans are one of the _________ developing species in the animal kingdom''' :A) slowest :B) quickest :C) average :D) none of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''8. Jenny thinks that she might be going through menopause, a symptom of this is''' :A) bleeding :B) frequent urination :C) itchiness :D) none of the above :E) all of the above {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''9. It is estimated that 52 million people will be afflicted with this by 2010''' :A) Progeria :B) osteoporosis :C) Alzheimer’s :D) dementia {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} {{TextBox| '''10. This is the leading cause of death for both men and women''' :A) progeria :B) cancer :C) congestive heart failure :D) osteoporosis :E) heart attack {{Human Physiology/QuizDrop|Currently answer is not known. Please help to improve book}} }} 33zle5zrdgf80pzv7e7zjb2u2iws8tg 0 100975 4632207 4631708 2026-04-25T10:07:19Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632207 wikitext text/x-wiki {{honor_header|1|Unknown|Nature|South Pacific Division}} ==1. What is the approximate number of named varieties of wattles in Australia? == There are roughly 1300 species of Wattles worldwide,JPG|thumb|220px|Acacia koa with phyllode between the branch and the compound leaves]] Phyllodes are modified leaf stems (also called ''petioles''). In some plants, the petioles become flattened and widened, and the true leaves may become reduced or vanish altogether. Thus, the phyllode comes to serve the purpose of the leaf. Phyllodes are common in the genus ''Acacia'', especially the Australian species, at one time put in Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae. Sometimes, especially on younger plants, partially formed phyllodes bearing reduced leaves can be seen. In ''Acacia koa'', the phyllodes are leathery and thick, allowing the tree to survive stressful environments. The petiole allows partially submerged aquatic plants to have leaves floating at different depths; the petiole being between the node and the stem. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. Phyllodes are important in the study of Acacias because they are distinctive and can therefore be used to determine which species an Acacia belongs to. :''Phyllode details are important as they are used as "key" characters in identification. Some important things to note are size and shape of the phyllodes, the type and number of veins, whether penni- or net-veins, length of leaf stalk and gland position.'' - Marion Simmons, Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants (ASGAP) ==3. How are acacias classified into two major groups? == Acacia leaves come in two major forms: bipinnate, and phyllodes. <gallery perrow=3 widths=220> Image:Acacia-seyal-leaves.jpg|''Acacia seyal'', showing bipinnate leaves Image:Acacia leprosa1.jpg|''Acacia leprosa'', showing phyllodes Image:Acacia koa with phyllode between the branch and the compound leaves.JPG|''Acacia koa'' showing both phyllodes and bipinnate foliage </gallery> Pinnate leaves are compound, consisting of leaflets. The word ''pinnate'' comes from the Latin word ''pinna'' for "feather". In fact, the word ''pen'' shares this origin, as the first ink pens were made from feathers. In bipinnnate leaves, the leaflets have leaflets of their own, as in the top image to the right. Phyllodes are modified petioles (leaf stems). In some plants, the petioles become flattened and widened, and the true leaves may become reduced or vanish altogether. Thus, the phyllode comes to serve the purpose of the leaf. Some Acacia's have bipinnate foliage at the ends of the phyllodes. These are usually classed with the acacias with phyllodes. ==4. How does the shape of the seed pod and the way the seeds lie in the pod help in identification? == Some species of acacia are difficult to tell apart. They may be identical in every other outward appearance, but have starkly (or subtly) different seed pods. For example ''Acacia farnesiana'' and ''Acacia pulchella'' look very much alike, but the seed pods are different. Acacia pods may be curled, withered, straight, long, short, or in between. The seeds may lie in the pods sideways (transversal) or lengthwise (longitudinal). ==5. How many acacias in your state have true leaves (bipinnate) when adults? == There are three subgenera of ''Acacias'' that retain bipinnate leaves when fully grown, namely ''Botrycephalae'', ''Pulchellae'', and ''Aculeiferum''. {| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1 |- ! State || ''Botrycephalae'' ||''Pulchellae'' || ''Aculeiferum'' ||Total |- | New South Wales || 36 || 1 || 0 || 37 |- | Northern Territory || 1 || 0|| 1 || 2 |- | Queensland || 20 || 0|| 1 || 21 |- | South Australia || 5 || 1 || 0 || 6 |- | Tasmania || 4 || 0 || 0 || 4 |- | Victoria || 13 || 0 || 0 || 13 |- | Western Australia || 5 || 26 || 0 || 31 |} ==6 a. In seeding acacias what is seen first, true leaves or phyllodes? 6 b. How many have true leaves? == The first leaves to emerge from an acacia sprout are true leaves. In plants that will develop phyllodes, the true leaves persist until the plant is about a meter tall. In Australia, the great majority of acacias develop phyllodes. For example, in New South Wales, which hosts 230 native species of acacias, only 17% have true leaves. However, acacias with phyllodes are native only to Australia. ==7. What must happen to an acacia seed before it will germinate and grow? == Before an acacia seed can germinate, the seed coat must be cracked. This can happen by any of several methods, but fire is the most common. People who grow wattles can crack the seed coats themselves using a three-cornered file. Seed coats can also be cracked by being run over by heavy machinery during construction projects, or by other physical stresses. ==8. What acacias phyllodes are used to feed stock in times of drought? == The phyllodes of the ''Acacia cyanophylla'' (Blue Leaf Wattle) have been used to feed sheep during times of drought. ''Acacia aneura'' is known as the "King of Fodders". Sheep and other livestock are exceedingly fond of ''Acacia pendula'' especially in times of drought. For this reason, it has nearly been extirpated from parts of the States. ==9. What is the bark of some acacias used for in Australia? == The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include ''Acacia pycnantha'' (Golden Wattle), ''Acacia decurrens'' (Tan Wattle), ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle) and ''Acacia mearnsii'' (Black Wattle). ==10. What species of acacias are used for furniture making? == Most acacia species are used for valuable timber; such are ''Acacia melanoxylon'' (Blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and ''Acacia omalophylla'' (Myall Wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. ==11. How do acacias help and benefit man, animals, insects, birds? == ===Food uses=== Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products. In Burma, Laos and Thailand, the feathery shoots of ''Acacia pennata'' are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries. Honey made by bees using the acacia flower as forage is considered a delicacy, appreciated for its mild flowery taste, soft running texture and glass-like appearance. Acacia honey is one of the few honeys which does not crystallize. Acacia is listed as an ingredient in Fresca, a citrus soft drink, and Barq's root beer, as well as in Läkerol pastille candies, Altoids mints, and Wrigley's Eclipse chewing gum. ===Gum=== Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of ''Acacia senegal'', abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria. ''Acacia arabica'' is the gum-Arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-Arabic. ===Medicinal uses=== Many Acacia species have important uses in traditional medicine. Most all of the uses have been shown to have a scientific basis, since chemical compounds found in the various species have medicinal effects. A 19th century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species of Acacia (known as grar) mixed with the root of the tacha, then boiled, as a cure for rabies. An astringent medicine, called ''catechu'' or ''cutch'', is procured from several species, but more especially from ''Acacia catechu'', by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. ===Ornamental uses=== A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus Mimosa. Another ornamental acacia is ''Acacia xanthophloea'' (Fever Tree). Southern European florists use ''Acacia baileyana'', ''Acacia dealbata'', ''Acacia pycnantha'' and ''Acacia retinodes'' as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa. Ornamental species of acacia are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security purposes. The sharp thorns of some species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls. ===Paints=== The ancient Egyptians used Acacia in paints. ===Perfume=== [[Image:Starr 030202-0020 Acacia farnesiana.jpg|thumb|left|150px|''Acacia farnesiana'']] ''Acacia farnesiana'' is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of Acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries. In The Bible, burning of acacia wood as a form of incense is mentioned several times. {{clear}} ===Other Uses=== Acacia is also used for lumber and as a source of tannin, but these qualities are discussed elsewhere in this chapter, so we will only mention them here. ==12. Make a collection of 10 or more dried pressed wattles with flowers and phyllodes and where possible pods and seeds. Show dates, place collected, common and scientific names. Some must be spike type flowers, some raceme type or single balls and some bipinnate leaves. {{center|OR}} 20 or more close-up photographs you have taken of wattles showing the above details.== The best approach to this requirement is to go out into the field and find some wattles - then identify them. There are numerous books and CDRoms available for purchase that will help in identifying the various species. There are also a few ''dichotomous keys'' online, such as [http://www.flora.sa.gov.au/id_tool/acacias_sa.html this one] which are free (though not necessarily easy to use). ==References== * http://www.worldwidewattle.com/schools.php * http://www.worldwidewattle.com/infogallery/specieslists/australia.php * http://web.archive.org/20031218170949/www.geocities.com/gratim98/oznativ12.htm * http://archive.idrc.ca/library/document/074940/chap10_e.html [[{{BOOKCATEGORY}}/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] 49vvophnqo43z9jphn3zmj5g5rhy3ca 0 101769 4632202 4399724 2026-04-25T09:36:07Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632202 wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikipedia|Smoothsort}} ==C++== This implementation of Smoothsort is substantially different (in presentation) from Dijkstra's original one, having undergone some serious refactoring. In order to keep the code as tidy as possible given the inherent complexity of the algorithm, the helper functions are isolated in an anonymous namespace. In practice, the three sections below would be concatenated in the given order in a separate source file (say, ''<code>smoothsort.cpp</code>''). Last but not least, the code uses the <code>long long unsigned</code> type, <s>which is a <code>gcc</code> extension</s> (no, it isn't). On installations where <code>gcc</code> is unavailable, replace with <code>unsigned long</code> (it only affects the maximum size of the arrays which can be sorted). === Prototypes and forward declarations === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> /** ** SmoothSort function template + helper functions. ** ** Formal type T should have a comparison operator >= with prototype: ** ** bool T::operator >= (const T &) const throw (); ** ** which should compare its arguments by the given relation ** (possibly taking advantage of the type itself). ** ** **/ /** Sort an array in ascending order. **/ template <typename T> void smoothsort (T *, unsigned) throw (); namespace /** ** Helper function's local namespace (declarations). ** **/ { class LeonardoNumber /** ** Helper class for manipulation of Leonardo numbers ** **/ { public: /** Default ctor. **/ LeonardoNumber (void) throw () : b (1), c (1) { return; } /** Copy ctor. **/ LeonardoNumber (const LeonardoNumber & _l) throw () : b (_l.b), c (_l.c) { return; } /** ** Return the "gap" between the actual Leonardo number and the ** preceding one. **/ unsigned gap (void) const throw () { return b - c; } /** Perform an "up" operation on the actual number. **/ LeonardoNumber & operator ++ (void) throw () { unsigned s = b; b = b + c + 1; c = s; return * this; } /** Perform a "down" operation on the actual number. **/ LeonardoNumber & operator -- (void) throw () { unsigned s = c; c = b - c - 1; b = s; return * this; } /** Return "companion" value. **/ unsigned operator ~ (void) const throw () { return c; } /** Return "actual" value. **/ operator unsigned (void) const throw () { return b; } private: unsigned b; /** Actual number. **/ unsigned c; /** Companion number. **/ }; /** Perform a "sift up" operation. **/ template <typename T> inline void sift (T *, unsigned, LeonardoNumber) throw (); /** Perform a "semi-trinkle" operation. **/ template <typename T> inline void semitrinkle (T *, unsigned, unsigned long long, LeonardoNumber) throw (); /** Perform a "trinkle" operation. **/ template <typename T> inline void trinkle (T *, unsigned, unsigned long long, LeonardoNumber) throw (); } </syntaxhighlight> === Main body === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> template <typename T> void smoothsort (T * _m, unsigned _n) throw () /** ** Sorts the given array in ascending order. ** ** Usage: smoothsort (<array>, <size>) ** ** Where: <array> pointer to the first element of the array in question. ** <size> length of the array to be sorted. ** ** **/ { if (!(_m && _n)) return; unsigned long long p = 1; LeonardoNumber b; for (unsigned q = 0; ++q < _n ; ++p) if (p % 8 == 3) { sift<T> (_m, q - 1, b); ++++b; p >>= 2; } else if (p % 4 == 1) { if (q + ~b < _n) sift<T> (_m, q - 1, b); else trinkle<T> (_m, q - 1, p, b); for (p <<= 1; --b > 1; p <<= 1) ; } trinkle<T> (_m, _n - 1, p, b); for (--p; _n-- > 1; --p) if (b == 1) for ( ; !(p % 2); p >>= 1) ++b; else if (b >= 3) { if (p) semitrinkle<T> (_m, _n - b.gap (), p, b); --b; p <<= 1; ++p; semitrinkle<T> (_m, _n - 1, p, b); --b; p <<= 1; ++p; } return; } </syntaxhighlight> === Helper functions === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> namespace /** ** Helper function's local namespace (definitions). ** **/ { template <typename T> inline void sift (T * _m, unsigned _r, LeonardoNumber _b) throw () /** ** Sifts up the root of the stretch in question. ** ** Usage: sift (<array>, <root>, <number>) ** ** Where: <array> Pointer to the first element of the array in ** question. ** <root> Index of the root of the array in question. ** <number> Current Leonardo number. ** ** **/ { unsigned r2; while (_b >= 3) { if (_m [_r - _b.gap ()] >= _m [_r - 1]) r2 = _r - _b.gap (); else { r2 = _r - 1; --_b; } if (_m [_r] >= _m [r2]) break; else { swap(_m [_r], _m [r2]); _r = r2; --_b; } } return; } template <typename T> inline void semitrinkle (T * _m, unsigned _r, unsigned long long _p, LeonardoNumber _b) throw () /** ** Trinkles the roots of the stretches of a given array and root when the ** adjacent stretches are trusty. ** ** Usage: semitrinkle (<array>, <root>, <standard_concat>, <number>) ** ** Where: <array> Pointer to the first element of the array in ** question. ** <root> Index of the root of the array in question. ** <standard_concat> Standard concatenation's codification. ** <number> Current Leonardo number. ** ** **/ { if (_m [_r - ~_b] >= _m [_r]) { swap(_m [_r], _m [_r - ~_b]); trinkle<T> (_m, _r - ~_b, _p, _b); } return; } template <typename T> inline void trinkle (T * _m, unsigned _r, unsigned long long _p, LeonardoNumber _b) throw () /** ** Trinkles the roots of the stretches of a given array and root. ** ** Usage: trinkle (<array>, <root>, <standard_concat>, <number>) ** ** Where: <array> Pointer to the first element of the array in ** question. ** <root> Index of the root of the array in question. ** <standard_concat> Standard concatenation's codification. ** <number> Current Leonardo number. ** ** **/ { while (_p) { for ( ; !(_p % 2); _p >>= 1) ++_b; if (!--_p || (_m [_r] >= _m [_r - _b])) break; else if (_b == 1) { swap(_m [_r], _m [_r - _b]); _r -= _b; } else if (_b >= 3) { unsigned r2 = _r - _b.gap (), r3 = _r - _b; if (_m [_r - 1] >= _m [r2]) { r2 = _r - 1; _p <<= 1; --_b; } if (_m [r3] >= _m [r2]) { swap(_m [_r], _m [r3]); _r = r3; } else { swap(_m [_r], _m [r2]); _r = r2; --_b; break; } } } sift<T> (_m, _r, _b); return; } } </syntaxhighlight> ==C== <syntaxhighlight lang=C> #include <stddef.h> #include <string.h> /* Begin user-defined types and functions */ /* Type to sort (null-terminated string literals in this case) */ typedef const char *value_t; /* * Function that returns qsort-like comparison for parameters. A negative value * would indicate that a goes before b, a positive value would indicate that a * goes after b, and zero indicates that the elements are equivalent in order. * An equivalent function for arithmetic types (e.g. int) would look like this: static int cmp(value_t a, value_t b) { return a - b; } */ static int cmp(value_t a, value_t b) { return strcmp(a, b); } /* End user-defined types and functions */ struct state { value_t *a; size_t q, r, p, b, c, r1, b1, c1; }; #if __STDC_VERSION__ < 199901L # define inline /* Silently prune inline qualifiers away for ANSI C */ #endif static inline void up(size_t *a, size_t *b) { size_t tmp; tmp = *a; *a += *b + 1; *b = tmp; } static inline void down(size_t *a, size_t *b) { size_t tmp; tmp = *b; *b = *a - *b - 1; *a = tmp; } static void sift(struct state *s) { size_t r0, r2; value_t tmp; r0 = s->r1; tmp = s->a[r0]; while (s->b1 > 2) { r2 = s->r1 - s->b1 + s->c1; if (cmp(s->a[s->r1 - 1], s->a[r2]) >= 0) { r2 = s->r1 - 1; down(&s->b1, &s->c1); } if (cmp(s->a[r2], tmp) < 0) { s->b1 = 1; } else { s->a[s->r1] = s->a[r2]; s->r1 = r2; down(&s->b1, &s->c1); } } if (s->r1 - r0 > 0) { s->a[s->r1] = tmp; } } static void trinkle(struct state *s) { size_t p1, r0, r2, r3; value_t tmp; p1 = s->p; s->b1 = s->b; s->c1 = s->c; r0 = s->r1; tmp = s->a[r0]; while (p1 > 0) { while ((p1 & 1) == 0) { p1 >>= 1; up(&s->b1, &s->c1); } r3 = s->r1 - s->b1; if (p1 == 1 || cmp(s->a[r3], tmp) < 0) { p1 = 0; } else { p1--; if (s->b1 == 1) { s->a[s->r1] = s->a[r3]; s->r1 = r3; } else if (s->b1 >= 3) { r2 = s->r1 - s->b1 + s->c1; if (cmp(s->a[s->r1 - 1], s->a[r2]) >= 0) { r2 = s->r1 - 1; down(&s->b1, &s->c1); p1 <<= 1; } if (cmp(s->a[r2], s->a[r3]) < 0) { s->a[s->r1] = s->a[r3]; s->r1 = r3; } else { s->a[s->r1] = s->a[r2]; s->r1 = r2; down(&s->b1, &s->c1); p1 = 0; } } } } if (s->r1 - r0 != 0) { s->a[s->r1] = tmp; } sift(s); } static void semitrinkle(struct state *s) { value_t tmp; s->r1 = s->r - s->c; if (cmp(s->a[s->r1], s->a[s->r]) >= 0) { tmp = s->a[s->r]; s->a[s->r] = s->a[s->r1]; s->a[s->r1] = tmp; trinkle(s); } } void smoothsort(value_t *a, size_t n) { struct state s; size_t tmp; s.a = a; s.r = 0; s.p = s.b = s.c = 1; /* Build tree */ for (s.q = 1; s.q < n; s.q++) { s.r1 = s.r; if ((s.p & 7) == 3) { s.b1 = s.b; s.c1 = s.c; sift(&s); s.p = (s.p + 1) >> 2; /* Two "up"s, saves us a little time */ tmp = s.b + s.c + 1; s.b += tmp + 1; s.c = tmp; } else if ((s.p & 3) == 1) { if (s.q + s.c < n) { s.b1 = s.b; s.c1 = s.c; sift(&s); } else { trinkle(&s); } do { down(&s.b, &s.c); s.p <<= 1; } while (s.b > 1); s.p++; } s.r++; } s.r1 = s.r; trinkle(&s); /* Build sorted array */ while (s.q-- > 1) { if (s.b == 1) { s.r--; s.p--; while((s.p & 1) == 0) { s.p >>= 1; up(&s.b, &s.c); } } else if (s.b > 2) { s.p--; s.r = s.r - s.b + s.c; if (s.p > 0) { semitrinkle(&s); } down(&s.b, &s.c); s.p = (s.p << 1) + 1; s.r += s.c; semitrinkle(&s); down(&s.b, &s.c); s.p = (s.p << 1) + 1; } /* element q processed */ } /* element 0 processed */ } /* * Example main: #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, const char **argv) { const char *a[] = { "the", "quick", "brown", "fox", "jumps", "over", "the", "lazy", "dog" }; size_t i; smoothsort(a, sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0])); for (i = 0; i < sizeof(a) / sizeof(a[0]); i++) { puts(a[i]); } return 0; } */ </syntaxhighlight> == Delphi == <syntaxhighlight lang=delphi> unit USmoothsort; { Delphi implementation of Dijkstra's algorithm } interface type TItem = Double; { data type } function IsAscending(v1,v2: TItem): boolean; { comparison function } { sorting function } procedure SmoothSort(var A: array of TItem); implementation { customizable comparison function } function IsAscending(v1,v2: TItem): boolean; begin result := v1<=v2; end; { implementation of Djikstra's algorithm } procedure SmoothSort(var A: array of TItem); var q,r, p,b,c, r1,b1,c1, N: integer; procedure up(var vb,vc: integer); var temp: integer; begin temp := vb; vb := vb+vc+1; vc := temp; end; procedure down(var vb,vc: integer); var temp: integer; begin temp := vc; vc := vb-vc-1; vb := temp; end; procedure sift; var r0, r2: integer; T: TItem; begin r0 := r1; T := A[r0]; while b1>=3 do begin r2 := r1-b1+c1; if not IsAscending(A[r1-1],A[r2]) then begin r2 := r1-1; down(b1,c1); end; if IsAscending(A[r2],T) then b1 := 1 else begin A[r1] := A[r2]; r1 := r2; down(b1,c1); end; end; if r1<>r0 then A[r1] := T; end; procedure trinkle; var p1,r2,r3, r0 : integer; T: TItem; begin p1 := p; b1 := b; c1 := c; r0 := r1; T := A[r0]; while p1>0 do begin while (p1 and 1)=0 do begin p1 := p1 shr 1; up(b1,c1); end; r3 := r1-b1; if (p1=1) or IsAscending(A[r3],T) then p1 := 0 else {p1>1} begin p1 := p1 - 1; if b1=1 then begin A[r1] := A[r3]; r1 := r3; end else if b1>=3 then begin r2 := r1-b1+c1; if not IsAscending(A[r1-1],A[r2]) then begin r2 := r1-1; down(b1,c1); p1 := p1 shl 1; end; if IsAscending(A[r2],A[r3]) then begin A[r1] := A[r3]; r1 := r3; end else begin A[r1] := A[r2]; r1 := r2; down(b1,c1); p1 := 0; end; end;{if b1>=3} end;{if p1>1} end;{while} if r0<>r1 then A[r1] := T; sift; end; procedure semitrinkle; var T: TItem; begin r1 := r-c; if not IsAscending(A[r1],A[r]) then begin T := A[r]; A[r] := A[r1]; A[r1] := T; trinkle; end; end; begin N := length(A); q := 1; r := 0; p := 1; b := 1; c := 1; //building tree while q < N do begin r1 := r; if (p and 7) = 3 then begin b1 := b; c1 := c; sift; p := (p+1) shr 2; up(b,c); up(b,c); end else if (p and 3) = 1 then begin if q + c < N then begin b1 := b; c1 := c; sift; end else trinkle; down(b,c); p := p shl 1; while b > 1 do begin down(b,c); p := p shl 1; end; p := p+1; end; q := q + 1; r := r + 1; end; r1 := r; trinkle; //bulding sorted array while q>1 do begin q := q - 1; if b = 1 then begin r := r - 1; p := p - 1; while (p and 1) = 0 do begin p := p shr 1; up(b,c); end; end else if b >= 3 then begin p := p - 1; r := r-b+c; if p > 0 then semitrinkle; down(b,c); p := p shl 1 + 1; r := r+c; semitrinkle; down(b,c); p := p shl 1 + 1; end; //element q is done end; //element 0 is done end; end. </syntaxhighlight> == Java == <syntaxhighlight lang=java> // by keeping these constants, we can avoid the tiresome business // of keeping track of Dijkstra's b and c. Instead of keeping // b and c, I will keep an index into this array. static final int LP[] = { 1, 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 25, 41, 67, 109, 177, 287, 465, 753, 1219, 1973, 3193, 5167, 8361, 13529, 21891, 35421, 57313, 92735, 150049, 242785, 392835, 635621, 1028457, 1664079, 2692537, 4356617, 7049155, 11405773, 18454929, 29860703, 48315633, 78176337, 126491971, 204668309, 331160281, 535828591, 866988873 // the next number is > 31 bits. }; public static <C extends Comparable<? super C>> void sort(C[] m, int lo, int hi) { int head = lo; // the offset of the first element of the prefix into m // These variables need a little explaining. If our string of heaps // is of length 38, then the heaps will be of size 25+9+3+1, which are // Leonardo numbers 6, 4, 2, 1. // Turning this into a binary number, we get b01010110 = 0x56. We represent // this number as a pair of numbers by right-shifting all the zeros and // storing the mantissa and exponent as "p" and "pshift". // This is handy, because the exponent is the index into L[] giving the // size of the rightmost heap, and because we can instantly find out if // the rightmost two heaps are consecutive Leonardo numbers by checking // (p&3)==3 int p = 1; // the bitmap of the current standard concatenation >> pshift int pshift = 1; while (head < hi) { if ((p & 3) == 3) { // Add 1 by merging the first two blocks into a larger one. // The next Leonardo number is one bigger. sift(m, pshift, head); p >>>= 2; pshift += 2; } else { // adding a new block of length 1 if (LP[pshift - 1] >= hi - head) { // this block is its final size. trinkle(m, p, pshift, head, false); } else { // this block will get merged. Just make it trusty. sift(m, pshift, head); } if (pshift == 1) { // LP[1] is being used, so we add use LP[0] p <<= 1; pshift--; } else { // shift out to position 1, add LP[1] p <<= (pshift - 1); pshift = 1; } } p |= 1; head++; } trinkle(m, p, pshift, head, false); while (pshift != 1 || p != 1) { if (pshift <= 1) { // block of length 1. No fiddling needed int trail = Integer.numberOfTrailingZeros(p & ~1); p >>>= trail; pshift += trail; } else { p <<= 2; p ^= 7; pshift -= 2; // This block gets broken into three bits. The rightmost // bit is a block of length 1. The left hand part is split into // two, a block of length LP[pshift+1] and one of LP[pshift]. // Both these two are appropriately heapified, but the root // nodes are not necessarily in order. We therefore semitrinkle // both of them trinkle(m, p >>> 1, pshift + 1, head - LP[pshift] - 1, true); trinkle(m, p, pshift, head - 1, true); } head--; } } private static <C extends Comparable<? super C>> void sift(C[] m, int pshift, int head) { // we do not use Floyd's improvements to the heapsort sift, because we // are not doing what heapsort does - always moving nodes from near // the bottom of the tree to the root. C val = m[head]; while (pshift > 1) { int rt = head - 1; int lf = head - 1 - LP[pshift - 2]; if (val.compareTo(m[lf]) >= 0 && val.compareTo(m[rt]) >= 0) break; if (m[lf].compareTo(m[rt]) >= 0) { m[head] = m[lf]; head = lf; pshift -= 1; } else { m[head] = m[rt]; head = rt; pshift -= 2; } } m[head] = val; } private static <C extends Comparable<? super C>> void trinkle(C[] m, int p, int pshift, int head, boolean isTrusty) { C val = m[head]; while (p != 1) { int stepson = head - LP[pshift]; if (m[stepson].compareTo(val) <= 0) break; // current node is greater than head. Sift. // no need to check this if we know the current node is trusty, // because we just checked the head (which is val, in the first // iteration) if (!isTrusty && pshift > 1) { int rt = head - 1; int lf = head - 1 - LP[pshift - 2]; if (m[rt].compareTo(m[stepson]) >= 0 || m[lf].compareTo(m[stepson]) >= 0) break; } m[head] = m[stepson]; head = stepson; int trail = Integer.numberOfTrailingZeros(p & ~1); p >>>= trail; pshift += trail; isTrusty = false; } if (!isTrusty) { m[head] = val; sift(m, pshift, head); } } </syntaxhighlight> {{subject}} 0ptqlesmayc0sgh0cef1tk06qtd5zdf 3 107203 4632082 4632004 2026-04-24T14:20:47Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* [[]] and similar */ reply to ShakespeareFan00 ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4632082 wikitext text/x-wiki ==wikicast== What is it you want to know? [[User:Kellen|Kellen]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Kellen|T]]} 08:51, 10 January 2007 (UTC) : Nope, no objections for this recipe/article or any other. Glad you've found the content here useful; linking the podcast to the article would probably be appropriate. [[User:Kellen|Kellen]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Kellen|T]]} 13:47, 10 January 2007 (UTC) == Answered == PING: Sorry about the delay [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Fabartus#Templates See_me] Stay healthy! [[User:Fabartus|Fra]][[User talk:Fabartus|<span style="color:green">nkB</span>]] 23:56, 21 April 2020 (UTC) ==Reverting edits== Can you stop applying your "lint" change when you've been reverted once already please. I am the main editor of the book [[Understanding Air Safety in the Jet Age]] and I prefer to work on it in the style I am using, not with the non-content changes you have made. It is not good practice to repeatedly revert, without a meaningful edit summary, when the changes you are making are cosmetic and not contributing to the content of the book. Thanks - [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 16:58, 1 April 2021 (UTC) : {{ping|QuiteUnusual}} Apologies. I was working from the reported lint concerns at [[Special:LintErrors]] page, I hadn't noticed that you HAD previously reverted (and nothing about the previous revert is visible in my notifications). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 17:20, 1 April 2021 (UTC) :: The intended 'repair' was to resolve : <syntaxhighlight lang="moin" inline=yes>''<big>Welcome to the Wikibook on''<br /><br /><big>'''Understanding Air Safety in the Jet Age'''</big></big>''</syntaxhighlight> which I felt should be <syntaxhighlight lang="moin" inline=yes><big>''Welcome to the Wikibook on''<br /><br /><big>'''Understanding Air Safety in the Jet Age'''</big></big>''</syntaxhighlight> because it is ''good practice'' that any formatting has to be nested. {{tag|Big}} is also nominally deprecated in more recent versions of HTML, and whilst it currently works, it will at some point be removed from HTML, at which point pages using it will not necessarily be presented as intended. A better approach would be define a {{tl|big}} template that can be updated accordingly. However, as you define 'repairs' like these as cosmetic, I am considering if I actually want to help improve Wikibooks if such contributions are likey to provoke concerns from other contributors. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 17:29, 1 April 2021 (UTC) :{{re|QuiteUnusual}} While the change is indeed cosmetic, the intention is good - lint errors are a huge issue that often manifest years later (as I've fixed many of the old Steward requests that had this issue). I personally think that his change was appropriate as a result, despite it looking "trivial and pointless" (the latter of which is not true in my opinion, and the former is true but not a mistake). [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:41, 1 April 2021 (UTC) Okay I withdraw the trivial and pointless comments, sorry. The principle problem for me was the changing of the whitespace which I'd deliberately included during editing as I find it easier to read. I will make the fixes you suggested above manually. Thanks [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 09:31, 2 April 2021 (UTC) And to be clear {{ping|ShakespeareFan00}} I'm not suggesting that the work you are doing is a problem or that you should stop just that you should watch for any feedback from editors. I doubt there will be much. I'm surprised that you didn't get a notification automatically. Thanks for helping out here. [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 09:35, 2 April 2021 (UTC) :{{re|QuiteUnusual}} There may have been a notification outage due to planned maintenance. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) == Editing the Oberon book == Hello ShakespeareFan00,</br> I appreciate your intention to help in the [[Oberon|Oberon book]] but find some changes have produced more harm than good. For example, please look at the [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Oberon/books&action=history history] of the Oberon books page. There compare the displayed page, time stamped 2021-01-01T12:50:34, and your revision, time stamped 2021-04-01T06:24:46‎. Not merely click on "Compare selected revisions" but compare the Web browser views of the pages. Two faults are evident. Indentation following reference Moe97 is spoiled. The list of references following Zel97 has become a flowed text; no longer a list. Repair of small syntax errors is helpful. Nevertheless, the appearance of the resulting page must be checked carefully. As illustrated by the example above, a correction made "blindly" can seriously damage format. The intended format is available in the archive.org page cited at the top of the Wikibook page. If you can restore the correct formats while keeping your corrections, good. Otherwise I must do it.</br> Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 14:45, 27 April 2021 (UTC) : I've reverted my changes to the page you mentioned, because I am not now sure how to do a satisfactory repair. Have you considered that the formatting in the archived page might also be off? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:24, 27 April 2021 (UTC) ::I spent many hours to make the appearance match the original now available at archive.org. In most cases we can recognize a format error from the context. A section of flowed text standing out in a list of references for example. Recollection of the page as it was at ETHZ can also help. Certainly you found some syntax errors which I overlooked. Finding and correcting errors is progress. As time becomes available, will sift through your corrections. Will reapply them while preserving the correct format in the browser view. If you find a syntax error and correct it while preserving the displayed format, good. If you find an error and decline to correct it, a report to the corresponding talk page will help; or you can post a note on my talk page; or you can email me directly. Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 19:01, 27 April 2021 (UTC) ==Please stop deleting endtags== You delete some endtags like <nowiki>'''</nowiki> or &lt;/div> in the book [[Guitar]] but you don't think about the possible side effects. I normally appreciate any help, especially since English is not my native language. But I'm used to programming html5, and it still needs endtags. I need too much time, to repair your failed improvement. I would appreciate it if you refrain from providing further help with the book [[Guitar]] as long as you are unsure of the impact of your edits. --[[User:Mjchael|Mjchael]] ([[User talk:Mjchael|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mjchael|contribs]]) 06:43, 5 June 2024 (UTC) : If you check the revisions, I had already repaired these, the removals were part of a bulk revert due to a specfic contributor who decided to be vocal about my competence. I'm more than happy to take another look.[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 06:46, 5 June 2024 (UTC) == My user page == Hi. Can you please give it a rest with editing my user page. I'm sick of being pinged on other wikis. Thanks. [[User:Manticore|<b><span style="color: black">Manticore</span></b>]] ^{[[User talk:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Talk</span>]] | [[Meta:User:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Meta</span>]]} 00:57, 7 June 2024 (UTC) :ShakespeareFan00, was there something unclear about my entirely reasonable request? My user page does not exist for you to artificially inflate your edit count. [[User:Manticore|<b><span style="color: black">Manticore</span></b>]] ^{[[User talk:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Talk</span>]] | [[Meta:User:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Meta</span>]]} 10:44, 7 July 2024 (UTC) ::I won't comment on this specific situation, but I wouldn't say fixing syntax/lint errors is unreasonable – you need to have pretty solid evidence that SF00 is "{{xt|artificially inflat[ing] [their] edit count}}" before making such an accusation. [[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:19, 7 July 2024 (UTC) :::I also got surprised that my 20 year dormant talk page got an edit...[[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] ([[User talk:Fephisto|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fephisto|contribs]]) 01:57, 29 October 2025 (UTC) : {{ping|Manticore}} Fair point. Can you at least consider checking that all the HTML tags on your page balance, which is almost certainly what the edits concerned were trying to do. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 10:47, 7 July 2024 (UTC) == Revert in [[Ada Programming/All Chapters]] == Hi ShakespeareFan00, I've seen your revert in https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Programming%2FAll_Chapters&oldid=prev&diff=4413709 I don't understand the reasoning behind this. If you look the page now, there are two equal images on it. The change was to include the image used for the header of all the book pages in this transclusion of all the chapters. Do you agree to undoing the revert? [[User:ManuelGR|ManuelGR]] ([[User talk:ManuelGR|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ManuelGR|contribs]]) 11:55, 8 June 2024 (UTC) :{{ping|ManuelGR}} Already undone, I was trying to 'reinstate' my previous repairs elsewhere and must have reverted to the "wrong version" here by mistake. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 12:21, 8 June 2024 (UTC) ::Perfect, thanks. Best regards. [[User:ManuelGR|ManuelGR]] ([[User talk:ManuelGR|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ManuelGR|contribs]]) 21:17, 8 June 2024 (UTC) :::You don't happen to have a book on FORTH do you? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 21:19, 8 June 2024 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4594795]] == Hi @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]! Could you explain why you made this edit? You said {{tq|Div's cannot be placed in lists like this}}, but I don't see what the problem was since the columns were rendering as I had intended. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:31, 29 October 2025 (UTC) :{{ping|Kittycataclysm}}, I nowikied the 'problem' lines, Split opening and closing tags in seperate list items, is not well formed HTMl, which is what wikitext gets converted to. Thusly the ENTIRE DIV must be within a single list item, otherwise the parser panics :( :If you were able to get the rendering correct, without the page showing up on a Special:LintErrors subpage all the better :) [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 October 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you for the explanation! I'm still a little confused, though. If the final rendering is as intended, why does it matter if the parser doesn't like it? This is the only functional way I have found to format list items in columns, and I'm a little concerned about avoiding it just because it's not ideally formatted and therefore gets flagged as an error. Also looping in @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] here since I know you've chimed in before on lint error threads. Thanks again! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:00, 29 October 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] Parser panics? What does [[Special:LintErrors]] say? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:34, 29 October 2025 (UTC) ::: Typically a paired Missing-tag, Stripped tag. 18:00, 29 October 2025 (UTC) :::: I'm afraid I still don't quite understand why getting flagged as an error is a problem if the output is ultimately correct—could you explain? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:41, 31 October 2025 (UTC) ::::: It means that unecessary burden is created for the backend, badly formed HTML is generated (which some browsers may reject), and it lengthens the amount of effort, maintainers have to undertake in keeping a list of exceptions to the normal rule under which the backend operates. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:17, 31 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::Got it. Do you have a recommended alternative? Like I mentioned, this is the only functionally accessible way I have found to format and edit list items in columns, and it's the most accessible way for me to edit. @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] do you have any suggestions? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:05, 2 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::I don't like the nowiki suggestion - this feels very hacky and improper use of the tag. @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] would the suggestion be to use li and ui tags instead? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:08, 2 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::: The nowiki was temporary, it can be reverted, when a long term stable solution exists. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:17, 2 November 2025 (UTC) I have no objection to such reverts, this is a wiki after all. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:17, 2 November 2025 (UTC) == Possible nomination for adminship == Hi. I want to thank you for cutting down the significant lint errors on this project – I would be willing to nominate you for adminship, mostly for you to fix such lint errors on fully protected pages, but you can also dedicate your time to perform general maintenance ([[WB:RFD]], deleting pages under speedy deletion, blocking vandals and spammers, etc.). :) [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:18, 17 March 2026 (UTC) :For what I am doing in respect of lints, I do NOT currently need the tools, so I would ask you park the offer for now. I also lack sufficient competence in handling 'blocking' issues, so appointing me would be considered contentious. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 18:42, 17 March 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the response, I understand your concern so I am withdrawing my offer for now... [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:00, 17 March 2026 (UTC) == Thanks for the fixes... == Good human... Thank you... [[User:Panic2k4|Panic]] ([[User talk:Panic2k4|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Panic2k4|contribs]]) 04:14, 29 March 2026 (UTC) :+1. Thank you for fixing my signature too. I have modified my signature to fit the new HTML. [[User:Jianhui67|<b style="color:#0E0">Jianhui67</b>]]^{[[User talk:Jianhui67|<span style="color:#1E90FF">'''talk'''</span>]]<span style="color:red">★</span>[[Special:Contributions/Jianhui67|<span style="color:#1E90FF">'''contribs'''</span>]]} 05:52, 18 April 2026 (UTC) == [[]] and similar == I'm not sure if these biographies (listed in the speedy deletion category) count as copyright violations; I checked on copyvios.toolforge.org and I didn't see a chance that it violates copyright. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:23, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : The relevant Frank Randall Bradley given in the notes for the biography elsewhere died in 1963. 63+50= 2003 , so the source article would still have been in copyright in Australia when URAA occured, So extensive extracts from it would also be encumbered. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 05:22, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :: So you are referring that they are still valid for deletion? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:20, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 4m1f1yl9ox0pqkypvix0fjjqf8ikb61 4632095 4632082 2026-04-24T17:14:06Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 /* [[]] and similar */ 4632095 wikitext text/x-wiki ==wikicast== What is it you want to know? [[User:Kellen|Kellen]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Kellen|T]]} 08:51, 10 January 2007 (UTC) : Nope, no objections for this recipe/article or any other. Glad you've found the content here useful; linking the podcast to the article would probably be appropriate. [[User:Kellen|Kellen]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Kellen|T]]} 13:47, 10 January 2007 (UTC) == Answered == PING: Sorry about the delay [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Fabartus#Templates See_me] Stay healthy! [[User:Fabartus|Fra]][[User talk:Fabartus|<span style="color:green">nkB</span>]] 23:56, 21 April 2020 (UTC) ==Reverting edits== Can you stop applying your "lint" change when you've been reverted once already please. I am the main editor of the book [[Understanding Air Safety in the Jet Age]] and I prefer to work on it in the style I am using, not with the non-content changes you have made. It is not good practice to repeatedly revert, without a meaningful edit summary, when the changes you are making are cosmetic and not contributing to the content of the book. Thanks - [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 16:58, 1 April 2021 (UTC) : {{ping|QuiteUnusual}} Apologies. I was working from the reported lint concerns at [[Special:LintErrors]] page, I hadn't noticed that you HAD previously reverted (and nothing about the previous revert is visible in my notifications). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 17:20, 1 April 2021 (UTC) :: The intended 'repair' was to resolve : <syntaxhighlight lang="moin" inline=yes>''<big>Welcome to the Wikibook on''<br /><br /><big>'''Understanding Air Safety in the Jet Age'''</big></big>''</syntaxhighlight> which I felt should be <syntaxhighlight lang="moin" inline=yes><big>''Welcome to the Wikibook on''<br /><br /><big>'''Understanding Air Safety in the Jet Age'''</big></big>''</syntaxhighlight> because it is ''good practice'' that any formatting has to be nested. {{tag|Big}} is also nominally deprecated in more recent versions of HTML, and whilst it currently works, it will at some point be removed from HTML, at which point pages using it will not necessarily be presented as intended. A better approach would be define a {{tl|big}} template that can be updated accordingly. However, as you define 'repairs' like these as cosmetic, I am considering if I actually want to help improve Wikibooks if such contributions are likey to provoke concerns from other contributors. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 17:29, 1 April 2021 (UTC) :{{re|QuiteUnusual}} While the change is indeed cosmetic, the intention is good - lint errors are a huge issue that often manifest years later (as I've fixed many of the old Steward requests that had this issue). I personally think that his change was appropriate as a result, despite it looking "trivial and pointless" (the latter of which is not true in my opinion, and the former is true but not a mistake). [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:41, 1 April 2021 (UTC) Okay I withdraw the trivial and pointless comments, sorry. The principle problem for me was the changing of the whitespace which I'd deliberately included during editing as I find it easier to read. I will make the fixes you suggested above manually. Thanks [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 09:31, 2 April 2021 (UTC) And to be clear {{ping|ShakespeareFan00}} I'm not suggesting that the work you are doing is a problem or that you should stop just that you should watch for any feedback from editors. I doubt there will be much. I'm surprised that you didn't get a notification automatically. Thanks for helping out here. [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 09:35, 2 April 2021 (UTC) :{{re|QuiteUnusual}} There may have been a notification outage due to planned maintenance. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) == Editing the Oberon book == Hello ShakespeareFan00,</br> I appreciate your intention to help in the [[Oberon|Oberon book]] but find some changes have produced more harm than good. For example, please look at the [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Oberon/books&action=history history] of the Oberon books page. There compare the displayed page, time stamped 2021-01-01T12:50:34, and your revision, time stamped 2021-04-01T06:24:46‎. Not merely click on "Compare selected revisions" but compare the Web browser views of the pages. Two faults are evident. Indentation following reference Moe97 is spoiled. The list of references following Zel97 has become a flowed text; no longer a list. Repair of small syntax errors is helpful. Nevertheless, the appearance of the resulting page must be checked carefully. As illustrated by the example above, a correction made "blindly" can seriously damage format. The intended format is available in the archive.org page cited at the top of the Wikibook page. If you can restore the correct formats while keeping your corrections, good. Otherwise I must do it.</br> Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 14:45, 27 April 2021 (UTC) : I've reverted my changes to the page you mentioned, because I am not now sure how to do a satisfactory repair. Have you considered that the formatting in the archived page might also be off? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:24, 27 April 2021 (UTC) ::I spent many hours to make the appearance match the original now available at archive.org. In most cases we can recognize a format error from the context. A section of flowed text standing out in a list of references for example. Recollection of the page as it was at ETHZ can also help. Certainly you found some syntax errors which I overlooked. Finding and correcting errors is progress. As time becomes available, will sift through your corrections. Will reapply them while preserving the correct format in the browser view. If you find a syntax error and correct it while preserving the displayed format, good. If you find an error and decline to correct it, a report to the corresponding talk page will help; or you can post a note on my talk page; or you can email me directly. Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 19:01, 27 April 2021 (UTC) ==Please stop deleting endtags== You delete some endtags like <nowiki>'''</nowiki> or &lt;/div> in the book [[Guitar]] but you don't think about the possible side effects. I normally appreciate any help, especially since English is not my native language. But I'm used to programming html5, and it still needs endtags. I need too much time, to repair your failed improvement. I would appreciate it if you refrain from providing further help with the book [[Guitar]] as long as you are unsure of the impact of your edits. --[[User:Mjchael|Mjchael]] ([[User talk:Mjchael|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mjchael|contribs]]) 06:43, 5 June 2024 (UTC) : If you check the revisions, I had already repaired these, the removals were part of a bulk revert due to a specfic contributor who decided to be vocal about my competence. I'm more than happy to take another look.[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 06:46, 5 June 2024 (UTC) == My user page == Hi. Can you please give it a rest with editing my user page. I'm sick of being pinged on other wikis. Thanks. [[User:Manticore|<b><span style="color: black">Manticore</span></b>]] ^{[[User talk:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Talk</span>]] | [[Meta:User:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Meta</span>]]} 00:57, 7 June 2024 (UTC) :ShakespeareFan00, was there something unclear about my entirely reasonable request? My user page does not exist for you to artificially inflate your edit count. [[User:Manticore|<b><span style="color: black">Manticore</span></b>]] ^{[[User talk:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Talk</span>]] | [[Meta:User:Manticore|<span style="color: black">Meta</span>]]} 10:44, 7 July 2024 (UTC) ::I won't comment on this specific situation, but I wouldn't say fixing syntax/lint errors is unreasonable – you need to have pretty solid evidence that SF00 is "{{xt|artificially inflat[ing] [their] edit count}}" before making such an accusation. [[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:19, 7 July 2024 (UTC) :::I also got surprised that my 20 year dormant talk page got an edit...[[User:Fephisto|Fephisto]] ([[User talk:Fephisto|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fephisto|contribs]]) 01:57, 29 October 2025 (UTC) : {{ping|Manticore}} Fair point. Can you at least consider checking that all the HTML tags on your page balance, which is almost certainly what the edits concerned were trying to do. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 10:47, 7 July 2024 (UTC) == Revert in [[Ada Programming/All Chapters]] == Hi ShakespeareFan00, I've seen your revert in https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Programming%2FAll_Chapters&oldid=prev&diff=4413709 I don't understand the reasoning behind this. If you look the page now, there are two equal images on it. The change was to include the image used for the header of all the book pages in this transclusion of all the chapters. Do you agree to undoing the revert? [[User:ManuelGR|ManuelGR]] ([[User talk:ManuelGR|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ManuelGR|contribs]]) 11:55, 8 June 2024 (UTC) :{{ping|ManuelGR}} Already undone, I was trying to 'reinstate' my previous repairs elsewhere and must have reverted to the "wrong version" here by mistake. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 12:21, 8 June 2024 (UTC) ::Perfect, thanks. Best regards. [[User:ManuelGR|ManuelGR]] ([[User talk:ManuelGR|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ManuelGR|contribs]]) 21:17, 8 June 2024 (UTC) :::You don't happen to have a book on FORTH do you? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 21:19, 8 June 2024 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4594795]] == Hi @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]! Could you explain why you made this edit? You said {{tq|Div's cannot be placed in lists like this}}, but I don't see what the problem was since the columns were rendering as I had intended. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:31, 29 October 2025 (UTC) :{{ping|Kittycataclysm}}, I nowikied the 'problem' lines, Split opening and closing tags in seperate list items, is not well formed HTMl, which is what wikitext gets converted to. Thusly the ENTIRE DIV must be within a single list item, otherwise the parser panics :( :If you were able to get the rendering correct, without the page showing up on a Special:LintErrors subpage all the better :) [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 October 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you for the explanation! I'm still a little confused, though. If the final rendering is as intended, why does it matter if the parser doesn't like it? This is the only functional way I have found to format list items in columns, and I'm a little concerned about avoiding it just because it's not ideally formatted and therefore gets flagged as an error. Also looping in @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] here since I know you've chimed in before on lint error threads. Thanks again! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:00, 29 October 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] Parser panics? What does [[Special:LintErrors]] say? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:34, 29 October 2025 (UTC) ::: Typically a paired Missing-tag, Stripped tag. 18:00, 29 October 2025 (UTC) :::: I'm afraid I still don't quite understand why getting flagged as an error is a problem if the output is ultimately correct—could you explain? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:41, 31 October 2025 (UTC) ::::: It means that unecessary burden is created for the backend, badly formed HTML is generated (which some browsers may reject), and it lengthens the amount of effort, maintainers have to undertake in keeping a list of exceptions to the normal rule under which the backend operates. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 08:17, 31 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::Got it. Do you have a recommended alternative? Like I mentioned, this is the only functionally accessible way I have found to format and edit list items in columns, and it's the most accessible way for me to edit. @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] do you have any suggestions? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:05, 2 November 2025 (UTC) :::::::I don't like the nowiki suggestion - this feels very hacky and improper use of the tag. @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] would the suggestion be to use li and ui tags instead? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:08, 2 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::: The nowiki was temporary, it can be reverted, when a long term stable solution exists. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:17, 2 November 2025 (UTC) I have no objection to such reverts, this is a wiki after all. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:17, 2 November 2025 (UTC) == Possible nomination for adminship == Hi. I want to thank you for cutting down the significant lint errors on this project – I would be willing to nominate you for adminship, mostly for you to fix such lint errors on fully protected pages, but you can also dedicate your time to perform general maintenance ([[WB:RFD]], deleting pages under speedy deletion, blocking vandals and spammers, etc.). :) [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:18, 17 March 2026 (UTC) :For what I am doing in respect of lints, I do NOT currently need the tools, so I would ask you park the offer for now. I also lack sufficient competence in handling 'blocking' issues, so appointing me would be considered contentious. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 18:42, 17 March 2026 (UTC) :Thanks for the response, I understand your concern so I am withdrawing my offer for now... [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:00, 17 March 2026 (UTC) == Thanks for the fixes... == Good human... Thank you... [[User:Panic2k4|Panic]] ([[User talk:Panic2k4|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Panic2k4|contribs]]) 04:14, 29 March 2026 (UTC) :+1. Thank you for fixing my signature too. I have modified my signature to fit the new HTML. [[User:Jianhui67|<b style="color:#0E0">Jianhui67</b>]]^{[[User talk:Jianhui67|<span style="color:#1E90FF">'''talk'''</span>]]<span style="color:red">★</span>[[Special:Contributions/Jianhui67|<span style="color:#1E90FF">'''contribs'''</span>]]} 05:52, 18 April 2026 (UTC) == [[]] and similar == I'm not sure if these biographies (listed in the speedy deletion category) count as copyright violations; I checked on copyvios.toolforge.org and I didn't see a chance that it violates copyright. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:23, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : The relevant Frank Randall Bradley given in the notes for the biography elsewhere died in 1963. 63+50= 2003 , so the source article would still have been in copyright in Australia when URAA occured, So extensive extracts from it would also be encumbered. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 05:22, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :: So you are referring that they are still valid for deletion? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:20, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : Yes, as are some of other related publication transcriptions ( which should ideally be on Wikisource backed by clearly provenanced scan anyway). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 17:14, 24 April 2026 (UTC) dxh52lz5kfp0bd8hrhhnw1ufrp99fqk 0 108988 4632203 4084412 2026-04-25T09:37:10Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632203 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Bird Song== {{center|''The view of the brain as a tabula rasa, a blank slate, all too long a basis for the thinking of learning theorists, is patently absurd''—Peter Marler, 1996}} Birds communicate information about danger, food, sex, group movements and many other purposes via acoustic signals. A subset of these have been termed '''song''', as they frequently feature with extended, tonal, melodic characteristics. The Zebra Finch's song, for instance, includes several introductory notes followed by a string of syllables within an extended melodious pattern. Sonograms (i.e., a plot of the intensity of pitch against time) are commonly used as a primary tool for studying and comparing bird songs. Respiratory muscles force streams of air from large air sacs through the bronchi. Membranes in the syrinx vibrate as air expressed from bronchi passes over them. Syrinx muscles for left and right sound producing structures can act independently, and many birds are able to sing harmonies with themselves. Song appears to play a role in advertising for sex and species recognition as song complexity frequently coincides with the presence of ornate plumage. It also stimulates and synchronizes courtship behavior, stimulates reproductive readiness in females, and contributes to pair bond maintenance. Local song dialects exist in many species. Successful song in most adult male songbirds depends on memorizing the calls of a conspecific tutor during an earlier, sensitive phase in life. The appropriate song repertoire is acquired in a series of distinct stages. Young birds, during an early '''Sensory Phase''', listen to a conspecific tutor and thereby obtain information about the characteristics of its own song. Only a very specific subset of surrounding songs is actually accepted as suitable, suggesting the presence of an in-built song template. Following this sensory phase, young birds actively begin to vocalize themselves. Their '''Subsong''' is an atonal, noisy, meaningless repetition of sounds, which lacks recognizable syllables. Akin to human ''Babbling'' birds practice coordinated movements of the respiratory system, sound producing organs, and related structures (e.g., tongue). During '''Sensory-motor Phase''', young birds spontaneously produce ''Plastic Song'', consisting of vocalizations with distinct syllables and recognizable elements. Such "work in progress" will include elements from the song of tutors and elaborate them into a variety of syllables and phrases that even exceed what eventually will be used in its adult song. The ability to hear its own vocalizations are critical for normal development. In transition to the '''Mature phase''', birds adopt a ''Crystallized Song'' with syllables and syntax structure that is characteristic of its species. Once established, these song patterns remain fixed in many species, are no more disrupted by deafening, and are presented intact during each subsequent breeding season. In contrast open-ended learners (e.g. starlings and canaries) retain the capacity to adjust or alter their song throughout life. Song production is under the control of multiple hormonal systems from embryonic gonads. Injections of testosterone induce adult males to sing, even out of season, while similar injections in females have no such effect. The presence of estrogen during male development appears to be essential. When estrogen is blocked experimentally in developing males, testosterone injections fail to elicit song. However, when estrogen had been delivered to developing females, injection of testosterone elicited song in them.<ref>Konishi M. 1989. Birdsong for Neurobiologists. Neuron 3: 541-549</ref> Several neural centers with a role in song have been identified. The ''Higher Vocal Center'' ('''HVc''') is a group of neurons in the forebrain that is larger in (singing) males than in (non-singing) females. Damage to it blocks song production in adults. The ''nucleus of the archistriatum'' ('''RA''') in males is larger than in females and its neurons increase in size and dendritic arborization during song learning. Damage to this area blocks song production in adults. The ''lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior neostriatum'' ('''LMAN''') is neither sexually dimorphic nor shows seasonal change in neuron size or number. Its ablation in young birds interferes with song acquisition but its ablation in adults brings about few deficits as long as song had already been been learned prior to damage. Area X of the paraolfactory lobe ('''Area X''') is sexually dimorphic and new neurons are added in song learning. Damage to it interferes with song acquisition in young birds but not in adults. ===Zebra Finch Song and Tinbergen's Four Aims=== As in every behavioral system, a series of independent questions can be addressed for song behavior in Zebra finches (''Taeniopygia guttata''). '''Proximate Causation''': Zebra finch song production requires the flow of air through semi-independent vibrators in syrinx and vocal tract. The presence of song, and song repertoire size are reflected in sexual dimorphism of its controlling brain areas and nuclei. A ''learning pathway'' esists separate of a ''motor pathway''. Singing, which is largely restricted to males, is under the control of androgens. '''Ultimate Causation''': Song in Zebra finches is a learned vocalization used during courtship and defense of a territory. Advertising the individual's presence it serves to elicit mating opportunities from females and to stimulate the partner's reproductive behavior and physiology. Moreover, it functions to claim a territory and to repel competitors from it. '''Phylogeny''': Virtually all 9000 species of birds have the ability to vocalize, including crows, turkeys, owls or nightingales. A large subset of them, including the zebra finch, are characterized by complex vocal organs, distinctive brain circuitry for song, and acquisition of species-characteristic vocalizations through learning. Taxonomically these are all restricted to a single order - the Passeriformes. '''Ontogeny''': The emergence of adult zebra finch song illustrates the interactions of genetic and environmental factors in behavioral development. After periods of listening to the songs of tutors, starting its own partial vocalizations, rehearsing and adaptating its own song, the species-specific adult version slowly emerges. Song circuits exhibit extensive plasticity even in adults with ongoing neurogenesis and seasonal changes in neuronal morphology. ===White-crowned Sparrows=== White-crowned sparrows (''Zonotrichia leucophrys nuttalli'') males sing a single song that shows considerable geographic variation in the form of '''stable dialects'''. Bilingual and blended strategies exist at the boundaries. The distinctiveness of the song depends on patterns of natal dispersal and the timing of learning. Subject to reinforcement by the song of neighbors, the system is highly dependent on auditory feedback. The work by Peter Marler, Doug Nelson and others for over 30 years illustrates how genetic and environmental factors interact during the development of a complex communication system. Males generally establish territories during late plastic song with a repertoire that consists of ~4 different songs. Improvisations yield individual-specific songs which closely match that of the nearest rival. '''Cross-fostering experiments''' illustrate the role of auditory templates in song learning. Young birds reared in the presence of taped song will learn and present that song, even if the tape came from another species. A Song sparrow raised with a swamp sparrow tape will experience little difficulty to learn the swamp sparrow song. Birds in '''Isolation experiments''' are raised without access to intact adult song (i.e., no template) and will subsequently show deficiencies in their own song upon maturation. The song does nonetheless contain valid elements of intact adult song. Moreover, '''Deafening experiments''', which deafen birds at hatching, results in song that still contains some valid elements but is an even cruder version than those of isolated birds. When '''Song preference experiments''' present young birds with a wide range of conspecific and heterospecific songs, they recognize and preferentially learn the song of its own species. Birds raised in '''Mixed syllables experiments''' in the presence of a mixture of swamp- and song sparrow syllables, will accurately produce these syllables in their song but lack the normal adult syntax. '''Castration Experiments''' have shed light on the roles of hormones in song learning. Swamp sparrows that are castrated early in development have low testosterone levels compared to their male siblings. They acquire song but progress to plastic phase only. Treating such birds with injections of testosterone ('''Enhanced Testosterone Experiment''') immediately crystallizes the song. Interfering with testosterone function in adult birds ('''Reduced Testosterone Experiment''') degrades previously crystallized song back to plastic. ===Brown-headed Cowbirds=== Brown-headed cowbirds (''Molothrus ater'') are gregarious birds that follows cattle herds. Brood parasites that are raised by parents of different species, no consistent, conspecific tutor available. So, how do they learn their own conspecific song? One of the strongest stimuli is the bird's own crystallized song and feedback from females is important (i.e., action-based learning). ==Human Language== Humans show exceptional skill to communicate with fellow conspecific using verbal and gestural symbols. Such competence is arguably one of mankind's greatest assets as well as a key to most of our species' achievements. It brings us together with our peers and enriches us through an exchange of experiences, thoughts and value systems. It endows us with the means to acquire skills for situations that we may have never personally encountered before. A staggering range of regionally distinct languages and dialects, grouped in larger language families, not only serves as a system of communication but also tags us for membership within a specific group. In addition to bringing us together, it has thereby been at the heart of an ancient source of division. Although few things in biology ever group cleanly into one of the nature vs. nurture extremes, this particular division seems to be purely cultural. Regardless of the specific race, ethnic or regional group that we happen to have joined through birth, we all are able to acquire competence in any human language. In particular, we seem to acquire our '''native language''' without formal education, long before many of our intellectual capabilities have mnatured, and simply by immersion into the particular language environment of parents and relatives during the first few years of our life. The scientific study of the nature and structure of languages is called '''linguistics'''. ===Universal Grammar=== BF Skinner suggested that infants learn language through a process described as operant conditioning,<ref>Skinner BF. 1957. Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts</ref> namely, via the monitoring and management of reward contingencies. Skinner's position would be that a four-term contingency analysis comprised of motivating operations, discriminative stimuli, responses and reinforcing stimuli would be the means by which behavior could be explained. In children and infants this process would be expanded by what he called "shaping", "prompting" and other stimuli modeling, imitation and reinforcing procedures. Language acquisition then is a process that would take thousands of instances of such training, and this appears largely to be what takes place. Critics who do not understand the inductive power of this approach largely assert that this view now "appears quite simplistic." However, this argument to complexity is not dissimilar to arguments against Darwin's theory of natural selection. How could the amazing complexity of the animal kingdom come about through such a simple means? Surely, we would need something more complex to explain the variety of animals? Darwin's theory of selection is now accepted as such a means, despite it's "apparent simplicity". Similarly the mechanism of operant conditioning can be seen as sufficient to account for very complex forms of behavior in a wide variety of circumstances without appealing to unproven, non-data driven speculative theoretical approaches like those of Noam Chomsky and others. Language learning is clearly the most complex task any of us will ever undertake. Yet, the process appears to be considerably less painfull than acquiring an understanding of calculus, or organic chemistry. Noam Chomsky has long argued that this paradox is best explained by the view that humans, and in particular children, have innate abilities that support the acquisition of a language.<ref>Chomsky N. 1975. Reflections of Language. New York: Pantheon Books</ref> It is clear that we seem to be naturally good at it, especially before we reach puberty. Moreover, we appear to have a natural need to fill our world with language; in the absence of formal language tutoring a form of language structure develops anyway. Some say a specialized language faculty seems to aid in this process, one that includes innately specified constraints on what forms are possible. These innate, language-specific, information processing mechanisms may be encapsulated in language module of the brain. However, these innate faculties are inferred, hypothesized explanations with no foundation in fact. No biological location has been found for them, no genetic location, no brain structure. It is all inference. All human languages, even spontaneous ones, show many common principles of language acquisition as well as rules of grammar. The concept of '''universal grammar''' proposes that this is due to a set of innate rules, which guide how we acquire language and how we construct valid sentences in it. It thus attempts to explain language in general, and not simply describe the construction of any one specific language ''per se''. There are many alternative theories of human language consistency besides the speculative theory of "universal grammar". One theory is that human environments possess common structures and human language simply responds to the commonality of the world. Universal grammar is a speculative, unproven hypothesis that is still awaiting confirmation and has no evidence to support it other than "rational argument". ===Language Acquisition=== At very young age, we acquire our native language by listening to, guessing at the meaning of, and imitating the symbols used by tutors around us. Moreover, during these early years we learn to walk and talk without any explicit need for understanding how we are doing what we are doing. In this process we seem to be helped by a set of Inherent learning strategies, the ability for optimized pattern perception of common, ambient symbols. Infants are exceptionally broad in their abilities to perceive sound qualities. In fact, as infants we can distinguish many more language sounds than we can as adults. During the first year of life, infant brains are actively engaged in optimizing acoustic perception for the language sounds that surround them. Such early acquisition of information about native language depends on perceptually mapping both the critical aspects of language, and statistical properties of speech. It is now clear that infants perceive the various phonetic units, track the frequency of different formants, and extract the boundaries of words from running speech. Patricia Kuhl suggests that language acquisition is based on a combination of factors to provide a powerful discovery procedure for language.<ref>Kuhl P. 2000. A new view of language acquisition. PNAS 97(22): 11850–11857</ref> Evidence suggests that '''initial perception parses speech in a universal way''' in all human infants. Infants have inherent perceptual biases that segment phonetic units without providing innate descriptions of them. They were able to parse and discriminate a wide range of basic phonetic units. Adults, in contrast, are only able to discriminated phonetic units that occur in their first language, but fail to distinguish those that are not used there. Japanese adults, for example, fail to discriminate phonetic boundaries of ''r'' vs. ''l'', boundaries that do not exist in Japanese. Such discrimination is based on general auditory processing mechanisms, rather than on innate phonetic feature detectors for speech. Language learning requires '''mapping these probabilistic patterns into language strategies'''. As infants detect frequency patterns in language input they identify higher-order units. Infants thus discover the critical parameters and phonetic dimensions of the sounds used in their native language. Sensory processing becomes optimized by experience for enhance perception of the specific language around them. '''Vocal learning unifies language perception and production''' where vocal learning depends on a comparison of one's own vocalizations to those of others. Imitation forms the integral bond between the perception and production of language abilities and together they become optimized for the first language. If a second language is learned later on, it will carry the accent typical for the speech motor patterns of their primary language, even following long-term instruction. Similarities in infant-directed speaking styles (increased pitch and exaggerated stress) enhances language learning by assisting infants in discriminating phonetic units, as well as by capturing attention. ===Brain Areas=== '''Broca's Area''' underlies the ability to produce speech, but it is not critical for understanding language. Patients with damage will fail to form words properly, and speech is halting and slurred. '''Wermicke's Area''' is essential for the ability to understand language. Patients with damage to this area can speak clearly, but the words make no sense (i.e., word salad). The '''Arcuate Fasciculus''' connects these two areas. Damage to this connection causes conduction aphasia where language is understood, but neither can words be repeated, nor does own speech make any sense. Capabilities for speech are not distributed evenly across the two halfs of the brain. Speech is only disrupted when amobarbital is selectively used to anesthetize only the half of the brain which contains these speech centers. Imaging techniques (e.g. fMRI) have identified that bilingual individuals utilize an overlapping set of neurons in the language areas for these two languages. In contrast, individuals who have acquired a second language later in life will likely rely on separate neuronal areas in these speech centers. Late bilingual speakers are also less likely to show strong lateralization of speech function. This suggests that as two language systems are learned together early on, they can share the same brain centers without causing catastrophic interference. In adult learning, the best sites of brain real estate have already been taken up by the first language, thus, any new language learning must co-opt 'new' territory adjacent to it or on the other half of the brain. ===References=== =References= {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} {{Animal Behavior/stub}} 3wtfuahikvzxp0dmvkj57orbfkjcadp 4 112405 4632105 4631848 2026-04-24T21:28:30Z LeventBulut 3578898 /* Request: Help adding Objective Projection writing guide (filter blocked) */ new section 4632105 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Correspondence between John Belton and the Continental Congress == Hello. [[s:Correspondence between John Belton and the Continental Congress]] is probably going to be deleted from Wikisource as out of scope, would Wikibooks be interested in its import? -- [[User:Jan.Kamenicek|Jan.Kamenicek]] ([[User talk:Jan.Kamenicek|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan.Kamenicek|contribs]]) 19:27, 3 March 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Jan.Kamenicek|Jan.Kamenicek]] Thank you for checking! We do not host source texts, so it doesn't look like this would be in scope at Wikibooks. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:55, 3 March 2026 (UTC) == Upcoming deployment of CampaignEvents extension to Wikibooks == <section begin="message"/> Hello everyone, We are writing to inform you that the [[mw:Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] will be deployed to all Wikibooks projects during the week of '''23 March 2026'''. This follows last year’s broader rollout across Wikimedia projects. We realized that Wikibooks was not included at the time, and we’re now addressing that to ensure consistency across all communities. The CampaignEvents extension provides tools to support event and campaign organization on-wiki, including features like on-wiki event registration and collaboration lists(global event list). We welcome any questions, feedback, or concerns you may have. We are also happy to support anyone interested in trying out the tools. ''Apologies if this message is not in your preferred language. If you’re able to help translate it for your community, please feel free to do so.'' <section end="message"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:Udehb-WMF|Udehb-WMF]] ([[User talk:Udehb-WMF|discuss]]) 18:22, 19 March 2026 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:Udehb-WMF@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Udehb-WMF/sandbox/MM_target&oldid=30284073 --> == Regarding the project's FlaggedRevs extension == Hello, everyone. I want to discuss with the community about the use of this project's FlaggedRevs (flagged revisions) extension, which was deployed many years ago (and configured recently). === Many unreviewed edits, and edit quality options === According to [[Special:PendingChanges]], there are almost 4000 unreviewed edits (per the standard FlaggedRevs configuration). In addition, on the edit review interface when evaluating a diff, there are three radio buttons that determine the quality of the edit (minimal, average, good). Do we have to utilize these buttons if the quality of the edit or the book matters, according to [[WB:REVIEW]]? This proposal is to whether discontinue the edit rating buttons or not. One way to reduce such a large amount of unreviewed edits is to set the following to <code>true</code>: * <code>wgFlaggedRevsProtection</code> (pending changes protection, to be used on Wikijunior pages; this might negate the need to show the stable version by default) * (optional) <code>wgSimpleFlaggedRevsUI</code> (simpler, icon-based UI on the edit review interface) We should also include the following configuration (partially based from English Wikipedia), if this proposal passes: <syntaxhighlight lang="php"> elseif ( $wgDBname == 'enwikibooks' ) { // Limited to the main, Cookbook, and Wikijunior namespaces (T408110) $wgFlaggedRevsNamespaces = [ NS_MAIN, 102, 110 ]; # We have only one tag with one level $wgFlaggedRevsTags = [ 'status' => [ 'levels' => 1 ] ]; # Restrict autoconfirmed to flagging semi-protected $wgFlaggedRevsTagsRestrictions = [ 'status' => [ 'review' => 1, 'autoreview' => 1 ], ]; # Restriction levels for auto-review/review rights $wgFlaggedRevsRestrictionLevels = [ 'autoreview' ]; # Remove 'validate' from reviewers $wgGroupPermissions['reviewer']['validate'] = false; # Group permissions for sysops $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['review'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['stablesettings'] = true; # Allow sysops to add and remove the 'reviewer' group $wgAddGroups['sysop'][] = 'reviewer'; $wgRemoveGroups['sysop'][] = 'reviewer'; # Remove the 'editor' user group unset( $wgGroupPermissions['editor'] ); } </syntaxhighlight> === Inactive reviewers === After conducting an audit of over 1000 reviewers, most, if not many of them are completely inactive. === User group changes for reviewers === The reviewer user group is known to the software as <code>editor</code>, which might sound misleading (the actual [[MediaWiki:Group-editor/qqq|/qqq definition]] is "Editors"). To fix that, we might have to consider switching to <code>reviewer</code> and unset <code>editor</code>. I am also not sure whether administrators should have the <code>validate</code> user right, since <code>reviewer</code> has it on by default (but it is currently disabled). On the above configuration I proposed, administrators (and users in the <code>reviewer</code> user group) would no longer have <code>validate</code>. === Page patrolling === Currently, only administrators can mark new pages as patrolled (<code>patrol</code>) by using the MediaWiki page patrol software, but clicking on "Accept revision" (via FlaggedRevs) would also mark the page as patrolled, in question. I believe that using FlaggedRevs to patrol new pages is redundant, given that we might not want to use one or the other. If we are considering on switching to pending changes, we should also allow reviewers to mark new pages as patrolled, as they are trusted to have the <code>autopatrol</code> right in addition to administrators and autoreviewed users. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:05, 21 March 2026 (UTC) :I agree on replacing <code>editor</code> with <code>reviewer</code> to avoid confusion. Reviewers don't need to have patrol permissions as a reviewed page would be patrolled as well. I don't think people will use it much as a page or edit being reviewed already means that it has been checked by someone else. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 16:00, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::When I said that reviewers would have <code>patrol</code>, they can review new pages that other users created, but not any new pages they create themselves. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:16, 22 March 2026 (UTC) :::How can that be the case if they have <code>autopatrol</code>? [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 18:26, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::::I will give you an example. On the English Wikiquote, there are two user groups that have <code>autopatrol</code>: autopatrollers and patrollers. Autopatrollers have their page creations marked as patrolled by the software, while patrollers (whilst also having their page creations marked as patrolled) can mark new pages as patrolled (in addition to administrators). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:39, 22 March 2026 (UTC) :::::But what is the point of giving reviewers <code>patrol</code> if we are already using FlaggedRevs? I think that we won't need patrol because we already have reviewing, and patrol only seems to be a confirmation that the page is up to policy from what I have seen, so giving them reviewers to mark pages as patrolled seems pointless to me when we already have FlaggedRevs. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 19:06, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::::::I understand, but my proposal was to convert FlaggedRevs into a protection-like mechanism which would be used alongside page protection; it might turn off FlaggedRevs's ability to patrol new pages for reviewers, hence why I suggested this above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:30, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::::::: @[[User:Kingofnuthin|Kingofnuthin]] I will summarize what you said from above: :::::::* You agree about the reviewer user group to be moved from <code>editor</code> to <code>reviewer</code> to avoid confusion (technically). :::::::* However, you probably disagree about allowing reviewers to patrol new pages ''and'' having their page creations automatically marked as patrolled, because FlaggedRevs can do all of this, and <code>$wgUseNPPatrol</code> might seem to be redundant. ::::::: A compromise about your disagreement is that we might have to consider removing <code>autopatrol</code> and/or <code>patrol</code> from our existing user groups, similar to [[phab:T423461]]. ::::::: I started this because in addition to that, one of my concerns was the extreme backlog of unreviewed edits and pages [4000!]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:31, 19 April 2026 (UTC) :I may be missing some things here, so let me know if I haven't answered any points here: :# I don't think we currently need to have the review status indicate the quality of the edit (i.e. minimal, average, good). I don't think this is used at all anymore. :# I think it makes sense to reassign the reviewer user group to <code>editor</code>. I always like clarity in language. :# Are you saying that pages marked as reviewed are currently also classed as patrolled? If that's the case, I think we should not have reviewed pages automatically classed as patrolled, and we should keep reviewing and patrolling separate. :I'll note that honestly don't know much about patrolling, since I've never engaged with it—I have only ever referenced the reviewing system. If there is a significant functional difference, I would love to know it. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:00, 23 March 2026 (UTC) ::When someone clicks "Accept revision" on an unreviewed page, it is listed under [[Special:Log/review]]; if an admin marks a page as patrolled with "Mark this page as patrolled", it will show up under [[Special:Log/patrol]], which is not really logged much compared to the former log (review). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:12, 23 March 2026 (UTC) :I agree to your thoughts about the <code>editor</code> group and edit quality ratings, but I don't understand what this proposal changes for FlaggedRevs, since I don't have much technical knowledge. Can you explain what the proposal changes here, how are we going to convert FlaggedRevs into a "protection-like mechanism"? [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 17:24, 23 March 2026 (UTC) ::The proposal of changing FlaggedRevs into a protection-like feature (pending changes) is when an editor (unregistered/one not holding autoreviewer, reviewer, or administrator permissions) makes an edit, but their edit will be hidden from the public until it is approved by a reviewer or an administrator, and it will solely apply to Wikijunior pages. The configuration above is similar to what English Wikipedia uses. {{quote|::I think it makes sense to reassign the reviewer user group to <code>editor</code>.}} ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: I believe you might have misunderstood. What I meant is that <code>(editor)</code> will be changed to <code>(reviewer)</code> to avoid confusion, but I plan to remove <code>editor</code> from all inactive reviewers, then do the same for recently active reviewers. However, given that there are a lot of reviewers, a script will possibly do all the work (under {{no ping|Maintenance script}} or similar). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:29, 23 March 2026 (UTC) :::Gotcha! I can't currently foresee an issue with this —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:09, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :'''Re FlaggedRevs generally: '''The [[mw:Extension:FlaggedRevs|Mediawiki page of the extension]] says it is not being maintained and not recommended for production use. We should consider whether we need this extension at all. :What is the actual policy justification for having FlaggedRevs? :[[Help:Tracking_changes#Reviewing_pages]] says it's "our primary counter-vandalism tool". I don't know if it is that: it doesn't prevent vandalism or reduce exposure to vandalism (as with stable versions). The "counter-vandalism" bit comes from human editors looking at the edits, identifying vandalism, and reverting. FlaggedRevs isn't necessary for that. Maybe it makes it a little easier to spot edits in recent changes from new editors that may need a little more help (wikicode etc, not just spam), but can that be achieved just with the patrolled edits functionality? :If we still want something like FlaggedRevs, as an anti-vandalism tool or for draft control, then Mediawiki has a [[mw:Content approval extensions|list of alternatives]] that may be more suited and better maintained. :'''Re minimal/average/good specifically:''' I agree that we don't need the three categories. I thought I read somewhere that these were intended to show the quality of the REVIEW not of the page? That is, a "minimal" review is "I checked there was no obvious vandalism" and a "good" review was "I've thoroughly fact-checked everything". [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 11:34, 5 April 2026 (UTC) :: This was enabled back in 2008, which resulted in [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] currently being obsolete. To be honest, I would keep FlaggedRevs, but I was proposing to change it to pending changes protection, similar to how Wikipedia utilizes it. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:04, 19 April 2026 (UTC) :Pinging <span class="template-ping">@[[:User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]]:</span> and <span class="template-ping">@[[:User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]:</span> for additional input. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[w:Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 22:29, 22 March 2026.</span><!--Template:Undated--> == Global ban for Faster than Thunder == * {{user|Faster than Thunder}} Hello, this message is to notify that [[User:Faster than Thunder|Faster than Thunder]] has been nominated for a global ban at [[m:Requests for comment/Global ban for Faster than Thunder]]. You are receiving this notification as required per the [[m:global ban|global ban]] policy as they have made at least 1 edit on this wiki. Thanks, --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:52, 22 March 2026 (UTC) == Upcoming Wikimedia Café meetup regarding the [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]] == {{tmbox | image = [[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|45px]] | type=notice | text = Hello! There will be a '''[[:meta:Wikimedia Café|Wikimedia Café]]''' meetup on '''Saturday, 11 April 2026 at 14:00 UTC''', focusing on the [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]]. The featured guests will be {{Noping|KStineRowe (WMF)|label1=Kelsi Stine-Rowe}} (senior manager, [[:meta:Movement Communications|Movement Communications]], Wikimedia Foundation), and {{Noping|Samwalton9 (WMF)|label1=Sam Walton}} (senior product manager, [[:mw:Moderator Tools|Moderator Tools]], Wikimedia Foundation). <br /> In addition to this Café session, [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027/Collaboration|several additional meetings regarding the Annual Plan are listed on the Collaboration page]], and you may participate on the [[:meta:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|talk page]]. <br /> This Café meetup will be approximately two hours long. Attendees may choose to attend only for a part. Please see the Café page for more information, including [[:meta:Wikimedia Café#Signups for the April 2026 session|how to register]]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]] }} <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 05:23, 29 March 2026 (UTC) == Regarding copyright of recipes found on online cooking forums == What is the copyright situation regarding cooking recipes found on online recipe books with recipes made by other people? I ask this because I want to add/translate recipes from 下厨房 (xià chúfáng) for Chinese recipes, and while I was intending to add the original writer of the recipe with the translation I still want to ask for clarification. [[User:Fukukitaru|Fukukitaru]] ([[User talk:Fukukitaru|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fukukitaru|contribs]]) 19:06, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Recipes are in principle not copyright-able, as they are just facts. When someone includes descriptive text or anything that elaborates on the basic ingredients and steps, that is copyright-able. I am not a lawyer or legal scholar and cannot give legal advice. See (e.g.) https://www.copyrightlaws.com/copyright-protection-recipes/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:16, 30 March 2026 (UTC) ::In that case, would simplifying ingredients and methods to where they are simple yet can still be understood be sufficient for said recipes? [[User:Fukukitaru|Fukukitaru]] ([[User talk:Fukukitaru|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fukukitaru|contribs]]) 19:23, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :::Yes, you can add a recipe here as long as the instructions and text are not too overlapping with the copyrighted original. As the linked page says, the '''ideas''' behind the ingredient list and steps to prepare a given food item are not currently copyrightable, but the way you write the ideas may be copyrightable. You should also cite where you took the recipe from so we can trace its origins. I personally recommend only adding recipes that you have successfully made so we don't become a massive repository of potentially low-quality or untested recipes—I only add recipes once I have made them successfully. Let me know if you have any more questions about the Cookbook! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:06, 30 March 2026 (UTC) ::::To build up on this, if you want to understand what is copyright-able and what is not, the "[[:w:en:Idea–expression distinction|idea versus expression]]" distinction. You cannot own the idea of "Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy and girl commit suicide" but you can copyright a specific version of ''Romeo and Juliet'' with your own innovative ideas. And, for that matter, this is context-specific, but if you can understand the distinction, it can help with future questions about "could this be protected by copyright?", which can be a subtle one. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:50, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :::::To further build up on this, there's something called the merger doctrine (see ''[[w:Baker v. Selden|Baker v. Selden]]''). This is why you can't copyright drawings of [[w:Structural formula|structural formulas]]. This doctrine means that if there's only one or a handful of ways to express an idea, then any such expression cannot be copyrighted, since copyrighting that expression would essentially be copyrighting the idea itself. This comes in a lot with recipes. I very likely can't copyright this list (from [[Cookbook:Cornmeal Pancakes (Arepa)]]: :::::* 2.4 cups corn flour :::::* 1.2 tsp salt :::::* 0.6 cup grated white cheese :::::* 2.4 cups cool water :::::Since there's essentially only one way to express the idea of that combination of ingredients. However, if I say: :::::* 2.4 cups corn flour: for this, I strongly recommend Harina P.A.N., because my grandma always used to make me arepas from that stuff every day, and it was delicious. :::::That is copyrightable. At that point, I cease to merely be expressing the idea of a food item with those four ingredients, and add a minimum degree of creativity. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:02, 31 March 2026 (UTC) ::::::And to build on all <em>that</em>, even if individual pieces of information are in the public domain (or are fair use), the <em>arrangement</em> of them can be copyrighted. This is why even if ''Bartlett's Quotations'' only had public domain material, the act of selectively editing and positioning them thematically for the user's benefit could constitute a sufficiently original work. So we could copy the material from a bunch of recipes, but could run a foul of copyright issues if we arranged and sorted them in some kind of manner that replicated someone else's original work. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:28, 31 March 2026 (UTC) == Style Guidelines for Advanced Points == Is there a general style guideline to refer the reader to advanced information, while the main text gives the short-answer version? For example, how would I specify that in practical applications, A is true, but if you use the theory you see that A is not quite true, or has caveats, or similar?-- [[User:Iain marcuson|Iain marcuson]] ([[User talk:Iain marcuson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Iain marcuson|contribs]]) 17:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Request: Help adding Objective Projection writing guide (filter blocked) == Hello, I am Levent Bulut (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261), author of the Objective Projection methodology. I am trying to contribute a practical writing guide to Wikibooks under CC BY-SA 4.0. Book title: "Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories" The automated filter blocked my edits due to external links and content volume. I have already created the page with the introduction and contents, but could not add the chapters. The Turkish version of the same book is already live on Wikibooks: https://tr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Nesnel_%C4%B0zd%C3%BC%C5%9F%C3%BCm:_Beyin_Neden_Baz%C4%B1_Hikayeleri_Unutmuyor%3F This is not a new theory — it is an instructional guide teaching a published methodology documented in DOI-registered publications: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18689179 Open license declaration on my site: https://leventbulut.com/acik-lisans-bildirimi-wikibooks/ All content is my own work, written for Wikibooks, under CC BY-SA 4.0. Could an experienced editor help add the remaining chapters, or whitelist my account so the filter does not block future edits? Thank you. Levent Bulut | leventbulut.com [[User:LeventBulut|LeventBulut]] ([[User talk:LeventBulut|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/LeventBulut|contribs]]) 21:28, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 2j7jksro5vxcjznbcy9kwg6hrrrkjph 4632123 4632105 2026-04-25T01:03:38Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Request: Help adding Objective Projection writing guide (filter blocked) */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4632123 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Correspondence between John Belton and the Continental Congress == Hello. [[s:Correspondence between John Belton and the Continental Congress]] is probably going to be deleted from Wikisource as out of scope, would Wikibooks be interested in its import? -- [[User:Jan.Kamenicek|Jan.Kamenicek]] ([[User talk:Jan.Kamenicek|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan.Kamenicek|contribs]]) 19:27, 3 March 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Jan.Kamenicek|Jan.Kamenicek]] Thank you for checking! We do not host source texts, so it doesn't look like this would be in scope at Wikibooks. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:55, 3 March 2026 (UTC) == Upcoming deployment of CampaignEvents extension to Wikibooks == <section begin="message"/> Hello everyone, We are writing to inform you that the [[mw:Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] will be deployed to all Wikibooks projects during the week of '''23 March 2026'''. This follows last year’s broader rollout across Wikimedia projects. We realized that Wikibooks was not included at the time, and we’re now addressing that to ensure consistency across all communities. The CampaignEvents extension provides tools to support event and campaign organization on-wiki, including features like on-wiki event registration and collaboration lists(global event list). We welcome any questions, feedback, or concerns you may have. We are also happy to support anyone interested in trying out the tools. ''Apologies if this message is not in your preferred language. If you’re able to help translate it for your community, please feel free to do so.'' <section end="message"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:Udehb-WMF|Udehb-WMF]] ([[User talk:Udehb-WMF|discuss]]) 18:22, 19 March 2026 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:Udehb-WMF@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Udehb-WMF/sandbox/MM_target&oldid=30284073 --> == Regarding the project's FlaggedRevs extension == Hello, everyone. I want to discuss with the community about the use of this project's FlaggedRevs (flagged revisions) extension, which was deployed many years ago (and configured recently). === Many unreviewed edits, and edit quality options === According to [[Special:PendingChanges]], there are almost 4000 unreviewed edits (per the standard FlaggedRevs configuration). In addition, on the edit review interface when evaluating a diff, there are three radio buttons that determine the quality of the edit (minimal, average, good). Do we have to utilize these buttons if the quality of the edit or the book matters, according to [[WB:REVIEW]]? This proposal is to whether discontinue the edit rating buttons or not. One way to reduce such a large amount of unreviewed edits is to set the following to <code>true</code>: * <code>wgFlaggedRevsProtection</code> (pending changes protection, to be used on Wikijunior pages; this might negate the need to show the stable version by default) * (optional) <code>wgSimpleFlaggedRevsUI</code> (simpler, icon-based UI on the edit review interface) We should also include the following configuration (partially based from English Wikipedia), if this proposal passes: <syntaxhighlight lang="php"> elseif ( $wgDBname == 'enwikibooks' ) { // Limited to the main, Cookbook, and Wikijunior namespaces (T408110) $wgFlaggedRevsNamespaces = [ NS_MAIN, 102, 110 ]; # We have only one tag with one level $wgFlaggedRevsTags = [ 'status' => [ 'levels' => 1 ] ]; # Restrict autoconfirmed to flagging semi-protected $wgFlaggedRevsTagsRestrictions = [ 'status' => [ 'review' => 1, 'autoreview' => 1 ], ]; # Restriction levels for auto-review/review rights $wgFlaggedRevsRestrictionLevels = [ 'autoreview' ]; # Remove 'validate' from reviewers $wgGroupPermissions['reviewer']['validate'] = false; # Group permissions for sysops $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['review'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['stablesettings'] = true; # Allow sysops to add and remove the 'reviewer' group $wgAddGroups['sysop'][] = 'reviewer'; $wgRemoveGroups['sysop'][] = 'reviewer'; # Remove the 'editor' user group unset( $wgGroupPermissions['editor'] ); } </syntaxhighlight> === Inactive reviewers === After conducting an audit of over 1000 reviewers, most, if not many of them are completely inactive. === User group changes for reviewers === The reviewer user group is known to the software as <code>editor</code>, which might sound misleading (the actual [[MediaWiki:Group-editor/qqq|/qqq definition]] is "Editors"). To fix that, we might have to consider switching to <code>reviewer</code> and unset <code>editor</code>. I am also not sure whether administrators should have the <code>validate</code> user right, since <code>reviewer</code> has it on by default (but it is currently disabled). On the above configuration I proposed, administrators (and users in the <code>reviewer</code> user group) would no longer have <code>validate</code>. === Page patrolling === Currently, only administrators can mark new pages as patrolled (<code>patrol</code>) by using the MediaWiki page patrol software, but clicking on "Accept revision" (via FlaggedRevs) would also mark the page as patrolled, in question. I believe that using FlaggedRevs to patrol new pages is redundant, given that we might not want to use one or the other. If we are considering on switching to pending changes, we should also allow reviewers to mark new pages as patrolled, as they are trusted to have the <code>autopatrol</code> right in addition to administrators and autoreviewed users. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:05, 21 March 2026 (UTC) :I agree on replacing <code>editor</code> with <code>reviewer</code> to avoid confusion. Reviewers don't need to have patrol permissions as a reviewed page would be patrolled as well. I don't think people will use it much as a page or edit being reviewed already means that it has been checked by someone else. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 16:00, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::When I said that reviewers would have <code>patrol</code>, they can review new pages that other users created, but not any new pages they create themselves. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:16, 22 March 2026 (UTC) :::How can that be the case if they have <code>autopatrol</code>? [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 18:26, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::::I will give you an example. On the English Wikiquote, there are two user groups that have <code>autopatrol</code>: autopatrollers and patrollers. Autopatrollers have their page creations marked as patrolled by the software, while patrollers (whilst also having their page creations marked as patrolled) can mark new pages as patrolled (in addition to administrators). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:39, 22 March 2026 (UTC) :::::But what is the point of giving reviewers <code>patrol</code> if we are already using FlaggedRevs? I think that we won't need patrol because we already have reviewing, and patrol only seems to be a confirmation that the page is up to policy from what I have seen, so giving them reviewers to mark pages as patrolled seems pointless to me when we already have FlaggedRevs. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 19:06, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::::::I understand, but my proposal was to convert FlaggedRevs into a protection-like mechanism which would be used alongside page protection; it might turn off FlaggedRevs's ability to patrol new pages for reviewers, hence why I suggested this above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:30, 22 March 2026 (UTC) ::::::: @[[User:Kingofnuthin|Kingofnuthin]] I will summarize what you said from above: :::::::* You agree about the reviewer user group to be moved from <code>editor</code> to <code>reviewer</code> to avoid confusion (technically). :::::::* However, you probably disagree about allowing reviewers to patrol new pages ''and'' having their page creations automatically marked as patrolled, because FlaggedRevs can do all of this, and <code>$wgUseNPPatrol</code> might seem to be redundant. ::::::: A compromise about your disagreement is that we might have to consider removing <code>autopatrol</code> and/or <code>patrol</code> from our existing user groups, similar to [[phab:T423461]]. ::::::: I started this because in addition to that, one of my concerns was the extreme backlog of unreviewed edits and pages [4000!]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:31, 19 April 2026 (UTC) :I may be missing some things here, so let me know if I haven't answered any points here: :# I don't think we currently need to have the review status indicate the quality of the edit (i.e. minimal, average, good). I don't think this is used at all anymore. :# I think it makes sense to reassign the reviewer user group to <code>editor</code>. I always like clarity in language. :# Are you saying that pages marked as reviewed are currently also classed as patrolled? If that's the case, I think we should not have reviewed pages automatically classed as patrolled, and we should keep reviewing and patrolling separate. :I'll note that honestly don't know much about patrolling, since I've never engaged with it—I have only ever referenced the reviewing system. If there is a significant functional difference, I would love to know it. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:00, 23 March 2026 (UTC) ::When someone clicks "Accept revision" on an unreviewed page, it is listed under [[Special:Log/review]]; if an admin marks a page as patrolled with "Mark this page as patrolled", it will show up under [[Special:Log/patrol]], which is not really logged much compared to the former log (review). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:12, 23 March 2026 (UTC) :I agree to your thoughts about the <code>editor</code> group and edit quality ratings, but I don't understand what this proposal changes for FlaggedRevs, since I don't have much technical knowledge. Can you explain what the proposal changes here, how are we going to convert FlaggedRevs into a "protection-like mechanism"? [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 17:24, 23 March 2026 (UTC) ::The proposal of changing FlaggedRevs into a protection-like feature (pending changes) is when an editor (unregistered/one not holding autoreviewer, reviewer, or administrator permissions) makes an edit, but their edit will be hidden from the public until it is approved by a reviewer or an administrator, and it will solely apply to Wikijunior pages. The configuration above is similar to what English Wikipedia uses. {{quote|::I think it makes sense to reassign the reviewer user group to <code>editor</code>.}} ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: I believe you might have misunderstood. What I meant is that <code>(editor)</code> will be changed to <code>(reviewer)</code> to avoid confusion, but I plan to remove <code>editor</code> from all inactive reviewers, then do the same for recently active reviewers. However, given that there are a lot of reviewers, a script will possibly do all the work (under {{no ping|Maintenance script}} or similar). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:29, 23 March 2026 (UTC) :::Gotcha! I can't currently foresee an issue with this —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:09, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :'''Re FlaggedRevs generally: '''The [[mw:Extension:FlaggedRevs|Mediawiki page of the extension]] says it is not being maintained and not recommended for production use. We should consider whether we need this extension at all. :What is the actual policy justification for having FlaggedRevs? :[[Help:Tracking_changes#Reviewing_pages]] says it's "our primary counter-vandalism tool". I don't know if it is that: it doesn't prevent vandalism or reduce exposure to vandalism (as with stable versions). The "counter-vandalism" bit comes from human editors looking at the edits, identifying vandalism, and reverting. FlaggedRevs isn't necessary for that. Maybe it makes it a little easier to spot edits in recent changes from new editors that may need a little more help (wikicode etc, not just spam), but can that be achieved just with the patrolled edits functionality? :If we still want something like FlaggedRevs, as an anti-vandalism tool or for draft control, then Mediawiki has a [[mw:Content approval extensions|list of alternatives]] that may be more suited and better maintained. :'''Re minimal/average/good specifically:''' I agree that we don't need the three categories. I thought I read somewhere that these were intended to show the quality of the REVIEW not of the page? That is, a "minimal" review is "I checked there was no obvious vandalism" and a "good" review was "I've thoroughly fact-checked everything". [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 11:34, 5 April 2026 (UTC) :: This was enabled back in 2008, which resulted in [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] currently being obsolete. To be honest, I would keep FlaggedRevs, but I was proposing to change it to pending changes protection, similar to how Wikipedia utilizes it. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:04, 19 April 2026 (UTC) :Pinging <span class="template-ping">@[[:User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]]:</span> and <span class="template-ping">@[[:User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]:</span> for additional input. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[w:Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 22:29, 22 March 2026.</span><!--Template:Undated--> == Global ban for Faster than Thunder == * {{user|Faster than Thunder}} Hello, this message is to notify that [[User:Faster than Thunder|Faster than Thunder]] has been nominated for a global ban at [[m:Requests for comment/Global ban for Faster than Thunder]]. You are receiving this notification as required per the [[m:global ban|global ban]] policy as they have made at least 1 edit on this wiki. Thanks, --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 01:52, 22 March 2026 (UTC) == Upcoming Wikimedia Café meetup regarding the [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]] == {{tmbox | image = [[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|45px]] | type=notice | text = Hello! There will be a '''[[:meta:Wikimedia Café|Wikimedia Café]]''' meetup on '''Saturday, 11 April 2026 at 14:00 UTC''', focusing on the [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]]. The featured guests will be {{Noping|KStineRowe (WMF)|label1=Kelsi Stine-Rowe}} (senior manager, [[:meta:Movement Communications|Movement Communications]], Wikimedia Foundation), and {{Noping|Samwalton9 (WMF)|label1=Sam Walton}} (senior product manager, [[:mw:Moderator Tools|Moderator Tools]], Wikimedia Foundation). <br /> In addition to this Café session, [[:meta:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027/Collaboration|several additional meetings regarding the Annual Plan are listed on the Collaboration page]], and you may participate on the [[:meta:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|talk page]]. <br /> This Café meetup will be approximately two hours long. Attendees may choose to attend only for a part. Please see the Café page for more information, including [[:meta:Wikimedia Café#Signups for the April 2026 session|how to register]]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]] }} <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 05:23, 29 March 2026 (UTC) == Regarding copyright of recipes found on online cooking forums == What is the copyright situation regarding cooking recipes found on online recipe books with recipes made by other people? I ask this because I want to add/translate recipes from 下厨房 (xià chúfáng) for Chinese recipes, and while I was intending to add the original writer of the recipe with the translation I still want to ask for clarification. [[User:Fukukitaru|Fukukitaru]] ([[User talk:Fukukitaru|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fukukitaru|contribs]]) 19:06, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Recipes are in principle not copyright-able, as they are just facts. When someone includes descriptive text or anything that elaborates on the basic ingredients and steps, that is copyright-able. I am not a lawyer or legal scholar and cannot give legal advice. See (e.g.) https://www.copyrightlaws.com/copyright-protection-recipes/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:16, 30 March 2026 (UTC) ::In that case, would simplifying ingredients and methods to where they are simple yet can still be understood be sufficient for said recipes? [[User:Fukukitaru|Fukukitaru]] ([[User talk:Fukukitaru|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fukukitaru|contribs]]) 19:23, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :::Yes, you can add a recipe here as long as the instructions and text are not too overlapping with the copyrighted original. As the linked page says, the '''ideas''' behind the ingredient list and steps to prepare a given food item are not currently copyrightable, but the way you write the ideas may be copyrightable. You should also cite where you took the recipe from so we can trace its origins. I personally recommend only adding recipes that you have successfully made so we don't become a massive repository of potentially low-quality or untested recipes—I only add recipes once I have made them successfully. Let me know if you have any more questions about the Cookbook! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:06, 30 March 2026 (UTC) ::::To build up on this, if you want to understand what is copyright-able and what is not, the "[[:w:en:Idea–expression distinction|idea versus expression]]" distinction. You cannot own the idea of "Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy and girl commit suicide" but you can copyright a specific version of ''Romeo and Juliet'' with your own innovative ideas. And, for that matter, this is context-specific, but if you can understand the distinction, it can help with future questions about "could this be protected by copyright?", which can be a subtle one. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:50, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :::::To further build up on this, there's something called the merger doctrine (see ''[[w:Baker v. Selden|Baker v. Selden]]''). This is why you can't copyright drawings of [[w:Structural formula|structural formulas]]. This doctrine means that if there's only one or a handful of ways to express an idea, then any such expression cannot be copyrighted, since copyrighting that expression would essentially be copyrighting the idea itself. This comes in a lot with recipes. I very likely can't copyright this list (from [[Cookbook:Cornmeal Pancakes (Arepa)]]: :::::* 2.4 cups corn flour :::::* 1.2 tsp salt :::::* 0.6 cup grated white cheese :::::* 2.4 cups cool water :::::Since there's essentially only one way to express the idea of that combination of ingredients. However, if I say: :::::* 2.4 cups corn flour: for this, I strongly recommend Harina P.A.N., because my grandma always used to make me arepas from that stuff every day, and it was delicious. :::::That is copyrightable. At that point, I cease to merely be expressing the idea of a food item with those four ingredients, and add a minimum degree of creativity. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:02, 31 March 2026 (UTC) ::::::And to build on all <em>that</em>, even if individual pieces of information are in the public domain (or are fair use), the <em>arrangement</em> of them can be copyrighted. This is why even if ''Bartlett's Quotations'' only had public domain material, the act of selectively editing and positioning them thematically for the user's benefit could constitute a sufficiently original work. So we could copy the material from a bunch of recipes, but could run a foul of copyright issues if we arranged and sorted them in some kind of manner that replicated someone else's original work. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:28, 31 March 2026 (UTC) == Style Guidelines for Advanced Points == Is there a general style guideline to refer the reader to advanced information, while the main text gives the short-answer version? For example, how would I specify that in practical applications, A is true, but if you use the theory you see that A is not quite true, or has caveats, or similar?-- [[User:Iain marcuson|Iain marcuson]] ([[User talk:Iain marcuson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Iain marcuson|contribs]]) 17:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Request: Help adding Objective Projection writing guide (filter blocked) == Hello, I am Levent Bulut (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261), author of the Objective Projection methodology. I am trying to contribute a practical writing guide to Wikibooks under CC BY-SA 4.0. Book title: "Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories" The automated filter blocked my edits due to external links and content volume. I have already created the page with the introduction and contents, but could not add the chapters. The Turkish version of the same book is already live on Wikibooks: https://tr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Nesnel_%C4%B0zd%C3%BC%C5%9F%C3%BCm:_Beyin_Neden_Baz%C4%B1_Hikayeleri_Unutmuyor%3F This is not a new theory — it is an instructional guide teaching a published methodology documented in DOI-registered publications: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18689179 Open license declaration on my site: https://leventbulut.com/acik-lisans-bildirimi-wikibooks/ All content is my own work, written for Wikibooks, under CC BY-SA 4.0. Could an experienced editor help add the remaining chapters, or whitelist my account so the filter does not block future edits? Thank you. Levent Bulut | leventbulut.com [[User:LeventBulut|LeventBulut]] ([[User talk:LeventBulut|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/LeventBulut|contribs]]) 21:28, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:LeventBulut|LeventBulut]] This happened because you added too much content when creating the book. Also, when reporting false positives from an edit filter, please report on [[Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives]]. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:03, 25 April 2026 (UTC) g1elffidfunmmawg9iyg2p4e2oqpy9z 4 140081 4632059 4632032 2026-04-24T12:39:42Z MathXplore 3097823 Reporting Adetoro muiz4 4632059 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 6e93bt5gykhq0vqchf7nrnun26wsnmi 4632060 4632059 2026-04-24T12:39:50Z MathXplore 3097823 Reporting Owolabi Habeeb ola 4632060 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) o7l1micy1btv2fcusd0fczt7tf4kukk 4632065 4632060 2026-04-24T12:45:28Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore */ reply: {{done}}. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4632065 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) bx5v8t10kj9apg3v33kx5tprytm3krp 4632066 4632065 2026-04-24T12:46:26Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore */ reply: {{done}}. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4632066 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:46, 24 April 2026 (UTC) bdqlb4yh0h7xrmmc12kqtpbsorp51su 4632073 4632066 2026-04-24T13:00:32Z MathXplore 3097823 Reporting Toni Tagiam 4632073 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:46, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Toni Tagiam reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Toni Tagiam}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Toni Tagiam/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:00, 24 April 2026 (UTC) ktt66f6snremrad790hvacewp0zj7q8 4632098 4632073 2026-04-24T17:37:51Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Toni Tagiam reported by MathXplore */ Reply 4632098 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:46, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Toni Tagiam reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Toni Tagiam}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Toni Tagiam/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:00, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:37, 24 April 2026 (UTC) ryvtq775kv1trm2pqyelfgpj36l20cx 4632180 4632098 2026-04-25T08:10:39Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread (older than 14 days) to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2026/April]] 4632180 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:46, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Toni Tagiam reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Toni Tagiam}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Toni Tagiam/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:00, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:37, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 06h9k00z4xpvaoncxh54wfiuoxzb9p5 4632215 4632180 2026-04-25T11:06:47Z MathXplore 3097823 Reporting Kianpatterson53 4632215 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:46, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Toni Tagiam reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Toni Tagiam}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Toni Tagiam/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:00, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:37, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Kianpatterson53 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Kianpatterson53}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Kianpatterson53/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:06, 25 April 2026 (UTC) hklfkalen793zqi8ry4yo0dhu9qtw0d 0 150043 4632197 3676401 2026-04-25T08:57:03Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632197 wikitext text/x-wiki ==== scanf ==== {{C++ Programming/Syntax| <syntaxhighlight lang=cpp> #include <cstdio> int scanf( const char *format, ... ); </syntaxhighlight> }} The scanf() function reads input from '''stdin''', according to the given format, and stores the data in the other arguments. It works a lot like [[C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/printf|printf]](). The format string consists of control characters, whitespace characters, and non-whitespace characters. The control characters are preceded by a % sign, and are as follows: {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;" ! '''Control Character''' !! '''Explanation''' |- | %c || a single character |- | %d || a decimal integer |- | %i || an integer |- | %e, %f, %g || a floating-point number |- | %lf || a double |- | %o || an octal number |- | %s || a string |- | %x || a hexadecimal number |- | %p || a pointer |- | %n || an integer equal to the number of characters read so far |- | %u || an {{C++ Programming/kw|unsigned}} integer |- | %[] || a set of characters |- | %% || a percent sign |} scanf() reads the input, matching the characters from format. When a control character is read, it puts the value in the next variable. Whitespace (tabs, spaces, etc.) are skipped. Non-whitespace characters are matched to the input, then discarded. If a number comes between the % sign and the control character, then only that many characters will be converted into the variable. If scanf() encounters a set of characters, denoted by the %[] control character, then any characters found within the brackets are read into the variable. The return value of scanf() is the number of variables that were successfully assigned values, or '''EOF''' if there is an error. This code snippet uses scanf() to read an int, float, and a double from the user. Note that the variable arguments to scanf() are passed in by address, as denoted by the ampersand (&) preceding each variable: <syntaxhighlight lang=cpp> int i; float f; double d; printf( "Enter an integer: " ); scanf( "%d", &i ); printf( "Enter a float: " ); scanf( "%f", &f ); printf( "Enter a double: " ); scanf( "%lf", &d ); printf( "You entered %d, %f, and %f\n", i, f, d ); </syntaxhighlight> ;Related topics: [[C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/fgets|fgets]] - [[C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/fscanf|fscanf]] - [[C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/printf|printf]] - [[C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library/Functions/sscanf|sscanf]] {{BookCat}} jseprjo69572ro5zbz5rkti61298m4c 4 155682 4632090 4630956 2026-04-24T15:56:19Z Leaderboard 1176064 /* Introduce speedy deletion criteria? */ Reply 4632090 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == Consultation to replace the outdated MassBlock gadget == Fellow administrators, I plan to replace the current MassBlock gadget with [[w:it:MediaWiki:Gadget-Massblock.js|this version imported from the Italian Wikipedia]]. Currently on this project, MassBlock only blocks IP addresses, which are no longer visible to the public and it's not ideal. Thoughts? '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 October 2025 (UTC) :In principle, I have no problem with this, but I'm not as familiar with the technical aspects or potential limitations—I'd need other people to weigh in. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:07, 2 November 2025 (UTC) :: I've tested this, and there are some additional options to blank and/or protect user/user talk pages, but we should probably not use them unless absolutely necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:28, 7 November 2025 (UTC) : {{doing|Doing per lack of objection...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:00, 2 January 2026 (UTC) : Apologies for the recent technical difficulties, the script wasn't working because some dependencies were not added... – it's fixed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:28, 2 January 2026 (UTC) == Replace block-related system messages with {{t|blocked text}}? == Recently, protected page-related system messages were replaced with {{t|protected page text}} or {{t|protected interface}}, modelled off of Wikipedia’s templates. Even before these templates were used to replace those MediaWiki messages, we still had system messages modelled after Wikipedia’s templates: {{t|no article text}}. I also wanted to have a go at encouraging reuse of code, and this would be a revamp of block-related system messages. We would also only have to write the code once, not multiple times—once for each system message (keep in mind, some of the system messages below have not yet been edited). The system messages that would have to be replaced are: *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext]] *[[MediaWiki:Autoblockedtext]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-ip]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-range]] *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-partial]] *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-composite]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-xff]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-user]] *[[MediaWiki:Globalblocking-blockedtext-range]] *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-tempuser]] If you have any ideas for tweaks to {{t|Blocked text}}, your input would be much appreciated. Thanks, [[User:2600 etc|2600 etc]] ([[User talk:2600 etc|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2600 etc|contribs]]) 23:49, 17 November 2025 (UTC) : This seems reasonable. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:49, 31 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Using Wikibooks]] == I've noticed [[Using Wikibooks]], and I'm a little concerned that it might be confusing to have a separate book instead of official pages in the Help: and Wikibooks: namespaces. To my mind, having a separate book introduces the following issues: * Confusion of the book with official project policy * Outdated information or other discrepancies if the official pages are updated and the book is not The book does have a good amount of useful information, so I think it would make the most sense to merge it into official pages in the Wikibooks: and Help: namespaces. Thoughts? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:14, 26 November 2025 (UTC) : How can we tell which pages (from that book) should either be in the Wikibooks or Help namespaces? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:44, 26 November 2025 (UTC) ::I think it's not necessarily a one-to-one. Rather, we'll need to find the best home(s) for the information on each page—it's something I'm happy to take point on! Is that what you were asking? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:57, 26 November 2025 (UTC) ::: Probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:38, 27 November 2025 (UTC) ::::I'll wait to see if anyone else has any comments about this; if there are no objections, I'll plan to migrate things as described. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:45, 2 December 2025 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] and @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: I do object to this change, for two reasons. :::::# [[Using Wikibooks]] is a featured book. By moving it to another namespace, it will no longer be a book, and thus no longer a featured book. Do we intend to delist it? :::::# Using Wikibooks is a book. It is written in the same style as other books in our project's mainspace. It's self-consistent and organized by page. I fear that dividing and conquering it among the Help and Project namespaces is likely to make its content harder to find. :::::[[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:15, 5 December 2025 (UTC) : I changed my vote, I don't think we should migrate that book to pages in other namespaces. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:46, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :That is an "official" book, which I think is OK to have in this case. I think some of the help pages actually recommend reading this book. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:41, 1 January 2026 (UTC) == Suggested improvements to the Main Page == After discussing with Izno off-wiki, I have some suggestions to improve the interface of this project's [[Main Page]] (e.g. to be portal-like) using some steps below: * Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank (no content). * Add the following code to [[MediaWiki:Vector.css]] and [[MediaWiki:Vector-2022.css]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="css"> .page-Main_Page #deleteconfirm, .page-Main_Page #t-cite, .page-Main_Page #footer-info-lastmod, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub2 { display: none !important; } </syntaxhighlight> * Similarly, add the following code to [[MediaWiki:Monobook.css]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="css"> .page-Main_Page #deleteconfirm, .page-Main_Page #t-cite, .page-Main_Page #lastmod, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub { display: none !important; } </syntaxhighlight> * And last, add the following code to [[MediaWiki:Timeless.css]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="css"> .page-Main_Page #deleteconfirm, .page-Main_Page #t-cite, .page-Main_Page #footer-info-lastmod, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub { display: none !important; } </syntaxhighlight> Let me know if you have comments, questions, or concerns. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:04, 2 December 2025 (UTC) :Is there a "demo" version previewing what effects these changes will have? [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 15:05, 4 December 2025 (UTC) :: This will basically remove the Main Page title and the gray line below it (but above the page tabs) in most appearance skins. You might want to see [[:wikt:User talk:This, that and the other#mediawiki:mainpage-title|this user talk page thread]] on English Wiktionary for context. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:35, 4 December 2025 (UTC) : {{doing|Doing per lack of objection...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:28, 31 December 2025 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:53, 31 December 2025 (UTC) == Template:New overflow 😰 == The [[Template:New|list of new books]] is overflowing. It lists them in alphabetical order, not the order in which they were made. Currently, only books that start with punctuation ([[.NET Development Foundation|''.NET Development Foundation'']]) up to ''[[Conphilosophy]]'' are covered. Under the ''Want to help?'' section it states, "'''If this list gets too large, such as having over 25 books on it, categorize some of the books on the end of the list and remove the {\{new book}} template.'''" We would either need to have people stay on task for this page, change it so it updates by creation date versus the first title character, or delete it entirely. Otherwise this page is useless or will encourage odd naming choices. [[User:ValWinter|ValWinter]] ([[User talk:ValWinter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ValWinter|contribs]]) 03:46, 25 December 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the flag! The information on this page actually seems to be deprecated, and I don't think the page is necessary to keep. The new book template actually adds pages to [[:Category:New books]], and many of the books listed on the page actually do not feature the new book template. I think it may make sense to delete this page. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 December 2025 (UTC) ::Ok yes, deleting would be best in this case. Thank you for looking into this page! [[User:ValWinter|ValWinter]] ([[User talk:ValWinter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ValWinter|contribs]]) 02:31, 26 December 2025 (UTC) == Retiring [[Template:Deleted page]] == {{tlx|Deleted page}} is a template that was used back in the day before salting (page creation protection) existed. Back then, if an admin wanted to prevent a page from being recreated, they would delete it and then recreate it with just that template, before fully protecting it. This method is completely unnecessary now that we can directly create-protect pages, and no new page has been added to [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] in nearly eight years. Furthermore, I would like to propose that all the pages that currently have {{tlx|Naming policy notice}} be deleted and added to the ''title blacklist''. In the [[MediaWiki:Titleblacklist|title blacklist]], the error message should be set to an interface message that transcludes {{tlx|Naming policy notice}}. Since this is an editor-facing template, only would-be editors should be able to see it. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:55, 31 December 2025 (UTC) : Do you think we should delete {{tlx|Deleted page}} via RfD, but keep {{tlx|Naming policy notice}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:04, 31 December 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Yes. {{tlx|Deleted page}} should be deleted, and {{tlx|Naming policy notice}} should be fully protected and transcluded in a MediaWiki namespace message. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:16, 31 December 2025 (UTC) :::Considering there were no objections to this proposal here, {{Doing|I am doing this...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:44, 30 March 2026 (UTC) ::::{{done|All done}}, but the discussion about {{tlx|Deleted page}} is awaiting to be closed (since I initiated it). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:37, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]], I filed a request at [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Template:Deleted page]] to discuss whether to delete this template (and the categories used). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:38, 29 January 2026 (UTC) == Some proposals involving a separate permission request page and notification of ongoing RFAs == I would like to propose the following below: === Proposal 1 === <s>We split off [[Wikibooks:Requests for adminship]] as a separate page for requesting adminship, bureaucrat, checkuser and suppressor (oversight) permissions. All other permissions, except the former mentioned permissions, would still be requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] (this is also the case for requesting interface administrator permissions, for admins).</s> === Proposal 2 === Given the low activity on this project, I propose that we must notify the community about ongoing RFAs, which could be either [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]] or adding a notification at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General]]. A general rule is that the notification must be written in a neutral fashion. === In conclusion... === Feel free to comment, ask, or anything else. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:31, 1 January 2026 (UTC) :1. I don't see [[WB:RFP]] being clogged to justify creating a fork just for advanced permissions. :2. That is already something we do occasionally on a case-by-case basis. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:40, 1 January 2026 (UTC) :My thoughts below: :# I agree with @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] and don't really see a need for splitting off [[Wikibooks:Requests for adminship]] as a separate page, since there are generally not so many requests. :# I do think it could potentially be useful to notify the community about requests for adminship using [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]]—it's not something I've seen us do before. @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] are you proposing specifically that we codify it in policy? :—[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 1 January 2026 (UTC) ::After considering, I've crossed out proposal 1, and regarding proposal 2, I would still think it should be in a guideline, not a policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:22, 1 January 2026 (UTC) :Proposal 2 seems reasonable to me. It could help people find requests if they are not watching RFP. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:01, 2 January 2026 (UTC) :I've been thinking about proposal 2, and it seems like it would be a good idea to create a template for this purpose that we could just pop into [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]]. What about creating [[Template:RFA notice]], which could take as parameters the requestor and the path to the discussion? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:35, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:12, 27 January 2026 (UTC) == Implement Visual Editor in more namespaces == {{closed|The Phabricator task has been resolved, and VE is enabled on the proposed namespaces as of today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:06, 27 January 2026 (UTC)}} See the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Visual Editor Implementation|original discussion]] for reference. ===Proposal=== Currently, the visual editor is implemented on the following namespaces: * Main * User * Help * Category * Cookbook * Wikijunior I am proposing that we implement the visual editor on the following namespaces: * Wikibooks * Transwiki ===Reasoning=== I use the source editor and the visual editor for different purposes. One of my primary uses of the visual editor is for text-heavy pages, where I use it for writing content and proofreading/copyediting. In contrast, I use the source editor for more complex and technical edits. I find it very difficult to parse text in the source editor, especially when there are many templates, tables, links, etc, and it is a pretty significant accessibility issue for me—I imagine that it could be so for other users as well. The Wikibooks and Transwiki namespaces are both namespaces that contain text- and content-heavy pages (e.g. policies, guidelines, essays), and I know I would benefit from the visual editor here—for example, I am currently working on the [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence/Unstable|unstable branch of a policy]], and it is proving to be kind of a pain to do without having the visual editor as an adjunct tool. The main challenge I see is that the Wikibooks namespace contains some talk pages (i.e. the reading room), and the visual editor is not intended for talk pages. However, there is [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370158 precedent] for implementing the visual editor in namespaces that contain talk pages as long as it is understood that the visual editor is not intended for these talk pages. Overall, it looks technically feasible. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:40, 11 January 2026 (UTC) === Discussion === Kicking off the discussion here! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:37, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :Pinging people who were part of the original discussion thread: @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. :Also pinging some other active administrators: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Xania|Xania]] @[[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] @[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:48, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::No objections. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:30, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::I'm fine as well. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:04, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :::Ditto. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 22:49, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::All good on my end. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:09, 25 January 2026 (UTC) :Phab ticket has been created at {{phab|T415595}}! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:49, 26 January 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Redefining the inactivity policy for administrators and bots == Hi. I would like to propose that we redefine the inactivity policy for administrators (superseding the current procedure), and to create a local inactivity policy for bots. * For administrators that have made zero edits '''''and''''' zero logged actions for over a year, they will be listed under the removal section of [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] (and notified on their user talk pages), where they are given a specific timeframe to respond so that they can retain their access, unless they specify otherwise. If they do not respond after that timeframe, a request will be forwarded to the removal section of [[:m:SRP]]. Should the timeframe last at least one week, two weeks, or one month? * For bots, the process is slightly different. Bots that are inactive (made no edits/logged actions) for over two years will be listed under the removal section of RfP (in the same manner as inactive administrators), but their operators must be notified first, and a week is given for the operators to respond. After the timeframe passes and an operator does not respond to the inactive bot removal request (for example), a request will be forwarded to the removal section of [[:m:SRB]]. Bot users that do not have the bot user group might be exempt, unless the discussion proposes otherwise. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:34, 18 January 2026 (UTC) :Sounds fine to me. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 06:58, 21 January 2026 (UTC) ::Agreed here. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 00:36, 25 January 2026 (UTC) :I have no problem with this. Regarding the timeframe for administrators, one months seems reasonable. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:29, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::I think one month might be excessive IMO, but one week might not be enough for a timeframe, especially given the lack of discussion activity. Let’s compromise by choosing two weeks instead, if that's okay. ::Also, the reason I made this is because the inactivity policy on [[Wikibooks:Administrators]] seems vague. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:15, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], what timeframe would be feasible, two weeks, or one month? I'll be ready to implement this today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:20, 30 January 2026 (UTC) ::::Two weeks should probably be fine unless anyone else has thoughts! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:55, 31 January 2026 (UTC) :::::[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am reconsidering the current timeframe. I think we should revise by lowering the timeframe to one week for administrator inactivity removal, similar to how we currently do this for bots. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:17, 10 February 2026 (UTC) ::::::I think we should check to see what other people think here —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:49, 10 February 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid I don't fully understand the procedure you're proposing for administrators. When someone is listed to be removed on RFP, is there a vote? Or is the poster just waiting for the inactive admin to reply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:31, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::In my new proposal, there will be no votes for removal, but inactive admins will be notified and given a timeframe to respond if they wish to retain their rights, unless they specify otherwise. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:42, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Implemented}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:51, 31 January 2026 (UTC) ::Should I reduce the timeframe from two weeks down to one week? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:55, 22 February 2026 (UTC) == Create a "file" that is an Example Book structured to be copied/used to quickly start a new book? == I am new to Wikibooks, if this already exists let me know.... If there was a Wikibook "file" that contained all the templates and "parts" that are used to create a properly structured book, it might be easier and quicker to create and contribute books here. This would have to include text that would explain the purpose of each of the sections and templates and offer advice for making changes that customize the example. One might copy it to their sandbox, follow the directions and make the updates that create the framework for their book. Then the work would be to fill in the text. I suppose the downside is that books would be categorized and shelved that are in progress. Abandoned books would need to be deleted or some template might need to be developed that might indicate that the book is incomplete. This would be removed when the book is ready for prime-time. {{unsigned|Rchaswms01|01:32, 3 February 2026}} == Allow all users (registered and unregistered) to view edit filters and their logs? == Hello, everyone. I would like to propose allowing all users to view not just edit filters and [[Special:AbuseLog|their log]], but also detailed edit filter log entries. In addition to that, I am also proposing that we set <code>$wgAbuseFilterNotifications</code> to <code>true</code> by removing <code>$wgAbuseFilterNotifications = false;</code>. {{collapse top|This proposal aims to reverse a part of [[phab:T26304]] for the AbuseFilter extension:}} <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext"> We would like to enable the AbuseFilter extension (see below) with custom permissions. Please *add*: $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-view'] = false; $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log'] = false; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-view'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log'] = true; </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext"> I'm sorry for yet another reply, but the user rights for the abuse filter need to be tweaked to match the request. abusefilter-view should be for autoconfirmed/confirmed only and not for all users. abusefilter-log should be for autoconfirmed/confirmed only and not for all users. The logic behind this was to prevent casual vandals from gaming the system. Thank you for your efforts. </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse bottom}} {{collapse top|Current configuration}} <syntaxhighlight lang="php"> case 'enwikibooks': $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-view'] = false; $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log'] = false; $wgAbuseFilterNotifications = false; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-view'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log-detail'] = true; // T383332 $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['abusefilter-revert'] = true; // T411828 $wgAbuseFilterActions['block'] = true; // T273864 break; </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse bottom}} {{collapse top|Proposed configuration}} <syntaxhighlight lang="php"> case 'enwikibooks': $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log-detail'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['abusefilter-revert'] = true; // T411828 $wgAbuseFilterActions['block'] = true; // T273864 break; </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse bottom}} Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:55, 2 April 2026 (UTC) :See also: {{section link|Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2025/January#Reforming the edit filter}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:50, 2 April 2026 (UTC) == Introduce speedy deletion criteria? == I would like to propose that we introduce speedy deletion criteria to Wikibooks, such as {{tq|G1: [reason]}}. I suggest that we adapt from the English Wikipedia's CSD criteria ([[:w:Wikipedia:Speedy deletion]]) but utilize our existing deletion reasons, and even include '''G''' for general, '''R''' for redirects, and so on. Speedy deletion reasons are already included in the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deletion policy]], but should this proposal pass, the new speedy deletion criteria can be split out to a separate policy page, if needed (e.g. [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]]). Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:39, 7 April 2026 (UTC) :On the whole, that seems like it could be useful to expand out our CSD in a more detailed way. Why don't you go ahead and create [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]] as a draft, write out your initial proposal, and then we can workshop it together? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:33, 10 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: How can this proposal avoid accusations of [[m:Instruction creep|instruction creep]]? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:21, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :: How does instruction creep have anything to do with this? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:31, 14 April 2026 (UTC) ::: Well, in that case, we might keep the descriptions simple, not overly detailed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 17 April 2026 (UTC) ::::In that case, we may need to introduce that motion. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] <sup style="font-family:Arimo, Arial;">[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]</sup> <sup style="font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;">[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]</sup> 04:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC) :We already have speedy deletion though so I don't understand this proposal. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 15:56, 24 April 2026 (UTC) r08jf2yi6200me9sy8a4aqideh5qolz 4632182 4632090 2026-04-25T08:10:59Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread (older than 120 days) to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2025/December]] 4632182 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == Consultation to replace the outdated MassBlock gadget == Fellow administrators, I plan to replace the current MassBlock gadget with [[w:it:MediaWiki:Gadget-Massblock.js|this version imported from the Italian Wikipedia]]. Currently on this project, MassBlock only blocks IP addresses, which are no longer visible to the public and it's not ideal. Thoughts? '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 October 2025 (UTC) :In principle, I have no problem with this, but I'm not as familiar with the technical aspects or potential limitations—I'd need other people to weigh in. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:07, 2 November 2025 (UTC) :: I've tested this, and there are some additional options to blank and/or protect user/user talk pages, but we should probably not use them unless absolutely necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:28, 7 November 2025 (UTC) : {{doing|Doing per lack of objection...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:00, 2 January 2026 (UTC) : Apologies for the recent technical difficulties, the script wasn't working because some dependencies were not added... – it's fixed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:28, 2 January 2026 (UTC) == Replace block-related system messages with {{t|blocked text}}? == Recently, protected page-related system messages were replaced with {{t|protected page text}} or {{t|protected interface}}, modelled off of Wikipedia’s templates. Even before these templates were used to replace those MediaWiki messages, we still had system messages modelled after Wikipedia’s templates: {{t|no article text}}. I also wanted to have a go at encouraging reuse of code, and this would be a revamp of block-related system messages. We would also only have to write the code once, not multiple times—once for each system message (keep in mind, some of the system messages below have not yet been edited). The system messages that would have to be replaced are: *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext]] *[[MediaWiki:Autoblockedtext]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-ip]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-range]] *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-partial]] *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-composite]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-xff]] *[[MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-user]] *[[MediaWiki:Globalblocking-blockedtext-range]] *[[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-tempuser]] If you have any ideas for tweaks to {{t|Blocked text}}, your input would be much appreciated. Thanks, [[User:2600 etc|2600 etc]] ([[User talk:2600 etc|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2600 etc|contribs]]) 23:49, 17 November 2025 (UTC) : This seems reasonable. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:49, 31 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Using Wikibooks]] == I've noticed [[Using Wikibooks]], and I'm a little concerned that it might be confusing to have a separate book instead of official pages in the Help: and Wikibooks: namespaces. To my mind, having a separate book introduces the following issues: * Confusion of the book with official project policy * Outdated information or other discrepancies if the official pages are updated and the book is not The book does have a good amount of useful information, so I think it would make the most sense to merge it into official pages in the Wikibooks: and Help: namespaces. Thoughts? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:14, 26 November 2025 (UTC) : How can we tell which pages (from that book) should either be in the Wikibooks or Help namespaces? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:44, 26 November 2025 (UTC) ::I think it's not necessarily a one-to-one. Rather, we'll need to find the best home(s) for the information on each page—it's something I'm happy to take point on! Is that what you were asking? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:57, 26 November 2025 (UTC) ::: Probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:38, 27 November 2025 (UTC) ::::I'll wait to see if anyone else has any comments about this; if there are no objections, I'll plan to migrate things as described. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:45, 2 December 2025 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] and @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: I do object to this change, for two reasons. :::::# [[Using Wikibooks]] is a featured book. By moving it to another namespace, it will no longer be a book, and thus no longer a featured book. Do we intend to delist it? :::::# Using Wikibooks is a book. It is written in the same style as other books in our project's mainspace. It's self-consistent and organized by page. I fear that dividing and conquering it among the Help and Project namespaces is likely to make its content harder to find. :::::[[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:15, 5 December 2025 (UTC) : I changed my vote, I don't think we should migrate that book to pages in other namespaces. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:46, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :That is an "official" book, which I think is OK to have in this case. I think some of the help pages actually recommend reading this book. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:41, 1 January 2026 (UTC) == Suggested improvements to the Main Page == After discussing with Izno off-wiki, I have some suggestions to improve the interface of this project's [[Main Page]] (e.g. to be portal-like) using some steps below: * Set both [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]] and [[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]] to blank (no content). * Add the following code to [[MediaWiki:Vector.css]] and [[MediaWiki:Vector-2022.css]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="css"> .page-Main_Page #deleteconfirm, .page-Main_Page #t-cite, .page-Main_Page #footer-info-lastmod, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub2 { display: none !important; } </syntaxhighlight> * Similarly, add the following code to [[MediaWiki:Monobook.css]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="css"> .page-Main_Page #deleteconfirm, .page-Main_Page #t-cite, .page-Main_Page #lastmod, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub { display: none !important; } </syntaxhighlight> * And last, add the following code to [[MediaWiki:Timeless.css]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="css"> .page-Main_Page #deleteconfirm, .page-Main_Page #t-cite, .page-Main_Page #footer-info-lastmod, .action-view.page-Main_Page #contentSub { display: none !important; } </syntaxhighlight> Let me know if you have comments, questions, or concerns. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:04, 2 December 2025 (UTC) :Is there a "demo" version previewing what effects these changes will have? [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 15:05, 4 December 2025 (UTC) :: This will basically remove the Main Page title and the gray line below it (but above the page tabs) in most appearance skins. You might want to see [[:wikt:User talk:This, that and the other#mediawiki:mainpage-title|this user talk page thread]] on English Wiktionary for context. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:35, 4 December 2025 (UTC) : {{doing|Doing per lack of objection...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:28, 31 December 2025 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:53, 31 December 2025 (UTC) == Retiring [[Template:Deleted page]] == {{tlx|Deleted page}} is a template that was used back in the day before salting (page creation protection) existed. Back then, if an admin wanted to prevent a page from being recreated, they would delete it and then recreate it with just that template, before fully protecting it. This method is completely unnecessary now that we can directly create-protect pages, and no new page has been added to [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] in nearly eight years. Furthermore, I would like to propose that all the pages that currently have {{tlx|Naming policy notice}} be deleted and added to the ''title blacklist''. In the [[MediaWiki:Titleblacklist|title blacklist]], the error message should be set to an interface message that transcludes {{tlx|Naming policy notice}}. Since this is an editor-facing template, only would-be editors should be able to see it. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:55, 31 December 2025 (UTC) : Do you think we should delete {{tlx|Deleted page}} via RfD, but keep {{tlx|Naming policy notice}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:04, 31 December 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Yes. {{tlx|Deleted page}} should be deleted, and {{tlx|Naming policy notice}} should be fully protected and transcluded in a MediaWiki namespace message. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:16, 31 December 2025 (UTC) :::Considering there were no objections to this proposal here, {{Doing|I am doing this...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:44, 30 March 2026 (UTC) ::::{{done|All done}}, but the discussion about {{tlx|Deleted page}} is awaiting to be closed (since I initiated it). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:37, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]], I filed a request at [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Template:Deleted page]] to discuss whether to delete this template (and the categories used). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:38, 29 January 2026 (UTC) == Some proposals involving a separate permission request page and notification of ongoing RFAs == I would like to propose the following below: === Proposal 1 === <s>We split off [[Wikibooks:Requests for adminship]] as a separate page for requesting adminship, bureaucrat, checkuser and suppressor (oversight) permissions. All other permissions, except the former mentioned permissions, would still be requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] (this is also the case for requesting interface administrator permissions, for admins).</s> === Proposal 2 === Given the low activity on this project, I propose that we must notify the community about ongoing RFAs, which could be either [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]] or adding a notification at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General]]. A general rule is that the notification must be written in a neutral fashion. === In conclusion... === Feel free to comment, ask, or anything else. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:31, 1 January 2026 (UTC) :1. I don't see [[WB:RFP]] being clogged to justify creating a fork just for advanced permissions. :2. That is already something we do occasionally on a case-by-case basis. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:40, 1 January 2026 (UTC) :My thoughts below: :# I agree with @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] and don't really see a need for splitting off [[Wikibooks:Requests for adminship]] as a separate page, since there are generally not so many requests. :# I do think it could potentially be useful to notify the community about requests for adminship using [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]]—it's not something I've seen us do before. @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] are you proposing specifically that we codify it in policy? :—[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 1 January 2026 (UTC) ::After considering, I've crossed out proposal 1, and regarding proposal 2, I would still think it should be in a guideline, not a policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:22, 1 January 2026 (UTC) :Proposal 2 seems reasonable to me. It could help people find requests if they are not watching RFP. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:01, 2 January 2026 (UTC) :I've been thinking about proposal 2, and it seems like it would be a good idea to create a template for this purpose that we could just pop into [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]]. What about creating [[Template:RFA notice]], which could take as parameters the requestor and the path to the discussion? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:35, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:12, 27 January 2026 (UTC) == Implement Visual Editor in more namespaces == {{closed|The Phabricator task has been resolved, and VE is enabled on the proposed namespaces as of today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:06, 27 January 2026 (UTC)}} See the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Visual Editor Implementation|original discussion]] for reference. ===Proposal=== Currently, the visual editor is implemented on the following namespaces: * Main * User * Help * Category * Cookbook * Wikijunior I am proposing that we implement the visual editor on the following namespaces: * Wikibooks * Transwiki ===Reasoning=== I use the source editor and the visual editor for different purposes. One of my primary uses of the visual editor is for text-heavy pages, where I use it for writing content and proofreading/copyediting. In contrast, I use the source editor for more complex and technical edits. I find it very difficult to parse text in the source editor, especially when there are many templates, tables, links, etc, and it is a pretty significant accessibility issue for me—I imagine that it could be so for other users as well. The Wikibooks and Transwiki namespaces are both namespaces that contain text- and content-heavy pages (e.g. policies, guidelines, essays), and I know I would benefit from the visual editor here—for example, I am currently working on the [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence/Unstable|unstable branch of a policy]], and it is proving to be kind of a pain to do without having the visual editor as an adjunct tool. The main challenge I see is that the Wikibooks namespace contains some talk pages (i.e. the reading room), and the visual editor is not intended for talk pages. However, there is [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370158 precedent] for implementing the visual editor in namespaces that contain talk pages as long as it is understood that the visual editor is not intended for these talk pages. Overall, it looks technically feasible. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:40, 11 January 2026 (UTC) === Discussion === Kicking off the discussion here! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:37, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :Pinging people who were part of the original discussion thread: @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. :Also pinging some other active administrators: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Xania|Xania]] @[[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] @[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:48, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::No objections. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:30, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::I'm fine as well. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:04, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :::Ditto. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 22:49, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::All good on my end. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:09, 25 January 2026 (UTC) :Phab ticket has been created at {{phab|T415595}}! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:49, 26 January 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Redefining the inactivity policy for administrators and bots == Hi. I would like to propose that we redefine the inactivity policy for administrators (superseding the current procedure), and to create a local inactivity policy for bots. * For administrators that have made zero edits '''''and''''' zero logged actions for over a year, they will be listed under the removal section of [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] (and notified on their user talk pages), where they are given a specific timeframe to respond so that they can retain their access, unless they specify otherwise. If they do not respond after that timeframe, a request will be forwarded to the removal section of [[:m:SRP]]. Should the timeframe last at least one week, two weeks, or one month? * For bots, the process is slightly different. Bots that are inactive (made no edits/logged actions) for over two years will be listed under the removal section of RfP (in the same manner as inactive administrators), but their operators must be notified first, and a week is given for the operators to respond. After the timeframe passes and an operator does not respond to the inactive bot removal request (for example), a request will be forwarded to the removal section of [[:m:SRB]]. Bot users that do not have the bot user group might be exempt, unless the discussion proposes otherwise. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:34, 18 January 2026 (UTC) :Sounds fine to me. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 06:58, 21 January 2026 (UTC) ::Agreed here. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 00:36, 25 January 2026 (UTC) :I have no problem with this. Regarding the timeframe for administrators, one months seems reasonable. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:29, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::I think one month might be excessive IMO, but one week might not be enough for a timeframe, especially given the lack of discussion activity. Let’s compromise by choosing two weeks instead, if that's okay. ::Also, the reason I made this is because the inactivity policy on [[Wikibooks:Administrators]] seems vague. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:15, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], what timeframe would be feasible, two weeks, or one month? I'll be ready to implement this today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:20, 30 January 2026 (UTC) ::::Two weeks should probably be fine unless anyone else has thoughts! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:55, 31 January 2026 (UTC) :::::[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am reconsidering the current timeframe. I think we should revise by lowering the timeframe to one week for administrator inactivity removal, similar to how we currently do this for bots. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:17, 10 February 2026 (UTC) ::::::I think we should check to see what other people think here —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:49, 10 February 2026 (UTC) :I'm afraid I don't fully understand the procedure you're proposing for administrators. When someone is listed to be removed on RFP, is there a vote? Or is the poster just waiting for the inactive admin to reply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:31, 24 January 2026 (UTC) ::In my new proposal, there will be no votes for removal, but inactive admins will be notified and given a timeframe to respond if they wish to retain their rights, unless they specify otherwise. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:42, 24 January 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Implemented}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:51, 31 January 2026 (UTC) ::Should I reduce the timeframe from two weeks down to one week? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:55, 22 February 2026 (UTC) == Create a "file" that is an Example Book structured to be copied/used to quickly start a new book? == I am new to Wikibooks, if this already exists let me know.... If there was a Wikibook "file" that contained all the templates and "parts" that are used to create a properly structured book, it might be easier and quicker to create and contribute books here. This would have to include text that would explain the purpose of each of the sections and templates and offer advice for making changes that customize the example. One might copy it to their sandbox, follow the directions and make the updates that create the framework for their book. Then the work would be to fill in the text. I suppose the downside is that books would be categorized and shelved that are in progress. Abandoned books would need to be deleted or some template might need to be developed that might indicate that the book is incomplete. This would be removed when the book is ready for prime-time. {{unsigned|Rchaswms01|01:32, 3 February 2026}} == Allow all users (registered and unregistered) to view edit filters and their logs? == Hello, everyone. I would like to propose allowing all users to view not just edit filters and [[Special:AbuseLog|their log]], but also detailed edit filter log entries. In addition to that, I am also proposing that we set <code>$wgAbuseFilterNotifications</code> to <code>true</code> by removing <code>$wgAbuseFilterNotifications = false;</code>. {{collapse top|This proposal aims to reverse a part of [[phab:T26304]] for the AbuseFilter extension:}} <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext"> We would like to enable the AbuseFilter extension (see below) with custom permissions. Please *add*: $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-view'] = false; $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log'] = false; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-view'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log'] = true; </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext"> I'm sorry for yet another reply, but the user rights for the abuse filter need to be tweaked to match the request. abusefilter-view should be for autoconfirmed/confirmed only and not for all users. abusefilter-log should be for autoconfirmed/confirmed only and not for all users. The logic behind this was to prevent casual vandals from gaming the system. Thank you for your efforts. </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse bottom}} {{collapse top|Current configuration}} <syntaxhighlight lang="php"> case 'enwikibooks': $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-view'] = false; $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log'] = false; $wgAbuseFilterNotifications = false; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-view'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log-detail'] = true; // T383332 $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['abusefilter-revert'] = true; // T411828 $wgAbuseFilterActions['block'] = true; // T273864 break; </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse bottom}} {{collapse top|Proposed configuration}} <syntaxhighlight lang="php"> case 'enwikibooks': $wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log-detail'] = true; $wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['abusefilter-revert'] = true; // T411828 $wgAbuseFilterActions['block'] = true; // T273864 break; </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse bottom}} Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:55, 2 April 2026 (UTC) :See also: {{section link|Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2025/January#Reforming the edit filter}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:50, 2 April 2026 (UTC) == Introduce speedy deletion criteria? == I would like to propose that we introduce speedy deletion criteria to Wikibooks, such as {{tq|G1: [reason]}}. I suggest that we adapt from the English Wikipedia's CSD criteria ([[:w:Wikipedia:Speedy deletion]]) but utilize our existing deletion reasons, and even include '''G''' for general, '''R''' for redirects, and so on. Speedy deletion reasons are already included in the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deletion policy]], but should this proposal pass, the new speedy deletion criteria can be split out to a separate policy page, if needed (e.g. [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]]). Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:39, 7 April 2026 (UTC) :On the whole, that seems like it could be useful to expand out our CSD in a more detailed way. Why don't you go ahead and create [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]] as a draft, write out your initial proposal, and then we can workshop it together? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:33, 10 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: How can this proposal avoid accusations of [[m:Instruction creep|instruction creep]]? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:21, 14 April 2026 (UTC) :: How does instruction creep have anything to do with this? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:31, 14 April 2026 (UTC) ::: Well, in that case, we might keep the descriptions simple, not overly detailed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 17 April 2026 (UTC) ::::In that case, we may need to introduce that motion. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] <sup style="font-family:Arimo, Arial;">[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]</sup> <sup style="font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;">[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]</sup> 04:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC) :We already have speedy deletion though so I don't understand this proposal. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 15:56, 24 April 2026 (UTC) joo9u4jt0pk3g20oxf8tuv0osueaoc5 0 174834 4632109 4354056 2026-04-24T22:51:25Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 4632109 wikitext text/x-wiki Back to Previous Chapter: [[Metabolomics/Databases| Databases]]<br> Next chapter:[[Metabolomics/Contributors| Contributors ]]<br> First Category: [[Metabolomics/Applications/Disease Research| Disease Research]]<br> Go to:[[Metabolomics/Applications/Nutrition/Animal_Models| Animal Models]]<br> Go back to:[[Metabolomics/Applications/Nutrition/Large_Bowel_Metabolites| Large Bowel Metabolites]]<br> <big>'''Non-Nutrient'''</big> ---- == Introduction to Non-Nutrient Chemicals == A nutrient is defined as a substance that an organism must obtain from its surroundings for growth characterization that was used for food components that could be measured were just labeled nutrients. But if they were not nutrients, they could still be neatly classified as anti-nutrients, toxicants, or just interesting non-nutrients. Of course, components are not so simply characterized these days. Currently non-nutrient chemicals are substances that are found in food that could potentially affect human health but are not identified as nutrients. Non- nutrients can be found in food as texture and food physico-chemistry, color, taste or smell. It is important to have an understanding that the chemical components of each non nutrient determines it physical properties. It is these different characteristics that really determine any possible effects they may have on human health. Studies investigating several commonly consumed non-nutrient chemicals have shown that dietary consumption of particular chemicals can aid in the prevention of common metabolic disease states, such as obesity and diabetes. Dietary isoflavones and catechins can serve as inhibitors of intestinal absorption of free radicals and excess lipid buildup. Isoflavones are extensively present in Asian diets, and there is also a greater consumption of catechins (found in green tea) in the Asian population. The Asian population also has a smaller rate of cardiovascular disease, which may be connected with consumption of the aforementioned chemicals. Nutritional supplements such as glucosamine and melatonin have been found to improve injury recovery and sleep cycle disorders, respectively. Both substances are naturally occurring in the body, but may be present in larger quantities with few adverse effects. Other studies use the effect of high fat diets on mice to watch for genomic biomarkers that indicate susceptibility to insulin resistance, obesity, and other cardiovascular risk factors. While most of the studies are inconclusive as to the extent of these benefits, there is a strong positive correlation between regular consumption of anti-oxidants and reduced risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. ==Article Sources== ==The bioavailability of non-nutrient plant factors: dietary flavonoids and phyto-oestrogens == One of the best-studied non-nutrient chemicals is quercetin, a flavonoid that is a member of the flavonol subgroup. Quercetin is not vital to human health, but has been shown to affect it, qualifying it as a non-nutrient chemical (NNC). Quercetin has been shown to exist in significant quantities in many common foods, including onions, French beans, apples, apricots, cherries, grapes, wine, and tea, both green and black. To get an idea of how significantly quercetin affects human metabolism, its bioavailability was measured. Unsupplemented test subjects were found to have quercetin concentrations in a range of 0.5-1.6 µM in their plasma. Further testing was conducted to determine the degree to which the quercetin was metabolized. This lead to the discovery that quercetin is extensively metabolized by humans; less than 1.5% of ingested quercetin excreted in urine had an intact flavonoid structure. The fact that human plasma contains quercetin begs the question, “How does quercetin affect humans?” The Zutphen Elderly Study has shown that quercetin intake is significantly inversely associated with coronary heart disease. This study also provided evidence that flavonoids may protect against stroke. The study found that dietary intake of flavonoid was inversely associated with stroke incidence. Flavonoids have long been known for their antioxidant properties, and so it not surprising that researchers suspect that this may be the cause for its health benefits. Oxidative damage to LDL is considered to be an important stage in the development of atherosclerosis. Knowing this, researchers examined quercetin’s ability to inhibit the in vitro oxidative modification of LDL, and found that the concentration of quercetin found in plasma (0.2 µM) is capable of inhibiting this effect by up to 50%. Further research is underway to find out if this process is actually occurring in humans Quercetin: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Quercetin.png New Terms ;Bioavailability: The degree to which or rate at which a drug or other substance is absorbed or becomes available at the site of physiological activity after administration. (Dictionary.com) ;Flavonoid: The term flavonoid (or bioflavonoid) refers to a class of plant secondary metabolites, known for their antioxidant activity. (Wikipedia.org) Citation: Wiseman, Helen. "The bioavailability of non-nutrient plant factors: dietary flavonoids and phyto-oestrogens." Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 58.01 (1999): 139-146. 12 Feb. 2009 <http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FPNS%2FPNS58_01%2FS002966519900021Xa.pdf&code=0cf9d3502db30778a467b20ce538f628>. ==Effects of metabolites of the lignans enterolactone and enterodiol on osteoblastic differentiation of MG-63 cells. == Metabolites made by certain plant derivatives have been studied for the effects they could potentially have in aiding human health. Lignans are chemicals groups readily found in plants, they are converted into phytoestrogens by microorganism found in your intestines. Due to the fact that lignans are a not essential to maintain the human health, but are shown to be able to affect it they are classified as non-nutrient chemicals. The most commonly studied phytoestrogens are those derived from isoflavones, meanwhile the lignan phytoestrogens are recently being noticed. Lignans are being looked at because of the role they could potentially play in Osteoporosis. Specifically plant-derived lignans are converted into enterolactone and enterodiol in the colon. Osteoblasts play an important role in the bones; their differentiation affects the strength and rigidity of the bones. This study wanted to determine the effects enterolactone and enterodiol had on the development of osteoblasts. To assay any affect these lignan phytoestrogens had on osteoblasts scientists needed to find a human like osteoblast cell line (MG-63). The cell line was grown in the presence of enterolactone and enterodiol in order to test the effects of the phytoestrogens on cell viability, alkaline phosphotase (ALP) activity, transcriptional level of osteonectin, and collagen I. The study determined that enterolactone and enterodiol had biphasic effects on the cells. This means that at low dosages the phytoestrogens acted as stimulators but at high dosages they completely inhibited any activity. Further research is being done to determine any potential anti-tumor effects phytoestrogens might have. [[File:Enterodiol and Enterlactone.svg|thumb|right|200px|Chemical structure of Enterolactone and Enterodiol]] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Enterodiol_and_Enterlactone.svg New Terms Biphasic: having two phases (Merriam-Webster.com) Phytoestrogens: a diverse group of naturally occurring non-steroidal plant compounds that, because of their structural similarity with estradiol (17β-estradiol), have the ability to cause estrogenic or/and antiestrogenic effects (Wikipedia.org) Citations: · Jie Feng, Zhongli Shi and Zhaoming Ye, “Effects of Metabolites of the Lignans Enterolactone and Enterodiol on Osteoblastic Differentiation of MG-63 Cells”, Biol. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 31, 1067-1070 (2008) .J-STAGE [Japan Science and Technology Information Aggregator,Electronic] E-Journal. 19 Jan. 2008. 10 Feb. 2009 <http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bpb/31/6/31_1067/_article>. · "biphasic." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. Merriam-Webster Online. 10 February 2009 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biphasic ==First Experimental Demonstration of the Multipotential Carcinogenic Effects of Aspartame Administered in the Feed to Sprague-Dawley Rats== Morando Soffritti, Fiorella Belpoggi, Davide Degli Esposti, Luca Lambertini, Eva Tibaldi, and Anna Rigano Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1392232 Main Focus: This article is a scientific research study that is examining the carcinogenic effects of Aspartame, a common artificial sweetener, when administered to healthy Sprague-Dawley Rats. This research highlights the potential effects of non-nutrient synthetic chemicals can have on mammalian cells. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aspartame_structure.png Key Terms: Aspartame (AMP) is a widely used artificial sweetener used in place of sucrose in soft drinks. It is currently the second most commonly used artificial sweetener used. Histopathology is the study and examination of biological tissues for diseases. Lymphoma is a type of cancer that infects the Lymphocyte population of the immune system. (http://www.emedicinehealth.com/lymphoma/article_em.htm) Leukemia is a malignant cancer of the bone marrow and blood. It is characterized by the uncontrolled accumulation of blood cells and proliferation. (http://www.leukemia-lymphoma.org/all_page?item_id=7026) Necropsy is a term analogous to autopsy, or postmortem examination. (http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=4513) Summary: This laboratory research examines the effects of synthetic non-nutrient chemicals that may be absorbed in the human diet. Aspartame, as a widely used artificial sweetener, is often found in a variety of soft drinks and other beverages in place of natural sucrose. Because the metabolic effects of aspartame and other artificial compounds are not completely understood, there is always a possibility for undesirable effects. In this particular study, researchers examined the toxicity and carcinogenicity in a mammalian system of Sprague-Dawley Rats. Researchers examined the long term effects of frequent bioassay of aspartame in various concentrations, over life span. Rats were fed with aspartame supplemented water, until death, rodents then underwent complete necrocropsy for examination of cancers. As results of this study, the researchers found an increased incidence of malignant tumors and myelomas. Researchers found a high incidence of lymphomas and leukemia in female rats, which they concluded due to the direct metabolite of aspartame, formaldehyde which is the same metabolite that occurs in human metabolism of aspartame. In conclusion the researchers responsible for this study found Aspartame to have high potential for multiple types of cancers, even at low daily doses. It is predicted that the results of this study could in fact be a large predictor as to the potential carcinogenic effects of aspartame in humans. ==Website Sources== ==Non-Nutrient Food Functions== http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/MarkWpapers/BookChapters/B081x.pdf The functions of non-nutrients found in food as texture, food physico-chemistry, color, taste or smell. For the same chemical composition food may have a completely different physico-chemical property. To some extent the ability of food to assume such different characteristics depends on the presence of certain components, like dietary fiber, its amount and type could change the texture of a certain food. Although the color of foods is usually just written off as insignificant, it might also have biological effect on humans other than making food look more attractive. Substances such as lycopene, which is responsible for giving tomato its brilliant color has been ignored because it is not a Vitamin A precursor even though it’s a caratenoid. Except recently they have linked lycopene with being a powerful antioxidant, which can prevent tissue damage done by oxygen radicals. For taste or smell coffee is a good example of to the level of which a collection of volatile substances can form during roasting. Fufuryl and pyrrole type compounds form the aroma that is released from roasting coffee. It is of high interest to know that if these compounds are in the coffee drink itself or just simply the aroma that is released, there are compounds that could be opiate receptor ligands. It is also known there are lipid- rich coffee fractions other than caffeine, which could elevate LDL cholesterol and triglycerides in humans. A table of non nutrients of physiological importance defined chemically as well as a table with the physiological effects these non-nutrients would have within a system. New Terms ;Physico-chemistry (physical chemistry): The natural science dealing with the relationship between chemical and physical properties of matter. (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Physicochemistry) ;pharmacology: the study of drug action (Wikipedia.org) Course Relevance This is relevant to the course because it is important to understand that the chemical composition of a certain chemical can affect the way it works during a metabolic process. Relevance to Articles Talks about the phytochemicals that are extensively found in many food sources and are usually have antioxidative properties. ==Non- Nutrients== http://www.solae.com/soybasics/nutritionbasics/necessarynutrients/nonnutrients.jsp Main Focus: The main purpose of this source is to identify the different types of Non- nutrients that could be found in an individuals diet. The substances listed on this source are the supplements found in food that affect human health but are not classified as necessary nutrients. Summary: This website describes the functions, dietary allowance, toxicity and common food source of fiber, choline and phytochemicals. Fiber is any indigestible complex carbohydrate that is usually found in fruits, oat, legumes and barley. There is no recommended allowance of fiber and an individual cannot suffer from fiber deficiency. Fiber is not toxic but eating a diet high in fiber could lead to intestinal discomfort from excessive gas formation. Choline is made within the human body from the amino acid methionine, but some is ingested through diet. It is involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters acetylcholine, and lecithin. Even though choline is not considered a nutrient an adequate amount of it should be made in the body in order for neurons to function properly. The website has a chart which indicates the amounts that should be ingested depending on age of the individual. High doses of choline could lead to low blood pressure and mild liver damage. Choline is usually found in dairy products, soybeans, broccoli and other sources. Phytochemicals’ effects on human health are still being studied but many of the different chemicals and their sources are listed on a table in the website. New Terms Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient to meet the requirements of nearly all (97–98%) healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group. (Wikipedia.org) diverticulum (plural: diverticula) is medical or biological term for an out pouching of a hollow (or a fluid filled) structure in the body. (Wikipedia.org) Course Relevance This is applicable to the class because it discusses the different non essential substances found in food that could potentially affect human metabolic processes. Relevance to Articles It explains in details the different non-nutrients that can be present in a persons diet. It also talks about the amounts that a person can take without it having adverse effects on their health. ==Food Additives== http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm Main Focus: The main purpose of this website is to educate people about common chemicals and additives used during food processing and manufacturing. Created by The Center for Science in The Public Interest, this website does an excellent job in presenting health information of some of these popular chemicals in a coherent and easy to understand manner. This includes lists of compounds that are safe for consumption as well as including information on chemical compounds that people should watch for or abstain from. Key Terms: Chelating Agents are chemicals used to prevent the binding of metal ions. These are used in the food manufacturing process to prevent metal-catalyzed oxidative breakdown; used to preserve flavor, freshness, and color. (http://www.dow.com/versene/app/food/) An Emulsifier is a chemical used to bind or mix two immiscible fluids, such as water and oil. A Thickening Agent is a chemical used to increase viscosity in liquid compounds, often used in cooking to add texture and stabilize mixture. An Artificial Sweetener is a chemical additive that alone supplies no taste but once combined with certain foods produces a desirable taste. Summary: This website is arranged in a large table format, displaying nearly 100 different natural and synthetic compounds used in food process and manufacturing. Utilizing icons and a table format, this user-friendly site enables readers to easily access potentially harmful chemical additives with ease of access. This website advises readers to whether a compound is safe, cautious, harmful or even banned for consumption in a diet. This list describes many synthetic non-nutrient compounds that are found in food as well as some naturally derived. This list is predominately non-nutrient compounds that are added to foods that supply either taste or manufacturing benefits through their use. Course Relevance It is relevant to the course because it helps identify how the certain chemical properties of a substance can affect human health. Relevance to the Articles It talks about food artificial sweetener, which is what one of the articles is about. ==Key Piece to Prostate Cancer Puzzle Found== The study of non-nutrient chemicals (NNCs) is a new technique in the world of research. The number of chemicals found in food that are not vital to human health far outnumber the number of compounds that are. Furthermore, the evidence that these NNCs affect human health is proliferating. It is not surprising then to find that more and more research is being aimed at understanding these NNCs, and how exactly each of them affects human health. Using these new techniques, scientists from the University of Michigan have found that the level of sarcosine, an amino acid derivative, in the urine of prostate cancer patients is an indicator of the type of tumor that patient is inflicted with. Research has shown that benign cancer cells, when exposed to sarcosine, become aggressive and multiply rapidly. Furthermore, it has been shown that if aggressive cancer cells are deprived of sarcosine, inhibition of replication resulted. This finding is among the first to result from the new field of metabolomics. Already it has been found that there are at least ten metabolites present in cancerous prostate cells that are not found in healthy prostate cells. Expanding our knowledge of NNCs and their affect on the many varieties of tissue found in humans seems to be a promising way to expand our knowledge of human health. Though a long way off, scientists hope to be able to monitor metabolite content in human tissue and interpret how these levels affect health. New Terms ;Sarcosine: The N-methyl derivative of glycine. It is naturally found in muscles as well as other body tissue. (Wikipedia.org) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Sarcosine.png Citation: DeNoon, Daniel J., and Louise Chang. "Key Piece to Prostate Cancer Puzzle Found: Finding Promises New Tests, Treatments for Prostate Cancer." Rev. of . WebMD Health News. Feb. 2009. 12 Feb. 2009 <http://www.webmd.com/ prostate-cancer/news/20090211/key-piece-to-prostate-cancer-puzzle-found>. ==Green Tea as Inhibitor of Intestinal Absorption of Lipids: Potential Mechanism for its Lipid Lowering Effect == :http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1852441&tool=pmcentrez === Main Focus === :This paper describes how catechins in green tea inhibit absorption of lipids in the intestine. === New Terms === ;Epigallocatechin gallate: the ester of epigallocatechin and gallic acid and a type of catechin, and an antioxidant (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigallocatechin_gallate) ;Emulsion: a mixture of two or more immiscible (unblendable) liquids (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsifier) ;Catechin: polyphenolic antioxidant plant metabolites, belonging to the flavonoid family (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechins) ;Chylomicrons: large lipoprotein particles that transport dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chylomicron) ;Antioxidant: a molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation (electron transfer) of other molecules. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals, which can damage cells. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chylomicron) === General Overview === :Green tea has long been suggested as a health drink due to its anti-oxidant properties. Studies now show that green tea catechins minimize the absorption of dietary fat, cholesterol, and other lipids. This is because one of the major catechins present in green tea, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), inhibits intestinal absorption. It is likely that catechins from green tea could be used in the future to treat those at risk of cardiovascular diseases. :Studies have shown an inverse risk between hypertension and green tea consumption. It is debatable whether this reduced risk is due to LDL cholesterol oxidation or the antioxidant properties of green tea, but the outcome remains the same. The lipid lowering ability appears to be due to the poor absorption of catechins in the intestines. Although they appear to inhibit lipid absorption, catechins are not as effective at inhibiting fat absorption, because fat absorption is dependent on the types of fat that are present. [[Image:Vietnamese green tea.jpg‎|left|thumb|250px|Loose leaf green tea]] :Catechins alter the properties of a lipid emulsion, decreasing hydrolysis of fat. EGCG also appears to interfere with the uptake of lipids, particularly extremely hydrophobic lipids, such as cholesterol. It does not appear to affect less hydrophobic lipids. EGCG has been shown to precipitate cholesterol from bile salt solution, but it does not affect solubility of fatty acids. It is theorized that catechins from green tea interact with transporters on the brush border membrane, influencing up take of cholesterol and other lipids. This especially the case in intestinal lumen cells. Catechins may also influence steps involved in the assembly and secretion of chylomicrons, which transport LDL and VDL cholesterols. :Further studies will need to be conducted to determine the mechanism of catechin induced inhibition of lipid absorption, but thus far it is evident that green tea and catechins reduce the intestinal absorption of lipids. ECCG appears to be the most adept at inhibition, due to its ability to form complexes with lipids and lypoitic enzymes, thus inhibiting absorption processes. Also of interest for future studies would be the exploration of whether catechins interfere with non-nutrient lipophilic compounds that are naturally found in the environment. Such compounds can be toxic, and catechins provide a potential dietary means of reducing the absorption of such compounds. === Course Relevance=== :This demonstrates an additional treatment for individuals with high cholesterol and other health/metabolic problems that could minimize drug interactions. ==Phylometabonomic Patterns of Adaptation to High Fat Diet Feeding in Inbred Mice == :http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2244706 === Main Focus === :This paper discusses different molecular biomarkers indicative of environmental stressors which can trigger metabolic diseases. === New Terms === ;Hyperinsulinemia: presence of abnormally high concentrations of insulin in the blood (http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/insulinemia) ;Biomarkers: indicator of a particular disease state or particular state of an organism (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chylomicron) ;Hyperglycemia: a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperglycemia) ;Plasma: is the yellow liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_plasma) ;Adiposity: adipose tissue or body fat or just fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and insulates the body. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiposity) === Summary === :Rodent models have been invaluable in researching the phenomenon of insulin resistance and characterizing the physiological and molecular mechanisms involved in the progression of cardiovascular diseases such as diabetes and obesity. High fat diet is used to induce these disease states in model organisms, and is used to observe the metablomic and physiological impact that results from the progression of insulin resistance and obesity. [[Image:Fatmouse.jpg‎|right|thumb|400px|Fat mouse next to normal mouse]] :Five different types of inbred mice were placed on a high-fat diet (HFD) for 3 weeks at 5 weeks of age. Each strain was evaluated through a series of tests to detemine HFD effect on phenotypes, insulin regulation, and glucose homeostasis. :The BALB/c strain was the only strain to exhibit increased food energy consumption on the HFD. 3 weeks of HFD feeding generally induced hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia, however, in three of the strains examined (DBA/2, BALB/c, and 129S6), HFD feeding had little effect on glucose tolerance or intolerance, suggesting that those strains are insulin resistant. Relationships between phenotypes were investigated according individual correlations. The highest correlations were between glucose tolerance data vs. insulin secretion and adiposity indices vs. plasma triglyceride levels. Correlations between blood lipids, BMI, and insulin secretion were only found in the fat fed group. This study demonstrated that that transgenomic efforts result strain specific changes in the abundance of metabolites processed by gut microflora, which may contribute to fatty liver predisposition, predisposition to high cholesterol levels, and are therefore directly relevant to disease susceptibility :Integrating metabonomic-profiling data from the HFD mice and the control mice allowed for the identification of predictive biomarkers associated with specific cardiovascular disease states. In the example used in the paper, altered metabolism of choline and lipids creates a strong susceptibility to diet induced obesity, diabetes and fatty liver diseases. These biomarkers could serve as potential drug targets for further studies, or as potential genetic tests to predict susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases. === Course Relevance === :This particular paper is demonstrating practical applications of systems biology to metabolic conditions. Metabolic diseases are typically triggered by a variety of stressors (environment, diet, etc), and this paper demonstrates potential molecular markers to evaluate those most at risk for cardiovascular disease. We evaluate some of the reasons why metabolic diseases occur and the pathways involved in the Metabolism course. == Dietary isoflavones in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: A molecular perspective == :http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6P-4P40KSN-1&_user=47004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000005018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=47004&md5=9ff7846efe0041ad5112c01696576d6f === Main Focus === :This journal article discusses research conducted on the ability of soy isoflavones to reduce factors that can contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease, specifically the isoflavone genistein and its effects on glutathione peroxidase and NO production. === Key Terms === ;Isoflavones: a class of organic compounds, often naturally occurring, related to the flavonoids. Many act as phytoestrogens in mammals. Being polyphenols, they are antioxidants. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflavone ;Genistein: an isoflavone found primarily in soy that functions as an antioxidant and interacts with estrogen receptors. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genistein ;Estrogens: steroid compounds, named for their importance in the estrous cycle, and functioning as the primary female sex hormone. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrogen ;Endothelium: the thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endothelium ;Andioxidant: a molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant ;Radical: atoms, molecules or ions with unpaired electrons on an otherwise open shell configuration. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical ;Glutathione peroxidase: the general name of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity whose main biological role is to protect the organism from oxidative damage. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutathione_peroxidase ;LDL: a type of lipoprotein that transports cholesterol and triglycerides from the liver to peripheral tissues. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ldl_cholesterol ;Nitric oxide (NO): an important messenger molecule involved in many physiological and pathological processes within the mammalian body both beneficial and detrimental. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_oxide === Summary === :This journal article opens with a discussion of nutrigenomics, which is a section of this Wikibook. For more information about nutrigenomics, see (link to Wikibook page). :Isoflavones are non-nutrient plant compounds found mainly in soybeans. Isoflavone supplements are available that are derived from Chinese clover. Major forms of soy isoflavones include genistein, diadzein, and glycitein. Genistein is the most prominent isoflavone in soy-based foods and supplements. Unprocessed soybeans have an isoflavone content of approximately 1.2-4.2mg isoflavone per gram of plant material. Legumes contain a small amount of isoflavones, as well as currants and raisins. Other fruits and vegetables have very small amounts of isoflavones. [[Image:Edamame - boild green soybeans.jpg‎|right|thumb|250px|Soybean pods (Edamame)are a rich source of isoflavones]] :Depending on how soy products are processed, isoflavone levels can vary greatly. First generation soy foods like soy flour and texturized vegetable protein contain a greater amount of isoflavones than seond generation products like tofu yogurt and tempeh burger. Heat can cause changes in the chemical forms of isoflavones. In Asia, daily isoflavone consumption is about 20-50mg, but in Western countries intakes are under 1mg per day. Westerners can take commercial isoflavone supplements to increase intake. :Isoflavones are very similar to mammalian estrogen and bind to estrogen receptors. This binding can initiate effects similar to estrogen in the body. Isoflavones might affect estrogen receptors on different types of tissues in specific ways. For example, they might have more effect on coronary vessels than endometrium. Soy isoflavones have much lesser affinity for the receptors than mammalian estrogen, however. :Isoflavones also have antioxidant properties that can affect gene expression. They may also be able to suppress some tumor formation, scavenge radicals, and chelate metals. The isoflavone genistein can protect endothelial cells from damage and increase the expression and activity of glutathione peroxidase. :Nutrigenomic studies have been conducted on the cardiovascular effects of isoflavones. Increased isoflavones in the Asian diet may lower the incidence of cardiovascular disease in Asian populations compared with the West. Isoflavones have been proposed to reduce LDL cholesterol, modulate pro-inflammatory cytokines, and improve vascular reactivity among other effects. Genistein may inhibit cardiovascular problems by triggering the modification of transcription of genes involved in the process. It affects the expression of genes encoding for proteins involved in vascular tone and proteins that enhance endothelial NO production. Synergistic interactions between the genes involved in NO production and vascular tone may reduce blood pressure. === Relevance to class material === : In class we discuss glutathione as well as cholesterol and cholesterol-related diseases. == Nutrition Supplements: Vitamins, Minerals, and Non-Nutrient Supplements == http://www.bidmc.org/YourHealth/HolisticHealth/AlternativeTherapies.aspx?ChunkID=37436 === Main Focus === This Web Site covers the basics of nutrition supplements. Links to database articles cover three specific non-nutrient supplements (isoflavones, glucosamine, and melatonin) in greater depth. === Key terms === ;Megadosing: the administration of large doses of vitamins to combat conditions considered wholly or in part due to their deficiency. http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Megadosing ;Isoflavone: a class of organic compounds, often naturally occurring, related to the flavonoids, many of which act as phytoestrogens in mammals. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoflavone ;Phytoestrogen: a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that, because of their structural similarity with estradiol (17-β-estradiol), have the ability to cause estrogenic or/and antiestrogenic effects. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoestrogen ;Glucosamine: an amino sugar and a prominent precursor in the biochemical synthesis of glycosylated proteins and lipids. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosamine ;Melatonin: a naturally occurring hormone found in most animals, including humans, and some other living organisms, including algae, which is important in the regulation of the circadian rhythms of several biological functions including sleep. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin ;Pineal gland: a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineal_gland ;Irritable bowel syndrome: a blanket term for a variety of diseases causing discomfort in the gastro-intestinal tract. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome === Summary === :Vitamin and mineral supplements first became widely available for use in the 1930s. In the 1960s, “megadose” therapy became popular. Megadosing involves taking more than that needed amount of a vitamin, mineral, or non-nutritive chemical in order to produce a specific health benefit. There are certain risks and benefits involved in this practice. Also common is the practice of taking the daily value of a supplement as “nutrition insurance,” in case it is not obtained through diet. Three different non-nutritive supplements are discussed in the content of this web site: isoflavones, glucosamine, and melatonin. :Isoflavones are water-soluble chemicals found in soy as well as other plant sources that have shown some potential anti-cancer benefits as well as reducing risk factors for heart disease. Many isoflavones are phytoestrogens—plant chemicals that have a similar effect on the body as estrogen. Isoflavones bind to estrogen receptors in the body and illicit an effect similar to estrogen but to a lesser degree. These chemicals can block “real” estrogen from taking effect by blocking the binding sites. This could potentially benefit those at risk for diseases linked to an over-production of estrogen like breast and uterine cancer. Isoflavones can reduce the overall level of real estrogen in the body by tricking it into thinking that it already has enough. :In addition to reducing cardiovascular risk factors, isoflavones have been shown to reduce menopausal symptoms, osteoporosis, and to reduce the appearance of fine wrinkles. Also, they may improve the effectiveness of in-vitro fertilization. Double blind studies looking into these proposed health benefits have had mixed results. Overall the results are inconclusive. Isoflavone supplementation is generally safe, but can alter menstrual cycle and have an impact on fetal development in high doses. The therapeutic dosage for isoflavones is considered to be 40 to 80mg daily, while the average daily dietary intake in Japan is around 28mg. :[[Image:Walgreens_Melatonin-2010-20-07.jpg‎|left|thumb|130px|A bottled melatonin supplement available in drugstores]] Glucosamine is a substance found in gristle and the shellfish that is often used for the treatment of osteoarthritis. It is produced naturally by the body to make cartilage. Glucosamine is an amino sugar derived from glucose—one oxygen atom is replaced by a nitrogen. :Glucosamine supplementation is used by atheletes for joint and tendon injuries and may improve symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis in addition to its use for osteoarthritis. Glucosamine supplements are available in three different varieties: glucosamine sulfate, glucosamine hydrochloride, and N-acetyl glucosamine. Studies suggest that all three may be equally effective. The therapeutic dosage is 500mg taken three times daily. Like isoflavones, studies are inconclusive concerning the health benefits of this supplement. Although it is generally considered not to have any adverse effects, some people may be allergic to the supplement. :Finally, melatonin is a hormone that is often used to treat sleep disorders and interrupted sleep cycles. Melatonin is also produced naturally by the body to regulate sleep patterns. The pineal gland is stimulated to produce melatonin when it is dark. Studies have shown that melatonin is effective for travelers who suffer from jet lag and insomnia patients. Preliminary studies also suggest possible benefits for irritable bowel syndrome. Dosage of melatonin is suggested at 1 to 5mg taken half an hour before bedtime. Safety precautions should be taken because it can cause drowsiness up to two hours after taking the supplement. Due to its mechanism, it is not suggested for patients with depression, schizophrenia, or autoimmune diseases. Safe maximum dosages have not been established. === Relevance to the class === :We have studied the molecule glucose, from which glucosamine is derived. Also, we will cover hormones to some extent, which isoflavones mimic. =Articles for future review as Metabolism class assignments= ===[http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/6/1687 Influence of acute phytochemical intake on human urinary metabolomic profiles]=== ====Main Focus==== ;:Identify the main focus of the resource. Possible answers include specific organisms, database design, intergration of information, but there are many more possibilities as well. '''Reviewer: Seana C''' ====New Terms==== ;New Term 1: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 2: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 3: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 4: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 5: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 6: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 7: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 8: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 9: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 10: Definition. (source: http://) ====Summary==== ;:Enter your article summary here. Please note that the punctuation is critical at the start (and sometimes at the end) of each entry. It should be 300-500 words. What are the main points of the article? What questions were they trying to answer? Did they find a clear answer? If so, what was it? If not, what did they find or what ideas are in tension in their findings? ====Relevance to a Traditional Metabolism Course==== ;:Enter a 100-150 word description of how the material in this article connects to a traditional metabolism course. Does the article relate to particular pathways (e.g., glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, steroid synthesis, etc.) or to regulatory mechanisms, energetics, location, integration of pathways? Does it talk about new analytical approaches or ideas? Does the article show connections to the human genome project (or other genome projects)? ===[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2244706 Phylometabonomic Patterns of Adaptation to High Fat Diet Feeding in Inbred Mice]=== ====Main Focus==== ;:Identify the main focus of the resource. Possible answers include specific organisms, database design, intergration of information, but there are many more possibilities as well. '''Jordan C''' ====New Terms==== ;New Term 1: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 2: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 3: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 4: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 5: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 6: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 7: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 8: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 9: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 10: Definition. (source: http://) ====Summary==== ;:Enter your article summary here. Please note that the punctuation is critical at the start (and sometimes at the end) of each entry. It should be 300-500 words. What are the main points of the article? What questions were they trying to answer? Did they find a clear answer? If so, what was it? If not, what did they find or what ideas are in tension in their findings? ====Relevance to a Traditional Metabolism Course==== ;:Enter a 100-150 word description of how the material in this article connects to a traditional metabolism course. Does the article relate to particular pathways (e.g., glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, steroid synthesis, etc.) or to regulatory mechanisms, energetics, location, integration of pathways? Does it talk about new analytical approaches or ideas? Does the article show connections to the human genome project (or other genome projects)? ===[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1852441&tool=pmcentrez Green Tea as Inhibitor of the Intestinal Absorption of Lipids: Potential Mechanism for its Lipid-Lowering Effect]=== ====Main Focus==== ;:Identify the main focus of the resource. Possible answers include specific organisms, database design, intergration of information, but there are many more possibilities as well. ====New Terms==== ;New Term 1: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 2: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 3: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 4: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 5: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 6: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 7: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 8: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 9: Definition. (source: http://) ;New Term 10: Definition. (source: http://) ====Summary==== ;:Enter your article summary here. Please note that the punctuation is critical at the start (and sometimes at the end) of each entry. It should be 300-500 words. What are the main points of the article? What questions were they trying to answer? Did they find a clear answer? If so, what was it? If not, what did they find or what ideas are in tension in their findings? ====Relevance to a Traditional Metabolism Course==== ;:Enter a 100-150 word description of how the material in this article connects to a traditional metabolism course. Does the article relate to particular pathways (e.g., glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, steroid synthesis, etc.) or to regulatory mechanisms, energetics, location, integration of pathways? Does it talk about new analytical approaches or ideas? Does the article show connections to the human genome project (or other genome projects)? =Websites for future review as Metabolism class assignments= [http://www.bidmc.org/YourHealth/HolisticHealth/AlternativeTherapies.aspx?ChunkID=37436 Nutrition Supplements: Vitamins, Minerals, and Non-Nutrient Supplements] {{BookCat}} 3r4q2xnwl8k7kjtm60s8iucen2hm40x 0 189101 4632144 4525595 2026-04-25T02:55:24Z I am zonked 3578964 /* Vienna Gambit */ rewrote second paragraph for clarity. small tweak to first paragraph, as the plural "knights" was weird and confusing. 4632144 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Vienna Gambit| |rd| |bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|= |pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|= | | |nd| | | | | |= | | | | |pd| | | |= | | | | |pl|pl| | |= | | |nl| | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl|= |rl| |bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= }} = Vienna Gambit= A positional approach to the King's Gambit—White first brings the queenside knight out to Nc3, then intends to play f4 to divert Black's e-pawn. Black's symmetrical ...Nc6 defends the center but doesn't help advance ...d5, while White has an easier time advancing the d-pawn to d4: If Black accepts the gambit with 3...exf4, the e5-pawn disappears and White's d-pawn gains a clear path forward. White can later push d5, kicking Black's knight on c6 to an awkward square. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. e4 e5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3. f4''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> <th align="left">4</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>f4<br>[[/3...exf4|exf4]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>g5</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[/3...Bc5|Bc5]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>d6</td> <td>+=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[/3...d6|d6]]</td> <td></td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{wikipedia|Vienna Game}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{ChessStub}} m103offosv4r3jf5gwwgmz86eu1ujzb 0 229801 4632094 4630110 2026-04-24T17:08:08Z ~2026-25041-57 3578711 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4571305|4571305]] by [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]]) 4632094 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Brahmi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !width="4%"|U+!!width="6%"|0!!width="6%"|1!!width="6%"|2!!width="6%"|3!!width="6%"|4!!width="6%"|5!!width="6%"|6!!width="6%"|7!!width="6%"|8!!width="6%"|9!!width="6%"|A!!width="6%"|B!!width="6%"|C!!width="6%"|D!!width="6%"|E!!width="6%"|F |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1100x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11000;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11001;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI SIGN VISARGA|&#x11002;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI SIGN JIHVAMULIYA|&#x11003;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI SIGN UPADHMANIYA|&#x11004;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER A|&#x11005;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER AA|&#x11006;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER I|&#x11007;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER II|&#x11008;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER U|&#x11009;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER UU|&#x1100a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x1100b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x1100c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x1100d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x1100e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER E|&#x1100f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1101x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER AI|&#x11010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER O|&#x11011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER AU|&#x11012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER KA|&#x11013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER KHA|&#x11014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER GA|&#x11015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER GHA|&#x11016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER NGA|&#x11017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER CA|&#x11018;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER CHA|&#x11019;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER JA|&#x1101a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER JHA|&#x1101b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER NYA|&#x1101c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER TTA|&#x1101d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER TTHA|&#x1101e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER DDA|&#x1101f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1102x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER DDHA|&#x11020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER NNA|&#x11021;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER TA|&#x11022;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER THA|&#x11023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER DA|&#x11024;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER DHA|&#x11025;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER NA|&#x11026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER PA|&#x11027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER PHA|&#x11028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER BA|&#x11029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER BHA|&#x1102a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER MA|&#x1102b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER YA|&#x1102c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER RA|&#x1102d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER LA|&#x1102e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER VA|&#x1102f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1103x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER SHA|&#x11030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER SSA|&#x11031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER SA|&#x11032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER HA|&#x11033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER LLA|&#x11034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER OLD TAMIL LLLA|&#x11035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER OLD TAMIL RRA|&#x11036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER OLD TAMIL NNNA|&#x11037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN BHATTIPROLU AA|&#x11039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x1103a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x1103b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x1103c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x1103d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x1103e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x1103f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1104x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x11040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x11041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VIRAMA|&nbsp;&#x11046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DANDA|&#x11047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI PUNCTUATION DOT|&#x11049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI PUNCTUATION DOUBLE DOT|&#x1104a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI PUNCTUATION LINE|&#x1104b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI PUNCTUATION CRESCENT BAR|&#x1104c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI PUNCTUATION LOTUS|&#x1104d;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1105x |style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER ONE|&#x11052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER TWO|&#x11053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER THREE|&#x11054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER FOUR|&#x11055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER FIVE|&#x11056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER SIX|&#x11057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER SEVEN|&#x11058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER EIGHT|&#x11059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER NINE|&#x1105a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER TEN|&#x1105b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER TWENTY|&#x1105c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER THIRTY|&#x1105d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER FORTY|&#x1105e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER FIFTY|&#x1105f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1106x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER SIXTY|&#x11060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER SEVENTY|&#x11061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER EIGHTY|&#x11062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER NINETY|&#x11063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER ONE HUNDRED|&#x11064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER ONE THOUSAND|&#x11065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT ONE|&#x11067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT TWO|&#x11068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT THREE|&#x11069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT FOUR|&#x1106a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT FIVE|&#x1106b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT SIX|&#x1106c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1106d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1106e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI DIGIT NINE|&#x1106f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1107x |style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI SIGN OLD TAMIL VIRAMA|&#x11070;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER OLD TAMIL SHORT E|&#x11071;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER OLD TAMIL SHORT O|&#x11072;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN OLD TAMIL SHORT E|&#x11073;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI VOWEL SIGN OLD TAMIL SHORT O|&#x11074;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI LETTER OLD TAMIL LLA|&#x11075;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#87abff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAHMI NUMBER JOINER|[BNJ]}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kaithi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#78ffca" !style="background:#ffffff"|1108x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI SIGN VISARGA|&#x11082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER A|&#x11083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER AA|&#x11084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER I|&#x11085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER II|&#x11086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER U|&#x11087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER UU|&#x11088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER E|&#x11089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER AI|&#x1108a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER O|&#x1108b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER AU|&#x1108c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER KA|&#x1108d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER KHA|&#x1108e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER GA|&#x1108f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#78ffca" !style="background:#ffffff"|1109x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER GHA|&#x11090;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER NGA|&#x11091;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER CA|&#x11092;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER CHA|&#x11093;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER JA|&#x11094;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER JHA|&#x11095;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER NYA|&#x11096;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER TTA|&#x11097;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER TTHA|&#x11098;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER DDA|&#x11099;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER DDDHA|&#x1109a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER DDHA|&#x1109b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER RHA|&#x1109c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER NNA|&#x1109d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER TA|&#x1109e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER THA|&#x1109f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#78ffca" !style="background:#ffffff"|110Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER DA|&#x110a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER DHA|&#x110a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER NA|&#x110a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER PA|&#x110a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER PHA|&#x110a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER BA|&#x110a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER BHA|&#x110a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER MA|&#x110a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER YA|&#x110a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER RA|&#x110a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER LA|&#x110aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER VA|&#x110ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER SHA|&#x110ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER SSA|&#x110ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER SA|&#x110ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI LETTER HA|&#x110af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#78ffca" !style="background:#ffffff"|110Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x110b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x110b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x110b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x110b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x110b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x110b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x110b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x110b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x110b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x110b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI SIGN NUKTA|&#x110ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x110bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI ENUMERATION SIGN|&#x110bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI NUMBER SIGN|&#x110bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI SECTION MARK|&#x110be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI DOUBLE SECTION MARK|&#x110bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|110Cx |style="background:#78ffca"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI DANDA|&#x110c0;}}||style="background:#78ffca"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x110c1;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x110c2;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAITHI NUMBER SIGN ABOVE|&#x110cd;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sora Sompeng''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|110Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER SAH|&#x110d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER TAH|&#x110d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER BAH|&#x110d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER CAH|&#x110d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER DAH|&#x110d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER GAH|&#x110d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER MAH|&#x110d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER NGAH|&#x110d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER LAH|&#x110d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER NAH|&#x110d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER VAH|&#x110da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER PAH|&#x110db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER YAH|&#x110dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER RAH|&#x110dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER HAH|&#x110de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER KAH|&#x110df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|110Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER JAH|&#x110e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER NYAH|&#x110e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER AH|&#x110e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER EEH|&#x110e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER IH|&#x110e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER UH|&#x110e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER OH|&#x110e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER EH|&#x110e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG LETTER MAE|&#x110e8;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|110Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT ZERO|&#x110f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT ONE|&#x110f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT TWO|&#x110f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT THREE|&#x110f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT FOUR|&#x110f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT FIVE|&#x110f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT SIX|&#x110f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT SEVEN|&#x110f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT EIGHT|&#x110f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SORA SOMPENG DIGIT NINE|&#x110f9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Chakma''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1110x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA SIGN VISARGA|&#x11102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER AA|&#x11103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER I|&#x11104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER U|&#x11105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER E|&#x11106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER KAA|&#x11107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER KHAA|&#x11108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER GAA|&#x11109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER GHAA|&#x1110a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER NGAA|&#x1110b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER CAA|&#x1110c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER CHAA|&#x1110d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER JAA|&#x1110e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER JHAA|&#x1110f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1111x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER NYAA|&#x11110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER TTAA|&#x11111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER TTHAA|&#x11112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER DDAA|&#x11113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER DDHAA|&#x11114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER NNAA|&#x11115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER TAA|&#x11116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER THAA|&#x11117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER DAA|&#x11118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER DHAA|&#x11119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER NAA|&#x1111a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER PAA|&#x1111b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER PHAA|&#x1111c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER BAA|&#x1111d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER BHAA|&#x1111e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER MAA|&#x1111f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1112x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER YYAA|&#x11120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER YAA|&#x11121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER RAA|&#x11122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER LAA|&#x11123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER WAA|&#x11124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER SAA|&#x11125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER HAA|&#x11126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN A|&#x11127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x1112a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x1112b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN E|&#x1112c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x1112d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN O|&#x1112e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x1112f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1113x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN OI|&#x11130;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA O MARK|&#x11131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA AU MARK|&#x11132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VIRAMA|&#x11133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA MAAYYAA|&#x11134;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT ZERO|&#x11136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT ONE|&#x11137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT TWO|&#x11138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT THREE|&#x11139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT FOUR|&#x1113a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT FIVE|&#x1113b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT SIX|&#x1113c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1113d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1113e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DIGIT NINE|&#x1113f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1114x |style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA SECTION MARK|&#x11140;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DANDA|&#x11141;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11142;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA QUESTION MARK|&#x11143;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER LHAA|&#x11144;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11145;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA VOWEL SIGN EI|&#x11146;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAKMA LETTER VAA|&#x11147;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Mahajani''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1115x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER A|&#x11150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER I|&#x11151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER U|&#x11152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER E|&#x11153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER O|&#x11154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER KA|&#x11155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER KHA|&#x11156;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER GA|&#x11157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER GHA|&#x11158;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER CA|&#x11159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER CHA|&#x1115a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER JA|&#x1115b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER JHA|&#x1115c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER NYA|&#x1115d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER TTA|&#x1115e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER TTHA|&#x1115f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1116x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER DDA|&#x11160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER DDHA|&#x11161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER NNA|&#x11162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER TA|&#x11163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER THA|&#x11164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER DA|&#x11165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER DHA|&#x11166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER NA|&#x11167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER PA|&#x11168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER PHA|&#x11169;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER BA|&#x1116a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER BHA|&#x1116b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER MA|&#x1116c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER RA|&#x1116d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER LA|&#x1116e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER VA|&#x1116f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1117x |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER SA|&#x11170;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER HA|&#x11171;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LETTER RRA|&#x11172;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI SIGN NUKTA|&#x11173;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x11174;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI SECTION MARK|&#x11175;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHAJANI LIGATURE SHRI|&#x11176;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sharada''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1118x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN VISARGA|&#x11182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER A|&#x11183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER AA|&#x11184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER I|&#x11185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER II|&#x11186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER U|&#x11187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER UU|&#x11188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11189;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x1118a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x1118b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x1118c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER E|&#x1118d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER AI|&#x1118e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER O|&#x1118f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1119x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER AU|&#x11190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER KA|&#x11191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER KHA|&#x11192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER GA|&#x11193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER GHA|&#x11194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER NGA|&#x11195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER CA|&#x11196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER CHA|&#x11197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER JA|&#x11198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER JHA|&#x11199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER NYA|&#x1119a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER TTA|&#x1119b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER TTHA|&#x1119c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER DDA|&#x1119d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER DDHA|&#x1119e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER NNA|&#x1119f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|111Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER TA|&#x111a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER THA|&#x111a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER DA|&#x111a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER DHA|&#x111a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER NA|&#x111a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER PA|&#x111a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER PHA|&#x111a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER BA|&#x111a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER BHA|&#x111a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER MA|&#x111a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER YA|&#x111aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER RA|&#x111ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER LA|&#x111ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER LLA|&#x111ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER VA|&#x111ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER SHA|&#x111af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|111Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER SSA|&#x111b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER SA|&#x111b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA LETTER HA|&#x111b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x111b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x111b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x111b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x111b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x111b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x111b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x111b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x111ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x111bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN E|&#x111bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x111bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN O|&#x111be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x111bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|111Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN VIRAMA|&#x111c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x111c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN JIHVAMULIYA|&#x111c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN UPADHMANIYA|&#x111c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA OM|&#x111c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DANDA|&#x111c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DOUBLE DANDA|&#x111c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x111c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SEPARATOR|&#x111c8;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SANDHI MARK|&#x111c9;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN NUKTA|&#x111ca;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL MODIFIER MARK|&#x111cb;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA EXTRA SHORT VOWEL MARK|&#x111cc;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SUTRA MARK|&#x111cd;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN PRISHTHAMATRA E|&#x111ce;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN INVERTED CANDRABINDU|&#x111cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|111Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT ZERO|&#x111d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT ONE|&#x111d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT TWO|&#x111d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT THREE|&#x111d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT FOUR|&#x111d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT FIVE|&#x111d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT SIX|&#x111d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT SEVEN|&#x111d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT EIGHT|&#x111d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA DIGIT NINE|&#x111d9;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA EKAM|&#x111da;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SIGN SIDDHAM|&#x111db;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA HEADSTROKE|&#x111dc;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA CONTINUATION SIGN|&#x111dd;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SECTION MARK-1|&#x111de;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA SECTION MARK-2|&#x111df;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sinhala Archaic Numbers''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|111Ex |style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT ONE|&#x111e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT TWO|&#x111e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT THREE|&#x111e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT FOUR|&#x111e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT FIVE|&#x111e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT SIX|&#x111e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT SEVEN|&#x111e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT EIGHT|&#x111e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC DIGIT NINE|&#x111e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER TEN|&#x111ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER TWENTY|&#x111eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER THIRTY|&#x111ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER FORTY|&#x111ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER FIFTY|&#x111ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER SIXTY|&#x111ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|111Fx |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER SEVENTY|&#x111f0;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER EIGHTY|&#x111f1;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER NINETY|&#x111f2;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER ONE HUNDRED|&#x111f3;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SINHALA ARCHAIC NUMBER ONE THOUSAND|&#x111f4;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Khojki''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1120x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER A|&#x11200;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER AA|&#x11201;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER I|&#x11202;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER U|&#x11203;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER E|&#x11204;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER AI|&#x11205;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER O|&#x11206;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER AU|&#x11207;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER KA|&#x11208;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER KHA|&#x11209;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER GA|&#x1120a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER GGA|&#x1120b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER GHA|&#x1120c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER NGA|&#x1120d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER CA|&#x1120e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER CHA|&#x1120f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1121x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER JA|&#x11210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER JJA|&#x11211;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER NYA|&#x11213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER TTA|&#x11214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER TTHA|&#x11215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER DDA|&#x11216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER DDHA|&#x11217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER NNA|&#x11218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER TA|&#x11219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER THA|&#x1121a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER DA|&#x1121b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER DDDA|&#x1121c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER DHA|&#x1121d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER NA|&#x1121e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER PA|&#x1121f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1122x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER PHA|&#x11220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER BA|&#x11221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER BBA|&#x11222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER BHA|&#x11223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER MA|&#x11224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER YA|&#x11225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER RA|&#x11226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER LA|&#x11227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER VA|&#x11228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER SA|&#x11229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER HA|&#x1122a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER LLA|&#x1122b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x1122c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x1122d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x1122e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x1122f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1123x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11230;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x11235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI SIGN NUKTA|&#x11236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI SIGN SHADDA|&#x11237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI DANDA|&#x11238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI WORD SEPARATOR|&#x1123a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI SECTION MARK|&#x1123b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI DOUBLE SECTION MARK|&#x1123c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x1123d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI SIGN SUKUN|&#x1123e;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER QA|&#x1123f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1124x |style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI LETTER SHORT I|&#x11240;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHOJKI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11241;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Landa''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1125x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1126x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1127x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Multani''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1128x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER A|&#x11280;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER I|&#x11281;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER U|&#x11282;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER E|&#x11283;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER KA|&#x11284;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER KHA|&#x11285;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER GA|&#x11286;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER GHA|&#x11288;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER CA|&#x1128a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER CHA|&#x1128b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER JA|&#x1128c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER JJA|&#x1128d;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER NYA|&#x1128f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1129x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER TTA|&#x11290;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER TTHA|&#x11291;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER DDA|&#x11292;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER DDDA|&#x11293;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER DDHA|&#x11294;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER NNA|&#x11295;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER TA|&#x11296;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER THA|&#x11297;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER DA|&#x11298;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER DHA|&#x11299;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER NA|&#x1129a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER PA|&#x1129b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER PHA|&#x1129c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER BA|&#x1129d;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER BHA|&#x1129f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|112Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER MA|&#x112a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER YA|&#x112a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER RA|&#x112a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER LA|&#x112a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER VA|&#x112a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER SA|&#x112a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER HA|&#x112a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER RRA|&#x112a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI LETTER RHA|&#x112a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTANI SECTION MARK|&#x112a9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Khudawadi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|112Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER A|&#x112b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER AA|&#x112b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER I|&#x112b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER II|&#x112b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER U|&#x112b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER UU|&#x112b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER E|&#x112b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER AI|&#x112b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER O|&#x112b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER AU|&#x112b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER KA|&#x112ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER KHA|&#x112bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER GA|&#x112bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER GGA|&#x112bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER GHA|&#x112be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER NGA|&#x112bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|112Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER CA|&#x112c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER CHA|&#x112c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER JA|&#x112c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER JJA|&#x112c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER JHA|&#x112c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER NYA|&#x112c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER TTA|&#x112c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER TTHA|&#x112c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER DDA|&#x112c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER DDDA|&#x112c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER RRA|&#x112ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER DDHA|&#x112cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER NNA|&#x112cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER TA|&#x112cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER THA|&#x112ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER DA|&#x112cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|112Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER DHA|&#x112d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER NA|&#x112d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER PA|&#x112d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER PHA|&#x112d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER BA|&#x112d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER BBA|&#x112d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER BHA|&#x112d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER MA|&#x112d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER YA|&#x112d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER RA|&#x112d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER LA|&#x112da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER VA|&#x112db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER SHA|&#x112dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER SA|&#x112dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI LETTER HA|&#x112de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x112df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|112Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x112e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x112e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x112e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x112e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x112e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x112e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x112e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x112e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x112e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI SIGN NUKTA|&#x112e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x112ea;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|112Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT ZERO|&#x112f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT ONE|&#x112f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT TWO|&#x112f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT THREE|&#x112f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT FOUR|&#x112f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT FIVE|&#x112f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT SIX|&#x112f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x112f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x112f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KHUDAWADI DIGIT NINE|&#x112f9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Grantha''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1130x |style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN COMBINING ANUSVARA ABOVE|&#x11300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN VISARGA|&#x11303;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER A|&#x11305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER AA|&#x11306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER I|&#x11307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER II|&#x11308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER U|&#x11309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER UU|&#x1130a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x1130b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x1130c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER EE|&#x1130f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1131x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER AI|&#x11310;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER OO|&#x11313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER AU|&#x11314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER KA|&#x11315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER KHA|&#x11316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER GA|&#x11317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER GHA|&#x11318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER NGA|&#x11319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER CA|&#x1131a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER CHA|&#x1131b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER JA|&#x1131c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER JHA|&#x1131d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER NYA|&#x1131e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER TTA|&#x1131f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1132x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER TTHA|&#x11320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER DDA|&#x11321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER DDHA|&#x11322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER NNA|&#x11323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER TA|&#x11324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER THA|&#x11325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER DA|&#x11326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER DHA|&#x11327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER NA|&#x11328;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER PA|&#x1132a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER PHA|&#x1132b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER BA|&#x1132c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER BHA|&#x1132d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER MA|&#x1132e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER YA|&#x1132f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1133x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER RA|&#x11330;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER LA|&#x11332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER LLA|&#x11333;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VA|&#x11335;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER SHA|&#x11336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER SSA|&#x11337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER SA|&#x11338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER HA|&#x11339;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING BINDU BELOW|&#x1133b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN NUKTA|&#x1133c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x1133d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x1133e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x1133f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1134x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11342;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11343;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x11344;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN EE|&#x11347;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11348;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN OO|&#x1134b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x1134c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN VIRAMA|&#x1134d;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1135x |style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA OM|&#x11350;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA AU LENGTH MARK|&#x11357;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA SIGN PLUTA|&#x1135d;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VEDIC ANUSVARA|&#x1135e;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VEDIC DOUBLE ANUSVARA|&#x1135f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1136x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11360;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x11361;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x11362;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRANTHA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x11363;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT ZERO|&#x11366;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT ONE|&#x11367;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT TWO|&#x11368;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT THREE|&#x11369;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT FOUR|&#x1136a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT FIVE|&#x1136b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA DIGIT SIX|&#x1136c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1137x |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA LETTER A|&#x11370;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA LETTER KA|&#x11371;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA LETTER NA|&#x11372;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA LETTER VI|&#x11373;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GRANTHA LETTER PA|&#x11374;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tulu-Tigalari''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|1138x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER A|&#x11380;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER AA|&#x11381;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER I|&#x11382;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER II|&#x11383;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER U|&#x11384;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER UU|&#x11385;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11386;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11387;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11388;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x11389;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER EE|&#x1138b;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER AI|&#x1138e;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|1139x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER OO|&#x11390;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER AU|&#x11391;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER KA|&#x11392;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER KHA|&#x11393;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER GA|&#x11394;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER GHA|&#x11395;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER NGA|&#x11396;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER CA|&#x11397;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER CHA|&#x11398;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER JA|&#x11399;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER JHA|&#x1139a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER NYA|&#x1139b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER TTA|&#x1139c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER TTHA|&#x1139d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER DDA|&#x1139e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER DDHA|&#x1139f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|113Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER NNA|&#x113a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER TA|&#x113a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER THA|&#x113a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER DA|&#x113a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER DHA|&#x113a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER NA|&#x113a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER PA|&#x113a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER PHA|&#x113a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER BA|&#x113a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER BHA|&#x113a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER MA|&#x113aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER YA|&#x113ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER RA|&#x113ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER LA|&#x113ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER VA|&#x113ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER SHA|&#x113af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|113Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER SSA|&#x113b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER SA|&#x113b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER HA|&#x113b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER LLA|&#x113b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER RRA|&#x113b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI LETTER LLLA|&#x113b5;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x113b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x113b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x113b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x113ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x113bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x113bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x113bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x113be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x113bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|113Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x113c0;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN EE|&#x113c2;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x113c5;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN OO|&#x113c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x113c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI AU LENGTH MARK|&#x113c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN CANDRA ANUNASIKA|&#x113ca;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x113cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN VISARGA|&#x113cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x113ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN LOOPED VIRAMA|&#x113cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|113Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI CONJOINER|&#x113d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI REPHA|&#x113d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI GEMINATION MARK|&#x113d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN PLUTA|&#x113d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI DANDA|&#x113d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x113d5;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN OM PUSHPIKA|&#x113d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI SIGN SHRII PUSHPIKA|&#x113d8;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|113Ex |&nbsp;||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VEDIC TONE SVARITA|&#x113e1;}}||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TULU-TIGALARI VEDIC TONE ANUDATTA|&#x113e2;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|113Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Newa''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1140x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER A|&#x11400;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER AA|&#x11401;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER I|&#x11402;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER II|&#x11403;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER U|&#x11404;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER UU|&#x11405;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11406;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11407;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11408;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x11409;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER E|&#x1140a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER AI|&#x1140b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER O|&#x1140c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER AU|&#x1140d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER KA|&#x1140e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER KHA|&#x1140f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1141x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER GA|&#x11410;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER GHA|&#x11411;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NGA|&#x11412;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NGHA|&#x11413;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER CA|&#x11414;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER CHA|&#x11415;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER JA|&#x11416;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER JHA|&#x11417;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NYA|&#x11418;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NYHA|&#x11419;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER TTA|&#x1141a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER TTHA|&#x1141b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER DDA|&#x1141c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER DDHA|&#x1141d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NNA|&#x1141e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER TA|&#x1141f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1142x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER THA|&#x11420;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER DA|&#x11421;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER DHA|&#x11422;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NA|&#x11423;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER NHA|&#x11424;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER PA|&#x11425;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER PHA|&#x11426;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER BA|&#x11427;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER BHA|&#x11428;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER MA|&#x11429;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER MHA|&#x1142a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER YA|&#x1142b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER RA|&#x1142c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER RHA|&#x1142d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER LA|&#x1142e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER LHA|&#x1142f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1143x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER WA|&#x11430;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER SHA|&#x11431;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER SSA|&#x11432;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER SA|&#x11433;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER HA|&#x11434;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11435;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11436;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11437;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11438;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11439;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x1143a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x1143b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x1143c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x1143d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN E|&#x1143e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x1143f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1144x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11440;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11441;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN VIRAMA|&#x11442;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11443;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11444;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN VISARGA|&#x11445;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN NUKTA|&#x11446;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x11447;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN FINAL ANUSVARA|&#x11448;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA OM|&#x11449;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIDDHI|&#x1144a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DANDA|&#x1144b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DOUBLE DANDA|&#x1144c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA COMMA|&#x1144d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA GAP FILLER|&#x1144e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x1144f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1145x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT ZERO|&#x11450;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT ONE|&#x11451;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT TWO|&#x11452;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT THREE|&#x11453;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT FOUR|&#x11454;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT FIVE|&#x11455;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT SIX|&#x11456;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11457;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11458;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DIGIT NINE|&#x11459;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA DOUBLE COMMA|&#x1145a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA PLACEHOLDER MARK|&#x1145b;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA INSERTION SIGN|&#x1145d;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SANDHI MARK|&#x1145e;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA LETTER VEDIC ANUSVARA|&#x1145f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1146x |style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN JIHVAMULIYA|&#x11460;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWA SIGN UPHADHMANIYA|&#x11461;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1147x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tirhuta''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1148x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA ANJI|&#x11480;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER A|&#x11481;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER AA|&#x11482;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER I|&#x11483;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER II|&#x11484;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER U|&#x11485;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER UU|&#x11486;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11487;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11488;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11489;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x1148a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER E|&#x1148b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER AI|&#x1148c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER O|&#x1148d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER AU|&#x1148e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER KA|&#x1148f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1149x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER KHA|&#x11490;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER GA|&#x11491;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER GHA|&#x11492;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER NGA|&#x11493;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER CA|&#x11494;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER CHA|&#x11495;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER JA|&#x11496;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER JHA|&#x11497;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER NYA|&#x11498;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER TTA|&#x11499;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER TTHA|&#x1149a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER DDA|&#x1149b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER DDHA|&#x1149c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER NNA|&#x1149d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER TA|&#x1149e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER THA|&#x1149f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|114Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER DA|&#x114a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER DHA|&#x114a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER NA|&#x114a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER PA|&#x114a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER PHA|&#x114a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER BA|&#x114a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER BHA|&#x114a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER MA|&#x114a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER YA|&#x114a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER RA|&#x114a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER LA|&#x114aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER VA|&#x114ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER SHA|&#x114ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER SSA|&#x114ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER SA|&#x114ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA LETTER HA|&#x114af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|114Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x114b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x114b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x114b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x114b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x114b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x114b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x114b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x114b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x114b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN E|&#x114b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN SHORT E|&#x114ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x114bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN O|&#x114bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN SHORT O|&#x114bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x114be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x114bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|114Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x114c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA SIGN VISARGA|&#x114c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA SIGN VIRAMA|&#x114c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA SIGN NUKTA|&#x114c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x114c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA GVANG|&#x114c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x114c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA OM|&#x114c7;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|114Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT ZERO|&#x114d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT ONE|&#x114d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT TWO|&#x114d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT THREE|&#x114d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT FOUR|&#x114d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT FIVE|&#x114d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT SIX|&#x114d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT SEVEN|&#x114d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT EIGHT|&#x114d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRHUTA DIGIT NINE|&#x114d9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tani''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|114Ex |o͜o||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|114Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Ranjana''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1150x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1151x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1152x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1153x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1154x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1155x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1156x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1157x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Siddham''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1158x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER A|&#x11580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER AA|&#x11581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER I|&#x11582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER II|&#x11583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER U|&#x11584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER UU|&#x11585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x11589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER E|&#x1158a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER AI|&#x1158b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER O|&#x1158c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER AU|&#x1158d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER KA|&#x1158e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER KHA|&#x1158f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1159x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER GA|&#x11590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER GHA|&#x11591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER NGA|&#x11592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER CA|&#x11593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER CHA|&#x11594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER JA|&#x11595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER JHA|&#x11596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER NYA|&#x11597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER TTA|&#x11598;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER TTHA|&#x11599;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER DDA|&#x1159a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER DDHA|&#x1159b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER NNA|&#x1159c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER TA|&#x1159d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER THA|&#x1159e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER DA|&#x1159f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|115Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER DHA|&#x115a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER NA|&#x115a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER PA|&#x115a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER PHA|&#x115a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER BA|&#x115a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER BHA|&#x115a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER MA|&#x115a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER YA|&#x115a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER RA|&#x115a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER LA|&#x115a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER VA|&#x115aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER SHA|&#x115ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER SSA|&#x115ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER SA|&#x115ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER HA|&#x115ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x115af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|115Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN I|&#x115b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN II|&#x115b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN U|&#x115b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x115b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x115b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x115b5;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN E|&#x115b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x115b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN O|&#x115ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x115bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x115bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x115bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SIGN VISARGA|&#x115be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SIGN VIRAMA|&#x115bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|115Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SIGN NUKTA|&#x115c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SIGN SIDDHAM|&#x115c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM DANDA|&#x115c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM DOUBLE DANDA|&#x115c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SEPARATOR DOT|&#x115c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SEPARATOR BAR|&#x115c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM REPETITION MARK-1|&#x115c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM REPETITION MARK-2|&#x115c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM REPETITION MARK-3|&#x115c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM END OF TEXT MARK|&#x115c9;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH TRIDENT AND U-SHAPED ORNAMENTS|&#x115ca;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH TRIDENT AND DOTTED CRESCENTS|&#x115cb;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH RAYS AND DOTTED CRESCENTS|&#x115cc;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH RAYS AND DOTTED DOUBLE CRESCENTS|&#x115cd;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH RAYS AND DOTTED TRIPLE CRESCENTS|&#x115ce;}}||style="background:#8a94ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK DOUBLE RING|&#x115cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|115Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK DOUBLE RING WITH RAYS|&#x115d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH DOUBLE CRESCENTS|&#x115d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH TRIPLE CRESCENTS|&#x115d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH QUADRUPLE CRESCENTS|&#x115d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH SEPTUPLE CRESCENTS|&#x115d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH CIRCLES AND RAYS|&#x115d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH CIRCLES AND TWO ENCLOSURES|&#x115d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM SECTION MARK WITH CIRCLES AND FOUR ENCLOSURES|&#x115d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER THREE-CIRCLE ALTERNATE I|&#x115d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER TWO-CIRCLE ALTERNATE I|&#x115d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER TWO-CIRCLE ALTERNATE II|&#x115da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM LETTER ALTERNATE U|&#x115db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN ALTERNATE U|&#x115dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDDHAM VOWEL SIGN ALTERNATE UU|&#x115dd;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|115Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|115Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Modi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1160x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER A|&#x11600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER AA|&#x11601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER I|&#x11602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER II|&#x11603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER U|&#x11604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER UU|&#x11605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x11609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER E|&#x1160a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER AI|&#x1160b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER O|&#x1160c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER AU|&#x1160d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER KA|&#x1160e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER KHA|&#x1160f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1161x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER GA|&#x11610;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER GHA|&#x11611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER NGA|&#x11612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER CA|&#x11613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER CHA|&#x11614;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER JA|&#x11615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER JHA|&#x11616;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER NYA|&#x11617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER TTA|&#x11618;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER TTHA|&#x11619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER DDA|&#x1161a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER DDHA|&#x1161b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER NNA|&#x1161c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER TA|&#x1161d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER THA|&#x1161e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER DA|&#x1161f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1162x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER DHA|&#x11620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER NA|&#x11621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER PA|&#x11622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER PHA|&#x11623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER BA|&#x11624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER BHA|&#x11625;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER MA|&#x11626;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER YA|&#x11627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER RA|&#x11628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER LA|&#x11629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER VA|&#x1162a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER SHA|&#x1162b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER SSA|&#x1162c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER SA|&#x1162d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER HA|&#x1162e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI LETTER LLA|&#x1162f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1163x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11633;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x11636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x11637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC LL|&#x11638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x1163a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x1163b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x1163c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x1163d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI SIGN VISARGA|&#x1163e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x1163f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1164x |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI SIGN ARDHACANDRA|&#x11640;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DANDA|&#x11641;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11642;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x11643;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI SIGN HUVA|&#x11644;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1165x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT ONE|&#x11651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT TWO|&#x11652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT THREE|&#x11653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT FOUR|&#x11654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT FIVE|&#x11655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT SIX|&#x11656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODI DIGIT NINE|&#x11659;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Mongolian Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1166x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN BIRGA WITH ORNAMENT|&#x11660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN ROTATED BIRGA|&#x11661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN DOUBLE BIRGA WITH ORNAMENT|&#x11662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN TRIPLE BIRGA WITH ORNAMENT|&#x11663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN BIRGA WITH DOUBLE ORNAMENT|&#x11664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN ROTATED BIRGA WITH ORNAMENT|&#x11665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN ROTATED BIRGA WITH DOUBLE ORNAMENT|&#x11666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN INVERTED BIRGA|&#x11667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN INVERTED BIRGA WITH DOUBLE ORNAMENT|&#x11668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN SWIRL BIRGA|&#x11669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN SWIRL BIRGA WITH ORNAMENT|&#x1166a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN SWIRL BIRGA WITH DOUBLE ORNAMENT|&#x1166b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONGOLIAN TURNED SWIRL BIRGA WITH DOUBLE ORNAMENT|&#x1166c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1167x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Takri''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1168x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER A|&#x11680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER AA|&#x11681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER I|&#x11682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER II|&#x11683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER U|&#x11684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER UU|&#x11685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER E|&#x11686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER AI|&#x11687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER O|&#x11688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER AU|&#x11689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER KA|&#x1168a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER KHA|&#x1168b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER GA|&#x1168c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER GHA|&#x1168d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER NGA|&#x1168e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER CA|&#x1168f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1169x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER CHA|&#x11690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER JA|&#x11691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER JHA|&#x11692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER NYA|&#x11693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER TTA|&#x11694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER TTHA|&#x11695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER DDA|&#x11696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER DDHA|&#x11697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER NNA|&#x11698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER TA|&#x11699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER THA|&#x1169a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER DA|&#x1169b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER DHA|&#x1169c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER NA|&#x1169d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER PA|&#x1169e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER PHA|&#x1169f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|116Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER BA|&#x116a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER BHA|&#x116a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER MA|&#x116a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER YA|&#x116a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER RA|&#x116a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER LA|&#x116a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER VA|&#x116a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER SHA|&#x116a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER SA|&#x116a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER HA|&#x116a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER RRA|&#x116aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x116ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI SIGN VISARGA|&#x116ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x116ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x116ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x116af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|116Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x116b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x116b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x116b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x116b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x116b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x116b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x116b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI SIGN NUKTA|&#x116b7;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI LETTER ARCHAIC KHA|&#x116b8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x116b9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|116Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT ZERO|&#x116c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT ONE|&#x116c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT TWO|&#x116c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT THREE|&#x116c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT FOUR|&#x116c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT FIVE|&#x116c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT SIX|&#x116c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x116c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x116c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKRI DIGIT NINE|&#x116c9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Myanmar Extended-C''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|116Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT ZERO|&#x116d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT ONE|&#x116d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT TWO|&#x116d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT THREE|&#x116d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT FOUR|&#x116d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT FIVE|&#x116d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT SIX|&#x116d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT SEVEN|&#x116d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT EIGHT|&#x116d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR PAO DIGIT NINE|&#x116d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT ZERO|&#x116da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT ONE|&#x116db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT TWO|&#x116dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT THREE|&#x116dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT FOUR|&#x116de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT FIVE|&#x116df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|116Ex |style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT SIX|&#x116e0;}}||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT SEVEN|&#x116e1;}}||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT EIGHT|&#x116e2;}}||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MYANMAR EASTERN PWO KAREN DIGIT NINE|&#x116e3;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|116Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Ahom''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1170x |{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER KA|&#x11700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER KHA|&#x11701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER NGA|&#x11702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER NA|&#x11703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER TA|&#x11704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER ALTERNATE TA|&#x11705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER PA|&#x11706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER PHA|&#x11707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER BA|&#x11708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER MA|&#x11709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER JA|&#x1170a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER CHA|&#x1170b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER THA|&#x1170c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER RA|&#x1170d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER LA|&#x1170e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER SA|&#x1170f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1171x |{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER NYA|&#x11710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER HA|&#x11711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER A|&#x11712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER DA|&#x11713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER DHA|&#x11714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER GA|&#x11715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER ALTERNATE GA|&#x11716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER GHA|&#x11717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER BHA|&#x11718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER JHA|&#x11719;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER ALTERNATE BA|&#x1171a;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL LA|&#x1171d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL RA|&#x1171e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL LIGATING RA|&#x1171f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1172x |{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN A|&#x11720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN AW|&#x11727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM VOWEL SIGN AM|&#x1172a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM SIGN KILLER|&#x1172b;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#8a94ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1173x |{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT ZERO|&#x11730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT ONE|&#x11731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT TWO|&#x11732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT THREE|&#x11733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT FOUR|&#x11734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT FIVE|&#x11735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT SIX|&#x11736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM DIGIT NINE|&#x11739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM NUMBER TEN|&#x1173a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM NUMBER TWENTY|&#x1173b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM SIGN SMALL SECTION|&#x1173c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM SIGN SECTION|&#x1173d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM SIGN RULAI|&#x1173e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM SYMBOL VI|&#x1173f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1174x |style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER CA|&#x11740;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER TTA|&#x11741;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER TTHA|&#x11742;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER DDA|&#x11743;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER DDHA|&#x11744;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER NNA|&#x11745;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0|{{H:title|dotted=no|AHOM LETTER LLA|&#x11746;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1175x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1176x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1177x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1178x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1179x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|117Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|117Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|117Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|117Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|117Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|117Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Dogra''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1180x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER A|&#x11800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER AA|&#x11801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER I|&#x11802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER II|&#x11803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER U|&#x11804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER UU|&#x11805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER E|&#x11806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER AI|&#x11807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER O|&#x11808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER AU|&#x11809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER KA|&#x1180a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER KHA|&#x1180b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER GA|&#x1180c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER GHA|&#x1180d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER NGA|&#x1180e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER CA|&#x1180f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1181x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER CHA|&#x11810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER JA|&#x11811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER JHA|&#x11812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER NYA|&#x11813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER TTA|&#x11814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER TTHA|&#x11815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER DDA|&#x11816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER DDHA|&#x11817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER NNA|&#x11818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER TA|&#x11819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER THA|&#x1181a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER DA|&#x1181b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER DHA|&#x1181c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER NA|&#x1181d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER PA|&#x1181e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER PHA|&#x1181f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1182x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER BA|&#x11820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER BHA|&#x11821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER MA|&#x11822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER YA|&#x11823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER RA|&#x11824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER LA|&#x11825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER VA|&#x11826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER SHA|&#x11827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER SSA|&#x11828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER SA|&#x11829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER HA|&#x1182a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA LETTER RRA|&#x1182b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x1182c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x1182d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x1182e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x1182f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1183x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x11832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA SIGN VISARGA|&#x11838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA SIGN VIRAMA|&#x11839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA SIGN NUKTA|&#x1183a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOGRA ABBREVIATION SIGN|&#x1183b;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1184x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sirmauri''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1185x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1186x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1187x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1188x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1189x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Warang Citi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|118Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER NGAA|&#x118a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x118a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER WI|&#x118a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER YU|&#x118a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER YA|&#x118a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER YO|&#x118a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER II|&#x118a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER UU|&#x118a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x118a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x118a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER ANG|&#x118aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER GA|&#x118ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER KO|&#x118ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER ENY|&#x118ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER YUJ|&#x118ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER UC|&#x118af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|118Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER ENN|&#x118b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER ODD|&#x118b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER TTE|&#x118b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER NUNG|&#x118b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER DA|&#x118b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER AT|&#x118b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER AM|&#x118b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER BU|&#x118b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER PU|&#x118b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER HIYO|&#x118b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER HOLO|&#x118ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER HORR|&#x118bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER HAR|&#x118bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER SSUU|&#x118bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER SII|&#x118be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI CAPITAL LETTER VIYO|&#x118bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|118Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER NGAA|&#x118c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER A|&#x118c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER WI|&#x118c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER YU|&#x118c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER YA|&#x118c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER YO|&#x118c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER II|&#x118c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER UU|&#x118c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER E|&#x118c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER O|&#x118c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER ANG|&#x118ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER GA|&#x118cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER KO|&#x118cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER ENY|&#x118cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER YUJ|&#x118ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER UC|&#x118cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|118Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER ENN|&#x118d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER ODD|&#x118d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER TTE|&#x118d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER NUNG|&#x118d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER DA|&#x118d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER AT|&#x118d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER AM|&#x118d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER BU|&#x118d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER PU|&#x118d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER HIYO|&#x118d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER HOLO|&#x118da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER HORR|&#x118db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER HAR|&#x118dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER SSUU|&#x118dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER SII|&#x118de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI SMALL LETTER VIYO|&#x118df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|118Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT ZERO|&#x118e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT ONE|&#x118e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT TWO|&#x118e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT THREE|&#x118e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT FOUR|&#x118e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT FIVE|&#x118e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT SIX|&#x118e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x118e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x118e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI DIGIT NINE|&#x118e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER TEN|&#x118ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER TWENTY|&#x118eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER THIRTY|&#x118ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER FORTY|&#x118ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER FIFTY|&#x118ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER SIXTY|&#x118ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|118Fx |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER SEVENTY|&#x118f0;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER EIGHTY|&#x118f1;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI NUMBER NINETY|&#x118f2;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WARANG CITI OM|&#x118ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Dives Akuru''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffb0ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1190x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER A|&#x11900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER AA|&#x11901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER I|&#x11902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER II|&#x11903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER U|&#x11904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER UU|&#x11905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER E|&#x11906;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER O|&#x11909;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER KA|&#x1190c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER KHA|&#x1190d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER GA|&#x1190e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER GHA|&#x1190f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffb0ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1191x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER NGA|&#x11910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER CA|&#x11911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER CHA|&#x11912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER JA|&#x11913;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER NYA|&#x11915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER TTA|&#x11916;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER DDA|&#x11918;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER DDHA|&#x11919;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER NNA|&#x1191a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER TA|&#x1191b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER THA|&#x1191c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER DA|&#x1191d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER DHA|&#x1191e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER NA|&#x1191f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffb0ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1192x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER PA|&#x11920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER PHA|&#x11921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER BA|&#x11922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER BHA|&#x11923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER MA|&#x11924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER YA|&#x11925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER YYA|&#x11926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER RA|&#x11927;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER LA|&#x11928;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER VA|&#x11929;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER SHA|&#x1192a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER SSA|&#x1192b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER SA|&#x1192c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER HA|&#x1192d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER LLA|&#x1192e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU LETTER ZA|&#x1192f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffb0ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1193x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11930;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11931;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11935;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11938;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x1193b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x1193c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU SIGN HALANTA|&#x1193d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU VIRAMA|&#x1193e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU PREFIXED NASAL SIGN|&#x1193f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1194x |style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU MEDIAL YA|&#x11940;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU INITIAL RA|&#x11941;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU MEDIAL RA|&#x11942;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU SIGN NUKTA|&#x11943;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11944;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU GAP FILLER|&#x11945;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU END OF TEXT MARK|&#x11940;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#ffb0ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|1195x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT ZERO|&#x11950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT ONE|&#x11951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT TWO|&#x11952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT THREE|&#x11953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT FOUR|&#x11954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT FIVE|&#x11955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT SIX|&#x11956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVES AKURU DIGIT NINE|&#x11959;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Vatteluttu''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1196x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1197x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1198x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1199x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Nandinagari''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|119Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER A|&#x119a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER AA|&#x119a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER I|&#x119a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER II|&#x119a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER U|&#x119a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER UU|&#x119a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x119a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x119a7;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER E|&#x119aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER AI|&#x119ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER O|&#x119ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER AU|&#x119ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER KA|&#x119ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER KHA|&#x119af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|119Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER GA|&#x119b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER GHA|&#x119b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER NGA|&#x119b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER CA|&#x119b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER CHA|&#x119b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER JA|&#x119b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER JHA|&#x119b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER NYA|&#x119b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER TTA|&#x119b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER TTHA|&#x119b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER DDA|&#x119ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER DDHA|&#x119bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER NNA|&#x119bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER TA|&#x119bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER THA|&#x119be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER DA|&#x119bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|119Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER DHA|&#x119c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER NA|&#x119c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER PA|&#x119c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER PHA|&#x119c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER BA|&#x119c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER BHA|&#x119c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER MA|&#x119c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER YA|&#x119c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER RA|&#x119c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER LA|&#x119c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER VA|&#x119ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER SHA|&#x119cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER SSA|&#x119cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER SA|&#x119cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER HA|&#x119ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER LLA|&#x119cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|119Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI LETTER RRA|&#x119d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x119d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x119d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x119d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x119d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x119d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x119d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x119d7;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x119da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x119db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x119dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x119dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x119de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI SIGN VISARGA|&#x119df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|119Ex |style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x119e0;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x119e1;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI SIGN SIDDHAM|&#x119e2;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI HEADSTROKE|&#x119e3;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NANDINAGARI VOWEL SIGN PRISHTHAMATRA E|&#x119e4;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|119Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Zanabazar Square''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER A|&#x11a00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11a01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN UE|&#x11a02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11a03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11a04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN OE|&#x11a05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11a06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11a07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11a08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL SIGN REVERSED I|&#x11a09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE VOWEL LENGTH MARK|&#x11a0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER KA|&#x11a0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER KHA|&#x11a0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER GA|&#x11a0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER GHA|&#x11a0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER NGA|&#x11a0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER CA|&#x11a10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER CHA|&#x11a11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER JA|&#x11a12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER NYA|&#x11a13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER TTA|&#x11a14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER TTHA|&#x11a15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DDA|&#x11a16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DDHA|&#x11a17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER NNA|&#x11a18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER TA|&#x11a19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER THA|&#x11a1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DA|&#x11a1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DHA|&#x11a1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER NA|&#x11a1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER PA|&#x11a1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER PHA|&#x11a1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER BA|&#x11a20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER BHA|&#x11a21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER MA|&#x11a22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER TSA|&#x11a23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER TSHA|&#x11a24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DZA|&#x11a25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER DZHA|&#x11a26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER ZHA|&#x11a27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER ZA|&#x11a28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER -A|&#x11a29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER YA|&#x11a2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER RA|&#x11a2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER LA|&#x11a2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER VA|&#x11a2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER SHA|&#x11a2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER SSA|&#x11a2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER SA|&#x11a30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER HA|&#x11a31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER KSSA|&#x11a32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE FINAL CONSONANT MARK|&#x11a33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SIGN VIRAMA|&#x11a34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11a35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SIGN CANDRABINDU WITH ORNAMENT|&#x11a36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SIGN CANDRA WITH ORNAMENT|&#x11a37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11a38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SIGN VISARGA|&#x11a39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLUSTER-INITIAL LETTER RA|&#x11a3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLUSTER-FINAL LETTER YA|&#x11a3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLUSTER-FINAL LETTER RA|&#x11a3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLUSTER-FINAL LETTER LA|&#x11a3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLUSTER-FINAL LETTER VA|&#x11a3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE INITIAL HEAD MARK|&#x11a3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLOSING HEAD MARK|&#x11a40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE MARK TSHEG|&#x11a41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE MARK SHAD|&#x11a42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE MARK DOUBLE SHAD|&#x11a43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE MARK LONG TSHEG|&#x11a44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE INITIAL DOUBLE-LINED HEAD MARK|&#x11a45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE CLOSING DOUBLE-LINED HEAD MARK|&#x11a46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZANABAZAR SQUARE SUBJOINER|&#x11a47;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Soyombo''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER A|&#x11a50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11a51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN UE|&#x11a52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11a53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11a54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11a55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN OE|&#x11a56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11a57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11a58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11a59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x11a5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO VOWEL LENGTH MARK|&#x11a5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER KA|&#x11a5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER KHA|&#x11a5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER GA|&#x11a5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER GHA|&#x11a5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER NGA|&#x11a60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER CA|&#x11a61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER CHA|&#x11a62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER JA|&#x11a63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER JHA|&#x11a64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER NYA|&#x11a65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER TTA|&#x11a66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER TTHA|&#x11a67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER DDA|&#x11a68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER DDHA|&#x11a69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER NNA|&#x11a6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER TA|&#x11a6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER THA|&#x11a6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER DA|&#x11a6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER DHA|&#x11a6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER NA|&#x11a6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER PA|&#x11a70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER PHA|&#x11a71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER BA|&#x11a72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER BHA|&#x11a73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER MA|&#x11a74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER TSA|&#x11a75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER TSHA|&#x11a76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER DZA|&#x11a77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER ZHA|&#x11a78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER ZA|&#x11a79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER -A|&#x11a7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER YA|&#x11a7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER RA|&#x11a7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER LA|&#x11a7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER VA|&#x11a7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER SHA|&#x11a7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER SSA|&#x11a80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER SA|&#x11a81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER HA|&#x11a82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO LETTER KSSA|&#x11a83;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO SIGN JIHVAMULIYA|&#x11a84;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO SIGN UPADHMANIYA|&#x11a85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO CLUSTER-INITIAL LETTER RA|&#x11a86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO CLUSTER-INITIAL LETTER LA|&#x11a87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO CLUSTER-INITIAL LETTER SHA|&#x11a88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO CLUSTER-INITIAL LETTER SA|&#x11a89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN G|&#x11a8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN K|&#x11a8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN NG|&#x11a8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN D|&#x11a8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN N|&#x11a8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN B|&#x11a8f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11A9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN M|&#x11a90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN R|&#x11a91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN L|&#x11a92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN SH|&#x11a93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN S|&#x11a94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO FINAL CONSONANT SIGN -A|&#x11a95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11a96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO SIGN VISARGA|&#x11a97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO GEMINATION MARK|&#x11a98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO SUBJOINER|&#x11a99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO MARK TSHEG|&#x11a9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO MARK SHAD|&#x11a9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO MARK DOUBLE SHAD|&#x11a9c;}}||style="background:#d093ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO MARK PLUTA|&#x11a9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO HEAD MARK WITH MOON AND SUN AND TRIPLE FLAME|&#x11a9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO HEAD MARK WITH MOON AND SUN AND FLAME|&#x11a9f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11AAx |style="background:#b690ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO HEAD MARK WITH MOON AND SUN|&#x11aa0;}}||style="background:#b690ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO TERMINAL MARK-1|&#x11aa1;}}||style="background:#b690ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOYOMBO TERMINAL MARK-2|&#x11aa2;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11ABx |{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK HI|&#x11ab0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK HII|&#x11ab1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK HO|&#x11ab2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK HOO|&#x11ab3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK HA|&#x11ab4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK HAA|&#x11ab5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK SHRI|&#x11ab6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK SHRII|&#x11ab7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK SHRO|&#x11ab8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK SHROO|&#x11ab9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK SHRA|&#x11aba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS NATTILIK SHRAA|&#x11abb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS SPE|&#x11abc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS SPI|&#x11abd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS SPO|&#x11abe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANADIAN SYLLABICS SPA|&#x11abf;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Pau Cin Hau''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11ACx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER PA|&#x11ac0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER KA|&#x11ac1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER LA|&#x11ac2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER MA|&#x11ac3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER DA|&#x11ac4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER ZA|&#x11ac5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER VA|&#x11ac6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER NGA|&#x11ac7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER HA|&#x11ac8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER GA|&#x11ac9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER KHA|&#x11aca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER SA|&#x11acb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER BA|&#x11acc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER CA|&#x11acd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER TA|&#x11ace;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER THA|&#x11acf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11ADx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER NA|&#x11ad0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER PHA|&#x11ad1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER RA|&#x11ad2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FA|&#x11ad3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER CHA|&#x11ad4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER A|&#x11ad5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER E|&#x11ad6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER I|&#x11ad7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER O|&#x11ad8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER U|&#x11ad9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER UA|&#x11ada;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER IA|&#x11adb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL P|&#x11adc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL K|&#x11add;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL T|&#x11ade;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL M|&#x11adf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11AEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL N|&#x11ae0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL L|&#x11ae1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL W|&#x11ae2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL NG|&#x11ae3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LETTER FINAL Y|&#x11ae4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU RISING TONE LONG|&#x11ae5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU RISING TONE|&#x11ae6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU SANDHI GLOTTAL STOP|&#x11ae7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU RISING TONE LONG FINAL|&#x11ae8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU RISING TONE FINAL|&#x11ae9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU SANDHI GLOTTAL STOP FINAL|&#x11aea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU SANDHI TONE LONG|&#x11aeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU SANDHI TONE|&#x11aec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU SANDHI TONE LONG FINAL|&#x11aed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU SANDHI TONE FINAL|&#x11aee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU MID-LEVEL TONE|&#x11aef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11AFx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU GLOTTAL STOP VARIANT|&#x11af0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU MID-LEVEL TONE LONG FINAL|&#x11af1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU MID-LEVEL TONE FINAL|&#x11af2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LOW-FALLING TONE LONG|&#x11af3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LOW-FALLING TONE|&#x11af4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU GLOTTAL STOP|&#x11af5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LOW-FALLING TONE LONG FINAL|&#x11af6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU LOW-FALLING TONE FINAL|&#x11af7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAU CIN HAU GLOTTAL STOP FINAL|&#x11af8;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Devanagari Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI HEAD MARK|&#x11b00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI HEAD MARK WITH HEADSTROKE|&#x11b01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN BHALE|&#x11b02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN BHALE WITH HOOK|&#x11b03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN EXTENDED BHALE|&#x11b04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN EXTENDED BHALE WITH HOOK|&#x11b05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN WESTERN FIVE-LIKE BHALE|&#x11b06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN WESTERN NINE-LIKE BHALE|&#x11b07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN REVERSED NINE-LIKE BHALE|&#x11b08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEVANAGARI SIGN MINDU|&#x11b09;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sharada Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B6x |style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN OE|&#x11b60;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN OOE|&#x11b61;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN UE|&#x11b62;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN UUE|&#x11b63;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN SHORT E|&#x11b64;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN SHORT O|&#x11b65;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN CANDRA E|&#x11b66;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARADA VOWEL SIGN CANDRA O|&#x11b67;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Leke''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11B9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11BAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11BBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Sunuwar''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|11BCx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER DEVI|&#x11bc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER TASLA|&#x11bc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER EKO|&#x11bc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER IMAR|&#x11bc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER REU|&#x11bc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER UTTHI|&#x11bc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER KIK|&#x11bc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER MA|&#x11bc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER APPHO|&#x11bc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER PIP|&#x11bc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER GIL|&#x11bca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER HAMSO|&#x11bcb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER CARMI|&#x11bcc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER NAH|&#x11bcd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER BUR|&#x11bce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER JYAH|&#x11bcf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|11BDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER LOACHA|&#x11bd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER OTTHI|&#x11bd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER SHYELE|&#x11bd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER VARCA|&#x11bd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER YAT|&#x11bd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER AVA|&#x11bd5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER AAL|&#x11bd6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER DONGA|&#x11bd7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER THARI|&#x11bd8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER PHAR|&#x11bd9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER NGAR|&#x11bda;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER KHA|&#x11bdb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER SHYER|&#x11bdc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER CHELAP|&#x11bdd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER TENTU|&#x11bde;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER THELE|&#x11bdf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11BEx |style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR LETTER KLOKO|&#x11be0;}}||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR SIGN PVO|&#x11be1;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|11BFx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT ZERO|&#x11bf0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT ONE|&#x11bf1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT TWO|&#x11bf2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT THREE|&#x11bf3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT FOUR|&#x11bf4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT FIVE|&#x11bf5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT SIX|&#x11bf6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11bf7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11bf8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNUWAR DIGIT NINE|&#x11bf9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Bhaiksuki''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER A|&#x11c00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER AA|&#x11c01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER I|&#x11c02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER II|&#x11c03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER U|&#x11c04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER UU|&#x11c05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11c06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11c07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11c08;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER E|&#x11c0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER AI|&#x11c0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER O|&#x11c0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER AU|&#x11c0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER KA|&#x11c0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER KHA|&#x11c0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER GA|&#x11c10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER GHA|&#x11c11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER NGA|&#x11c12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER CA|&#x11c13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER CHA|&#x11c14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER JA|&#x11c15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER JHA|&#x11c16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER NYA|&#x11c17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER TTA|&#x11c18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER TTHA|&#x11c19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER DDA|&#x11c1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER DDHA|&#x11c1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER NNA|&#x11c1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER TA|&#x11c1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER THA|&#x11c1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER DA|&#x11c1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER DHA|&#x11c20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER NA|&#x11c21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER PA|&#x11c22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER PHA|&#x11c23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER BA|&#x11c24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER BHA|&#x11c25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER MA|&#x11c26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER YA|&#x11c27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER RA|&#x11c28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER LA|&#x11c29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER VA|&#x11c2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER SHA|&#x11c2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER SSA|&#x11c2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER SA|&#x11c2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI LETTER HA|&#x11c2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11c2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11c30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11c31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11c32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11c33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11c34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC RR|&#x11c35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC L|&#x11c36;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11c38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11c39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11c3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11c3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11c3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11c3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI SIGN VISARGA|&#x11c3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x11c3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C4x |style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI SIGN AVAGRAHA|&#x11c40;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DANDA|&#x11c41;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11c42;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI WORD SEPARATOR|&#x11c43;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI GAP FILLER-1|&#x11c44;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI GAP FILLER-2|&#x11c45;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11c50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT ONE|&#x11c51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT TWO|&#x11c52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT THREE|&#x11c53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT FOUR|&#x11c54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT FIVE|&#x11c55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT SIX|&#x11c56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11c57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11c58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI DIGIT NINE|&#x11c59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER ONE|&#x11c5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER TWO|&#x11c5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER THREE|&#x11c5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER FOUR|&#x11c5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER FIVE|&#x11c5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER SIX|&#x11c5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER SEVEN|&#x11c60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER EIGHT|&#x11c61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER NINE|&#x11c62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER TEN|&#x11c63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER TWENTY|&#x11c64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER THIRTY|&#x11c65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER FORTY|&#x11c66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER FIFTY|&#x11c67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER SIXTY|&#x11c68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER SEVENTY|&#x11c69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER EIGHTY|&#x11c6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI NUMBER NINETY|&#x11c6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BHAIKSUKI HUNDREDS UNIT MARK|&#x11c6c;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Marchen''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN HEAD MARK|&#x11c70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN MARK SHAD|&#x11c71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER KA|&#x11c72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER KHA|&#x11c73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER GA|&#x11c74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER NGA|&#x11c75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER CA|&#x11c76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER CHA|&#x11c77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER JA|&#x11c78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER NYA|&#x11c79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER TA|&#x11c7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER THA|&#x11c7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER DA|&#x11c7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER NA|&#x11c7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER PA|&#x11c7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER PHA|&#x11c7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER BA|&#x11c80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER MA|&#x11c81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER TSA|&#x11c82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER TSHA|&#x11c83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER DZA|&#x11c84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER WA|&#x11c85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER ZHA|&#x11c86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER ZA|&#x11c87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER -A|&#x11c88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER YA|&#x11c89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER RA|&#x11c8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER LA|&#x11c8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER SHA|&#x11c8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER SA|&#x11c8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER HA|&#x11c8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN LETTER A|&#x11c8f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11C9x |style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER KA|&#x11c92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER KHA|&#x11c93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER GA|&#x11c94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER NGA|&#x11c95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER CA|&#x11c96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER CHA|&#x11c97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER JA|&#x11c98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER NYA|&#x11c99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER TA|&#x11c9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER THA|&#x11c9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER DA|&#x11c9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER NA|&#x11c9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER PA|&#x11c9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER PHA|&#x11c9f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#9c8dff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11CAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER BA|&#x11ca0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER MA|&#x11ca1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER TSA|&#x11ca2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER TSHA|&#x11ca3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER DZA|&#x11ca4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER WA|&#x11ca5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER ZHA|&#x11ca6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER ZA|&#x11ca7;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER YA|&#x11ca9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER RA|&#x11caa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER LA|&#x11cab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER SHA|&#x11cac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER SA|&#x11cad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER HA|&#x11cae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SUBJOINED LETTER A|&#x11caf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11CBx |style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11cb0;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11cb1;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11cb2;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11cb3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11cb4;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11cb5;}}||style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARCHEN SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11cb6;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Balti-B''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11CCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11CDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11CEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11CFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Masaram Gondi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER A|&#x11d00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER AA|&#x11d01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER I|&#x11d02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER II|&#x11d03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER U|&#x11d04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER UU|&#x11d05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER E|&#x11d06;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER AI|&#x11d08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER O|&#x11d09;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER AU|&#x11d0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER KA|&#x11d0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER KHA|&#x11d0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER GA|&#x11d0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER GHA|&#x11d0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER NGA|&#x11d10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER CA|&#x11d11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER CHA|&#x11d12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER JA|&#x11d13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER JHA|&#x11d14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER NYA|&#x11d15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER TTA|&#x11d16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER TTHA|&#x11d17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER DDA|&#x11d18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER DDHA|&#x11d19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER NNA|&#x11d1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER TA|&#x11d1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER THA|&#x11d1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER DA|&#x11d1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER DHA|&#x11d1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER NA|&#x11d1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER PA|&#x11d20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER PHA|&#x11d21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER BA|&#x11d22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER BHA|&#x11d23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER MA|&#x11d24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER YA|&#x11d25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER RA|&#x11d26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER LA|&#x11d27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER VA|&#x11d28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER SHA|&#x11d29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER SSA|&#x11d2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER SA|&#x11d2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER HA|&#x11d2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER LLA|&#x11d2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER KSSA|&#x11d2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER JNYA|&#x11d2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI LETTER TRA|&#x11d30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11d31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11d32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11d33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11d34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11d35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11d36;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11d3a;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11d3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11d3d;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11d3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11d40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI SIGN VISARGA|&#x11d41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI SIGN NUKTA|&#x11d42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI SIGN CANDRA|&#x11d43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI SIGN HALANTA|&#x11d44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI VIRAMA|&#x11d45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI REPHA|&#x11d46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI RA-KARA|&#x11d47;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#b690ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11d50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT ONE|&#x11d51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT TWO|&#x11d52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT THREE|&#x11d53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT FOUR|&#x11d54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT FIVE|&#x11d55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT SIX|&#x11d56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11d57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11d58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MASARAM GONDI DIGIT NINE|&#x11d59;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Gunjala Gondi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER A|&#x11d60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER AA|&#x11d61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER I|&#x11d62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER II|&#x11d63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER U|&#x11d64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER UU|&#x11d65;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER EE|&#x11d67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER AI|&#x11d68;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER OO|&#x11d6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER AU|&#x11d6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER YA|&#x11d6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER VA|&#x11d6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER BA|&#x11d6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER BHA|&#x11d6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER MA|&#x11d70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER KA|&#x11d71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER KHA|&#x11d72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER TA|&#x11d73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER THA|&#x11d74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER LA|&#x11d75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER GA|&#x11d76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER GHA|&#x11d77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER DA|&#x11d78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER DHA|&#x11d79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER NA|&#x11d7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER CA|&#x11d7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER CHA|&#x11d7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER TTA|&#x11d7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER TTHA|&#x11d7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER LLA|&#x11d7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER JA|&#x11d80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER JHA|&#x11d81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER DDA|&#x11d82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER DDHA|&#x11d83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER NGA|&#x11d84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER PA|&#x11d85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER PHA|&#x11d86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER HA|&#x11d87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER RA|&#x11d88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI LETTER SA|&#x11d89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11d8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11d8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11d8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11d8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11d8e;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11D9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN EE|&#x11d90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11d91;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN OO|&#x11d93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x11d94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11d95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI SIGN VISARGA|&#x11d96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI VIRAMA|&#x11d97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI OM|&#x11d98;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11DAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11da0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT ONE|&#x11da1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT TWO|&#x11da2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT THREE|&#x11da3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT FOUR|&#x11da4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT FIVE|&#x11da5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT SIX|&#x11da6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11da7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11da8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUNJALA GONDI DIGIT NINE|&#x11da9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tolong Siki''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11DBx |style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER I|&#x11db0;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER E|&#x11db1;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER U|&#x11db2;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER O|&#x11db3;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER A|&#x11db4;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER AA|&#x11db5;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER P|&#x11db6;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER PH|&#x11db7;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER B|&#x11db8;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER BH|&#x11db9;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER M|&#x11dba;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER T|&#x11dbb;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER TH|&#x11dbc;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER D|&#x11dbd;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER DH|&#x11dbe;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER N|&#x11dbf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11DCx |style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER TT|&#x11dc0;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER TTH|&#x11dc1;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER DD|&#x11dc2;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER DDH|&#x11dc3;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER NN|&#x11dc4;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER C|&#x11dc5;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER CH|&#x11dc6;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER J|&#x11dc7;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER JH|&#x11dc8;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER NY|&#x11dc9;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER K|&#x11dca;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER KH|&#x11dcb;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER G|&#x11dcc;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER GH|&#x11dcd;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER NG|&#x11dce;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER Y|&#x11dcf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11DDx |style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER R|&#x11dd0;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER L|&#x11dd1;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER V|&#x11dd2;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER NNY|&#x11dd3;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER S|&#x11dd4;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER H|&#x11dd5;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER X|&#x11dd6;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER RR|&#x11dd7;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI LETTER RRH|&#x11dd8;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI SIGN SELA|&#x11dd9;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI SIGN HECAKA|&#x11dda;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI UNGGA|&#x11ddb;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11DEx |style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11de0;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT ONE|&#x11de1;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT TWO|&#x11de2;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT THREE|&#x11de3;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT FOUR|&#x11de4;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT FIVE|&#x11de5;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT SIX|&#x11de6;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11de7;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11de8;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOLONG SIKI DIGIT NINE|&#x11de9;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11DFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11E9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11EAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11EBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11ECx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11EDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Makasar''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11EEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER KA|&#x11ee0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER GA|&#x11ee1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER NGA|&#x11ee2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER PA|&#x11ee3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER BA|&#x11ee4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER MA|&#x11ee5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER TA|&#x11ee6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER DA|&#x11ee7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER NA|&#x11ee8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER CA|&#x11ee9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER JA|&#x11eea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER NYA|&#x11eeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER YA|&#x11eec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER RA|&#x11eed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER LA|&#x11eee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER VA|&#x11eef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11EFx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER SA|&#x11ef0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR LETTER A|&#x11ef1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR ANGKA|&#x11ef2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11ef3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11ef4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11ef5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR VOWEL SIGN O|&#x11ef6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR PASSIMBANG|&#x11ef7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKASAR END OF SECTION|&#x11ef8;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kawi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI SIGN CANDRABINDU|&#x11f00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x11f01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI SIGN REPHA|&#x11f02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI SIGN VISARGA|&#x11f03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER A|&#x11f04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER AA|&#x11f05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER I|&#x11f06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER II|&#x11f07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER U|&#x11f08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER UU|&#x11f09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER VOCALIC R|&#x11f0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER VOCALIC RR|&#x11f0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER VOCALIC L|&#x11f0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER VOCALIC LL|&#x11f0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER E|&#x11f0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER AI|&#x11f0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER O|&#x11f10;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER KA|&#x11f12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER KHA|&#x11f13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER GA|&#x11f14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER GHA|&#x11f15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER NGA|&#x11f16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER CA|&#x11f17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER CA|&#x11f18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER JA|&#x11f19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER JHA|&#x11f1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER NYA|&#x11f1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER TTA|&#x11f1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER TTHA|&#x11f1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER DDA|&#x11f1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER DDHA|&#x11f1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER NNA|&#x11f20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER TA|&#x11f21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER THA|&#x11f22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER DA|&#x11f23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER DHA|&#x11f24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER NA|&#x11f25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER PA|&#x11f26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER PHA|&#x11f27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER BA|&#x11f28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER BHA|&#x11f29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER MA|&#x11f2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER YA|&#x11f2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER RA|&#x11f2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER LA|&#x11f2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER WA|&#x11f2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER SHA|&#x11f2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER SSA|&#x11f30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER SA|&#x11f31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER HA|&#x11f32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI LETTER JNYA|&#x11f33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x11f34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN ALTERNATE AA|&#x11f35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x11f36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN II|&#x11f37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x11f38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x11f39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN VOCALIC R|&#x11f34;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x11f3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x11f3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI VOWEL SIGN EU|&#x11f40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI SIGN KILLER|&#x11f41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI CONJOINER|&#x11f42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DANDA|&#x11f43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x11f44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION SECTION MARKER|&#x11f45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION ALTERNATE SECTION MARKER|&#x11f46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION FLOWER|&#x11f47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION SPACE FILLER|&#x11f48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION DOT|&#x11f49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION DOUBLE DOT|&#x11f4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION TRIPLE DOT|&#x11f4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION CIRCLE|&#x11f4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION FILLED CIRCLE|&#x11f4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION SPIRAL|&#x11f4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI PUNCTUATION CLOSING SPIRAL|&#x11f4f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0c0" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT ZERO|&#x11f50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT ONE|&#x11f51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT TWO|&#x11f52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT THREE|&#x11f53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT FOUR|&#x11f54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT FIVE|&#x11f55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT SIX|&#x11f56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x11f57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x11f58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI DIGIT NINE|&#x11f59;}}||style="background:#edc3b4"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAWI SIGN NUKTA|&#x11f5a;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Pallava''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11F9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11FAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Lisu Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11FBx |style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LISU LETTER YHA|&#x11fb0;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tamil Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11FCx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE THREE-HUNDRED-AND-TWENTIETH|&#x11fc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE ONE-HUNDRED-AND-SIXTIETH|&#x11fc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE EIGHTIETH|&#x11fc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE SIXTY-FOURTH|&#x11fc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE FORTIETH|&#x11fc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE THIRTY-SECOND|&#x11fc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION THREE EIGHTIETHS|&#x11fc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION THREE SIXTY-FOURTHS|&#x11fc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE TWENTIETH|&#x11fc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE SIXTEENTH-1|&#x11fc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE SIXTEENTH-2|&#x11fca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE TENTH|&#x11fcb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE EIGHTH|&#x11fcc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION THREE TWENTIETHS|&#x11fcd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION THREE SIXTEENTHS|&#x11fce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE FIFTH|&#x11fcf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11FDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE QUARTER|&#x11fd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE HALF-1|&#x11fd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION ONE HALF-2|&#x11fd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION THREE QUARTERS|&#x11fd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL FRACTION DOWNSCALING FACTOR KIIZH|&#x11fd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN NEL|&#x11fd5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN CEVITU|&#x11fd6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN AAZHAAKKU|&#x11fd7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN UZHAKKU|&#x11fd8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN MUUVUZHAKKU|&#x11fd9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN KURUNI|&#x11fda;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN PATHAKKU|&#x11fdb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN MUKKURUNI|&#x11fdc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN KAACU|&#x11fdd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN PANAM|&#x11fde;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN PON|&#x11fdf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|11FEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN VARAAKAN|&#x11fe0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN PAARAM|&#x11fe1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN KUZHI|&#x11fe2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN VELI|&#x11fe3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL WET CULTIVATION SIGN|&#x11fe4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL DRY CULTIVATION SIGN|&#x11fe5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL LAND SIGN|&#x11fe6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SALT PAN SIGN|&#x11fe7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL TRADITIONAL CREDIT SIGN|&#x11fe8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL TRADITIONAL NUMBER SIGN|&#x11fe9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL CURRENT SIGN|&#x11fea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL AND ODD SIGN|&#x11feb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SPENT SIGN|&#x11fec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL TOTAL SIGN|&#x11fed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL IN POSSESSION SIGN|&#x11fee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL STARTING FROM SIGN|&#x11fef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|11FFx |style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN MUTHALIYA|&#x11ff0;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL SIGN VAKAIYARAA|&#x11ff1;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMIL PUNCTUATION END OF TEXT|&#x11fff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} s4w9go32mpp3k8ojcpsrjyaknuwi937 0 237399 4632187 4631928 2026-04-25T08:24:12Z Jeff1138 301139 4632187 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== [[#Graphical Image Editing Art]] [[#Office Application]] [[#Audio]] [[#Misc Application]] [[#Games & Emulation]] [[#Application Guides]] [[#top|...to the top]] [[#top|...to the top]] Most apps can be opened on the Workbench (aka publicscreen pubscreen) which is the default display option but can offer a custom one set to your configurations (aka custom screen mode promotion). These custom ones tend to stack so the possible use of A-M/A-N method of switching between full screens and the ability to pull down screens as well If you are interested in creating or porting new software, see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/Docs here] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Internet Applications !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Web Online Browser [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Odyssey 2.0] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/amifox/ amifox] with [https://github.com/alb42/wrp wrp server], IBrowse*, Voyager*, [ AWeb], [https://github.com/matjam/aweb AWeb Src], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/www/NetSurf-m68k-sources Netsurf], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ Odyssey OWB], [ Timberwolf (Firefox port 2011)], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?forum=32&topic_id=32847 OWB-mui], [http://strohmayer.org/owb/ OWB-Reaction], IBrowse*, [http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=network/browser/aweb.lha AWeb], Voyager, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Netsurf], |<!--MorphOS-->Wayfarer, [http://fabportnawak.free.fr/owb/ Odyssey OWB], [ Netsurf], IBrowse*, AWeb, [], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->YouTube Viewing and downloading videos |<!--AROS-->Odyssey 2.0 can show Youtube webpage, [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], |[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [https://github.com/YePpHa/YouTubeCenter/releases or this one], |[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], getVideo, Tubexx, [https://github.com/walkero-gr/aiostreams aiostreams], |[ Wayfarer], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube],Odyssey (OWB), [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 getVideo], Tubexx |- |<!--Sub Menu-->E-mailing SMTP POP3 IMAP based |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/email SimpleMail], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ src], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ SimpleMail], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--AmigaOS4-->SimpleMail, YAM, |<!--MorphOS--> SimpleMail, YAM |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IRC |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat WookieChat], [https://sourceforge.net/projects/wookiechat/ Wookiechat src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat AiRcOS], Jabberwocky, |<!--Amiga OS-->Wookiechat, AmIRC |<!--AmigaOS4-->Wookiechat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Wookiechat], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 AmIRC], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Instant Messaging IM like [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amidon Hollywood Mastodon client], BlueSky AT protocol, Facebook(TM), Twitter (TM) and others |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat jabberwocky], Bitlbee IRC Gateway |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], CLIMM, SabreMSN, jabberwocky, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], SabreMSN, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 PolyglotNG], SabreMSN, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Torrents |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/p2p ArTorr], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->CTorrent, Transmission |<!--MorphOS-->MLDonkey, Beehive, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Transmission], CTorrent, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->FTP |<!--AROS-->Plugin included with Dopus Magellan, MarranoFTP, |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP AmiFTP], AmiTradeCenter, ncFTP, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Pftp], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP-1.935-OS4 AmiFTP], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->WYSIWYG Web Site Editor |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Internet Radio Streaming Audio [http://www.gnu.org/software/gnump3d/ gnump3d], [http://www.icecast.org/ Icecast2] Server (Broadcast) and Client (Listen), [ mpd], [http://darkice.sourceforge.net/ DarkIce], [http://www.dyne.org/software/muse/ Muse], |<!--AROS-->Mplayer (Icecast Client only), |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinder TuneFinder C Src], [https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinderMUI TuneFinderMUI], [http://amigazeux.net/anr/ AmiNetRadio], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.tunenet.co.uk/ Tunenet], |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer, AmiNetRadio, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VoIP (Voice over IP) with SIP Client (Session Initiation Protocol) or Asterisk IAX2 Clients Softphone (skype like) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiPhone with Speak Freely, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Weather Forecast |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ WeatherBar], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench AWeather], [] |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/flipclock.lha FlipClock], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Street Road Maps Route Planning GPS Tracking |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/muimapparium/ MuiMapparium] [https://build.alb42.de/ Build of MuiMapp versions], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiAtlas*, UKRoutePlus*, [http://blog.alb42.de/ AmOSM], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://blog.alb42.de/programs/mapparium/ Mapparium], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Clock and Date setting from the internet (either ntp or websites) [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ World Clock], [http://www.time.gov/ NIST], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc ntpsync], |<!--Amiga OS-->ntpsync |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Newsgroups |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://newscoaster.sourceforge.net/ Newscoaster], [https://github.com/jens-maus/newsrog NewsRog], [ WorldNews], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IP-based video production workflows with High Dynamic Range (HDR), 10-bit color collaborative NDI, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Blogging like Lemmy or kbin |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR face recognition for Vtubers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting Live 2D models with Cubism type editor <pre> Model data (cmo3) Basic motions (can3) Background image (png) Set of files for embedding (runtime folder) • Model data (moc3) • Motion data (motion3.json) • Model settings file (model3.json) • Physics settings file (physics3.json) • Display auxiliary file (cdi3.json) </pre> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting chatters .VRML models - standardized 3D file format for VR avatars |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->V-tubers V-tubing like Vseeface with Openseeface tracker or Vpuppr (virtual puppet project) for 2d / 3d art models rigging rigged LIV |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Graphical Image Editing Art== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Image Editing !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Pixel Raster Artwork [https://github.com/LibreSprite/LibreSprite LibreSprite based on GPL aseprite], [https://github.com/abetusk/hsvhero hsvhero], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ZunePaint/ ZunePaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LunaPaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit GrafX2], [ LodePaint needs OpenGL], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amigaforever.com/classic/download.html PPaint], GrafX2, [https://github.com/grovdata/Amiga_Sources/blob/master/software.md DeluxePaint], [http://www.amiforce.de/perfectpaint/perfectpaint.php PerfectPaint], Zoetrope, Brilliance2*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LodePaint], GrafX2, |<!--MorphOS-->Sketch, Pixel*, GrafX2, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 LunaPaint] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Image viewing |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LookHere], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LoView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer PicShow] , [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--Amiga OS-->PicShow, PicView, Photoalbum, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, PicShow, flPhoto, Thumbs, [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Photography retouching / Image Manipulation like Photoshop(tm) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOEffects], [https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZunePaint], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Tecsoft Video Paint aka TVPaint], Photogenics*, ArtEffect*, ImageFX*, XiPaint, fxPaint, ImageMasterRT, Opalpaint, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, flPhoto, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit Photocrop] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], ImageFX*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Manage RAW picture folder galleries like Darktable, RAWtherapy, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Graphic Format Converter - ICC profile support sRGB, Adobe RGB, XYZ and linear RGB |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->GraphicsConverter, ImageStudio, [http://www.coplabs.org/artpro.html ArtPro] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Thumbnail Generator [], |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/shell Thumbnail Generator] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Icon Editor |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit Archives], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench Icon Toolbox], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit IconEditor] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Pixel Art Animation |<!--AROS-->Lunapaint |<!--Amiga OS-->PPaint, AnimatED, Scala*, GoldDisk MovieSetter*, Walt Disney's Animation Studio*, ProDAD*, [https://github.com/historicalsource/DeluxePaint DeluxePaint src], Brilliance |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 Titler] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D SVG based MovieSetter type |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->MovieSetter*, Fantavision* |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Morphing |<!--AROS-->[ GLMorph] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Cad (qcad->LibreCAD, etc.) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Xcad, MaxonCAD |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Cad like FreeCad, BRL-CAD, OpenSCAD, AvoCADo, etc. using dxf, obj (vertices), blend, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->XCad3d*, DynaCADD*, Cycas, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Model Rendering of glft (json) gbl (png jpg), usdz (USD files with materials, textures, and animations), FBX Filmbox is a proprietary Autodesk format, |<!--AROS-->POV-Ray |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.discreetfx.com./amigaproducts.html CINEMA 4D]*, POV-Ray, Lightwave3D*, Real3D*, Caligari24*, Reflections/Monzoom*, [https://github.com/privatosan/RayStorm Raystorm src], Tornado 3D |<!--AmigaOS4-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Format Converter [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ivcon.lha IVCon] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen grabbing display |<!--AROS-->[ Screengrabber], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc snapit], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record screen recorder], [] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Grab graphics music from apps [https://github.com/Malvineous/ripper6 ripper6], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Office Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Office !width:10%;|AROS (x86) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_software Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1] (68k) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS_4 Hyperion OS4] (PPC) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS MorphOS] (PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Word-processing |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/wordprocessing Cinnamon Writer], [https://finalwriter.godaddysites.com/ Final Writer 7*], [https://github.com/sodero/MUI-Vim/releases MUI-Vim], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS-->[ Softwood FinalCopy II*], Haage AmigaWriter*, Digita WordWorth*, Softwood FinalWriter*, Micro-Systems Excellence 3*, Arnor Protext, Rashumon, [ InterWord], [ KindWords], [WordPerfect], [ New Horizons Flow], [ CygnusEd Pro], [ Micro-systems Scribble], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AbiWord, [ CinnamonWriter] |<!--MorphOS-->[ Cinnamon Writer], [http://www.meta-morphos.org/viewtopic.php?topic=1246&forum=53 scriba], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/index.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Spreadsheets |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/leu/ Leu], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/spreadsheet], |<!--AmigaOS-->[https://aminet.net/package/biz/spread/ignition-src Ignition Src 1.3], [MaxiPlan 500 Plus], [OXXI Plan/IT v2.0 Speadsheet], [ Superplan], [ Creative Developments TurboCalc], [ ProCalc], [ InterSpread], [Digita DGCalc], [ Gold Disk Advantage], [ Micro-systems Analyze!] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Gnumeric, [https://ignition-amiga.sourceforge.net/ Ignition], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ignition], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Presentations |<!--AROS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, MediaPoint, PointRider, Scala*, |<!--Amiga OS4-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Databases |<!--AROS-->[http://sdb.freeforums.org/ SDB], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/database BeeBase], |<!--Amiga OS-->Precision Superbase 4 Pro*, Arnor Prodata*, BeeBase, Datastore, FinalData*, AmigaBase, Fiasco, Twist2*, [Digita DGBase], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->BeeBase, SQLite, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=6 BeeBase], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PDF Viewing and editing digital signatures |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/arospdf/ ArosPDF via splash], [https://github.com/wattoc/AROS-vpdf vpdf wip], |<!--Amiga OS-->APDF |<!--AmigaOS4-->AmiPDF |<!--MorphOS-->APDF, vPDF, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Printing |<!--AROS-->Postscript 3 laser printers and Ghostscript internal, [ GutenPrint], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_what.htm TurboPrint]* |<!--AmigaOS4-->(some native drivers), |<!--MorphOS-->early TurboPrint included, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Note Taking Rich Text support like joplin, OneNote, EverNote Notes, xournalpp, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PIM Personal Information Manager - Day Diary Planner Calendar App |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->Digita Organiser*, On The Ball, Everyday Organiser, [ Contact Manager], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AOrganiser, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://polymere.free.fr/orga_en.html PolyOrga], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Accounting |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/misc ETB], LoanCalc, [ ], [ ], [ ], |[ Digita Home Accounts2], Accountant, Small Business Accounts, Account Master, [ Amigabok], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Project Management |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SuperGantt, SuperPlan, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Dictionary - multilingual [http://sourceforge.net/projects/babiloo/ Babiloo], [http://code.google.com/p/stardict-3/ StarDict], |<!--AROS-->[ ], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System wide Thesaurus - multi lingual |<!--AROS-->[ ], |Kuma K-Roget*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sticky Desktop Notes (post it type) |<!--AROS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.i386-aros AmiMemos], [https://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.src-aros AmiMemos Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/StickIt-2.00 StickIt v2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DTP Desktop Publishing |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOPublisher], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]*, Professional Pro Page*, Saxon Publisher, Pagesetter, PenPal, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |<!--MorphOS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Scanning |<!--AROS-->[ SCANdal], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->FxScan*, ScanQuix* |<!--AmigaOS4-->SCANdal (Sane) |<!--MorphOS-->SCANdal |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OCR |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert gOCR] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos-files.net/categories/office/text Tesseract] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text Editing |<!--AROS-->Jano Editor (already installed as Editor), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit EdiSyn], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Vim], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd] [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd src], [ NoWinEd], |<!--Amiga OS-->Annotate, MicroGoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Turbotext, Protext*, NoWinED, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Notepad, Annotate, CygnusED*, NoWinED, |<!--MorphOS-->MorphOS ED, NoWinED, GoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Annotate, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Fonts [http://sourceforge.net/projects/fontforge/files/fontforge-source/ Font Designer] |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->TypeSmith*, SaxonScript (GetFont Adobe Type 1), |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Drawing Vector |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/amifig/ ZuneFIG previously AmiFIG] |<!--Amiga OS-->Drawstudio*, ProVector*, ArtExpression*, Professional Draw*, AmiFIG, MetaView, [https://gitlab.com/amigasourcecodepreservation/designworks Design Works Src], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MindSpace, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit amifig], |<!--MorphOS-->SteamDraw, [http://aminet.net/package/gfx/edit/amifig amiFIG], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->video conferencing (jitsi) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->source code hosting |<!--AROS-->Gitlab, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (server) |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Server ArosVNCServer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/avnc/index.html AVNC] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC] |MorphVNC, vncserver |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (client) |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Client/ ArosVNC], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc rdesktop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/vva/index.html VVA], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->notifications |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Ranchero |<!--AmigaOS4-->Ringhio |<!--MorphOS-->MagicBeacon |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Audio== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Audio !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing playback Audio like MP3, [https://github.com/chrg127/gmplayer NSF], [https://github.com/kode54/lazyusf miniusf .usflib], [], etc |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ HarmonyPlayer hp], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/audio/index.xhtml playcdda] CDs, [ WildMidi Player], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ UADE mod player], [], [RNOTunes ], [ mp3Player], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNetRadio, AmigaAmp, playOGG, |<!--AmigaOS4-->TuneNet, SimplePlay, AmigaAmp, TKPlayer |AmiNetRadio, Mplayer, Kaya, AmigaAmp |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Audio |<!--AROS-->[ Audio Evolution 4] |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Samplitude Opus Key], [https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec Src], [http://www.sonicpulse.de/eng/news.html SoundFX], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec], AmiSoundED, [http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/audioevolution4.lha Audio Evolution 4] |[http://www.hd-rec.de/HD-Rec/index.php?site=home HD-Rec], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Tracker Music |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/hitchhikr/protrekkr Protrekkr], [ Schism Tracker], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/tracker MilkyTracker], [http://www.hivelytracker.com/ HivelyTracker], [ Radium in AROS already], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/development/index.xhtml libMikMod], |<!--Amiga OS-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, DigiBooster, Octamed SoundStudio, |<!--AmigaOS4-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, GoatTracker |MilkyTracker, GoatTracker, DigiBooster, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Music [], [https://github.com/kmatheussen/camd CAMD] and/or staves and notes manuscript |<!--AROS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars and Pipes for AROS], [ Audio Evolution], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars'n'Pipes], MusicX* David "Talin" Joiner & Craig Weeks (for Notator-X), Deluxe Music Construction 2*, [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny c Src], HD-Rec, [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/dominatorV1_51 Dominator], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Rockbeat, [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/download.html Bars'n'Pipes], [http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/edit Horny], Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->Bars'n'Pipes, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sound Sampling |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/record Audio Evolution 4], [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&did=162 Quick Record], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc SOX to get AIFF 16bit files], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/tree/master/workbench/tools/AHIRecord AHIRecord], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/AudioEvolution3_src Audio Evolution 3 c src], [ Samplitude-MS Opus Key], Audiomaster IV*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/timoinutilis/phonolith-amigaos phonolith c src], HD-Rec, Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Audio Evolution 4, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Live Looping or Audio Misc - Groovebox like |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD burn |[https://code.google.com/p/amiga-fryingpan/ FryingPan], |<!--Amiga OS-->FryingPan, [http://www.estamos.de/makecd/#CurrentVersion MakeCD], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FryingPan, AmiDVD, |[http://www.amiga.org/forums/printthread.php?t=58736 FryingPan], Jalopeano, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD audio rip |Lame, [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&cfid=0&did=167 Quick CDrip], |<!--Amiga OS-->Lame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Lame, |Lame, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->MP3 v1 and v2 Tagger |<!--AROS-->id3ren (v1), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/edit mp3info], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> | |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Convert |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc Sox], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBox SoundBox], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBoxKey SoundBox Key], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/SampleE SampleE], sox |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DJ mixing jamming |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Radio Automation Software [http://www.rivendellaudio.org/ Rivendell], [http://code.campware.org/projects/livesupport/report/3 Campware LiveSupport], [http://www.sourcefabric.org/en/airtime/ SourceFabric AirTime], [http://www.ohloh.net/p/mediabox404 MediaBox404], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speakers Audio Sonos Mains AC networked wired controlled *2005 ZP100 with ZP80 *2008 Zoneplayer ZP120 (multi-room wireless amp) ZP90 receiver only with CR100 controller, *2009 ZonePlayer S5, *2010 BR100 wireless Bridge (no support), *2011 Play:3 *2013 Bridge (no support), Play:1, *2016 Arc, Play:1, *Beam (Gen 2), Playbar, Ray, Era 100, Era 300, Roam, Move 2, *Sub (Gen 3), Sub Mini, Five, Amp S2 |<!--AROS-->SonosController |<!--Amiga OS-->SonosController |<!--AmigaOS4-->SonosController |<!--MorphOS-->SonosController |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Smart Speakers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Video Creativity and Production== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Video !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing Video |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer VAMP], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml CDXL player], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml IffAnimPlay], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frogger*, AMP2, MPlayer, RiVA*, MooViD*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->DvPlayer, MPlayer |<!--MorphOS-->MPlayer, Frogger, AMP2, VLC |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Streaming Video and game streaming like OBS studio, Parsec, etc |<!--AROS-->Mplayer, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->Mplayer, Gnash, Tubexx |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer, OWB, Tubexx |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing DVD |<!--AROS-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, Mplayer |<!--Amiga OS-->AMP2, Frogger |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, DvPlayer*, AMP2, |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Recording |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record Screenrecorder], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Screenrecorder, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Create and Edit Individual Video NLE |<!--AROS-->[ Mencoder], [ Quick Videos], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit AVIbuild], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc FrameBuild], FFMPEG, |<!--Amiga OS-->[ MainConcept Mainactor Broadcast*], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Toaster Video Toaster*], MacroSystem MovieShop 4.3*, proDAD Adorage*, [ IOSpirit VHI studio]*, [Gold Disk ShowMaker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FFMpeg/GUI |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, Mencoder, FFmpeg |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Subtitle editor |<!--AROS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0 Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Misc Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Management |<!--AROS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/midwan/dopus5allamigas DOpus Magellan aka DOpus 5], [ Scalos], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->DOpus, [http://sourceforge.net/projects/dopus5allamigas/files/?source=navbar DOpus Magellan], ClassAction, FileMaster, [http://kazong.privat.t-online.de/archive.html DM2], [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=4897 DirWork 2]*, [https://github.com/RudolphRiedel/DiskMaster2 DiskMaster2 src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->DOpus, Filer, AmiDisk |<!--MorphOS-->DOpus |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Verification / Repair |<!--AROS-->md5 (works in linux compiling shell), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool workpar2] (PAR2), [http://zakalwe.fi/~shd/foss/cksfv/files/ compile cksfv from website], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Par2, |- |App Installer |<!--AROS-->[], [ InstallerNG], |<!--Amiga OS-->InstallerNG, Grunch, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Jack |<!--MorphOS-->Jack |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Compression archiver [https://github.com/FS-make-simple/paq9a paq9a], [], |<!--AROS-->XAD system is a toolkit designed for handling various file and disk archiver |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ IDE |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd], [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd FrexxEd src], Annotate, Murks, |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, Annotate, |<!--AmigaOS4-->CodeBench , [https://gitlab.com/boemann/codecraft CodeCraft], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, Anontate, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Gui Creators |<!--AROS-->[ MuiBuilder], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ MuiBuilder], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Catalog .cd .ct Editors |<!--AROS-->FlexCat |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://aminet.net/package/dev/misc/simplecat SimpleCat], FlexCat |[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Binary Hexadecimal Editor |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Zaphod], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Repository |<!--AROS-->[ Git] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->Git |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Backup |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Repair |<!--AROS-->ArSFSDoctor, |<!--Amiga OS--> Quarterback Tools, [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Multiple File renaming |<!--AROS-->DOpus 4 or 5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Anti Virus |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->VChecker, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Random Wallpaper Desktop changer |<!--AROS-->[ DOpus5], [ Scalos], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Alarm Clock, Timer, Stopwatch, Countdown |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench DClock], [http://aminet.net/util/time/AlarmClockAROS.lha AlarmClock], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Digital Signage |<!--AROS-->Hollywood, Hollywood Designer |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fortune Cookie Quotes Sayings |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc AFortune], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Languages |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Fun School, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Mathematics ([http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~parisse/install_en.html Xcas], etc.), |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/scientific mathX] |<!--Amiga OS-->Maple V, mathX, Fun School, GCSE Maths, [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4-->Yacas |<!--MorphOS-->Yacas |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Misc Application 2== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BASIC |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/language Basic4SDL], [ Ace Basic], [ X-AMOS], [SDLBasic], [ Alvyn], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amiforce.de/main.php Amiblitz 3], [http://amos.condor.serverpro3.com/AmosProManual/contents/c1.html Amos Pro], [http://aminet.net/package/dev/basic/ace24dist ACE Basic], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->sdlBasic |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OSK On Screen Keyboard |<!--AROS-->[], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/util/wb/OSK.lha OSK] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Magnifier Magnifying Glass Magnification |<!--AROS-->[http://www.onyxsoft.se/files/zoomit.lha ZoomIT], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Comic Book CBR CBZ format reader viewer |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comics], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comicon], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Reader |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#legadon Legadon EPUB],[] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Converter |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text to Speech tts [https://github.com/JonathanFly/bark-installer Bark], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc flite], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.text2speech.com translator], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=search&tool=simple FLite] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://se.aminet.net/pub/aminet/mus/misc/ FLite] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Recognition Dictation - [http://sourceforge.net/projects/cmusphinx/files/ CMU Sphinx], [http://julius.sourceforge.jp/en_index.php?q=en/index.html Julius], [http://www.isip.piconepress.com/projects/speech/index.html ISIP], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Changer [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fractals |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->ZoneXplorer, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Landscape Rendering |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/raytrace WCS World Construction Set], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Vista Pro], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Construction_Set World Construction Set] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |<!--MorphOS-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astronomy |<!--AROS-->[ Digital Almanac (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/search?query=planetarium Aminet search], [http://aminet.net/misc/sci/DA3V56ISO.zip Digital Almanac], [https://aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3sourceV58 Src c V58], [ Galileo renamed to Distant Suns]*, [http://www.syz.com/DU/ Digital Universe]*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/digital-almanac/ Digital Almanac], Distant Suns*, [http://www.digitaluniverse.org.uk/ Digital Universe]*, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.aminet.net/misc/sci/da3.lha Digital Almanac], [http://www.aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3-mos-src Src c V56], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PCB design |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Genealogy History Family Tree Ancestry Records (FreeBMD, FreeREG, and FreeCEN file formats or GEDCOM GenTree) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> [ Origins], [ Your Family Tree], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Display Blanker screensaver |<!--AROS-->Blanker Commodity (built in), [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/screenblanker GarshneBlanker], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gblanker/ GBlanker Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->MultiCX, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->ModernArt Blanker, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Maths Graph Function Plotting |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#MUIPlot MUIPlot], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->App Utility Launcher Dock toolbar |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/docky BoingBar], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/adkennan/DockBot Dockbot], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Classroom Aids |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Assessments |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Reference |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Training |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Courseware |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Skills Builder |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System |<!--AROS-->[ SysExplorer], [ SysMon], [ Scout], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Games & Emulation== Some emulators/games require OpenGL to function and to adjust ahi prefs channels, frequency and unit0 and unit1 and [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/users/shell/changetaskpri.php changetaskpri -1] Rom patching https://www.marcrobledo.com/RomPatcher.js/ https://www.romhacking.net/patch/ (ips, ups, bps, etc) and this other site supports the latter formats https://hack64.net/tools/patcher.php Free public domain roms for use with emulators can be found [http://www.pdroms.de/ here] as most of the rest are covered by copyright rules. If you like to read about old games see [http://retrogamingtimes.com/ here] and [http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/ here] and a [http://www.vintagecomputing.com/ blog] about old computers. Possibly some of the [http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-best-selling-computer-and-video-games best selling] of all time. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators Wiki] with emulated systems list. [https://archive.gamehistory.org/ Archive of VGHF], [https://library.gamehistory.org/ Video Game History Foundation Library search] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Emulation] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Amstrad CPC |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [ Caprice32 (OpenGL & pure SDL)], [ Arnold], [https://retroshowcase.gr/cpcbox-master/], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Apple2 and 2GS |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Arcade |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Mame], [ SI Emu (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->Mame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem xmame], amiarcadia, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 Mame], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 2600 [], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Stella], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 5200 [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A5200DS A5200DS], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 7800 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 400 800 130XL [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A8DS A8DS], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Atari800], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Lynx |<!--AROS-->[http://myfreefilehosting.com/f/6366e11bdf_1.93MB Handy (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Jaguar |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Bandai Wonderswan |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation BBC Micro and Acorn Electron [http://beehttps://bem-unix.bbcmicro.com/download.html BeebEm], [http://b-em.bbcmicro.com/ B-Em], [http://elkulator.acornelectron.co.uk/ Elkulator], [http://electrem.emuunlim.com/ ElectrEm], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Dragon 32 and Tandy CoCo [http://www.6809.org.uk/xroar/ xroar], [], |<!--AROS-->[], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C16 Plus4 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C64 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Vice (ABIv0 only)], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frodo, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem viceplus], |<!--MorphOS-->Vice, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore Amiga |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Janus UAE], Emumiga, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer UAE], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 UAE], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Japanese MSX MSX2 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Intelivision |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Colecovision and Adam |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Milton Bradley (MB) Vectrex [ Vectrex OpenGL], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation PICO8 Pico-8 fantasy video game console [https://github.com/egordorichev/pemsa-sdl/ pemsa-sdl], [https://github.com/jtothebell/fake-08 fake-08], [https://github.com/Epicpkmn11/fake-08/tree/wip fake-08 fork], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo Gameboy |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba no sound], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo NES |<!--AROS-->[ EmiNES], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Fceu], [https://github.com/takahirox/nes-js?tab=readme-ov-file nes-js], [https://github.com/bfirsh/jsnes jsnes], [https://github.com/angelo-wf/NesJs NesJs], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNES, [http://www.dridus.com/~nyef/darcnes/ darcNES], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem amines] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo SNES |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Zsnes], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem warpsnes] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://fabportnawak.free.fr/snes/ Snes9x], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo N64 *HLE and plugins [ mupen64], [https://github.com/ares-emulator/ares ares], [https://github.com/N64Recomp/N64Recomp N64Recomp], [https://github.com/rt64/rt64 rt64], [https://github.com/simple64/simple64 Simple64], *LLE [], |<!--AROS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/tr-981125_src TR64], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Gamecube Wii] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Wii U] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/yuzu-emu Nintendo Switch] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation NEC PC Engine |<!--AROS-->[], [], [https://github.com/yhzmr442/jspce js-pce], |[http://www.hugo.fr.fm/ Hugo], [http://mednafen.sourceforge.net/ Mednafen], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem tgemu] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Master System (SMS) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Dega], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem sms], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem osmose] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Genesis/Megadrive |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gp no sound], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem DGen], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/genplus-gx/ Genplus], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem genesisplus] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Saturn *HLE [https://mednafen.github.io/ mednafen], [http://yabause.org/ yabause], [], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://yabause.org/ Yabause], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Dreamcast *HLE [https://github.com/flyinghead/flycast flycast], [https://code.google.com/archive/p/nulldc/downloads NullDC], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair ZX80 and ZX81 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair Spectrum |[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Fuse (crackly sound)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer SimCoupe], [ FBZX slow], [https://jsspeccy.zxdemo.org/ jsspeccy], [http://torinak.com/qaop/games qaop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.lasernet.plus.com/ Asp], [http://www.zophar.net/sinclair.html Speculator], [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/x128/index.html X128], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair QL |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/QDOS4amiga1 QDOS4amiga] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation SNK NeoGeo Pocket |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gngeo], NeoPop, |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sony PlayStation |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS2] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS3] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://vita3k.org/ Sony Vita] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/shadps4-emu/shadPS4 PS4] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerine_Computer_Systems Tangerine] Oric and Atmos |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Oricutron] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Oricutron] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/oricutron Oricutron] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 99/4 99/4A [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/DS994a DS994a], [], [https://js99er.net/#/ js99er], [], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga TI4Amiga], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga_src TI4Amiga src in c], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation HP 38G 40GS 48 49G/50G Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 58 83 84 85 86 - 89 92 Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/ General] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Games [https://www.trackawesomelist.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games/ Open Source and others] || AROS || Amiga OS || Amiga OS4 || Morphos |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Action like [https://github.com/BSzili/OpenLara/tree/amiga/src source of openlara SDL2], [https://github.com/opentomb/OpenTomb opentomb], [https://github.com/LostArtefacts/TRX TRX formerly Tomb1Main], [https://github.com/TombEngine TombEngine], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Thrust], [https://github.com/fragglet/sdl-sopwith sdl sopwith], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action BOH], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Adventure like [http://dotg.sourceforge.net/ DMJ], [https://github.com/kromenak/gengine Gabriel Knight 3], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/adventure], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=browse&cat=emulation/misc ScummVM], [http://www.toolness.com/wp/category/interactive-fiction/ Infocom], [http://www.accardi-by-the-sea.org/ Zork Online]. [http://www.sarien.net/ Sierra Sarien], [http://www.ucw.cz/draci-historie/index-en.html Dragon History for ScummVM], [] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Board like [https://github.com/aperture-software/colditz-escape escape from colditz], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/board], [http://amigan.1emu.net/releases Africa] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Cards like |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/card ], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->[http://home.arcor.de/amigasolitaire/e/welcome.html Reko], [https://github.com/samskivert/beschei-en beschei Src], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Misc [https://github.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games Awesome open], [https://github.com/bobeff/open-source-games General Open Source], [https://github.com/SAT-R/sa2 Sonic Advance 2], [https://github.com/velorek1/cwordle Wordle type], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games FPS like [https://aminet.net/package/game/shoot/D1X_Rebirth_AGA Descent D1X src], [https://github.com/DescentDevelopers/Descent3 Descent 3], [https://github.com/Fewnity/Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS], [https://github.com/Aleph-One-Marathon/alephone Bungie Marathon 1994], [], |<!--AROS-->Doom, Quake, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Quake 3 Arena (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Assault Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube 2 Sauerbraten (OpenGL)], [http://fodquake.net/test/ FodQuake QuakeWorld], [ Duke Nukem 3D], [ Darkplaces Nexuiz Xonotic], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Doom 3 SDL (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Hexenworld and Hexen 2], [ Aliens vs Predator Gold 2000 (openGL)], [ Odamex (openGL doom)], |<!--Amiga OS-->Doom, Quake, AB3D, Fears, Breathless, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Doom, Quake, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12 Doom], Quake, Quake 3 Arena, [https://github.com/OpenXRay/xray-16 S.T.A.L.K.E.R Xray] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games MMORG like |<!--AROS-->[ Eternal Lands (OpenGL)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Platform like |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform], [ Maze of Galious], [ Gish]*(openGL), [ Mega Mario], [http://www.gianas-return.de/ Giana's Return], [http://www.sqrxz.de/ Sqrxz], [.html Aquaria]*(openGL), [http://www.sqrxz2.de/ Sqrxz 2], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-3/ Sqrxz 3], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-4/ Sqrxz 4], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform Cave Story], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Puzzle [https://github.com/mariopartyrd/marioparty4/tree/port Party], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle], [ Cubosphere (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle Candy Crisis], [http://bszili.morphos.me/ TailTale], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Racing [ Trigger Rally], [ VDrift], [http://www.ultimatestunts.nl/index.php?page=2&lang=en Ultimate Stunts], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/ Mania Drive], [https://github.com/plowteam/donut Simpsons Hit and Run], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Super Tux Kart (OpenGL)], [http://www.dusabledanslherbe.eu/AROSPage/F1Spirit.30.html F1 Spirit (OpenGL)], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html MultiRacer], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html Speed Dreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html TORCS], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 1st first person DRPG [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/OpenEnroth/OpenEnroth OpenEnroth MM], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/aros-stuff Arx Libertatis], [http://www.playfuljs.com/a-first-person-engine-in-265-lines/ js raycaster], [https://github.com/Dorthu/es6-crpg webgl], [https://github.com/sonountaleban/AmiShockolate System Shock], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->Phantasie, Faery Tale, Dungeon Master, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 3rd third person action CRPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/alexbatalov/fallout1-ce fallout ce], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games isometric RPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/topics/dungeon?l=javascript Dungeon], [], [https://github.com/clintbellanger/heroine-dusk JS Dusk], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying nethack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying GemRB], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games card based RPG [https://github.com/open-duelyst/duelyst Duelyst], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Rhythm, Beat, Step [], [], [https://clonehero.net/ clonehero], [https://github.com/MatteoGodzilla/Dj-Engine Dj-Engine], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc Frets on Fire], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Shoot Em Ups [http://www.mhgames.org/oldies/formido/ Formido], [http://code.google.com/p/violetland/ Violetland], ||<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Open Tyrian], [http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ Alien Blaster], [https://github.com/OpenFodder/openfodder OpenFodder], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Simulations [http://scp.indiegames.us/ Freespace 2], [http://www.heptargon.de/gl-117/gl-117.html GL117], [http://code.google.com/p/corsix-th/ Theme Hospital], [http://code.google.com/p/freerct/ Rollercoaster Tycoon], [http://hedgewars.org/ Hedgewars], [https://github.com/raceintospace/raceintospace raceintospace], [https://github.com/Return-To-The-Roots RTTR Settlers 2], [https://github.com/OoliteProject/oolite oolite elite], [https://github.com/fesh0r/newkind newkind elite], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SimCity, SimAnt, Sim Hospital, Theme Park, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Life Sim [https://github.com/ACreTeam/forest Animal Crossing], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Strategy [http://rtsgus.org/ RTSgus], [http://wargus.sourceforge.net/ Wargus], [http://stargus.sourceforge.net/ Stargus], [https://github.com/KD-lab-Open-Source/Perimeter Perimeter], [https://matty77.itch.io/conflict-3049 conflict-3049], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy MegaGlest (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy UFO:AI (OpenGL)], [http://play.freeciv.org/ FreeCiv], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Horror [https://github.com/Mikompilation/MikuPan Fatal Frame], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Sandbox Voxel Open World Exploration [https://github.com/UnknownShadow200/ClassiCube Classicube],[http://www.michaelfogleman.com/craft/ Craft], [https://github.com/tothpaul/DelphiCraft DelphiCraft],[https://www.minetest.net/ Luanti formerly Minetest], [ infiniminer], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Battle Royale [https://bruh.io/ Play.Bruh.io], [https://www.coolmathgames.com/0-copter Copter Royale], [https://surviv.io/ Surviv.io], [https://nuggetroyale.io/#Ketchup Nugget Royale], [https://miniroyale2.io/ Miniroyale2.io], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Tower Defense [https://chriscourses.github.io/tower-defense/ HTML5], [https://github.com/SBardak/Tower-Defense-Game TD C++], [https://github.com/bdoms/love_defense LUA and LOVE], [https://github.com/HyOsori/Osori-WebGame HTML5], [https://github.com/PascalCorpsman/ConfigTD ConfigTD Pascal], [https://github.com/GloriousEggroll/wine-ge-custom Wine], [] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Visual Novel Engines [https://github.com/Kirilllive/tuesday-js Tuesday JS], [ Lua + LOVE], [https://github.com/weetabix-su/renpsp-dev RenPSP], [https://github.com/Galladite27/ONScripter-EN ONScripter-EN], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Reality VR [https://gitlab.com/madsbuvi/openmw openmw vr], [https://github.com/Team-Beef-Studios/BeefRaiderXR BeefRaiderXR], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Table Top VTT [ Roll20], [https://www.owlbear.rodeo/ owlbear rodeo], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Computer assisted TableTop TTRPG OSR [https://www.rpgsolo.com/play.php RPGSolo], [https://github.com/fpsvogel/solo-ttrpgs Solo TTRPG], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 2D 3D Engines [ Godot], [ Ogre], [ Crystal Space], [https://github.com/GarageGames/Torque3D Torque3D], [https://github.com/gameplay3d/GamePlay GamePlay 3D], [https://www.babylonjs.com/ BabylonJS ], [ ], [ Unity], [ Unreal Engine], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games C based game frameworks [https://github.com/orangeduck/Corange Corange], [https://github.com/scottcgi/Mojoc Mojoc], [https://orx-project.org/ Orx], [https://github.com/ioquake/ioq3 Quake 3], [https://www.mapeditor.org/ Tiled], [https://www.raylib.com/ 2d Raylib], [https://github.com/Rabios/awesome-raylib other raylib], [https://github.com/MrFrenik/gunslinger Gunslinger], [https://o3de.org/ o3d], [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library GLFW], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library Raylib 5], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Pinball [https://github.com/vpinball/vpinball vpinball], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} ==Application Guides== [[#top|...to the top]] ===Web Browser=== OWB is now at version 2.0 (which got an engine refresh, from July 2015 to February 2019) and 3.0. This latest version has a good support for many/most web sites, even YouTube web page now works. This improved compatibility comes at the expense of higher RAM usage (now 1GB RAM is the absolute minimum). Also, keep in mind that the lack of a JIT (Just-In-Time) JS compiler on the 32 bit version, makes the web surfing a bit slow. Only the 64 bit version of OWB 2.0 will have JIT enabled, thus benefitting of more speed. There are tooltypes that can be added to the icon to provide further features JIT, MSE etc Please make sure you have [https://easylist.to/easylist/easylist.txt easylist.txt] in PROGDIR:Conf before starting browser with enabled AdBlock. and possibly [https://curl.se/docs/caextract.html ca certs] OWB speed is much better when running from RAM Disk, the best way is to add the below into your S:User-Startup which copies OWB drawer from Extras:Internet/OWB to RAM Disk: So add this : <pre> copy Extras:Internet/OWB Ram:OWB/ ALL CLONE >NIL: copy Extras:Internet/OWB.info Ram: >NIL: </pre> Open RAM Disk and open OWB drawer and double click on OWB icon so that the above icon tooltypes are activated Problems are that the copy time is long (around 20 seconds added in the background), but we can make it faster if we delete useless files from the OWB drawer (docs, …) If you don’t copy the drawer back onto the HD, you won’t save your cache, cookies, passwords… So you need a script for it. Error messages SSL error "cant verify with ca-certificates", check bios clock time date is correct Error 6, try checking networking prefs settings and Save / Use preferences again or a '''few times''' otherwise the network chipset may not be compatible with Aros [https://www.google.com/search?q=%s&udm=14 Google search without AI overview] ===E-mail=== YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections ====SimpleMail==== SimpleMail supports IMAP and appears to work with GMail, but it's never been reliable enough, it can crash with large mailboxes. Please read more on this [http://www.freelists.org/list/simplemail-usr User list] GMail Be sure to activate the pop3 usage in your gmail account setup / configuration first. pop3: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 smtp: smtp.gmail.com (with authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use SSL: Yes Port: 465 or 587 Hotmail/MSN/outlook/Microsoft Mail mid-2017, all outlook.com accounts will be migrated to Office 365 / Exchange Most users are currently on POP which does not allow showing folders and many other features (technical limitations of POP3). With Microsoft IMAP you will get folders, sync read/unread, and show flags. You still won't get push though, as Microsoft has not turned on the IMAP Idle command as at Sept 2013. If you want to try it, you need to first remove (you can't edit) your pop account (long-press the account on the accounts screen, delete account). Then set it up this way: 1. Email/Password 2. Manual 3. IMAP 4. * Incoming: imap-mail.outlook.com, port 993, SSL/TLS should be checked * Outgoing: smtp-mail.outlook.com, port 587, SSL/TLS should be checked * POP server name pop-mail.outlook.com, port 995, POP encryption method SSL Yahoo Mail On April 24, 2002 Yahoo ceased to offer POP access to its free mail service. Introducing instead a yearly payment feature, allowing users POP3 and IMAP server support, along with such benefits as larger file attachment sizes and no adverts. Sorry to see Yahoo leaving its users to cough up for the privilege of accessing their mail. Understandable, when competing against rivals such as Gmail and Hotmail who hold a large majority of users and were hacked in 2014 as well. Incoming Mail (IMAP) Server * Server - imap.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 993 * Requires SSL - Yes Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server * Server - smtp.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 465 or 587 * Requires SSL - Yes * Requires authentication - Yes Your login info * Email address - Your full email address (name@domain.com) * Password - Your account's password * Requires authentication - Yes Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a subscription subs fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 * Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. * “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. * “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com * “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. * Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. ====YAM Yet Another Mailer==== YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers have now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections This email client is POP3 only if the SSL library is available [http://www.freelists.org/list/yam YAM Freelists] One of the downsides of using a POP3 mailer unfortunately - you have to set an option not to delete the mail if you want it left on the server. IMAP keeps all the emails on the server. Possible issues Sending mail issues is probably a matter of using your ISP's SMTP server, though it could also be an SSL issue. getting a "Couldn't initialise TLSv1 / SSL error Use of on-line e-mail accounts with this email client is not possible as it lacks the OpenSSL AmiSSl v3 compatible library GMail Incoming Mail (POP3) Server - requires SSL: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server - requires TLS: smtp.gmail.com (use authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use STARTTLS: Yes (some clients call this SSL) Port: 465 or 587 Account Name: your Gmail username (including '@gmail.com') Email Address: your full Gmail email address (username@gmail.com) Password: your Gmail password Anyway, the SMTP is pop.gmail.com port 465 and it uses SSLLv3 Authentication. The POP3 settings are for the same server (pop.gmail.com), only on port 995 instead. Outlook.com access <pre > Outlook.com SMTP server address: smtp.live.com Outlook.com SMTP user name: Your full Outlook.com email address (not an alias) Outlook.com SMTP password: Your Outlook.com password Outlook.com SMTP port: 587 Outlook.com SMTP TLS/SSL encryption required: yes </pre > Yahoo Mail <pre > “POP3 Server” – Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. “SMTP Server” – Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. </pre > Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a monthly fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 Microsoft Outlook Express Mail 1. Get the files to your PC. By whatever method get the files off your Amiga onto your PC. In the YAM folder you have a number of different folders, one for each of your folders in YAM. Inside that is a file usually some numbers such as 332423.283. YAM created a new file for every single email you received. 2. Open up a brand new Outlook Express. Just configure the account to use 127.0.0.1 as mail servers. It doesn't really matter. You will need to manually create any subfolders you used in YAM. 3. You will need to do a mass rename on all your email files from YAM. Just add a .eml to the end of it. Amazing how PCs still rely mostly on the file name so it knows what sort of file it is rather than just looking at it! There are a number of multiple renamers online to download and free too. 4. Go into each of your folders, inbox, sent items etc. And do a select all then drag the files into Outlook Express (to the relevant folder obviously) Amazingly the file format that YAM used is very compatible with .eml standard and viola your emails appear. With correct dates and working attachments. 5. If you want your email into Microsoft Outlook. Open that up and create a new profile and a new blank PST file. Then go into File Import and choose to import from Outlook Express. And the mail will go into there. And viola.. you have your old email from your Amiga in a more modern day format. ===FTP=== Magellan has a great FTP module. It allows transferring files from/to a FTP server over the Internet or the local network and, even if FTP is perceived as a "thing of the past", its usability is all inside the client. The FTP thing has a nice side effect too, since every Icaros machine can be a FTP server as well, and our files can be easily transferred from an Icaros machine to another with a little configuration effort. First of all, we need to know the 'server' IP address. Server is the Icaros machine with the file we are about to download on another Icaros machine, that we're going to call 'client'. To do that, move on the server machine and 1) run Prefs/Services to be sure "FTP file transfer" is enabled (if not, enable it and restart Icaros); 2) run a shell and enter this command: ifconfig -a Make a note of the IP address for the network interface used by the local area network. For cabled devices, it usually is net0:. Now go on the client machine and run Magellan: Perform these actions: 1) click on FTP; 2) click on ADDRESS BOOK; 3) click on "New". You can now add a new entry for your Icaros server machine: 1) Choose a name for your server, in order to spot it immediately in the address book. Enter the IP address you got before. 2) click on Custom Options: 1) go to Miscellaneous in the left menu; 2) Ensure "Passive Transfers" is NOT selected; 3) click on Use. We need to deactivate Passive Transfers because YAFS, the FTP server included in Icaros, only allows active transfers at the current stage. Now, we can finally connect to our new file source: 1) Look into the address book for the newly introduced server, be sure that name and IP address are right, and 2) click on Connect. A new lister with server's "MyWorkspace" contents will appear. You can now transfer files over the network choosing a destination among your local (client's) volumes. Can be adapted to any FTP client on any platform of your choice, just be sure your client allows Active Transfers as well. ===IRC Internet Relay Chat=== Jabberwocky is ideal for one-to-one social media communication, use IRC if you require one to many. Just type a message in ''lowercase''' letters and it will be posted to all in the [ AROS irc channel]. Please do not use UPPER CASE as it is a sign of SHOUTING which is annoying. Other things to type in - replace <message> with a line of text and <nick> with a person's name <pre> /help /list /who /whois <nick> /msg <nick> <message> /query <nick> <message>s /query /away <message> /away /quit <going away message> </pre> [http://irchelp.org/irchelp/new2irc.html#smiley Intro guide here]. IRC Primer can be found here in [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircprimer.html html], [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/text/ircprimer.txt TXT], [http://www.kei.com/irc/IRCprimer1.1.ps PostScript]. Issue the command /me <text> where <text> is the text that should follow your nickname. Example: /me slaps ajk around a bit with a large trout /nick <newNick> /nickserv register <password> <email address> /ns instead of /nickserv, while others might need /msg nickserv /nickserv identify <password> Alternatives: /ns identify <password> /msg nickserv identify <password> ==== IRC WookieChat ==== WookieChat is the most complete internet client for communication across the IRC Network. WookieChat allows you to swap ideas and communicate in real-time, you can also exchange Files, Documents, Images and everything else using the application's DCC capabilities. add smilies drawer/directory run wookiechat from the shell and set stack to 1000000 e.g. wookiechat stack 1000000 select a server / server window * nickname * user name * real name - optional Once you configure the client with your preferred screen name, you'll want to find a channel to talk in. servers * New Server - click on this to add / add extra - change details in section below this click box * New Group * Delete Entry * Connect to server * connect in new tab * perform on connect Change details * Servername - change text in this box to one of the below Server: * Port number - no need to change * Server password * Channel - add #channel from below * auto join - can click this * nick registration password, Click Connect to server button above <pre> Server: irc.freenode.net Channel: #aros </pre> irc://irc.freenode.net/aros <pre> Server: chat.amigaworld.net Channel: #amigaworld or #amigans </pre> <pre> On Sunday evenings USA time usually starting around 3PM EDT (1900 UTC) Server:irc.superhosts.net Channel #team*amiga </pre> <pre> BitlBee and Minbif are IRCd-like gateways to multiple IM networks Server: im.bitlbee.org Port 6667 Seems to be most useful on WookieChat as you can be connected to several servers at once. One for Bitlbee and any messages that might come through that. One for your normal IRC chat server. </pre> [http://www.bitlbee.org/main.php/servers.html Other servers], <pre> #Amiga.org - irc.synirc.net eu.synirc.net dissonance.nl.eu.synirc.net (IPv6: 2002:5511:1356:0:216:17ff:fe84:68a) twilight.de.eu.synirc.net zero.dk.eu.synirc.net us.synirc.net avarice.az.us.synirc.net envy.il.us.synirc.net harpy.mi.us.synirc.net liberty.nj.us.synirc.net snowball.mo.us.synirc.net - Ports 6660-6669 7001 (SSL) </pre> <pre> Multiple server support "Perform on connect" scripts and channel auto-joins Automatic Nickserv login Tabs for channels and private conversations CTCP PING, TIME, VERSION, SOUND Incoming and Outgoing DCC SEND file transfers Colours for different events Logging and automatic reloading of logs mIRC colour code filters Configurable timestamps GUI for changing channel modes easily Configurable highlight keywords URL Grabber window Optional outgoing swear word filter Event sounds for tabs opening, highlighted words, and private messages DCC CHAT support Doubleclickable URL's Support for multiple languages using LOCALE Clone detection Auto reconnection to Servers upon disconnection Command aliases Chat display can be toggled between AmIRC and mIRC style Counter for Unread messages Graphical nicklist and graphical smileys with a popup chooser </pre> ====IRC Aircos ==== Double click on Aircos icon in Extras:Networking/Apps/Aircos. It has been set up with a guest account for trial purposes. Though ideally, choose a nickname and password for frequent use of irc. ====IRC and XMPP Jabberwocky==== Servers are setup and close down at random You sign up to a server that someone else has setup and access chat services through them. The two ways to access chat from jabberwocky <pre > Jabberwocky -> Server -> XMPP -> open and ad-free Jabberwocky -> Server -> Transports (Gateways) -> Proprietary closed systems </pre > The Jabber.org service connects with all IM services that use XMPP, the open standard for instant messaging and presence over the Internet. The services we connect with include Google Talk (closed), Live Journal Talk, Nimbuzz, Ovi, and thousands more. However, you can not connect from Jabber.org to proprietary services like AIM, ICQ, MSN, Skype, or Yahoo because they don’t yet use XMPP components (XEP-0114) '''but''' you can use Jabber.com's servers and IM gateways (MSN, ICQ, Yahoo etc.) instead. The best way to use jabberwocky is in conjunction with a public jabber server with '''transports''' to your favorite services, like gtalk, Facebook, yahoo, ICQ, AIM, etc. You have to register with one of the servers, [https://list.jabber.at/ this list] or [http://www.jabberes.org/servers/ another list], [http://xmpp.net/ this security XMPP list], Unfortunately jabberwocky can only connect to one server at a time so it is best to check what services each server offers. If you set it up with separate Facebook and google talk accounts, for example, sometimes you'll only get one or the other. Jabberwocky open a window where the Jabber server part is typed in as well as your Nickname and Password. Jabber ID (JID) identifies you to the server and other users. Once registered the next step is to goto Jabberwocky's "Windows" menu and select the "Agents" option. The "Agents List" window will open. Roster (contacts list) [http://search.wensley.org.uk/ Chatrooms] (MUC) are available File Transfer - can send and receive files through the Jabber service but not with other services like IRC, ICQ, AIM or Yahoo. All you need is an installed webbrowser and OpenURL. Clickable URLs - The message window uses Mailtext.mcc and you can set a URL action in the MUI mailtext prefs like SYS:Utils/OpenURL %s NEWWIN. There is no consistent Skype like (H.323 VoIP) video conferencing available over Jabber. The move from xmpp to Jingle should help but no support on any amiga-like systems at the moment. [http://aminet.net/package/dev/src/AmiPhoneSrc192 AmiPhone] and [http://www.lysator.liu.se/%28frame,faq,nobg,useframes%29/ahi/v4-site/ Speak Freely] was an early attempt voice only contact. SIP and Asterisk are other PBX options. Facebook If you're using the XMPP transport provided by Facebook themselves, chat.facebook.com, it looks like they're now requiring SSL transport. This means jabberwocky method below will no longer work. The best thing to do is to create an ID on a public jabber server which has a Facebook gateway. <pre > 1. launch jabberwocky 2. if the login window doesn't appear on launch, select 'account' from the jabberwocky menu 3. your jabber ID will be user@chat.facebook.com where user is your user ID 4. your password is your normal facebook password 5. to save this for next time, click the popup gadget next to the ID field 6. click the 'add' button 7. click the 'close' button 8. click the 'connect' button </pre > you're done. you can also click the 'save as default account' button if you want. jabberwocky configured to auto-connect when launching the program, but you can configure as you like. there is amigaguide documentation included with jabberwocky. [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=37085&forum=32 Read more here] for Facebook users, you can log-in directly to Facebook with jabberwocky. just sign in as @chat.facebook.com with your Facebook password as the password Twitter For a few years, there has been added a twitter transport. Servers include [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/ jabber.hot-chili.net], and . An [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/tag/how-tos/ How-to] :Read [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/2010/05/09/twitter-transport-working/ more] Instagram no support at the moment best to use a web browser based client ICQ The new version (beta) of StriCQ uses a newer ICQ protocol. Most of the ICQ Jabber Transports still use an older ICQ protocol. You can only talk one-way to StriCQ using the older Transports. Only the newer ICQv7 Transport lets you talk both ways to StriCQ. Look at the server lists in the first section to check. Register on a Jabber server, e.g. this one works: http://www.jabber.de/ Then login into Jabberwocky with the following login data e.g. xxx@jabber.de / Password: xxx Now add your ICQ account under the window->Agents->"Register". Now Jabberwocky connects via the Jabber.de server with your ICQ account. Yahoo Messenger although yahoo! does not use xmpp protocol, you should be able to use the transport methods to gain access and post your replies MSN early months of 2013 Microsoft will ditch MSN Messenger client and force everyone to use Skype...but MSN protocol and servers will keep working as usual for quite a long time.... Occasionally the Messenger servers have been experiencing problems signing in. You may need to sign in at www.outlook.com and then try again. It may also take multiple tries to sign in. (This also affects you if you’re using Skype.) You have to check each servers' Agents List to see what transports (MSN protocol, ICQ protocol, etc.) are supported or use the list address' provided in the section above. Then register with each transport (IRC, MSN, ICQ, etc.) to which you need access. After registering you can Connect to start chatting. msn.jabber.com/registered should appear in the window. From this [http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/amiga-jabberwocky/message/1378 JW group] guide which helps with this process in a clear, step by step procedure. 1. Sign up on MSN's site for a passport account. This typically involves getting a Hotmail address. 2. Log on to the Jabber server of your choice and do the following: * Select the "Windows/Agents" menu option in Jabberwocky. * Select the MSN Agent from the list presented by the server. * Click the Register button to open a new window asking for: **Username = passort account email address, typically your hotmail address. **Nick = Screen name to be shown to anyone you add to your buddy list. **Password = Password for your passport account/hotmail address. * Click the Register button at the bottom of the new window. 3. If all goes well, you will see the MSN Gateway added to your buddy list. If not, repeat part 2 on another server. Some servers may show MSN in their list of available agents, but have not updated their software for the latest protocols used by MSN. 4. Once you are registered, you can now add people to your buddy list. Note that you need to include the '''msn.''' ahead of the servername so that it knows what gateway agent to use. Some servers may use a slight variation and require '''msg.gate.''' before the server name, so try both to see what works. If my friend's msn was amiga@hotmail.co.uk and my jabber server was @jabber.meta.net.nz.. then amiga'''%'''hotmail.com@'''msn.'''jabber.meta.net.nz or another the trick to import MSN contacts is that you don't type the hotmail URL but the passport URL... e.g. Instead of: goodvibe%hotmail.com@msn.jabber.com You type: goodvibe%passport.com@msn.jabber.com And the thing about importing contacts I'm afraid you'll have to do it by hand, one at the time... Google Talk any XMPP server will work, but you have to add your contacts manually. a google talk user is typically either @gmail.com or @talk.google.com. a true gtalk transport is nice because it brings your contacts to you and (can) also support file transfers to/from google talk users. implement Jingle a set of extensions to the IETF's Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support ended early 2014 as Google moved to Google+ Hangouts which uses it own proprietary format ===Video Player MPlayer=== Many of the menu features (such as doubling) do not work with the current version of mplayer but using 4:3 mplayer -vf scale=800:600 file.avi 16:9 mplayer -vf scale=854:480 file.avi if you want gui use; mplayer -gui 1 <other params> file.avi <pre > stack 1000000 ; using AspireOS 1.xx ; copy FROM SYS:Extras/Multimedia/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 1.x ; copy FROM SYS:Tools/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 2.x ; copy FROM SYS:Utilities/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: cd RAM:MPlayer run MPlayer -gui > Nil: ;run MPlayer -gui -ao ahi_dev -playlist http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls > Nil: </pre > $ mplayer rtsp://127.0.0.1:554/sample_300kbit.mp4 MPlayer supports multicast streaming, and rtp/rtsp protocols (it might require [http://www.live555.com/openRTSP/ live555 library] to work with some streams). But you might have to build it where it's disabled. Also, multicast won't work with some AmiTCP-likes. MIAMI supported it, though. AROS supports IPv4 (old but works) and this includes the needed address space for RTP. If you mean multicast via RTP - mplayer handles it. You can even force UDP over TCP -rtsp-stream-over-tcp If the rtsp Real Time Streaming Protocol server needs authentification: -user -passwd MPlayer - Menu - Open Playlist and load already downloaded .pls or .m3u file - auto starts around 4 percent cache MPlayer - Menu - Open Stream and copy one of the .pls lines below into space allowed, press OK and press play button on main gui interface Old 8bit 16bit remixes chip tune game music http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls http://scenesat.com/ http://www.shoutcast.com/radio/Amiga http://www.theoldcomputer.com/retro_radio/RetroRadio_Main.htm http://www.kohina.com/ http://www.remix64.com/ http://retrogamer.net/forum/ http://retroasylum.podomatic.com/rss2.xml http://retrogamesquad.com/ http://www.retronauts.com/ http://monsterfeet.com/noquarter/ http://www.retrogamingradio.com/ http://www.radiofeeds.co.uk/mp3.asp [[#top|...to the top]] ====ZunePaint==== simplified typical workflow * importing and organizing and photo management * making global and regional local correction(s) - recalculation is necessary after each adjustment as it is not in real-time * exporting your images in the best format available with the preservation of metadata Whilst achieving 80% of a great photo with just a filter, the remaining 20% comes from a manual fine-tuning of specific image attributes. For photojournalism, documentary, and event coverage, minimal touching is recommended. Stick to Camera Raw for such shots, and limit changes to level adjustment, sharpness, noise reduction, and white balance correction. For fashion or portrait shoots, a large amount of adjustment is allowed and usually ends up far from the original. Skin smoothing, blemish removal, eye touch-ups, etc. are common. Might alter the background a bit to emphasize the subject. Product photography usually requires a lot of sharpening, spot removal, and focus stacking. For landscape shots, best results are achieved by doing the maximum amount of preparation before/while taking the shot. No amount of processing can match timing, proper lighting, correct gear, optimal settings, etc. Excessive post-processing might give you a dramatic shot but best avoided in the long term. * White Balance - Left Amiga or F12 and K and under "Misc color effects" tab with a pull down for White Balance - color temperature also known as AKA tint (movies) or tones (painting) - warm temp raise red reduce green blue - cool raise blue lower red green * Exposure - exposure compensation, highlight/shadow recovery * Noise Reduction - during RAW development or using external software * Lens Corrections - distortion, vignetting, chromatic aberrations * Detail - capture sharpening and local contrast enhancement * Contrast - black point, levels (sliders) and curves tools (F12 and K) * Framing - straighten () and crop (F12 and F) * Refinements - color adjustments and selective enhancements - Left Amiga or F12 and K for RGB and YUV histogram tabs - * Resizing - enlarge for a print or downsize for the web or email (F12 and D) * Output Sharpening - customized for your subject matter and print/screen size White Balance - F12 and K scan your image for a shade which was meant to be white (neutral with each RGB value being equal) like paper or plastic which is in the same light as the subject of the picture. Use the dropper tool to select this color, similar colours will shift and you will have selected the perfect white balance for your part of the image - for the whole picture make sure RAZ or CLR button at the bottom is pressed before applying to the image above. Exposure correction F12 and K - YUV Y luminosity - RGB extra red tint - move red curve slightly down and move blue green curves slightly up Workflows in practice * Undo - Right AROS key or F12 and Z * Redo - Right AROS key or F12 and R First flatten your image (if necessary) and then do a rotation until the picture looks level. * Crop the picture. Click the selection button and drag a box over the area of the picture you want to keep. Press the crop button and the rest of the photo will be gone. * Adjust your saturation, exposure, hue levels, etc., (right AROS Key and K for color correction) until you are happy with the photo. Make sure you zoom in all of the way to 100% and look the photo over, zoom back out and move around. Look for obvious problems with the picture. * After coloring and exposure do a sharpen (Right AROS key and E for Convolution and select drop down option needed), e.g. set the matrix to 5x5 (roughly equivalent Amount to 60%) and set the Radius to 1.0. Click OK. And save your picture Implemented or would like to see for simplification and ease of use basic filters (presets) like black and white, monochrome, edge detection (sobel), motion/gaussian blur, * negative, sepiatone, retro vintage, night vision, colour tint, color gradient, color temperature, glows, fire, lightning, lens flare, emboss, filmic, pixelate mezzotint, antialias, etc. adjust / cosmetic tools such as crop, * reshaping tools, straighten, smear, smooth, perspective, liquify, bloat, pucker, push pixels in any direction, dispersion, transform like warp, blending with soft light, page-curl, whirl, ripple, fisheye, neon, etc. * red eye fixing, blemish remover, skin smoothing, teeth whitener, make eyes look brighter, desaturate, effects like oil paint, cartoon, pencil sketch, charcoal, noise/matrix like sharpen/unsharpen, (right AROS key with A for Artistic effects) * blend two image, gradient blend, masking blend, explode, implode, custom collage, surreal painting, comic book style, needlepoint, stained glass, watercolor, mosaic, stencil/outline, crayon, chalk, etc. borders such as * dropshadow, rounded, blurred, color tint, picture frame, film strip polaroid, bevelled edge, etc. brushes e.g. * frost, smoke, etc. and manual control of fix lens issues including vignetting (darkening), color fringing and barrel distortion, and chromatic and geometric aberration - lens and body profiles perspective correction levels - directly modify the levels of the tone-values of an image, by using sliders for highlights, midtones and shadows curves - Color Adjustment and Brightness/Contrast color balance one single color transparent (alpha channel (color information/selections) for masking and/or blending ) for backgrounds, etc. Threshold indicates how much other colors will be considered mixture of the removed color and non-removed colors decompose layer into a set of layers with each holding a different type of pattern that is visible within the image any selection using any selecting tools like lasso tool, marquee tool etc. the selection will temporarily be save to alpha If you create your image without transparency then the Alpha channel is not present, but you can add later. File formats like .psd (Photoshop file has layers, masks etc. contains edited sensor data. The original sensor data is no longer available) .xcf .raw .hdr Image Picture Formats * low dynamic range (JPEG, PNG, TIFF 8-bit), 16-bit (PPM, TIFF), typically as a 16-bit TIFF in either ProPhoto or AdobeRGB colorspace - TIFF files are also fairly universal – although, if they contain proprietary data, such as Photoshop Adjustment Layers or Smart Filters, then they can only be opened by Photoshop making them proprietary. * linear high dynamic range (HDR) images (PFM, [http://www.openexr.com/ ILM .EXR], jpg, [http://aminet.net/util/dtype cr2] (canon tiff based), hdr, NEF, CRW, ARW, MRW, ORF, RAF (Fuji), PEF, DCR, SRF, ERF, DNG files are RAW converted to an Adobe proprietary format - a container that can embed the raw file as well as the information needed to open it) An old version of [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert dcraw] There is no single RAW file format. Each camera manufacturer has one or more unique RAW formats. RAW files contain the brightness levels data captured by the camera sensor. This data cannot be modified. A second smaller file, separate XML file, or within a database with instructions for the RAW processor to change exposure, saturation etc. The extra data can be changed but the original sensor data is still there. RAW is technically least compatible. A raw file is high-bit (usually 12 or 14 bits of information) but a camera-generated TIFF file will be usually converted by the camera (compressed, downsampled) to 8 bits. The raw file has no embedded color balance or color space, but the TIFF has both. These three things (smaller bit depth, embedded color balance, and embedded color space) make it so that the TIFF will lose quality more quickly with image adjustments than the raw file. The camera-generated TIFF image is much more like a camera processed JPEG than a raw file. A strong advantage goes to the raw file. The power of RAW files, such as the ability to set any color temperature non-destructively and will contain more tonal values. The principle of preserving the maximum amount of information to as late as possible in the process. The final conversion - which will always effectively represent a "downsampling" - should prevent as much loss as possible. Once you save it as TIFF, you throw away some of that data irretrievably. When saving in the lossy JPEG format, you get tremendous file size savings, but you've irreversibly thrown away a lot of image data. As long as you have the RAW file, original or otherwise, you have access to all of the image data as captured. Keyboard equivalence with Photoshop(tm) would help File PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Ctrl+n New Open Ctrl+o Open Close Ctrl+w Close Save Ctrl+s Save Save as Shift+Ctrl+s Save as Revert F12 Revert Print Ctrl+p Print Exit Ctrl+q Quit Edit PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Undo/Redo (1 level) Ctrl+z Undo (Redo is Shift+Ctrl+z) Cut Ctrl+x Cut Copy Ctrl+c Copy Paste Ctrl+v Paste Paste Into Shift+Ctrl+v Paste Into Fill with FG color Alt+Backspace Fill with FG color Fill with BG color Control+Backspace Fill with BG color Image/Colors PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Levels Ctrl+l Levels Auto Contrast Shift+Ctrl+Alt+l Stretch Contrast (same?) Curves Ctrl+m Curves Color Balance Ctrl+b Color Balance Hue/Saturation Ctrl+u Hue-Saturation Desaturate Shift+Ctrl+u Desaturate Invert Ctrl+i Invert Default Colors d Default Colors Switch Colors x Switch Colors Layer PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Layer Shift+Ctrl+n New Layer Layer via Copy Ctrl+j Duplicate Layer Bring (layer) to Front Shift+Ctrl+] Layer to Top Send (layer) to Back Shift+Ctrl+[ Layer to Bottom Bring (layer) Forward Ctrl+] Raise Layer Send (layer) Backward Ctrl+[ Lower Layer Select Top Layer Shift+Alt+] Select Top Layer Select Bottom Layer Shift+Alt+[ Select Bottom Layer Select One Layer Forward Alt+] Select Previous Layer Select One Layer Backward Alt+[ Select Next Layer Merge Down Ctrl+e Merge Down Merge Visible Shift+Ctrl+e Merge Visible Preserve Transparency / Keep Transparency Cycle Modes Forwards Shift+= Next Layer Mode Cycle Modes Backwards Shift+- Previous Layer Mode Select PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Select All Ctrl+a Select All Deselect Ctrl+d Select None Inverse Shift+Ctrl+i Invert Feather Ctrl+Alt+d Feather View PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Zoom In Ctrl+= Zoom In Zoom Out Ctrl+- Zoom Out Fit on Screen Ctrl+0 Zoom to Fit Window Actual Pixels Ctrl+Alt+0 Zoom 1:1 Show/Hide Extras Ctrl+h Toggle Show Selection (close enough?) Show/Hide Guides Ctrl+' Toggle Show Guides Show/Hide Grid Ctrl+Alt+' Toggle Show Grid Show/Hide Rulers Ctrl+r Toggle Show Rulers Snap Ctrl+; Snap to Guides Scroll View Up Page Up Scroll Page Up Scroll View Down Page Down Scroll Page Down Scroll View Left Ctrl+Page Up Scroll Page Left Scroll View Right Ctrl+Page Down Scroll Page Right Window/Dialogs PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP ? F5 Tools Dialog Color Tab F6 Colors Dialog Layers Tab F7 Layers Dialog Info Tab F8 Image Information Tools PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Rectangular Marquee Tool m Rect Select Tool Elliptical Marquee Tool Shift+m Ellipse Select Tool *This is a toggle between 'Elliptical Marquee Tool' and 'Rectangular Marquee Tool' in Photoshop Move Tool v Move Tool Lasso Tool l Free Select Tool Magic Wand Tool w Fuzzy Select Tool Crop Tool c Crop & Resize Tool Airbrush Tool j Airbrush Tool Paintbrush Tool b Paintbrush Tool Clone Stamp Tool s Clone Stamp Tool Eraser Tool e Eraser Tool Gradient Tool g Blend Tool Paint Bucket Tool Shift+g Bucket Fill Tool *This is a toggle between 'Paint Bucket Tool' and 'Gradient Tool' in Photoshop Blur Tool r Convolve Tool Dodge Tool o DodgeBurn Tool Type Tool t Text Tool Pen Tool p Bezier Select Tool Eye Dropper Tool i Color Picker Tool Zoom Tool z Magnify Tool Previous Brush , Previous Brush Next Brush . Next Brush First Brush Shift+< First Brush Last Brush Shift+> Last Brush Decrease Brush Size [ Decrease Brush Size Increase Brush Size ] Increase Brush Size Decrease Brush Hardness { Decrease Brush Hardness Increase Brush Hardness } Increase Brush Hardness Help PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Help F1 Help Context Help Shift+F1 Context Help Misc. PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Last Filter Ctrl+f Repeat Last Filter ? Shift+Ctrl+f Reshow Last Filter Preferences Ctrl+k Preferences Liquify Shift+Ctrl+x IWarp (close enough?) Toggle Quick Mask q Toggle Quick Mask Spotlights - triangle of white opaque shape Cutting out and/or replacing unwanted background or features - select large areas with the selection option like the Magic Wand tool (aka Color Range) or the Lasso (quick and fast) with feather 2 to soften edge or the pen tool which adds points/lines/Bézier curves (better control but slower), hold down the shift button as you click to add extra points/areas of the subject matter to remove. Increase the tolerance to cover more areas. To subtract from your selection hold down alt as you're clicking. * Layer masks are a better way of working than Erase they clip (black hides/hidden white visible/reveal). Clone Stamp can be simulated by and brushes for other areas. * Leave the fine details like hair, fur, etc. to later with lasso and the shift key to draw a line all the way around your subject. Gradient Mapping - Inverse - Mask. i.e. Refine your selected image with edge detection and using the radius and edge options / adjuster (increase/decrease contrast) so that you will capture more fine detail from the background allowing easier removal. Remove fringe/halo saving image as png rather than jpg/jpeg to keep transparency background intact. Implemented [http://colorizer.org/ colour model representations] [http://paulbourke.net/texture_colour/colourspace/ Mathematical approach] - Photo stills are spatially 2d (h and w), but are colorimetrically 3d (r g and b, or H L S, or Y U V etc.) as well. * RGB - split cubed mapped color model for photos and computer graphics hardware using the light spectrum (adding and subtracting) * YUV - Y-Lightness U-blue/yellow V-red/cyan (similar to YPbPr and YCbCr) used in the PAL, NTSC, and SECAM composite digital TV color [http://crewofone.com/2012/chroma-subsampling-and-transcoding/#comment-7299 video] Histograms White balanced (neutral) if the spike happens in the same place in each channel of the RGB graphs. If not, you're not balanced. If you have sky you'll see the blue channel further off to the right. RGB is best one to change colours. These elements RGB is a 3-channel format containing data for Red, Green, and Blue in your photo scale between 0 and 255. The area in a picture that appears to be brighter/whiter contains more red color as compared to the area which is relatively darker. Similarly in the green channel the area that appears to be darker contains less amount of green color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Similarly in the blue channel the area appears to be darker contains less amount of blue color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Brightness luminance histogram also matches the green histogram more than any other color - human eye interprets green better e.g. RGB rough ratio 15/55/30% RGBA (RGB+A, A means alpha channel) . The alpha channel is used for "alpha compositing", which can mostly be associated as "opacity". AROS deals in RGB with two digits for every color (red, green, blue), in ARGB you have two additional hex digits for the alpha channel. The shadows are represented by the left third of the graph. The highlights are represented by the right third. And the midtones are, of course, in the middle. The higher the black peaks in the graph, the more pixels are concentrated in that tonal range (total black area). By moving the black endpoint, which identifies the shadows (darkness) and a white light endpoint (brightness) up and down either sides of the graph, colors are adjusted based on these points. By dragging the central one, can increased the midtones and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . RGB Curves * Move left endpoint (black point) up or right endpoint (white point) up brightens * Move left endpoint down or right endpoint down darkens Color Curves * Dragging up on the Red Curve increases the intensity of the reds in the image but * Dragging down on the Red Curve decreases the intensity of the reds and thus increases the apparent intensity of its complimentary color, cyan. Green’s complimentary color is magenta, and blue’s is yellow. <pre> Red <-> Cyan Green <->Magenta Blue <->Yellow </pre> YUV Best option to analyse and pull out statistical elements of any picture (i.e. separate luminance data from color data). The line in Y luma tone box represents the brightness of the image with the point in the bottom left been black, and the point in the top right as white. A low-contrast image has a concentrated clump of values nearer to the center of the graph. By comparison, a high-contrast image has a wider distribution of values across the entire width of the Histogram. A histogram that is skewed to the right would indicate a picture that is a bit overexposed because most of the color data is on the lighter side (increase exposure with higher value F), while a histogram with the curve on the left shows a picture that is underexposed. This is good information to have when using post-processing software because it shows you not only where the color data exists for a given picture, but also where any data has been clipped (extremes on edges of either side): that is, it does not exist and, therefore, cannot be edited. By dragging the endpoints of the line and as well as the central one, can increased the dark/shadows, midtones and light/bright parts and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . The U and V chroma parts show color difference components of the image. It’s useful for checking whether or not the overall chroma is too high, and also whether it’s being limited too much Can be used to create a negative image but also With U (Cb), the higher value you are, the more you're on the blue primary color. If you go to the low values then you're on blue complementary color, i.e. yellow. With V (Cr), this is the same principle but with Red and Cyan. e.g. If you push U full blue and V full red, you get magenta. If you push U full yellow and V full Cyan then you get green. YUV simultaneously adds to one side of the color equation while subtracting from the other. using YUV to do color correction can be very problematic because each curve alters the result of each other: the mutual influence between U and V often makes things tricky. You may also be careful in what you do to avoid the raise of noise (which happens very easily). Best results are obtained with little adjustments sunset that looks uninspiring and needs some color pop especially for the rays over the hill, a subtle contrast raise while setting luma values back to the legal range without hard clipping. Free royalty pictures, [www.freeimages.com ], [http://imageshack.us/ ], [http://photobucket.com/ ], [http://rawpixels.net/], [], [], [], ====Lunapaint==== Pixel based drawing app with onion-skin animation function Blocking, Shading, Coloring, adding detail <pre> b BRUSH e ERASER alt eyedropper v layer tool z ZOOM / MAGNIFY < > n spc panning m marque q lasso w same color selection / region </pre> <pre> , LM RM v V f filter F . size p , pick color [] last / next color </pre> There is not much missing in Lunapaint to be as good as FlipBook and then you have to take into account that Flipbook is considered to be amongst the best and easiest to use animation software out there. Ok to be honest Flipbook has some nice features that require more heavy work but those aren't so much needed right away, things like camera effects, sound, smart fill, export to different movie file formats etc. Tried Flipbook with my tablet and compared it to Luna. The feeling is the same when sketching. LunaPaint is very responsive/fluent to draw with. Just as Flipbook is, and that responsiveness is something its users have mentioned as one of the positive sides of said software. author was learning MUI. Some parts just have to be rewritten with proper MUI classes before new features can be added. * add [Frame Add] / [Frame Del] * whole animation feature is impossible to use. If you draw 2 color maybe but if you start coloring your cells then you get in trouble * pickup the entire image as a brush, not just a selection ? And consequently remove the brush from memory when one doesn't need it anymore. can pick up a brush and put it onto a new image but cropping isn't possible, nor to load/save brushes. * Undo is something I longed for ages in Lunapaint. * to import into the current layer, other types of images (e.g. JPEG) besides RAW64. * implement graphic tablet features support **GENERAL DRAWING** Miss it very much: UNDO ERASER COLORPICKER - has to show on palette too which color got picked. BACKGROUND COLOR -Possibility to select from "New project screen" Miss it somewhat: ICON for UNDO ICON for ERASER ICON for CLEAR SCREEN ( What can I say? I start over from scratch very often ) BRUSH - possibility to cut out as brush not just copy off image to brush **ANIMATING** Miss it very much: NUMBER OF CELLS - Possibity to change total no. of cells during project ANIM BRUSH - Possibility to pick up a selected part of cells into an animbrush Miss it somewhat: ADD/REMOVE FRAMES: Add/remove single frame In general LunaPaint is really well done and it feels like a new DeluxePaint version. It works with my tablet. Sure there's much missing of course but things can always be added over time. So there is great potential in LunaPaint that's for sure. Animations could be made in it and maybe put together in QuickVideo, saving in .gif or .mng etc some day. LAYERS -Layers names don't get saved globally in animation frames -Layers order don't change globally in an animation (perhaps as default?). EXPORTING IMAGES -Exporting frames to JPG/PNG gives problems with colors. (wrong colors. See my animatiopn --> My robot was blue now it's "gold" ) I think this only happens if you have layers. -Trying to flatten the layers before export doesn't work if you have animation frames only the one you have visible will flatten properly all other frames are destroyed. (Only one of the layers are visible on them) -Exporting images filenames should be for example e.g. file0001, file0002...file0010 instead as of now file1, file2...file10 LOAD/SAVE (Preferences) -Make a setting for the default "Work" folder. * Destroyed colors if exported image/frame has layers * mystic color cycling of the selected color while stepping frames back/forth (annoying) <pre> Deluxe Paint II enhanced key shortcuts NOTE: @ denotes the ALT key [Technique] F1 - Paint F2 - Single Colour F3 - Replace F4 - Smear F5 - Shade F6 - Cycle F7 - Smooth M - Colour Cycle [Brush] B - Restore O - Outline h - Halve brush size H - Double brush size x - Flip brush on X axis X - Double brush size on X axis only y - Flip on Y Y - Double on Y z - Rotate brush 90 degrees Z - Stretch [Stencil] ` - Stencil On [Miscellaneous] F9 - Info Bar F10 - Selection Bar @o - Co-Ordinates @a - Anti-alias @r - Colourise @t - Translucent TAB - Colour Cycle [Picture] L - Load S - Save j - Page to Spare(Flip) J - Page to Spare(Copy) V - View Page Q - Quit [General Keys] m - Magnify < - Zoom In > - Zoom Out [ - Palette Colour Up ] - Palette Colour Down ( - Palette Colour Left ) - Palette Colour Right , - Eye Dropper . - Pixel / Brush Toggle / - Symmetry | - Co-Ordinates INS - Perspective Control +/- - Brush Size (Fine Control) w - Unfilled Polygon W - Filled Polygon e - Unfilled Ellipse E - Filled Ellipse r - Unfilled Rectangle R - Filled Rectangle t - Type/text tool a - Select Font u/U - Undo d - Brush D - Filled Non-Uniform Polygon f/F - Fill Options g/G - Grid h/H - Brush Size (Coarse Control) K - Clear c - Unfilled Circle C - Filled Circle v - Line b - Scissor Select and Toggle B - Brush {,} - Toggle between two background colours </pre> ====Lodepaint==== Pixel based painting artwork app ====Grafx2==== Pixel based painting artwork app aesprite like [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59Y6OTzNrhk aesprite workflow keys and tablet use], [], ====Vector Graphics ZuneFIG==== Vector Image Editing of files .svg .ps .eps *Objects - raise lower rotate flip aligning snapping *Path - unify subtract intersect exclude divide *Colour - fill stroke *Stroke - size *Brushes - *Layers - *Effects - gaussian bevels glows shadows *Text - *Transform - AmiFIG ([http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/frm_introduction.html xfig manual]) [[File:MyScreen.png|thumb|left|alt=Showing all Windows open in AmiFIG.|All windows available to AmiFIG.]] for drawing simple to intermediate vector graphic images for scientific and technical uses and for illustration purposes for those with talent ;Menu options * Load - fig format but import(s) SVG * Save - fig format but export(s) eps, ps, pdf, svg and png * PAN = Ctrl + Arrow keys * Deselect all points There is no selected object until you apply the tool, and the selected object is not highlighted. ;Metrics - to set up page and styles - first window to open on new drawings ;Tools - Drawing Primitives - set Attributes window first before clicking any Tools button(s) * Shapes - circles, ellipses, arcs, splines, boxes, polygon * Lines - polylines * Text "T" button * Photos - bitmaps * Compound - Glue, Break, Scale * POINTs - Move, Add, Remove * Objects - Move, Copy, Delete, Mirror, Rotate, Paste use right mouse button to stop extra lines, shapes being formed and the left mouse to select/deselect tools button(s) * Rotate - moves in 90 degree turns centered on clicked POINT of a polygon or square ;Attributes which provide change(s) to the above primitives * Color * Line Width * Line Style * arrowheads ;Modes Choose from freehand, charts, figures, magnet, etc. ;Library - allows .fig clip-art to be stored * compound tools to add .fig(s) together ;FIG 3.2 [http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/fig-format.html Format] as produced by xfig version 3.2.5 <pre> Landscape Center Inches Letter 100.00 Single -2 1200 2 4 0 0 50 -1 0 12 0.0000 4 135 1050 1050 2475 This is a test.01 </pre> # change the text alignment within the textbox. I can choose left, center, or right aligned by either changing the integer in the second column from 0 (left) to 1 or 2 (center, or right). # The third integer in the row specifies fontcolor. For instance, 0 is black, but blue is 1 and Green3 is 13. # The sixth integer in the bottom row specifies fontface. 0 is Times-Roman, but 16 is Helvetica (a MATLAB default). # The seventh number is fontsize. 12 represents a 12pt fontsize. Changing the fontsize of an item really is as easy as changing that number to 20. # The next number is the counter-clockwise angle of the text. Notice that I have changed the angle to .7854 (pi/4 rounded to four digits=45 degrees). # twelfth number is the position according to the standard “x-axis” in Xfig units from the left. Note that 1200 Xfig units is equivalent to once inch. # thirteenth number is the “y-position” from the top using the same unit convention as before. * The nested text string is what you entered into the textbox. * The “01″ present at the end of that line in the .fig file is the closing tag. For instance, a change to \100 appends a @ symbol at the end of the period of that sentence. ; Just to note there are no layers, no 3d functions, no shading, no transparency, no animation [[#top|...to the top]] ===Audio=== # AHI uses linear panning/balance, which means that in the center, you will get -6dB. If an app uses panning, this is what you will get. Note that apps like Audio Evolution need panning, so they will have this problem. # When using AHI Hifi modes, mixing is done in 32-bit and sent as 32-bit data to the driver. The Envy24HT driver uses that to output at 24-bit (always). # For the Envy24/Envy24HT, I've made 16-bit and 24-bit inputs (called Line-in 16-bit, Line-in 24-bit etc.). There is unfortunately no app that can handle 24-bit recording. ====Music Mods==== Digital module (mods) trackers are music creation software using samples and sometimes soundfonts, audio plugins (VST, AU or RTAS), MIDI. Generally, MODs are similar to MIDI in that they contain note on/off and other sequence messages that control the mod player. Unlike (most) midi files, however, they also contain sound samples that the sequence information actually plays. MOD files can have many channels (classic amiga mods have 4, corresponding to the inbuilt sound channels), but unlike MIDI, each channel can typically play only one note at once. However, since that note might be a sample of a chord, a drumloop or other complex sound, this is not as limiting as it sounds. Like MIDI, notes will play indefinitely if they're not instructed to end. Most trackers record this information automatically if you play your music in live. If you're using manual note entry, you can enter a note-off command with a keyboard shortcut - usually Caps Lock. In fact when considering file size MOD is not always the best option. Even a dummy song wastes few kilobytes for nothing when a simple SID tune could be few hundreds bytes and not bigger than 64kB. AHX is another small format, AHX tunes are never larger than 64kB excluding comments. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXXsZfwgil Protrekkr] (previously aka [w:Juan_Antonio_Arguelles_Rius|NoiseTrekkr]) If Protrekkr does not start, please check if the Unit 0 has been setup in the AHI prefs and still not, go to the directory utilities/protrekkr and double click on the Protrekkr icon *Sample *Note - Effect *Track (column) - Pattern - Order It all starts with the Sample which is used to create Note(s) in a Track (column of a tracker) The Note can be changed with an Effect. A Track of Note(s) can be collected into a Pattern (section of a song) and these can be given Order to create the whole song. Patience (notes have to be entered one at a time) or playing the bassline on a midi controller (faster - see midi section above). Best approach is to wait until a melody popped into your head. *Up-tempo means the track should be reasonably fast, but not super-fast. *Groovy and funky imply the track should have some sort of "swing" feel, with plenty of syncopation or off beat emphasis and a recognizable, melodic bass line. *Sweet and happy mean upbeat melodies, a major key and avoiding harsh sounds. *Moody - minor key First, create a quick bass sound, which is basically a sine wave, but can be hand drawn for a little more variance. It could also work for the melody part, too. This is usually a bass guitar or some kind of synthesizer bass. The bass line is often forgotten by inexperienced composers, but it plays an important role in a musical piece. Together with the rhythm section the bass line forms the groove of a song. It's the glue between the rhythm section and the melodic layer of a song. The drums are just pink noise samples, played at different frequencies to get a slightly different sound for the kick, snare, and hihats. Instruments that fall into the rhythm category are bass drums, snares, hi-hats, toms, cymbals, congas, tambourines, shakers, etc. Any percussive instrument can be used to form part of the rhythm section. The lead is the instrument that plays the main melody, on top of the chords. There are many instruments that can play a lead section, like a guitar, a piano, a saxophone or a flute. The list is almost endless. There is a lot of overlap with instruments that play chords. Often in one piece an instrument serves both roles. The lead melody is often played at a higher pitch than the chords. Listened back to what was produced so far, and a counter-melody can be imagined, which can be added with a triangle wave. To give the ends of phrases some life, you can add a solo part with a crunchy synth. By hitting random notes in the key of G, then edited a few of them. For the climax of the song, filled out the texture with a gentle high-pitch pad… …and a grungy bass synth. The arrow at A points at the pattern order list. As you see, the patterns don't have to be in numerical order. This song starts with pattern "00", then pattern "02", then "03", then "01", etcetera. Patterns may be repeated throughout a song. The B arrow points at the song title. Below it are the global BPM and speed parameters. These determine the tempo of the song, unless the tempo is altered through effect commands during the song. The C arrow points at the list of instruments. An instrument may consist of multiple samples. Which sample will be played depends on the note. This can be set in the Instrument Editing screen. Most instruments will consist of just one sample, though. The sample list for the selected instrument can be found under arrow D. Here's a part of the main editing screen. This is where you put in actual notes. Up to 32 channels can be used, meaning 32 sounds can play simultaneously. The first six channels of pattern "03" at order "02" are shown here. The arrow at A points at the row number. The B arrow points at the note to play, in this case a C4. The column pointed at by the C arrow tells us which instrument is associated with that note, in this case instrument #1 "Kick". The column at D is used (mainly) for volume commands. In this case it is left empty which means the instrument should play at its default volume. You can see the volume column being used in channel #6. The E column tells us which effect to use and any parameters for that effect. In this case it holds the "F" effect, which is a tempo command. The "04" means it should play at tempo 4 (a smaller number means faster). Base pattern When I create a new track I start with what I call the base pattern. It is worthwhile to spend some time polishing it as a lot of the ideas in the base pattern will be copied and used in other patterns. At least, that's how I work. Every musician will have his own way of working. In "Wild Bunnies" the base pattern is pattern "03" at order "02". In the section about selecting samples I talked about the four different categories of instruments: drums, bass, chords and leads. That's also how I usually go about making the base pattern. I start by making a drum pattern, then add a bass line, place some chords and top it off with a lead. This forms the base pattern from which the rest of the song will grow. Drums Here's a screenshot of the first four rows of the base pattern. I usually reserve the first four channels or so for the drum instruments. Right away there are a couple of tricks shown here. In the first channel the kick, or bass drum, plays some notes. Note the alternating F04 and F02 commands. The "F" command alters the tempo of the song and by quickly alternating the tempo; the song will get some kind of "swing" feel. In the second channel the closed hi-hat plays a fairly simple pattern. Further down in the channel, not shown here, some open hi-hat notes are added for a bit of variation. In the third and fourth channel the snare sample plays. The "8" command is for panning. One note is panned hard to the left and the other hard to the right. One sample is played a semitone lower than the other. This results in a cool flanging effect. It makes the snare stand out a little more in the mix. Bass line There are two different instruments used for the bass line. Instrument #6 is a pretty standard synthesized bass sound. Instrument #A sounds a bit like a slap bass when used with a quick fade out. By using two different instruments the bass line sounds a bit more ”human”. The volume command is used to cut off the notes. However, it is never set to zero. Setting the volume to a very small value will result in a reverb-like effect. This makes the song sound more "live". The bass line hints at the chords that will be played and the key the song will be in. In this case the key of the song is D-major, a positive and happy key. Chords The D major chords that are being played here are chords stabs; short sounds with a quick decay (fade out). Two different instruments (#8 and #9) are used to form the chords. These instruments are quite similar, but have a slightly different sound, panning and volume decay. Again, the reason for this is to make the sound more human. The volume command is used on some chords to simulate a delay, to achieve more of a live feel. The chords are placed off-beat making for a funky rhythm. Lead Finally the lead melody is added. The other instruments are invaluable in holding the track together, but the lead melody is usually what catches people's attention. A lot of notes and commands are used here, but it looks more complex than it is. A stepwise ascending melody plays in channel 13. Channel 14 and 15 copy this melody, but play it a few rows later at a lower volume. This creates an echo effect. A bit of panning is used on the notes to create some stereo depth. Like with the bass line, instead of cutting off notes the volume is set to low values for a reverb effect. The "461" effect adds a little vibrato to the note, which sounds nice on sustained notes. Those paying close attention may notice the instrument used here for the lead melody is the same as the one used for the bass line (#6 "Square"), except played two or three octaves higher. This instrument is a looped square wave sample. Each type of wave has its own quirks, but the square wave (shown below) is a really versatile wave form. Song structure Good, catchy songs are often carefully structured into sections, some of which are repeated throughout the song with small variations. A typical pop-song structure is: Intro - Verse - Chorus - Verse - Chorus - Bridge - Chorus. Other single sectional song structures are <pre> Strophic or AAA Song Form - oldest story telling with refrain (often title of the song) repeated in every verse section melody AABA Song Form - early popular, jazz and gospel fading during the 1960s AB or Verse/Chorus Song Form - songwriting format of choice for modern popular music since the 1960s Verse/Chorus/Bridge Song Form ABAB Song Form ABAC Song Form ABCD Song Form AAB 12-Bar Song Form - three four-bar lines or sub-sections 8-Bar Song Form 16-Bar Song Form Hybrid / Compound Song Forms </pre> The most common building blocks are: #INTRODUCTION(INTRO) #VERSE #REFRAIN #PRE-CHORUS / RISE / CLIMB #CHORUS #BRIDGE #MIDDLE EIGHT #SOLO / INSTRUMENTAL BREAK #COLLISION #CODA / OUTRO #AD LIB (OFTEN IN CODA / OUTRO) The chorus usually has more energy than the verse and often has a memorable melody line. As the chorus is repeated the most often during the song, it will be the part that people will remember. The bridge often marks a change of direction in the song. It is not uncommon to change keys in the bridge, or at least to use a different chord sequence. The bridge is used to build up tension towards the big finale, the last repetition of chorus. Playing RCTRL: Play song from row 0. LSHIFT + RCTRL: Play song from current row. RALT: Play pattern from row 0. LSHIFT + RALT: Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on '>': Play song from row 0. Right mouse on '>': Play song from current row. Left mouse on '|>': Play pattern from row 0. Right mouse on '|>': Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on 'Edit/Record': Edit mode on/off. Right mouse on 'Edit/Record': Record mode on/off. Editing LSHIFT + ESCAPE: Switch large patterns view on/off TAB: Go to next track LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. track LCTRL + TAB: Go to next note in track LCTRL + LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. note in track SPACE: Toggle Edit mode On & Off (Also stop if the song is being played) SHIFT SPACE: Toggle Record mode On & Off (Wait for a key note to be pressed or a midi in message to be received) DOWN ARROW: 1 Line down UP ARROW: 1 Line up LEFT ARROW: 1 Row left RIGHT ARROW: 1 Row right PREV. PAGE: 16 Arrows Up NEXT PAGE: 16 Arrows Down HOME / END: Top left / Bottom right of pattern LCTRL + HOME / END: First / last track F5, F6, F7, F8, F9: Jump to 0, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 lines of the patterns + - (Numeric keypad): Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous position LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous instrument LSHIFT + M: Toggle mute state of the current channel LCTRL + LSHIFT + M: Solo the current track / Unmute all LSHIFT + F1 to F11: Select a tab/panel LCTRL + 1 to 4: Select a copy buffer Tracking 1st and 2nd keys rows: Upper octave row 3rd and 4th keys rows: Lower octave row RSHIFT: Insert a note off / and * (Numeric keypad) or F1 F2: -1 or +1 octave INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current track or current selected block. LSHIFT + INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current pattern DELETE (NOT BACKSPACE): Empty a column or a selected block. Blocks (Blocks can also be selected with the mouse by holding the right button and scrolling the pattern with the mouse wheel). LCTRL + A: Select entire current track LCTRL + LSHIFT + A: Select entire current pattern LALT + A: Select entire column note in a track LALT + LSHIFT + A: Select all notes of a track LCTRL + X: Cut the selected block and copy it into the block-buffer LCTRL + C: Copy the selected block into the block-buffer LCTRL + V: Paste the data from the block buffer into the pattern LCTRL + I: Interpolate selected data from the first to the last row of a selection LSHIFT + ARROWS PREV. PAGE NEXT PAGE: Select a block LCTRL + R: Randomize the select columns of a selection, works similar to CTRL + I (interpolating them) LCTRL + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher LCTRL + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher LCTRL + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + W: Save the current selection into a file Misc LALT + ENTER: Switch between full screen / windowed mode LALT + F4: Exit program (Windows only) LCTRL + S: Save current module LSHIFT + S: Switch top right panel to synths list LSHIFT + I: Switch top right panel to instruments list <pre> C-x xh xx xx hhhh Volume B-x xh xx xx hhhh Jump to A#x xh xx xx hhhh hhhh Slide F-x xh xx xx hhhh Tempo D-x xh xx xx hhhh Pattern Break G#x xh xx xx hhhh </pre> h Hex 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 d Dec 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 The Set Volume command: C. Input a note, then move the cursor to the effects command column and type a C. Play the pattern, and you shouldn't be able to hear the note you placed the C by. This is because the effect parameters are 00. Change the two zeros to a 40(Hex)/64(Dec), depending on what your tracker uses. Play back the pattern again, and the note should come in at full volume. The Position Jump command next. This is just a B followed by the position in the playing list that you want to jump to. One thing to remember is that the playing list always starts at 0, not 1. This command is usually in Hex. Onto the volume slide command: A. This is slightly more complex (much more if you're using a newer tracker, if you want to achieve the results here, then set slides to Amiga, not linear), due to the fact it depends on the secondary tempo. For now set a secondary tempo of 06 (you can play around later), load a long or looped sample and input a note or two. A few rows after a note type in the effect command A. For the parameters use 0F. Play back the pattern, and you should notice that when the effect kicks in, the sample drops to a very low volume very quickly. Change the effect parameters to F0, and use a low volume command on the note. Play back the pattern, and when the slide kicks in the volume of the note should increase very quickly. This because each part of the effect parameters for command A does a different thing. The first number slides the volume up, and the second slides it down. It's not recommended that you use both a volume up and volume down at the same time, due to the fact the tracker only looks for the first number that isn't set to 0. If you specify parameters of 8F, the tracker will see the 8, ignore the F, and slide the volume up. Using a slide up and down at same time just makes you look stupid. Don't do it... The Set Tempo command: F, is pretty easy to understand. You simply specify the BPM (in Hex) that you want to change to. One important thing to note is that values of lower than 20 (Hex) sets the secondary tempo rather than the primary. Another useful command is the Pattern Break: D. This will stop the playing of the current pattern and skip to the next one in the playing list. By using parameters of more than 00 you can also specify which line to begin playing from. Command 3 is Portamento to Note. This slides the currently playing note to another note, at a specified speed. The slide then stops when it reaches the desired note. <pre> C-2 1 000 - Starts the note playing --- 000 C-3 330 - Starts the slide to C-3 at a speed of 30. --- 300 - Continues the slide --- 300 - Continues the slide </pre> Once the parameters have been set, the command can be input again without any parameters, and it'll still perform the same function unless you change the parameters. This memory function allows certain commands to function correctly, such as command 5, which is the Portamento to Note and Volume Slide command. Once command 3 has been set up command 5 will simply take the parameters from that and perform a Portamento to Note. Any parameters set up for command 5 itself simply perform a Volume Slide identical to command A at the same time as the Portamento to Note. This memory function will only operate in the same channel where the original parameters were set up. There are various other commands which perform two functions at once. They will be described as we come across them. C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 02 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 05 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 08 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0A C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0D C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 (You can also switch on the Slider Rec to On, and perform parameter-live-recording, such as cutoff transitions, resonance or panning tweaking, etc..) Note: this command only works for volume/panning and fx datas columns. The next command we'll look at is the Portamento up/down: 1 and 2. Command 1 slides the pitch up at a specified speed, and 2 slides it down. This command works in a similar way to the volume slide, in that it is dependent on the secondary tempo. Both these commands have a memory dependent on each other, if you set the slide to a speed of 3 with the 1 command, a 2 command with no parameters will use the speed of 3 from the 1 command, and vice versa. Command 4 is Vibrato. Vibrato is basically rapid changes in pitch, just try it, and you'll see what I mean. Parameters are in the format of xy, where x is the speed of the slide, and y is the depth of the slide. One important point to remember is to keep your vibratos subtle and natural so a depth of 3 or less and a reasonably fast speed, around 8, is usually used. Setting the depth too high can make the part sound out of tune from the rest. Following on from command 4 is command 6. This is the Vibrato and Volume Slide command, and it has a memory like command 5, which you already know how to use. Command 7 is Tremolo. This is similar to vibrato. Rather than changing the pitch it slides the volume. The effect parameters are in exactly the same format. vibrato effect (0x1dxy) x = speed y = depth (can't be used if arpeggio (0x1b) is turned on) <pre> C-7 00 .. .. 1B37 <- Turn Arpeggio effect on --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B38 <- Change datas --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B00 <- Turn it off </pre> Command 9 is Sample Offset. This starts the playback of the sample from a different place than the start. The effect parameters specify the sample offset, but only very roughly. Say you have a sample which is 8765(Hex) bytes long, and you wanted it to play from position 4321(Hex). The effect parameter could only be as accurate as the 43 part, and it would ignore the 21. Command B is the Playing List/Order Jump command. The parameters specify the position in the Playing List/Order to jump to. When used in conjunction with command D you can specify the position and the line to play from. Command E is pretty complex, as it is used for a lot of different things, depending on what the first parameter is. Let's take a trip through each effect in order. Command E0 controls the hardware filter on an Amiga, which, as a low pass filter, cuts off the highest frequencies being played back. There are very few players and trackers on other system that simulate this function, not that you should need to use it. The second parameter, if set to 1, turns on the filter. If set to 0, the filter gets turned off. Commands E1/E2 are Fine Portamento Up/Down. Exactly the same functions as commands 1/2, except that they only slide the pitch by a very small amount. These commands have a memory the same as 1/2 as well. Command E3 sets the Glissando control. If parameters are set to 1 then when using command 3, any sliding will only use the notes in between the original note and the note being slid to. This produces a somewhat jumpier slide than usual. The best way to understand is to try it out for yourself. Produce a slow slide with command 3, listen to it, and then try using E31. Command E4 is the Set Vibrato Waveform control. This command controls how the vibrato command slides the pitch. Parameters are 0 - Sine, 1 - Ramp Down (Saw), 2 - Square. By adding 4 to the parameters, the waveform will not be restarted when a new note is played e.g. 5 - Sine without restart. Command E5 sets the Fine Tune of the instrument being played, but only for the particular note being played. It will override the default Fine Tune for the instrument. The parameters range from 0 to F, with 0 being -8 and F being +8 Fine Tune. A parameter of 8 gives no Fine Tune. If you're using a newer tracker that supports more than -8 to +8 e.g. -128 to +128, these parameters will give a rough Fine Tune, accurate to the nearest 16. Command E6 is the Jump Loop command. You mark the beginning of the part of a pattern that you want to loop with E60, and then specify with E6x the end of the loop, where x is the number of times you want it to loop. Command E7 is the Set Tremolo Waveform control. This has exactly the same parameters as command E4, except that it works for Tremolo rather than Vibrato. Command E9 is for Retriggering the note quickly. The parameter specifies the interval between the retrigs. Use a value of less than the current secondary tempo, or else the note will not get retrigged. Command EA/B are for Fine Volume Slide Up/Down. Much the same as the normal Volume Slides, except that these are easier to control since they don't depend on the secondary tempo. The parameters specify the amount to slide by e.g. if you have a sample playing at a volume of 08 (Hex) then the effect EA1 will slide this volume to 09 (Hex). A subsequent effect of EB4 would slide this volume down to 05 (Hex). Command EC is the Note Cut. This sets the volume of the currently playing note to 0 at a specified tick. The parameters should be lower than the secondary tempo or else the effect won't work. Command ED is the Note Delay. This should be used at the same time as a note is to be played, and the parameters will specify the number of ticks to delay playing the note. Again, keep the parameters lower than the secondary tempo, or the note won't get played! Command EE is the Pattern Delay. This delays the pattern for the amount of time it would take to play a certain number of rows. The parameters specify how many rows to delay for. Command EF is the Funk Repeat command. Set the sample loop to 0-1000. When EFx is used, the loop will be moved to 1000- 2000, then to 2000-3000 etc. After 9000-10000 the loop is set back to 0- 1000. The speed of the loop "movement" is defined by x. E is two times as slow as F, D is three times as slow as F etc. EF0 will turn the Funk Repeat off and reset the loop (to 0-1000). effects 0x41 and 0x42 to control the volumes of the 2 303 units There is a dedicated panel for synth parameter editing with coherent sections (osc, filter modulation, routing, so on) the interface is much nicer, much better to navigate with customizable colors, the reverb is now customizable (10 delay lines), It accepts newer types of Waves (higher bit rates, at least 24). Has a replay routine. It's pretty much your basic VA synth. The problem isn't with the sampler being to high it's the synth is tuned two octaves too low, but if you want your samples tuned down just set the base note down 2 octaves (in the instrument panel). so the synth is basically divided into 3 sections from left to right: oscillators/envelopes, then filter and LFO's, and in the right column you have mod routings and global settings. for the oscillator section you have two normal oscillators (sine, saw, square, noise), the second of which is tunable, the first one tunes with the key pressed. Attached to OSC 1 is a sub-oscillator, which is a sawtooth wave tuned one octave down. The phase modulation controls the point in the duty cycle at which the oscillator starts. The ADSR envelope sliders (grouped with oscs) are for modulation envelope 1 and 2 respectively. you can use the synth as a sampler by choosing the instrument at the top. In the filter column, the filter settings are: 1 = lowpass, 2 = highpass, 3 = off. cutoff and resonance. For the LFOs they are LFO 1 and LFO 2, the ADSR sliders in those are for the LFO itself. For the modulation routings you have ENV 1, LFO 1 for the first slider and ENV 2, LFO 2 for the second, you can cycle through the individual routings there, and you can route each modulation source to multiple destinations of course, which is another big plus for this synth. Finally the glide time is for portamento and master volume, well, the master volume... it can go quite loud. The sequencer is changed too, It's more like the one in AXS if you've used that, where you can mute tracks to re-use patterns with variation. <pre> Support for the following modules formats: 669 (Composer 669, Unis 669), AMF (DSMI Advanced Module Format), AMF (ASYLUM Music Format V1.0), APUN (APlayer), DSM (DSIK internal format), FAR (Farandole Composer), GDM (General DigiMusic), IT (Impulse Tracker), IMF (Imago Orpheus), MOD (15 and 31 instruments), MED (OctaMED), MTM (MultiTracker Module editor), OKT (Amiga Oktalyzer), S3M (Scream Tracker 3), STM (Scream Tracker), STX (Scream Tracker Music Interface Kit), ULT (UltraTracker), UNI (MikMod), XM (FastTracker 2), Mid (midi format via timidity) </pre> Possible plugin options include [http://lv2plug.in/ LV2], ====Midi - Musical Instrument Digital Interface==== A midi file typically contains music that plays on up to 16 channels (as per the midi standard), but many notes can simultaneously play on each channel (depending on the limit of the midi hardware playing it). '''Timidity''' Although usually already installed, you can uncompress the [http://www.libsdl.org/projects/SDL_mixer/ timidity.tar.gz (14MB)] into a suitable drawer like below's SYS:Extras/Audio/ assign timidity: SYS:Extras/Audio/timidity added to SYSːs/User-Startup '''WildMidi playback''' '''Audio Evolution 4 (2003) 4.0.23 (from 2012)''' *Sync Menu - CAMD Receive, Send checked *Options Menu - MIDI Machine Control - Midi Bar Display - Select CAMD MIDI in / out - Midi Remote Setup MCB Master Control Bus *Sending a MIDI start-command and a Song Position Pointer, you can synchronize audio with an external MIDI sequencer (like B&P). *B&P Receive, start AE, add AudioEvolution.ptool in Bars&Pipes track, press play / record in AE then press play in Pipes *CAMD Receive, receive MIDI start or continue commands via camd.library sync to AE *MIDI Machine Control *Midi Bar Display *Select CAMD MIDI in / out *Midi Remote Setup - open requester for external MIDI controllers to control app mixer and transport controls cc remotely Channel - mixer(vol, pan, mute, solo), eq, aux, fx, Subgroup - Volume, Mute, Solo Transport - Start, End, Play, Stop, Record, Rewind, Forward Misc - Master vol., Bank Down, Bank up <pre> q - quit First 3 already opened when AE started F1 - timeline window F2 - mixer F3 - control F4 - subgroups F5 - aux returns F6 - sample list i - Load sample to use space - start/stop play b - reset time 0:00 s - split mode r - open recording window a - automation edit mode with p panning, m mute and v volume [ / ] - zoom in / out : - previous track * - next track x c v f - cut copy paste cross-fade g - snap grid </pre> '''[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars n Pipes sequencer]''' BarsnPipes debug ... in shell Menu (right mouse) *Song - Songs load and save in .song format but option here to load/save Midi_Files .mid in FORMAT0 or FORMAT1 *Track - *Edit - *Tool - *Timing - SMTPE Synchronizing *Windows - *Preferences - Multiple MIDI-in option Windows (some of these are usually already opened when Bars n Pipes starts up for the first time) *Workflow -> Tracks, .... Song Construction, Time-line Scoring, Media Madness, Mix Maestro, *Control -> Transport (or mini one), Windows (which collects all the Windows icons together-shortcut), .... Toolbox, Accessories, Metronome, Once you have your windows placed on the screen that suits your workflow, Song -> Save as Default will save the positions, colors, icons, etc as you'd like them If you need a particular setup of Tracks, Tools, Tempos etc, you save them all as a new song you can load each time Right mouse menu -> Preferences -> Environment... -> ScreenMode - Linkages for Synch (to Slave) usbmidi.out.0 and Send (Master) usbmidi.in.0 - Clock MTC '''Tracks''' #Double-click on B&P's icon. B&P will then open with an empty Song. You can also double-click on a song icon to open a song in B&P. #Choose a track. The B&P screen will contain a Tracks Window with a number of tracks shown as pipelines (Track 1, Track 2, etc...). To choose a track, simply click on the gray box to show an arrow-icon to highlight it. This icon show whether a track is chosen or not. To the right of the arrow-icon, you can see the icon for the midi-input. If you double-click on this icon you can change the MIDI-in setup. #Choose Record for the track. To the right of the MIDI-input channel icon you can see a pipe. This leads to another clickable icon with that shows either P, R or M. This stands for Play, Record or Merge. To change the icon, simply click on it. If you choose P, this track can only play the track (you can't record anything). If you choose R, you can record what you play and it overwrites old stuff in the track. If you choose M, you merge new records with old stuff in the track. Choose R now to be able to make a record. #Chose MIDI-channel. On the most right part of the track you can see an icon with a number in it. This is the MIDI-channel selector. Here you must choose a MIDI-channel that is available on your synthesizer/keyboard. If you choose General MIDI channel 10, most synthesizer will play drum sounds. To the left of this icon is the MIDI-output icon. Double-click on this icon to change the MIDI-output configuration. #Start recording. The next step is to start recording. You must then find the control buttons (they look like buttons on a CD-player). To be able to make a record. you must click on the R icon. You can simply now press the play button (after you have pressed the R button) and play something on you keyboard. To playback your composition, press the Play button on the control panel. #Edit track. To edit a track, you simply double click in the middle part of a track. You will then get a new window containing the track, where you can change what you have recorded using tools provided. Take also a look in the drop-down menus for more features. Videos to help understand [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6gVTX-9900 small intro], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4&t=3s Overview], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixOVutKsYQo Workplace Setup CC PC Sysex], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDnJLYPaZTs Import Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BC3kkzPLkv4 Tempo Mapping], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd23kqMYPDs ptool Arpeggi-8], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDJq-YxgwQg PlayMidi Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DY9Pu5P9TaU Amiga Midi], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4 Learning Amiga bars and Pipes], Groups like [https://groups.io/g/barsnpipes/topics this] could help '''Tracks window''' * blue "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Group" and transport tape deck VCR-type controls * Flags * [http://theproblem.alco-rhythm.com/org/bp.html Track 1, Track2, to Track 16, on each Track there are many options that can be activated] Each Track has a *Left LHS - Click in grey box to select what Track to work on, Midi-In ptool icon should be here (5pin plug icon), and many more from the Toolbox on the Input Pipeline *Middle - (P, R, M) Play, Record, Merge/Multi before the sequencer line and a blue/red/yellow (Thru Mute Play) Tap *Right RHS - Output pipeline, can have icons placed uopn it with the final ptool icon(s) being the 5pin icon symbol for Midi-OUT Clogged pipelines may need Esc pressed several times '''Toolbox (tools affect the chosen pipeline)''' After opening the Toolbox window you can add extra Tools (.ptool) for the pipelines like keyboard(virtual), midimonitor, quick patch, transpose, triad, (un)quantize, feedback in/out, velocity etc right mouse -> Toolbox menu option -> Install Tool... and navigate to Tool drawer (folder) and select requried .ptool Accompany B tool to get some sort of rythmic accompaniment, Rythm Section and Groove Quantize are examples of other tools that make use of rythms [https://aminet.net/search?query=bars Bars & Pipes pattern format .ptrn] for drawer (folder). Load from the Menu as Track or Group '''Accessories (affect the whole app)''' Accessories -> Install... and goto the Accessories drawer for .paccess like adding ARexx scripting support '''Song Construction''' <pre> F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Duplicator F5 Eraser F6 Toolpad F7 Bounding box F8 Lock to A-B-A A-B-A strip, section, edit flags, white boxes, </pre> Bars&Pipes Professional offers three track formats; basic song tracks, linear tracks — which don't loop — and finally real‑time tracks. The difference between them is that both song and linear tracks respond to tempo changes, while real‑time tracks use absolute timing, always trigger at the same instant regardless of tempo alterations '''Tempo Map''' F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Eraser F5 Curve F6 Toolpad Compositions Lyrics, Key, Rhythm, Time Signature '''Master Parameters''' Key, Scale/Mode '''Track Parameters''' Dynamics '''Time-line Scoring''' '''Media Madness''' '''Mix Maestro''' *ACCESSORIES Allows the importation of other packages and additional modules *CLIPBOARD Full cut, copy and paste operations, enabling user‑definable clips to be shared between tracks. *INFORMATION A complete rundown on the state of the current production and your machine. *MASTER PARAMETERS Enables global definition of time signatures, lyrics, scales, chords, dynamics and rhythm changes. *MEDIA MADNESS A complete multimedia sequencer which allows samples, stills, animation, etc *METRONOME Tempo feedback via MIDI, internal Amiga audio and colour cycling — all three can be mixed and matched as required. *MIX MAESTRO Completely automated mixdown with control for both volume and pan. All fader alterations are memorised by the software *RECORD ACTIVATION Complete specification of the data to be recorded/merged. Allows overdubbing of pitch‑bend, program changes, modulation etc *SET FLAGS Numeric positioning of location and edit flags in either SMPTE or musical time *SONG CONSTRUCTION Large‑scale cut and paste of individual measures, verses or chorus, by means of bounding box and drag‑n‑drop mouse selections *TEMPO MAP Tempo change using a variety of linear and non‑linear transition curves *TEMPO PALETTE Instant tempo changes courtesy of four user‑definable settings. *TIMELINE SCORING Sequencing of a selection of songs over a defined period — ideal for planning an entire set for a live performance. *TOOLBOX Selection screen for the hundreds of signal‑processing tools available *TRACKS Opens the main track window to enable recording, editing and the use of tools. *TRANSPORT Main playback control window, which also provides access to user‑ defined flags, loop and punch‑in record modes. Bars and Pipes Pro 2.5 is using internal 4-Byte IDs, to check which kind of data are currently processed. Especially in all its files the IDs play an important role. The IDs are stored into the file in the same order they are laid out in the memory. In a Bars 'N' Pipes file (no matter which kind) the ID "NAME" (saved as its ANSI-values) is stored on a big endian system (68k-computer) as "NAME". On a little endian system (x86 PC computer) as "EMAN". The target is to make the AROS-BnP compatible to songs, which were stored on a 68k computer (AMIGA). If possible, setting MIDI channels for Local Control for your keyboard http://www.fromwithin.com/liquidmidi/archive.shtml MIDI files are essentially a stream of event data. An event can be many things, but typically "note on", "note off", "program change", "controller change", or messages that instruct a MIDI compatible synth how to play a given bit of music. * Channel - 1 to 16 - * Messages - PC presets, CC effects like delays, reverbs, etc * Sequencing - MIDI instruments, Drums, Sound design, * Recording - * GUI - Piano roll or Tracker, Staves and Notes MIDI events/messages like step entry e.g. Note On, Note Off MIDI events/messages like PB, PC, CC, Mono and Poly After-Touch, Sysex, etc MIDI sync - Midi Clocks (SPS Measures), Midi Time Code (h, m, s and frames) SMPTE Individual track editing with audition edits so easier to test any changes. Possible to stop track playback, mix clips from the right edit flag and scroll the display using arrow keys. Step entry, to extend a selected note hit the space bar and the note grows accordingly. Ability to cancel mouse‑driven edits by simply clicking the right mouse button — at which point everything snaps back into its original form. Lyrics can now be put in with syllable dividers, even across an entire measure or section. Autoranging when you open a edit window, the notes are automatically displayed — working from the lowest upwards. Flag editing, shift‑click on a flag immediately open the bounds window, ready for numeric input. Ability to cancel edits using the right‑hand mouse button, plus much improved Bounding Box operations. Icons other than the BarsnPipes icon -> PUBSCREEN=BarsnPipes (cannot choose modes higher than 8bit 256 colors) Preferences -> Menu in Tracks window - Send MIDI defaults OFF Prefs -> Environment -> screenmode (saved to BarsnPipes.prefs binary file) Customization -> pics in gui drawer (folder) - Can save as .song files and .mid General Midi SMF is a “Standard Midi File” ([http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~ich/classes/mumt306/StandardMIDIfileformat.html SMF0, SMF1 and SMF2]), [https://github.com/stump/libsmf libsmf], [https://github.com/markc/midicomp MIDIcomp], [https://github.com/MajicDesigns/MD_MIDIFile C++ src], [], [https://github.com/newdigate/midi-smf-reader Midi player], * SMF0 All MIDI data is stored in one track only, separated exclusively by the MIDI channel. * SMF1 The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks/channels. * SMF2 (rarely used) The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks, which are additionally wrapped in containers, so it's possible to have e.g. several tracks using the same MIDI channels. Would it be possible to enrich Bars N’Pipes with software synth and sample support along with audio recording and mastering tools like in the named MAC or PC music sequencers? On the classic AMIGA-OS this is not possible because of missing CPU-power. The hardware of the classic AMIGA is not further developed. So we must say (unfortunately) that those dreams can’t become reality BarsnPipes is best used with external MIDI-equipment. This can be a keyboard or synthesizer with MIDI-connectors. <pre> MIDI can control 16 channels There are USB-MIDI-Interfaces on the market with 16 independent MIDI-lines (multi-port), which can handle 16 MIDI devices independently – 16×16 = 256 independent MIDI-channels or instruments handle up to 16 different USB-MIDI-Interfaces (multi-device). That is: 16X16X16 = 4096 independent MIDI-channels – theoretically </pre> <pre> Librarian MIDI SYStem EXplorer (sysex) - PatchEditor and used to be supplied as a separate program like PatchMeister but currently not at present It should support MIDI.library (PD), BlueRibbon.library (B&P), TriplePlayPlus, and CAMD.library (DeluxeMusic) and MIDI information from a device's user manual and configure a custom interface to access parameters for all MIDI products connected to the system Supports ALL MIDI events and the Patch/Librarian data is stored in MIDI standard format Annette M.Crowling, Missing Link Software, Inc. </pre> Composers <pre> [https://x.com/hirasawa/status/1403686519899054086 Susumu Hirasawa] </pre> <pre> 1988 Todor Fay and his wife Melissa Jordan Gray, who founded the Blue Ribbon Inc 1992 Bars&Pipes Pro published November 2000, Todor Fay announcement to release the sourcecode of Bars&Pipes Pro 2.5c beta end of May 2001, the source of the main program and the sources of some tools and accessories were in a complete and compileable state end of October 2009 stop further development of BarsnPipes New for now on all supported systems and made freeware 2013 Alfred Faust diagnosed with incureable illness, called „Myastenia gravis“ (weak muscles) </pre> Protrekkr How to use Midi In/Out in Protrekkr ? First of all, midi in & out capabilities of this program are rather limited. # Go to Misc. Setup section and select a midi in or out device to use (ptk only supports one device at a time). # Go to instrument section, and select a MIDI PRG (the default is N/A, which means no midi program selected). # Go to track section and here you can assign a midi channel to each track of ptk. # Play notes :]. Note off works. F'x' note cut command also works too, and note-volume command (speed) is supported. Also, you can change midicontrollers in the tracker, using '90' in the panning row: <pre> C-3 02 .. .. 0000.... --- .. .. 90 xxyy.... << This will set the value --- .. .. .. 0000.... of the controller n.'xx' to 'yy' (both in hex) --- .. .. .. 0000.... </pre> So "--- .. .. 90 2040...." will set the controller number $20(32) to $40(64). You will need the midi implementation table of your gear to know what you can change with midi controller messages. N.B. Not all MIDI devices are created equal! Although the MIDI specification defines a large range of MIDI messages of various kinds, not every MIDI device is required to work in exactly the same way and respond to all the available messages and ways of working. For example, we don't expect a wind synthesiser to work in the same way as a home keyboard. Some devices, the older ones perhaps, are only able to respond to a single channel. With some of those devices that channel can be altered from the default of 1 (probably) to another channel of the 16 possible. Other devices, for instance monophonic synthesisers, are capable of producing just one note at a time, on one MIDI channel. Others can produce many notes spread across many channels. Further devices can respond to, and transmit, "breath controller" data (MIDI controller number 2 (CC#2)) others may respond to the reception of CC#2 but not be able to create and to send it. A controller keyboard may be capable of sending "expression pedal" data, but another device may not be capable of responding to that message. Some devices just have the basic GM sound set. The "voice" or "instrument" is selected using a "Program Change" message on its own. Other devices have a greater selection of voices, usually arranged in "banks", and the choice of instrument is made by responding to "Bank Select MSB" (MIDI controller 0 (CC#0)), others use "Bank Select LSB" (MIDI controller number 32 (CC#32)), yet others use both MSB and LSB sent one after the other, all followed by the Program Change message. The detailed information about all the different voices will usually be available in a published MIDI Data List. MIDI Implementation Chart But in the User Manual there is sometimes a summary of how the device works, in terms of MIDI, in the chart at the back of the manual, the MIDI Implementation Chart. If you require two devices to work together you can compare the two implementation charts to see if they are "compatible". In order to do this we will need to interpret that chart. The chart is divided into four columns headed "Function", "Transmitted" (or "Tx"), "Received" (or "Rx"), or more correctly "Recognised", and finally, "Remarks". <pre> The left hand column defines which MIDI functions are being described. The 2nd column defines what the device in question is capable of transmitting to another device. The 3rd column defines what the device is capable of responding to. The 4th column is for explanations of the values contained within these previous two columns. </pre> There should then be twelve sections, with possibly a thirteenth containing extra "Notes". Finally there should be an explanation of the four MIDI "modes" and what the "X" and the "O" mean. <pre> Mode 1: Omni On, Poly; Mode 2: Omni On, Mono; Mode 3: Omni Off, Poly; Mode 4: Omni Off, Mono. </pre> O means "yes" (implemented), X means "no" (not implemented). Sometimes you will find a row of asterisks "**************", these seem to indicate that the data is not applicable in this case. Seen in the transmitted field only (unless you've seen otherwise). Lastly you may find against some entries an asterisk followed by a number e.g. *1, these will refer you to further information, often on a following page, giving more detail. Basic Channel But the very first set of boxes will tell us the "Basic Channel(s)" that the device sends or receives on. "Default" is what happens when the device is first turned on, "changed" is what a switch of some kind may allow the device to be set to. For many devices e.g. a GM sound module or a home keyboard, this would be 1-16 for both. That is it can handle sending and receiving on all MIDI channels. On other devices, for example a synthesiser, it may by default only work on channel 1. But the keyboard could be "split" with the lower notes e.g. on channel 2. If the synth has an arppegiator, this may be able to be set to transmit and or receive on yet another channel. So we might see the default as "1" but the changed as "1-16". Modes. We need to understand Omni On and Off, and Mono and Poly, then we can decipher the four modes. But first we need to understand that any of these four Mode messages can be sent to any MIDI channel. They don't necessarily apply to the whole device. If we send an "Omni On" message (CC#125) to a MIDI channel of a device, we are, in effect, asking it to respond to e.g. a Note On / Off message pair, received on any of the sixteen channels. Sound strange? Read it again. Still strange? It certainly is. We normally want a MIDI channel to respond only to Note On / Off messages sent on that channel, not any other. In other words, "Omni Off". So "Omni Off" (CC#124) tells a channel of our MIDI device to respond only to messages sent on that MIDI channel. "Poly" (CC#127) is for e.g. a channel of a polyphonic sound module, or a home keyboard, to be able to respond to many simultaneous Note On / Off message pairs at once and produce musical chords. "Mono" (CC#126) allows us to set a channel to respond as if it were e.g. a flute or a trumpet, playing just one note at a time. If the device is capable of it, then the overlapping of notes will produce legato playing, that is the attack portion of the second note of two overlapping notes will be removed resulting in a "smoother" transition. So a channel with a piano voice assigned to it will have Omni Off, Poly On (Mode 3), a channel with a saxophone voice assigned could be Omni Off, Mono On (Mode 4). We call these combinations the four modes, 1 to 4, as defined above. Most modern devices will have their channels set to Mode 3 (Omni Off, Poly) but be switchable, on a per channel basis, to Mode 4 (Omni Off, Mono). This second section of data will include first its default value i.e. upon device switch on. Then what Mode messages are acceptable, or X if none. Finally, in the "Altered" field, how a Mode message that can't be implemented will be interpreted. Usually there will just be a row of asterisks effectively meaning nothing will be done if you try to switch to an unimplemented mode. Note Number <pre> The next row will tell us which MIDI notes the device can send or receive, normally 0-127. The second line, "True Voice" has the following in the MIDI specification: "Range of received note numbers falling within the range of true notes produced by the instrument." My interpretation is that, for instance, a MIDI piano may be capable of sending all MIDI notes (0 to 127) by transposition, but only responding to the 88 notes (21 to 108) of a real piano. </pre> Velocity This will tell us whether the device we're looking at will handle note velocity, and what range from 1-127, or maybe just 64, it transmits or will recognise. So usually "O" plus a range or "X" for not implemented. After touch This may have one or two lines two it. If a one liner the either "O" or "X", yes or no. If a two liner then it may include "Keys" or "Poly" and "Channel". This will show whether the device will respond to Polyphonic after touch or channel after touch or neither. Pitch Bend Again "O" for implemented, "X" for not implemented. (Many stage pianos will have no pitch bend capability.) It may also, in the notes section, state whether it will respond to the full 14 bits, or not, as usually encoded by the pitch bend wheel. Control Change This is likely to be the largest section of the chart. It will list all those controllers, starting from CC#0, Bank Select MSB, which the device is capable of sending, and those that it will respond to using "O" or "X" respectively. You will, almost certainly, get some further explanation of functionality in the remarks column, or in more detail elsewhere in the documentation. Of course you will need to know what all the various controller numbers do. Lots of the official technical specifications can be found at the [www.midi.org/techspecs/ MMA], with the table of messages and control change [www.midi.org/techspecs/midimessages.php message numbers] Program Change Again "O" or "X" in the Transmitted or Recognised column to indicate whether or not the feature is implemented. In addition a range of numbers is shown, typically 0-127, to show what is available. True # (number): "The range of the program change numbers which correspond to the actual number of patches selected." System Exclusive Used to indicate whether or not the device can send or recognise System Exclusive messages. A short description is often given in the Remarks field followed by a detailed explanation elsewhere in the documentation. System Common - These include the following: <pre> MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame messages (device synchronisation). Song Position Pointer Song Select Tune Request </pre> The section will indicate whether or not the device can send or respond to any of these messages. System Real Time These include the following: <pre> Timing Clock - often just written as "Clock" Start Stop Continue </pre> These three are usually just referred to as "Commands" and listed. Again the section will indicate which, if any, of these messages the device can send or respond to. <pre> Aux. Messages Again "O" or "X" for implemented or not. Aux. = Auxiliary. Active Sense = Active Sensing. </pre> Often with an explanation of the action of the device. Notes The "Notes" section can contain any additional comments to clarify the particular implementation. Some of the explanations have been drawn directly from the MMA MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification. And the detailed explanation of some of the functions will be found there, or in the General MIDI System Level 1 or General MIDI System Level 2 documents also published by the MMA. OFFICIAL MIDI SPECIFICATIONS SUMMARY OF MIDI MESSAGES Table 1 - Summary of MIDI Messages The following table lists the major MIDI messages in numerical (binary) order (adapted from "MIDI by the Numbers" by D. Valenti, Electronic Musician 2/88, and updated by the MIDI Manufacturers Association.). This table is intended as an overview of MIDI, and is by no means complete. WARNING! Details about implementing these messages can dramatically impact compatibility with other products. We strongly recommend consulting the official MIDI Specifications for additional information. MIDI 1.0 Specification Message Summary Channel Voice Messages [nnnn = 0-15 (MIDI Channel Number 1-16)] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1000nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note Off event. This message is sent when a note is released (ended). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1001nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note On event. This message is sent when a note is depressed (start). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1010nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Polyphonic Key Pressure (Aftertouch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Control Change. This message is sent when a controller value changes. Controllers include devices such as pedals and levers. Controller numbers 120-127 are reserved as "Channel Mode Messages" (below). (ccccccc) is the controller number (0-119). (vvvvvvv) is the controller value (0-127). |- |<!--Status-->1100nnnn || <!--Data-->0ppppppp || <!--Description-->Program Change. This message sent when the patch number changes. (ppppppp) is the new program number. |- |<!--Status-->1101nnnn || <!--Data-->0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Pressure (After-touch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". This message is different from polyphonic after-touch. Use this message to send the single greatest pressure value (of all the current depressed keys). (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1110nnnn || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Pitch Bend Change. This message is sent to indicate a change in the pitch bender (wheel or lever, typically). The pitch bender is measured by a fourteen bit value. Center (no pitch change) is 2000H. Sensitivity is a function of the receiver, but may be set using RPN 0. (lllllll) are the least significant 7 bits. (mmmmmmm) are the most significant 7 bits. |} Channel Mode Messages (See also Control Change, above) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Mode Messages. This the same code as the Control Change (above), but implements Mode control and special message by using reserved controller numbers 120-127. The commands are: *All Sound Off. When All Sound Off is received all oscillators will turn off, and their volume envelopes are set to zero as soon as possible c = 120, v = 0: All Sound Off *Reset All Controllers. When Reset All Controllers is received, all controller values are reset to their default values. (See specific Recommended Practices for defaults) c = 121, v = x: Value must only be zero unless otherwise allowed in a specific Recommended Practice. *Local Control. When Local Control is Off, all devices on a given channel will respond only to data received over MIDI. Played data, etc. will be ignored. Local Control On restores the functions of the normal controllers. c = 122, v = 0: Local Control Off c = 122, v = 127: Local Control On * All Notes Off. When an All Notes Off is received, all oscillators will turn off. c = 123, v = 0: All Notes Off (See text for description of actual mode commands.) c = 124, v = 0: Omni Mode Off c = 125, v = 0: Omni Mode On c = 126, v = M: Mono Mode On (Poly Off) where M is the number of channels (Omni Off) or 0 (Omni On) c = 127, v = 0: Poly Mode On (Mono Off) (Note: These four messages also cause All Notes Off) |} System Common Messages System Messages (0xF0) The final status nybble is a “catch all” for data that doesn’t fit the other statuses. They all use the most significant nybble (4bits) of 0xF, with the least significant nybble indicating the specific category. The messages are denoted when the MSB of the second nybble is 1. When that bit is a 0, the messages fall into two other subcategories. System Common If the MSB of the second second nybble (4 bits) is not set, this indicates a System Common message. Most of these are messages that include some additional data bytes. System Common Messages Type Status Byte Number of Data Bytes Usage <pre> Time Code Quarter Frame 0xF1 1 Indicates timing using absolute time code, primarily for synthronization with video playback systems. A single location requires eight messages to send the location in an encoded hours:minutes:seconds:frames format*. Song Position 0xF2 2 Instructs a sequencer to jump to a new position in the song. The data bytes form a 14-bit value that expresses the location as the number of sixteenth notes from the start of the song. Song Select 0xF3 1 Instructs a sequencer to select a new song. The data byte indicates the song. Undefined 0xF4 0 Undefined 0xF5 0 Tune Request 0xF6 0 Requests that the receiver retunes itself**. </pre> *MIDI Time Code (MTC) is significantly complex. Please see the MIDI Specification **While modern digital instruments are good at staying in tune, older analog synthesizers were prone to tuning drift. Some analog synthesizers had an automatic tuning operation that could be initiated with this command. System Exclusive If you’ve been keeping track, you’ll notice there are two status bytes not yet defined: 0xf0 and 0xf7. These are used by the System Exclusive message, often abbreviated at SysEx. SysEx provides a path to send arbitrary data over a MIDI connection. There is a group of predefined messages for complex data, like fine grained control of MIDI Time code machinery. SysEx is also used to send manufacturer defined data, such as patches, or even firmware updates. System Exclusive messages are longer than other MIDI messages, and can be any length. The messages are of the following format: 0xF0, 0xID, 0xdd, ...... 0xF7 The message is bookended with distinct bytes. It opens with the Start Of Exclusive (SOX) data byte, 0xF0. The next one to three bytes after the start are an identifier. Values from 0x01 to 0x7C are one-byte vendor IDs, assigned to manufacturers who were involved with MIDI at the beginning. If the ID is 0x00, it’s a three-byte vendor ID - the next two bytes of the message are the value. <pre> ID 0x7D is a placeholder for non-commercial entities. ID 0x7E indicates a predefined Non-realtime SysEx message. ID 0x7F indicates a predefined Realtime SysEx message. </pre> After the ID is the data payload, sent as a stream of bytes. The transfer concludes with the End of Exclusive (EOX) byte, 0xF7. The payload data must follow the guidelines for MIDI data bytes – the MSB must not be set, so only 7 bits per byte are actually usable. If the MSB is set, it falls into three possible scenarios. An End of Exclusive byte marks the ordinary termination of the SysEx transfer. System Real Time messages may occur within the transfer without interrupting it. The recipient should handle them independently of the SysEx transfer. Other status bytes implicitly terminate the SysEx transfer and signal the start of new messages. Some inexpensive USB-to-MIDI interfaces aren’t capable of handling messages longer than four bytes. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11110000 || <!--Data-->0iiiiiii [0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii] 0ddddddd --- --- 0ddddddd 11110111 || <!--Description-->System Exclusive. This message type allows manufacturers to create their own messages (such as bulk dumps, patch parameters, and other non-spec data) and provides a mechanism for creating additional MIDI Specification messages. The Manufacturer's ID code (assigned by MMA or AMEI) is either 1 byte (0iiiiiii) or 3 bytes (0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii). Two of the 1 Byte IDs are reserved for extensions called Universal Exclusive Messages, which are not manufacturer-specific. If a device recognizes the ID code as its own (or as a supported Universal message) it will listen to the rest of the message (0ddddddd). Otherwise, the message will be ignored. (Note: Only Real-Time messages may be interleaved with a System Exclusive.) |- |<!--Status-->11110001 || <!--Data-->0nnndddd || <!--Description-->MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame. nnn = Message Type dddd = Values |- |<!--Status-->11110010 || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Song Position Pointer. This is an internal 14 bit register that holds the number of MIDI beats (1 beat= six MIDI clocks) since the start of the song. l is the LSB, m the MSB. |- |<!--Status-->11110011 || <!--Data-->0sssssss || <!--Description-->Song Select. The Song Select specifies which sequence or song is to be played. |- |<!--Status-->11110100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Tune Request. Upon receiving a Tune Request, all analog synthesizers should tune their oscillators. |- |<!--Status-->11110111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->End of Exclusive. Used to terminate a System Exclusive dump. |} System Real-Time Messages {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11111000 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Timing Clock. Sent 24 times per quarter note when synchronization is required. |- |<!--Status-->11111001 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111010 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Start. Start the current sequence playing. (This message will be followed with Timing Clocks). |- |<!--Status-->11111011 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Continue. Continue at the point the sequence was Stopped. |- |<!--Status-->11111100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Stop. Stop the current sequence. |- |<!--Status-->11111101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Active Sensing. This message is intended to be sent repeatedly to tell the receiver that a connection is alive. Use of this message is optional. When initially received, the receiver will expect to receive another Active Sensing message each 300ms (max), and if it does not then it will assume that the connection has been terminated. At termination, the receiver will turn off all voices and return to normal (non- active sensing) operation. |- |<!--Status-->11111111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Reset. Reset all receivers in the system to power-up status. This should be used sparingly, preferably under manual control. In particular, it should not be sent on power-up. |} Advanced Messages Polyphonic Pressure (0xA0) and Channel Pressure (0xD0) Some MIDI controllers include a feature known as Aftertouch. While a key is being held down, the player can press harder on the key. The controller measures this, and converts it into MIDI messages. Aftertouch comes in two flavors, with two different status messages. The first flavor is polyphonic aftertouch, where every key on the controller is capable of sending its own independent pressure information. The messages are of the following format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xkk, 0xpp n is the status (0xA) c is the channel nybble kk is the key number (0 to 127) pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Polyphonic aftertouch is an uncommon feature, usually found on premium quality instruments, because every key requires a separate pressure sensor, plus the circuitry to read them all. Much more commonly found is channel aftertouch. Instead of needing a discrete sensor per key, it uses a single, larger sensor to measure pressure on all of the keys as a group. The messages omit the key number, leaving a two-byte format <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xD) c is the channel number pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Pitch Bend (0xE0) Many keyboards have a wheel or lever towards the left of the keys for pitch bend control. This control is usually spring-loaded, so it snaps back to the center of its range when released. This allows for both upward and downward bends. Pitch Bend Wheel The wheel sends pitch bend messages, of the format <pre> 0xnc, 0xLL, 0xMM n is the status (0xE) c is the channel number LL is the 7 least-significant bits of the value MM is the 7 most-significant bits of the value </pre> You’ll notice that the bender data is actually 14 bits long, transmitted as two 7-bit data bytes. This means that the recipient needs to reassemble those bytes using binary manipulation. 14 bits results in an overall range of 214, or 0 to 16,383. Because it defaults to the center of the range, the default value for the bender is halfway through that range, at 8192 (0x2000). Control Change (0xB0) In addition to pitch bend, MIDI has provisions for a wider range of expressive controls, sometimes known as continuous controllers, often abbreviated CC. These are transmitted by the remaining knobs and sliders on the keyboard controller shown below. Continuous Controllers These controls send the following message format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xcc, 0xvv n is the status (0xB) c is the MIDI channel cc is the controller number (0-127) vv is the controller value (0-127) </pre> Typically, the wheel next to the bender sends controller number one, assigned to modulation (or vibrato) depth. It is implemented by most instruments. The remaining controller number assignments are another point of confusion. The MIDI specification was revised in version 2.0 to assign uses for many of the controllers. However, this implementation is not universal, and there are ranges of unassigned controllers. On many modern MIDI devices, the controllers are assignable. On the controller keyboard shown in the photos, the various controls can be configured to transmit different controller numbers. Controller numbers can be mapped to particular parameters. Virtual synthesizers frequently allow the user to assign CCs to the on-screen controls. This is very flexible, but it might require configuration on both ends of the link and completely bypasses the assignments in the standard. Program Change (0xC0) Most synthesizers have patch storage memory, and can be told to change patches using the following command: <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xc) c is the channel pp is the patch number (0-127) </pre> This allows for 128 sounds to be selected, but modern instruments contain many more than 128 patches. Controller #0 is used as an additional layer of addressing, interpreted as a “bank select” command. Selecting a sound on such an instrument might involve two messages: a bank select controller message, then a program change. Audio & Midi are not synchronized, what I can do ? Buy a commercial software package but there is a nasty trick to synchronize both. It's a bit hardcore but works for me: Simply put one line down to all midi notes on your pattern (use Insert key) and go to 'Misc. Setup', adjust the latency and just search a value that will make sound sync both audio/midi. The stock Sin/Saw/Pulse and Rnd waveforms are too simple/common, is there a way to use something more complex/rich ? You have to ability to redirect the waveforms of the instruments through the synth pipe by selecting the "wav" option for the oscillator you're using for this synth instrument, samples can be used as wavetables to replace the stock signals. Sound banks like soundfont (sf2) or Kontakt2 are not supported at the moment ====DAW Audio Evolution 4==== Audio Evolution 4 gives you unsurpassed power for digital audio recording and editing on the Amiga. The latest release focusses on time-saving non-linear and non-destructive editing, as seen on other platforms. Besides editing, Audio Evolution 4 offers a wide range of realtime effects, including compression, noise gate, delays, reverb, chorus and 3-band EQ. Whether you put them as inserts on a channel or use them as auxillaries, the effect parameters are realtime adjustable and can be fully automated. Together with all other mixing parameters, they can even be controlled remotely, using more ergonomic MIDI hardware. Non-linear editing on the time line, including cut, copy, paste, move, split, trim and crossfade actions The number of tracks per project(s) is unlimited .... AHI limits you to recording only two at a time. i.e. not on 8 track sound cards like the Juli@ or Phase 88. sample file import is limited to 16bit AIFF (not AIFC, important distinction as some files from other sources can be AIFC with aiff file extention). and 16bit WAV (pcm only) Most apps use the Music Unit only but a few apps also use Unit (0-3) instead or as well. * Set up AHI prefs so that microphone is available. (Input option near the bottom) stereo++ allows the audio piece to be placed anywhere and the left-right adjusted to sound positionally right hifi best for music playback if driver supports this option Load 16bit .aif .aiff only sample(s) to use not AIFC which can have the same ending. AIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format sox recital.wav recital.aiff sox recital.wav −b 16 recital.aiff channels 1 rate 16k fade 3 norm sox input.wav output.aiff bass −b 16 rate 48k performs the same format translation, but also applies four effects (down-mix to one channel, sample rate change, fade-in, nomalize), and stores the result at a bit-depth of 16. rec −c 2 radio.aiff trim 0 30:00 records half an hour of stereo audio play existing-file.wav 24bit PCM WAV or AIFF do not work *No stream format handling. So no way to pass on an AC3 encoded stream unmodified to the digital outputs through AHI. *No master volume handling. Each application has to set its own volume. So each driver implements its own custom driver-mixer interface for handling master volumes, mute and preamps. *Only one output stream. So all input gets mixed into one output. *No automatic handling of output direction based on connected cables. *No monitor input selection. Only monitor volume control. select the correct input (Don't mistake enabled sound for the correct input.) The monitor will feedback audio to the lineout and hp out no matter if you have selected the correct input to the ADC. The monitor will provide sound for any valid input. This will result in free mixing when recording from the monitor input instead of mic/line because the monitor itself will provide the hardware mixing for you. Be aware that MIC inputs will give two channel mono. Only Linein will give real stereo. Now for the not working part. Attempt to record from linein in the AE4 record window, the right channel is noise and the left channel is distorted. Even with the recommended HIFI 16bit Stereo++ mode at 48kHz. Channels Monitor Gain Inout Output Advanced settings - Debugging via serial port * Options -> Soundcard In/Out * Options -> SampleRate * Options -> Preferences F6 for Sample File List Setting a grid is easy as is measuring the BPM by marking a section of the sample. Is your kick drum track "not in time" ? If so, you're stumped in AE4 as it has no fancy variable time signatures and definitely no 'track this dodgy rhythm' function like software of the nature of Logic has. So if your drum beat is freeform you will need to work in freeform mode. (Real music is free form anyway). If the drum *is* accurate and you are just having trouble measuring the time, I usually measure over a range of bars and set the number of beats in range to say 16 as this is more accurate, Then you will need to shift the drum track to match your grid *before* applying the grid. (probably an iterative process as when the grid is active samples snap to it, and when inactive you cannot see it). AE4 does have ARexx but the functions are more for adding samples at set offsets and starting playback / recording. These are the usual features found in DAWs... * Recording digital audio, midi sequencer and mixer * virtual VST instruments and plug-ins * automation, group channels, MIDI channels, FX sends and returns, audio and MIDI editors and music notation editor * different track views * mixer and track layout (but not the same as below) * traditional two windows (track and mixer) Mixing - mixdown Could not figure out how to select what part I wanted to send to the aux, set it to echo and return. Pretty much the whole echo effect. Or any effect. Take look at page17 of the manual. When you open the EQ / Aux send popup window you will see 4 sends. Now from the menu choose the windows menu. Menus->Windows-> Aux Returns Window or press F5 You will see a small window with 4 volume controls and an effects button for each. Click a button and add an effects to that aux channel, then set it up as desired (note the reverb effect has a special AUX setting that improves its use with the aux channel, not compulsory but highly useful). You set the amount of 'return' on the main mix in the Aux Return window, and the amount sent from each main mixer channel in the popup for that channel. Again the aux sends are "prefade" so the volume faders on each channel do not affect them. Tracking Effects - fade in To add some echoes to some vocals, tried to add an effect on a track but did not come out. This is made more complicated as I wanted to mute a vocal but then make it echo at the muting point. Want to have one word of a vocal heard and then echoed off. But when the track is mute the echo is cancelled out. To correctly understand what is happening here you need to study the figure at the bottom of page 15 on the manual. You will see from that that the effects are applied 'prefade' So the automation you applied will naturally mute the entire signal. There would be a number of ways to achieve the goal, You have three real time effects slots, one for smoothing like so Sample -> Amplify -> Delay Then automate the gain of the amplify block so that it effectively mutes the sample just before the delay at the appropriate moment, the echo effect should then be heard. Getting the effects in the right order will require experimentation as they can only be added top down and it's not obvious which order they are applied to the signal, but there only two possibilities, so it wont take long to find out. Using MUTE can cause clicks to the Amplify can be used to mute more smoothly so that's a secondary advantage. Signal Processing - Overdub [[#top|...to the top]] ===Office=== ====Spreadsheet Leu==== Support for some xlsx, and ods functions ====Spreadsheet Ignition==== ; Needs ABIv1 to be completed before more can be done File formats supported * ascii #?.txt and #?.csv (single sheets with data only). * igs and TurboCalc(WIP) #?.tc for all sheets with data, formats and formulas. There is '''no''' support for xls, xlsx, ods or uos ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Office_Format Uniform Unified Office Format]) at the moment. * Always use Esc key after editing Spreadsheet cells. * copy/paste seems to copy the first instance only so go to Edit -> Clipboard to manage the list of remembered actions. * Right mouse click on row (1 or 2 or 3) or column header (a or b or c) to access optimal height or width of the row or column respectively * Edit -> Insert -> Row seems to clear the spreadsheet or clears the rows after the inserted row until undo restores as it should be... Change Sheet name by Object -> Sheet -> Properties Click in the cell which will contain the result, and click '''down arrow button''' to the right of the formula box at the bottom of the spreadsheet and choose the function required from the list provided. Then click on the start cell and click on the bottom right corner, a '''very''' small blob, which allows stretching a bounding box (thick grey outlines) across many cells This grey bounding box can be used to '''copy a formula''' to other cells. Object -> Cell -> Properties to change cell format - Currency only covers DM and not $, Euro, Renminbi, Yen or Pound etc. Shift key and arrow keys selects a range of cells, so that '''formatting can be done to all highlighted cells'''. View -> Overview then select ALL with one click (in empty cell in the top left hand corner of the sheet). Default mode is relative cell referencing e.g. a1+a2 but absolute e.g. $a$1+$a$2 can be entered. * #sheet-name to '''absolute''' reference another sheet-name cell unless reference() function used. ;Graphs use shift key and arrow keys to select a bunch of cells to be graph'ed making sure that x axes represents and y axes represents * value() - 0 value, 1 percent, 2 date, 3 time, 4 unit ... ;Dates * Excel starts a running count from the 1st Jan 1900 and Ignition starts from 1st Jan 1AD '''(maybe this needs to change)''' Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put date in days ;Time Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put time in seconds taken ;Database (to be done by someone else) type - standard, reference (bezug), search criterion (suchkriterium), * select a bunch of cells and Object -> Database -> Define to set Datenbank (database) and Felder (fields not sure how?) * Neu (new) or loschen (delete) to add/remove database headings e.g. Personal, Start Date, Finish Date (one per row?) * Object -> Database -> Index to add fields (felder) like Surname, First Name, Employee ID, etc. to ? Filtering done with dbfilter(), dbproduct() and dbposition(). Activities with dbsum(), dbaverage(), dbmin() and dbmax(). Table sorting - ;Scripts (Arexx) ;Excel(TM) to Ignition - commas ''',''' replaced by semi-colons ''';''' to separate values within functions *SUM(), *AVERAGE(), MAX(), MIN(), INT(), PRODUCT(), MEDIAN(), VAR() becomes Variance(), Percentile(), *IF(), AND, OR, NOT *LEFT(), RIGHT(), MID() becomes MIDDLE(), LEN() becomes LENGTH(), *LOWER() becomes LOWERCASE(), UPPER() becomes UPPERCASE(), * DATE(yyyy,mm,dd) becomes COMPUTEDATE(dd;mm;yyyy), *TODAY(), DAY(),WEEK(), MONTH(),=YEAR(TODAY()), *EOMONTH() becomes MONTHLENGTH(), *NOW() should be date and time becomes time only, SECOND(), MINUTE(), HOUR(), *DBSUM() becomes DSUM(), ;Missing and possibly useful features/functions needed for ignition to have better support of Excel files There is no Merge and Join Text over many cells, no protect and/or freeze row or columns or books but can LOCK sheets, no define bunch of cells as a name, Macros (Arexx?), conditional formatting, no Solver, no Goal Seek, no Format Painter, no AutoFill, no AutoSum function button, no pivot tables, (30 argument limit applies to Excel) *HLOOKUP(), VLOOKUP(), [http://production-scheduling.com/excel-index-function-most-useful/ INDEX(), MATCH()], CHOOSE(), TEXT(), *TRIM(), FIND(), SUBSTITUTE(), CONCATENATE() or &, PROPER(), REPT(), *[https://acingexcel.com/excel-sumproduct-function/ SUMPRODUCT()], ROUND(), ROUNDUP(), *ROUNDDOWN(), COUNT(), COUNTA(), SUMIF(), COUNTIF(), COUNTBLANK(), TRUNC(), *PMT(), PV(), FV(), POWER(), SQRT(), MODE(), TRUE, FALSE, *MODE(), LARGE(), SMALL(), RANK(), STDEV(), *DCOUNT(), DCOUNTA(), WEEKDAY(), ;Excel Keyboard [http://dmcritchie.mvps.org/excel/shortx2k.htm shortcuts needed to aid usability in Ignition] <pre> Ctrl Z - Undo Ctrl D - Fill Down Ctrl R - Fill right Ctrl F - Find Ctrl H - Replace Ctrl 1 - Formatting of Cells CTRL SHIFT ~ Apply General Formatting ie a number Ctrl ; - Todays Date F2 - Edit cell F4 - toggle cell absolute / relative cell references </pre> ====Document Scanning - Scandal==== Scanner usually needs to be connected via a USB port and not via a hub or extension lead. Check in Trident Prefs -> Devices that the USB Scanner is not bound to anything (e.g. Bindings None) If not found then reboot the computer and recheck. Start Scandal, choose Settings from Menu strip at top of screen and in Scanner Driver choose the ?#.device of the scanner (e.g. epson2.device). The next two boxes - leave empty as they are for morphos SCSI use only or put ata.device (use the selection option in bigger box below) and Unit as 0 this is needed for gt68xx * gt68xx - no editing needed in s/gt68xx.conf but needs a firmware file that corresponds to the scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx firmwares] in sys:s/gt68xx. * epson2 - Need to edit the file epson2.conf in sys/s that corresponds to the scanner being used '''Save''' the settings but do not press the Use button (aros freezes) Back to the Picture Scan window and the right-hand sections. Click on the '''Information''' tab and press Connect button and the scanner should now be detected. Go next to the '''Scanner''' tab next to Information Tab should have Color, Black and White, etc. and dpi settings now. Selecting an option Color, B/W etc. can cause dpi settings corruption (especially if the settings are in one line) so set '''dpi first'''. Make sure if Preview is set or not. In the '''Scan''' Tab, press Scan and the scanner will do its duty. Be aware that nothing is saved to disk yet. In the Save tab, change format JPEG, PNG or IFF DEEP. Tick incremental and base filename if necessary and then click the Save button. The image will now be saved to permanent storage. The driver ignores a device if it is already bond to another USB class, rejects it from being usable. However, open Trident prefs, select your device and use the right mouse button to open. Select "NONE" to prevent poseidon from touching the device. Now save settings. It should always work now. [[#top|...to the top]] ===Emulators=== ==== Amiberry ==== ==== Amiga Emu - Janus UAE ==== With Amibridge, AROS attempts to make the UAE emulator seem embedded within but it still is acting as an app There is no dynarec m68k for each hardware that Aros supports or direct patching of motorola calls to AROS hardware accelerated ones unless the emulator has that included Try starting Janus with a priority of -1 like this little script: <pre> cd sys:system/AmiBridge/emulator changetaskpri -1 run janus-uae -f my_uaerc.config >nil: cd sys:prefs endcli </pre> This stops Janus hogging all the CPU time. ===Miscellaneous=== ====Screensaver Blanker==== Most blankers on the amiga (i.e. aros) run as commodities (they are in the tools/commodities drawer). Double click on blanker. Control is with an app called Exchange, which you need to run first (double click on app) or run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Exchange >NIL: but subsequently can use (Cntrl Alt h). Icon tool types (may be broken) or command line options <pre> seconds=number </pre> Once the timing is right then add the following to s:icaros-sequence or s:user-startup e.g. for 5 minutes run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Blanker seconds=300 >NIL: *[http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/screenblanker/gblanker.i386-aros.zip Garshneblanker] can make Aros unstable or slow. Certain blankers crashes in Icaros 2.0.x like Dragon, Executor. *[ Acuario AROS version], the aquarium screen saver. Startup: extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Kill: c:break name=extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Managed to start Acuario by the Executor blanker. <pre> cx_priority= cx_popkey= ie CX_POPKEY="Shift F1" cx_popup=Yes or No </pre> <pre> Qualifier String Input Event Class ---------------- ----------------- "lshift" IEQUALIFIER_LSHIFT "rshift" IEQUALIFIER_RSHIFT "capslock" IEQUALIFIER_CAPSLOCK "control" IEQUALIFIER_CONTROL "lalt" IEQUALIFIER_LALT "ralt" IEQUALIFIER_RALT "lcommand" IEQUALIFIER_LCOMMAND "rcommand" IEQUALIFIER_RCOMMAND "numericpad" IEQUALIFIER_NUMERICPAD "repeat" IEQUALIFIER_REPEAT "midbutton" IEQUALIFIER_MIDBUTTON "rbutton" IEQUALIFIER_RBUTTON "leftbutton" IEQUALIFIER_LEFTBUTTON "relativemouse" IEQUALIFIER_RELATIVEMOUSE </pre> <pre> Synonym Synonym String Identifier ------- ---------- "shift" IXSYM_SHIFT /* look for either shift key */ "caps" IXSYM_CAPS /* look for either shift key or capslock */ "alt" IXSYM_ALT /* look for either alt key */ Highmap is one of the following strings: "space", "backspace", "tab", "enter", "return", "esc", "del", "up", "down", "right", "left", "f1", "f2", "f3", "f4", "f5", "f6", "f7", "f8", "f9", "f10", "help". </pre> [[#top|...to the top]] ==== World Construction Set WCS (Version 2.031) ==== WCS is a fractal landscape software such as Scenery Animator, Vista Pro and Panorama. Open sourced February 2022, World Construction Set [https://3dnature.com/downloads/legacy-software/ legally and for free] and [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/3DNature c source]. Announced August 1994 this version dates from April 1996 developed by Gary R. Huber and Chris "Xenon" Hanson" from Questar <pre> Assign "WCSProjects:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSProjects" Assign "WCSFrames:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSFrames" </pre> <pre> Load projects .proj by accessing pull down menu Project -> Open then click on CanyonSunset.proj OK to changing .par file and enlarge Status Log window to show what is happening Render by pull down menu Modules -> Render with End equal 1 not 300 then click bottom middle button Render </pre> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxQDmf1ZWG0 Youtube walkthrough of above], [], [], Also try working with the already built file ColoDemo - Then open with the drop-down menu: Project/Open, then WCSProject:ColoDemo.proj Which allows you to use altimetric DEM files already included and Loading scene parameters from ColoDemo.par Once this is done, save everything with a new name to start working exclusively on your project. Then drop-down menu and select Save As ("NewName".proj name), then drop-down menu to open parameter and select Save All ( .par name) After launching the software, there is a the Module Control Panel composed of five icons. It is a dock type shortcut of the first few functions of the drop-down menu *Database - Load (#?.proj), Append, Create, Edit, Save, Dir List (of WCSProject drawer), *Data Ops - Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats *Map View - Database file Loader leading to Map View Control with option to the Database Editor *Parameters - Editor for Motion, Color, Ecosystem, Clouds, Waves, management of altimeter files DEM, sclock settings etc *Render - rendering terrain These are more in the pull down menu but not in the dock *Motion Editor *Color Editor *Ecosys Editor Simple minimal workflow *Load database (1st icon - 1st) *Set parameters and save .par file (4th icon) *Render scene (5th icon) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbTwwR2qcc4 Youtube], [], <pre> .proj new project name which creates a drawer of additional files .binary array, ascii array .xyz , z buffer, DTED .dt0, vista 1990s dem, iff conversion .Obj with .elev, .frd with .hdr maps, - digital elevation model (DEM) is a 3D representation of elevation data in various formats USGS 7.5MinDEM, .par </pre> Since for the time being no project is loaded, a query window indicates a procedural error when clicking on the rendering icon (right end of the bar). The menu is quite traditional; it varies according to the activity of the windows. To display any altimetric file in the "Mapview" (third icon of the panel), There are three possibilities: * Loading of a demonstration project. * The import of a DEM file, followed by texturing and packaging from the "Database-Editor" and the "Color-Editor". * The creation of an altimetric file in WCS format, then texturing. The altimeter file editing (display in the menu) is only made possible if the "Mapview" window is active. The software is made up of many windows and won't be able to describe them all. Know that "Color-Editor" and the "Data-Editor" comprise sufficient functions for obtaining an almost real rendering quality. You have the possibility of inserting vector objects in the "Data-Editor" (creation of roads, railways, etc.) The Map View (MapView) window *Database - Objects and Topos *View - Align, Center, Zoom, Pan, Move *Draw - Maps and distance *Object - Find, highlight, add points, conform topo, duplicate *Motion - Camera, Focus, path, elevation *Windows - DEM designer, Cloud (.cld) and wave (.wve) editor, You will notice that by selecting this window and simply moving the pointer to various points on the map you will see latitude and longitude values ​​change, along with the height. Drop-down menu and Modules, then select MapView and change the width of the window with the map to arrange it in the best way on the screen. With the Auto button the center. Window that then displays the contents of my DEM file, in this case the Grand Canyon. MapView allows you to observe the shape of the landscape from above ZOOM button Press the Zoom button and then with the pointer position on a point on the map, press the left mouse button and then move to the opposite corner to circumscribe the chosen area and press the left mouse button again, then we will see the enlarged area selected on the map. Would add that there is a box next to the Zoom button that allows the direct insertion of a value which, the larger it is, the smaller the magnification and the smaller the value, the stronger the magnification. At each numerical change you will need to press the DRAW button to update the view. PAN button Under Zoom you will find the PAN button which allows you to move the map at will in all directions by the amount you want. This is done by drawing a line in one direction, then press PAN and point to an area on the map with the pointer and press the left mouse button. At this point, leave it and move the pointer in one direction by drawing a line and press the left mouse button again to trigger the movement of the map on the screen (origin and end points). Do some experiments and then use the Auto button immediately below to recenter everything. There are parameters such as TOPO, VEC to be left checked and immediately below one that allows different views of the map with the Style command (Single, Multi, Surface, Emboss, Slope, Contour), each with its own particularities to highlight different details. Now you have the first basics to manage your project visually on the map. Close the MapView window and go further... Let's start working on ECOSYSTEMS If we select Emboss from the MapView Style command we will have a clear idea of ​​how the landscape appears, realizing that it is a predominantly desert region of our planet. Therefore we will begin to act on any vegetation present and the appearance of the landscape. With WCS we will begin to break down the elements of the landscape by assigning defined characteristics. It will be necessary to determine the classes of the ecosystem (Class) with parameters of Elevation Line (maximum altitude), Relative Elevation (arrangement on basins or convexities with respectively positive or negative parameters), Min Slope and Max Slope (slope). WCS offers the possibility of making ecosystems coexist on the same terrain with the UnderEco function, by setting a Density value. Ecosys Ecosystem Editor Let's open it from Modules, then Ecosys Editor. In the left pane you will find the list of ecosystems referring to the files present in our project. It will be necessary to clean up that box to leave only the Water and Snow landscapes and a few other predefined ones. We can do this by selecting the items and pressing the Remove button (be careful not for all elements the button is activated, therefore they cannot all be eliminated). Once this is done we can start adding new ecosystems. Scroll through the various Unused and as soon as the Name item at the top is activated allowing you to write, type the name of your ecosystem, adding the necessary parameters. <pre> Ecosystem1: Name: RockBase Class: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 15 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem2: Name: RockIncl Clss: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 30 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem3: Name: Grass Class Low Veg Density: 50 Height: 1 Elev Line : 1500 Rel El Eff: 5 Max Slope: 10 – Min Slope: 0 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema4: Name: Shrubs Class: Low Veg Density: 40 Height: 8 Elev Line: 3000 Rel El Eff: -2 Max Slope: 20 Min Slope : 5 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema5: Name: Terrain Class: Ground Density: 100 UnderEco: Terrain </pre> Now we need to identify an intermediate ecosystem that guarantees a smooth transition between all, therefore we select as Understory Ecosystem the one called Terrain in all ecosystems, except Snow and Water . Now we need to 'emerge' the Colorado River in the Canyon and we can do this by raising the sea level to 900 (Sea Level) in the Ecosystem called Water. Please note that the order of the ecosystem list gives priority to those that come after. So our list must have the following order: Water, Snow, Shrubs, RockIncl, RockBase, Terrain. It is possible to carry out all movements with the Swap button at the bottom. To put order you can also press Short List. Press Keep to confirm all the work done so far with Ecosystem Editor. Remember every now and then to save both the Project 'Modules/Save' and 'Parameter/Save All' EcoModels are made up of .etp .fgp .iff8 for each model Color Editor Now it's time to define the colors of our scene and we can do this by going to Modules and then Color Editor. In the list we focus on our ecosystems, created first. Let's go to the bottom of the list and select the first white space, assigning the name 'empty1', with a color we like and then we will find this element again in other environments... It could serve as an example for other situations! So we move to 'grass' which already exists and assign the following colors: R 60 G 70 B50 <pre> 'shrubs': R 60 G 80 B 30 'RockIncl' R 110 G 65 B 60 'RockBase' R 110 G 80 B 80 ' Terrain' R 150 G 30 B 30 <pre> Now we can work on pre-existing colors <pre> 'SunLight' R 150 G 130 B 130 'Haze and Fog' R 190 G 170 B 170 'Horizon' R 209 G 185 B 190 'Zenith' R 140 G 150 B 200 'Water' R 90 G 125 B 170 </pre> Ambient R 0 G 0 B 0 So don't forget to close Color Editor by pressing Keep. Go once again to Ecosystem Editor and assign the corresponding color to each environment by selecting it using the Ecosystem Color button. Press it several times until the correct one appears. Then save the project and parameters again, as done previously. Motion Editor Now it's time to take care of the framing, so let's go to Modules and then to Motion Editor. An extremely feature-rich window will open. Following is the list of parameters regarding the Camera, position and other characteristics: <pre> -Camera Altitude: 7.0 -Camera Latitude: 36.075 -Camera Longitude: 112.133 -Focus Attitude: -2.0 -Focus Latitude: 36.275 -Focus Longitude: 112.386 -Camera : 512 → rendering window -Camera Y: 384 → rendering window -View Arc: 80 → View width in degrees -Sun Longitude: 172 -Sun Latitude: -0.9 -Haze Start: 3.8 -Haze Range: 78, 5 </pre> As soon as the values ​​shown in the relevant sliders have been modified, we will be ready to open the CamView window to observe the wireframe preview. Let's not consider all the controls that will appear. Well from the Motion Editor if you have selected Camera Altitude and open the CamView panel, you can change the height of the camera by holding down the right mouse button and moving the mouse up and down. To update the view, press the Terrain button in the adjacent window. As soon as you are convinced of the position, confirm again with Keep. You can carry out the same work with the other functions of the camera, such as Focus Altitude... Let's now see the next positioning step on the Camera map, but let's leave the CamView preview window open while we go to Modules to open the window at the same time MapView. We will thus be able to take advantage of the view from the other together with a subjective one. From the MapView window, select with the left mouse button and while it is pressed, move the Camera as desired. To update the subjective preview, always click on Terrain. While with the same procedure you can intervene on the direction of the camera lens, by selecting the cross and with the left button pressed you can choose the desired view. So with the pressure of Terrain I update the Preview. Possibly can enlarge or reduce the Map View using the Zoom button, for greater precision. Also write that the circle around the cameras indicates the beginning of the haze, there are two types (haze and fog) linked to the altitude. Would also add that the camera height is editable through the Motion Editor panel. The sun Let's see that changing the position of the sun from the Motion Editor. Press the SUN button at the bottom right and set the time and the date. Longitude and latitude are automatically obtained by the program. Always open the View Arc command from the Motion Editor panel, an item present in the Parameter List box. Once again confirm everything with Keep and then save again. Animation The animation part is not left-back and also occupies a window. The settings possibilities are enormous. A time line with dragging functions ("slide", "drag"...) comparable to that of LightWave completes this window. A small window is available for positioning the stars as a function of a date, in order to vary the seasons and their various events (and yes...). At the bottom of the "Motion-Editor", a "cam-view" function will give you access to a control panel. Different preview modes are possible. The rendering is also accessible through a window. No less than nine pages compose it. At this level, you will be able to determine the backup name of your images ("path"), the type of texture to be calculated, the resolution of the images, activate or deactivate functions such as the depth buffer ("zbuffer"), the blur, the background image, etc. Once all these parameters have been set, all you have to do is click on the "Render" button. For rendering go to Modules and then Render. Select the resolution, then under IMA select the name of the image. Move to FRA and indicate the level of fractal detail which of 4 is quite good. Then Keep to confirm and then reopen the window, pressing Render you will see the result. The image will be opened with any viewing program. Strengths: * Multi-window. * Quality of rendering. * Accuracy. * Opening, preview and rendering on CyberGraphX screen. * Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats * The "zbuffer" function. Weaknesses: * No OpenGL management * Calculation time. * No network computing tool. ====Writing CD / DVD - Frying Pan==== Can be backup DVDs (4GB ISO size limit due to use of FileInfoBlock), create audio cds from mp3's, and put .iso files on discs If using for the first time - click Drive button and Device set to ata.device and unit to 0 (zero) Click Tracks Button - Drive 1 - Create New Disc or Import Existing Disc Image (iso bin/cue etc.) - Session File open cue file If you're making a data cd, with files and drawers from your hard drive, you should be using the ISO Builder.. which is the MUI page on the left. ("Data/Audio Tracks" is on the right). You should use the "Data/Audio tracks" page if you want to create music cds with AIFF/WAV/MP3 files, or if you download an .iso file, and you want to put it on a cd. Click WRITE Button - set write speed - click on long Write button Examples Easiest way would be to burn a DATA CD, simply go to "Tracks" page "ISO Builder" and "ADD" everything you need to burn. On the "Write" page i have "Masterize Disc (DAO)", "Close Disc" and "Eject after Write" set. One must not "Blank disc before write" if one uses a CDR AUDIO CD from MP3's are as easy but tricky to deal with. FP only understands one MP3 format, Layer II, everything else will just create empty tracks Burning bootable CD's works only with .iso files. Go to "Tracks" page and "Data/Audio Tracks" and add the .iso ====odf==== Every ODF file is a collection of several subdocuments within a package (ZIP file), each of which stores part of the complete document. * content.xml – Document content and automatic styles used in the content. * styles.xml – Styles used in the document content and automatic styles used in the styles themselves. * meta.xml – Document meta information, such as the author or the time of the last save action. * settings.xml – Application-specific settings, such as the window size or printer information. To read document follow these steps: * Extracting .ods file. * Getting content.xml file (which contains sheets data). * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Creating DataSet (that represent Spreadsheet file). * With XmlDocument select “table:table” elements, and then create adequate DataTables. * Parse child’s of “table:table” element and fill DataTables with those data. * At the end, return DataSet and show it in application’s interface. To write document follow these steps: * Extracting template.ods file (.ods file that we use as template). * Getting content.xml file. * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Erasing all “table:table” elements from the content.xml file. * Reading data from our DataSet and composing adequate “table:table” elements. * Adding “table:table” elements to content.xml file. * Zipping that file as new .ods file. XLS file format The XLS file format contains streams, substreams, and records. These sheet substreams include worksheets, macro sheets, chart sheets, dialog sheets, and VBA module sheets. All the records in an XLS document start with a 2-byte unsigned integer to specify Record Type (rt), and another for Count of Bytes (cb). A record cannot exceed 8224 bytes. If larger than the rest is stored in one or more continue records. * Workbook stream **Globals substream ***BoundSheet8 record - info for Worksheet substream i.e. name, location, type, and visibility. (4bytes the lbPlyPos FilePointer, specifies the position in the Workbook stream where the sheet substream starts) **Worksheet substream (sheet) - Cell Table - Row record - Cells (2byte=row 2byte=column 2byte=XF format) ***Blank cell record ***RK cell record 32-bit number. ***BoolErr cell record (2-byte Bes structure that may be either a Boolean value or an error code) ***Number cell record (64-bit floating-point number) ***LabelSst cell record (4-byte integer that specifies a string in the Shared Strings Table (SST). Specifically, the integer corresponds to the array index in the RGB field of the SST) ***Formula cell record (FormulaValue structure in the 8 bytes that follow the cell structure. The next 6 bytes can be ignored, and the rest of the record is a CellParsedFormula structure that contains the formula itself) ***MulBlank record (first 2 bytes give the row, and the next 2 bytes give the column that the series of blanks starts at. Next, a variable length array of cell structures follows to store formatting information, and the last 2 bytes show what column the series of blanks ends on) ***MulRK record ***Shared String Table (SST) contains all of the string values in the workbook. ACCRINT(), ACCRINTM(), AMORDEGRC(), AMORLINC(), COUPDAYBS(), COUPDAYS(), COUPDAYSNC(), COUPNCD(), COUPNUM(), COUPPCD(), CUMIPMT(), CUMPRINC(), DB(), DDB(), DISC(), DOLLARDE(), DOLLARFR(), DURATION(), EFFECT(), FV(), FVSCHEDULE(), INTRATE(), IPMT(), IRR(), ISPMT(), MDURATION(), MIRR(), NOMINAL(), NPER(), NPV(), ODDFPRICE(), ODDFYIELD(), ODDLPRICE(), ODDLYIELD(), PMT(), PPMT(), PRICE(), PRICEDISC(), PRICEMAT(), PV(), RATE(), RECEIVED(), SLN(), SYD(), TBILLEQ(), TBILLPRICE(), TBILLYIELD(), VDB(), XIRR(), XNPV(), YIELD(), YIELDDISC(), YIELDMAT(), <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> {{BookCat}} nsrrzxdcbo3te5bzpbwet0261k6c3vo 0 243376 4632092 4630781 2026-04-24T16:39:22Z WeelkyWikiReader 3474871 4632092 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !width="4%"|U+!!width="6%"|0!!width="6%"|1!!width="6%"|2!!width="6%"|3!!width="6%"|4!!width="6%"|5!!width="6%"|6!!width="6%"|7!!width="6%"|8!!width="6%"|9!!width="6%"|A!!width="6%"|B!!width="6%"|C!!width="6%"|D!!width="6%"|E!!width="6%"|F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1600x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1601x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1602x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1603x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1604x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1605x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1606x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1607x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1608x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1609x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|160Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|160Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|160Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|160Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|160Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|160Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Gurung Khema''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|1610x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER A|&#x16100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER KA|&#x16101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER KHA|&#x16102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER GA|&#x16103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER GHA|&#x16104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER NGA|&#x16105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER CA|&#x16106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER CHA|&#x16107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER JA|&#x16108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER JHA|&#x16109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER HA|&#x1610a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER TTA|&#x1610b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER TTHA|&#x1610c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER DDA|&#x1610d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER DDHA|&#x1610e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER VA|&#x1610f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|1611x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER TA|&#x16110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER THA|&#x16111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER DA|&#x16112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER DHA|&#x16113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER NA|&#x16114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER PA|&#x16115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER PHA|&#x16116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER BA|&#x16117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER BHA|&#x16118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER MA|&#x16119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER YA|&#x1611a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER RA|&#x1611b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER LA|&#x1611c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA LETTER SA|&#x1611d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x1611e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN I|&#x1611f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|1612x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN II|&#x16120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN U|&#x16121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x16122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN E|&#x16123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN EE|&#x16124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x16125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN O|&#x16126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN OO|&#x16127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x16128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA VOWEL LENGTH MARK|&#x16129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL YA|&#x1612a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL VA|&#x1612b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL HA|&#x1612c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x1612d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA CONSONANT SIGN MEDIAL RA|&#x1612e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA SIGN THOLHOMA|&#x1612f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|1613x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT ZERO|&#x16130;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT ONE|&#x16131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT TWO|&#x16132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT THREE|&#x16133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT FOUR|&#x16134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT FIVE|&#x16135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT SIX|&#x16136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GURUNG KHEMA DIGIT NINE|&#x16139;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kurukh Banna''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1614x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1615x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1616x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1617x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1618x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1619x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Moon''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|161Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|161Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|161Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|161Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|161Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|161Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Blissymbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1620x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1621x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1622x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1623x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1624x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1625x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1626x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1627x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1628x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1629x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|162Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|162Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|162Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|162Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|162Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|162Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1630x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1631x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1632x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1633x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1634x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1635x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1636x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1637x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1638x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1639x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|163Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|163Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|163Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|163Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|163Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|163Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1640x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1641x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1642x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1643x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1644x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1645x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1646x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1647x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1648x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1649x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|164Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|164Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|164Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|164Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|164Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|164Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1650x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1651x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1652x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1653x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1654x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1655x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1656x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1657x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1658x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1659x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|165Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|165Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|165Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|165Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|165Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|165Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1660x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1661x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1662x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1663x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1664x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1665x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1666x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1667x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1668x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1669x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|166Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|166Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|166Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|166Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|166Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|166Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1670x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1671x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1672x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1673x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1674x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1675x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1676x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1677x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1678x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|1679x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|167Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|167Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|167Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|167Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|167Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|167Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Bamum Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1680x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NGKUE MFON|&#x16800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A GBIEE FON|&#x16801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PON MFON PIPAEMGBIEE|&#x16802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PON MFON PIPAEMBA|&#x16803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NAA MFON|&#x16804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SHUENSHUET|&#x16805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A TITA MFON|&#x16806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NZA MFON|&#x16807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SHINDA PA NJI|&#x16808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PON PA NJI PIPAEMGBIEE|&#x16809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PON PA NJI PIPAEMBA|&#x1680a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAEMBGBIEE|&#x1680b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A TU MAEMBA|&#x1680c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NGANGU|&#x1680d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAEMVEUX|&#x1680e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MANSUAE|&#x1680f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1681x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MVEUAENGAM|&#x16810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SEUNYAM|&#x16811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NTOQPEN|&#x16812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A KEUKEUTNDA|&#x16813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NKINDI|&#x16814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SUU|&#x16815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NGKUENZEUM|&#x16816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A LAPAQ|&#x16817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A LET KUT|&#x16818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NTAP MFAA|&#x16819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAEKEUP|&#x1681a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PASHAE|&#x1681b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A GHEUAERAE|&#x1681c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PAMSHAE|&#x1681d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MON NGGEUAET|&#x1681e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NZUN MEUT|&#x1681f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1682x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A U YUQ NAE|&#x16820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A GHEUAEGHEUAE|&#x16821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NTAP NTAA|&#x16822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SISA|&#x16823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MGBASA|&#x16824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MEUNJOMNDEUQ|&#x16825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MOOMPUQ|&#x16826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A KAFA|&#x16827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PA LEERAEWA|&#x16828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NDA LEERAEWA|&#x16829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PET|&#x1682a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAEMKPEN|&#x1682b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NIKA|&#x1682c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PUP|&#x1682d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A TUAEP|&#x1682e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A LUAEP|&#x1682f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1683x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SONJAM|&#x16830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A TEUTEUWEN|&#x16831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAENYI|&#x16832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A KET|&#x16833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NDAANGGEUAET|&#x16834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A KUOQ|&#x16835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MOOMEUT|&#x16836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SHUM|&#x16837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A LOMMAE|&#x16838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A FIRI|&#x16839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A ROM|&#x1683a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A KPOQ|&#x1683b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SOQ|&#x1683c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAP PIEET|&#x1683d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SHIRAE|&#x1683e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NTAP|&#x1683f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1684x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SHOQ NSHUT YUM|&#x16840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NYIT MONGKEUAEQ|&#x16841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PAARAE|&#x16842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NKAARAE|&#x16843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A UNKNOWN|&#x16844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NGGEN|&#x16845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAESI|&#x16846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NJAM|&#x16847;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MBANYI|&#x16848;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NYET|&#x16849;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A TEUAEN|&#x1684a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A SOT|&#x1684b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A PAAM|&#x1684c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NSHIEE|&#x1684d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MAEM|&#x1684e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NYI|&#x1684f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1685x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A KAQ|&#x16850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NSHA|&#x16851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A VEE|&#x16852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A LU|&#x16853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NEN|&#x16854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A NAQ|&#x16855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-A MBAQ|&#x16856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NSHUET|&#x16857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B TU MAEMGBIEE|&#x16858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B SIEE|&#x16859;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B SET TU|&#x1685a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B LOM NTEUM|&#x1685b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MBA MAELEE|&#x1685c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B KIEEM|&#x1685d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B YEURAE|&#x1685e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MBAARAE|&#x1685f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1686x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B KAM|&#x16860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B PEESHI|&#x16861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B YAFU LEERAEWA|&#x16862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B LAM NSHUT NYAM|&#x16863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NTIEE SHEUOQ|&#x16864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NDU NJAA|&#x16865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B GHEUGHEUAEM|&#x16866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B PIT|&#x16867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B TU NSIEE|&#x16868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B SHET NJAQ|&#x16869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B SHEUAEQTU|&#x1686a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MFON TEUAEQ|&#x1686b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MBIT MBAAKET|&#x1686c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NYI NTEUM|&#x1686d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B KEUPUQ|&#x1686e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B GHEUGHEN|&#x1686f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1687x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B KEUYEUX|&#x16870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B LAANAE|&#x16871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B PARUM|&#x16872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B VEUM|&#x16873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NGKINDI MVOP|&#x16874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NGGEU MBU|&#x16875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B WUAET|&#x16876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B SAKEUAE|&#x16877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B TAAM|&#x16878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MEUQ|&#x16879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NGGUOQ|&#x1687a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NGGUOQ LARGE|&#x1687b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MFIYAQ|&#x1687c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B SUE|&#x1687d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MBEURI|&#x1687e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MONTIEEN|&#x1687f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1688x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NYAEMAE|&#x16880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B PUNGAAM|&#x16881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MEUT NGGEET|&#x16882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B FEUX|&#x16883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MBUOQ|&#x16884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B FEE|&#x16885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B KEUAEM|&#x16886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MA NJEUAENA|&#x16887;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MA NJUQA|&#x16888;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B LET|&#x16889;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NGGAAM|&#x1688a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NSEN|&#x1688b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B MA|&#x1688c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B KIQ|&#x1688d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-B NGOM|&#x1688e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGKUE MAEMBA|&#x1688f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1689x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NZA|&#x16890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C YUM|&#x16891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C WANGKUOQ|&#x16892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGGEN|&#x16893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NDEUAEREE|&#x16894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGKAQ|&#x16895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C GHARAE|&#x16896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBEEKEET|&#x16897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C GBAYI|&#x16898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NYIR MKPARAQ MEUN|&#x16899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NTU MBIT|&#x1689a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBEUM|&#x1689b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C PIRIEEN|&#x1689c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NDOMBU|&#x1689d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBAA CABBAGE-TREE|&#x1689e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KEUSHEUAEP|&#x1689f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|168Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C GHAP|&#x168a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KEUKAQ|&#x168a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C YU MUOMAE|&#x168a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NZEUM|&#x168a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBUE|&#x168a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NSEUAEN|&#x168a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBIT|&#x168a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C YEUQ|&#x168a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KPARAQ|&#x168a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KAA|&#x168a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C SEUX|&#x168aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NDIDA|&#x168ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C TAASHAE|&#x168ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NJUEQ|&#x168ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C TITA YUE|&#x168ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C SUAET|&#x168af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|168Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGGUAEN NYAM|&#x168b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C VEUX|&#x168b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NANSANAQ|&#x168b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MA KEUAERI|&#x168b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NTAA|&#x168b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGGUON|&#x168b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C LAP|&#x168b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBIRIEEN|&#x168b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MGBASAQ|&#x168b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NTEUNGBA|&#x168b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C TEUTEUX|&#x168ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGGUM|&#x168bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C FUE|&#x168bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NDEUT|&#x168bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NSA|&#x168be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NSHAQ|&#x168bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|168Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C BUNG|&#x168c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C VEUAEPEN|&#x168c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBERAE|&#x168c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C RU|&#x168c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NJAEM|&#x168c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C LAM|&#x168c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C TITUAEP|&#x168c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NSUOT NGOM|&#x168c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NJEEEE|&#x168c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KET|&#x168c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGGU|&#x168ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MAESI|&#x168cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBUAEM|&#x168cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C LU|&#x168cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KUT|&#x168ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NJAM|&#x168cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|168Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGOM|&#x168d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C WUP|&#x168d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGGUEET|&#x168d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NSOM|&#x168d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NTEN|&#x168d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KUOP NKAARAE|&#x168d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NSUN|&#x168d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NDAM|&#x168d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MA NSIEE|&#x168d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C YAA|&#x168d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NDAP|&#x168da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C SHUEQ|&#x168db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C SETFON|&#x168dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBI|&#x168dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MAEMBA|&#x168de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBANYI|&#x168df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|168Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KEUSEUX|&#x168e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBEUX|&#x168e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KEUM|&#x168e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MBAA PICKET|&#x168e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C YUWOQ|&#x168e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NJEUX|&#x168e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MIEE|&#x168e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C MUAE|&#x168e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C SHIQ|&#x168e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KEN LAW|&#x168e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C KEN FATIGUE|&#x168ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NGAQ|&#x168eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C NAQ|&#x168ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C LIQ|&#x168ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C PIN|&#x168ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C PEN|&#x168ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|168Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-C TET|&#x168f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MBUO|&#x168f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D WAP|&#x168f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NJI|&#x168f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MFON|&#x168f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NJIEE|&#x168f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LIEE|&#x168f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NJEUT|&#x168f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NSHEE|&#x168f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGGAAMAE|&#x168f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NYAM|&#x168fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D WUAEN|&#x168fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGKUN|&#x168fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SHEE|&#x168fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGKAP|&#x168fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KEUAETMEUN|&#x168ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1690x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TEUT|&#x16900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SHEUAE|&#x16901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NJAP|&#x16902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SUE|&#x16903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KET|&#x16904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D YAEMMAE|&#x16905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KUOM|&#x16906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SAP|&#x16907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MFEUT|&#x16908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NDEUX|&#x16909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MALEERI|&#x1690a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MEUT|&#x1690b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SEUAEQ|&#x1690c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D YEN|&#x1690d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NJEUAEM|&#x1690e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KEUOT MBUAE|&#x1690f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1691x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGKEURI|&#x16910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TU|&#x16911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D GHAA|&#x16912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGKYEE|&#x16913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D FEUFEUAET|&#x16914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NDEE|&#x16915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MGBOFUM|&#x16916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LEUAEP|&#x16917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NDON|&#x16918;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MONI|&#x16919;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MGBEUN|&#x1691a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D PUUT|&#x1691b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MGBIEE|&#x1691c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MFO|&#x1691d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LUM|&#x1691e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NSIEEP|&#x1691f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1692x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MBAA|&#x16920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KWAET|&#x16921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NYET|&#x16922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TEUAEN|&#x16923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SOT|&#x16924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D YUWOQ|&#x16925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KEUM|&#x16926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D RAEM|&#x16927;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TEEEE|&#x16928;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGKEUAEQ|&#x16929;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MFEUAE|&#x1692a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NSIEET|&#x1692b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KEUP|&#x1692c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D PIP|&#x1692d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D PEUTAE|&#x1692e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NYUE|&#x1692f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1693x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LET|&#x16930;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGGAAM|&#x16931;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MFIEE|&#x16932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGGWAEN|&#x16933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D YUOM|&#x16934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D PAP|&#x16935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D YUOP|&#x16936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NDAM|&#x16937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NTEUM|&#x16938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SUAE|&#x16939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KUN|&#x1693a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGGEUX|&#x1693b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGKIEE|&#x1693c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TUOT|&#x1693d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MEUN|&#x1693e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KUQ|&#x1693f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1694x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NSUM|&#x16940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TEUN|&#x16941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MAENJET|&#x16942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGGAP|&#x16943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LEUM|&#x16944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NGGUOM|&#x16945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NSHUT|&#x16946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NJUEQ|&#x16947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D GHEUAE|&#x16948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KU|&#x16949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D REN OLD|&#x1694a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TAE|&#x1694b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TOQ|&#x1694c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NYI|&#x1694d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D RII|&#x1694e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LEEEE|&#x1694f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1695x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MEEEE|&#x16950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D M|&#x16951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SUU|&#x16952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MU|&#x16953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SHII|&#x16954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SHEUX|&#x16955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D KYEE|&#x16956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NU|&#x16957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SHU|&#x16958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NTEE|&#x16959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D PEE|&#x1695a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NI|&#x1695b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SHOQ|&#x1695c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D PUQ|&#x1695d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MVOP|&#x1695e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D LOQ|&#x1695f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1696x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D REN MUCH|&#x16960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D TI|&#x16961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D NTUU|&#x16962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D MBAA SEVEN|&#x16963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D SAQ|&#x16964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-D FAA|&#x16965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NDAP|&#x16966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TOON|&#x16967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MBEUM|&#x16968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LAP|&#x16969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E VOM|&#x1696a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LOON|&#x1696b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PAA|&#x1696c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SOM|&#x1696d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E RAQ|&#x1696e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NSHUOP|&#x1696f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1697x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NDUN|&#x16970;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PUAE|&#x16971;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TAM|&#x16972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGKA|&#x16973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KPEUX|&#x16974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E WUO|&#x16975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SEE|&#x16976;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGGEUAET|&#x16977;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PAAM|&#x16978;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TOO|&#x16979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KUOP|&#x1697a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LOM|&#x1697b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NSHIEE|&#x1697c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGOP|&#x1697d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MAEM|&#x1697e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGKEUX|&#x1697f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1698x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGOQ|&#x16980;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NSHUE|&#x16981;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E RIMGBA|&#x16982;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NJEUX|&#x16983;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PEEM|&#x16984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SAA|&#x16985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGGURAE|&#x16986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MGBA|&#x16987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GHEUX|&#x16988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGKEUAEM|&#x16989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NJAEMLI|&#x1698a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MAP|&#x1698b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LOOT|&#x1698c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGGEEEE|&#x1698d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NDIQ|&#x1698e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TAEN NTEUM|&#x1698f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|1699x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SET|&#x16990;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PUM|&#x16991;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NDAA SOFTNESS|&#x16992;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGGUAESHAE NYAM|&#x16993;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YIEE|&#x16994;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GHEUN|&#x16995;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TUAE|&#x16996;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YEUAE|&#x16997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PO|&#x16998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TUMAE|&#x16999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KEUAE|&#x1699a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SUAEN|&#x1699b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TEUAEQ|&#x1699c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E VEUAE|&#x1699d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E WEUX|&#x1699e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LAAM|&#x1699f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|169Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PU|&#x169a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TAAQ|&#x169a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GHAAMAE|&#x169a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGEUREUT|&#x169a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SHEUAEQ|&#x169a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MGBEN|&#x169a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MBEE|&#x169a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NZAQ|&#x169a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NKOM|&#x169a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GBET|&#x169a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TUM|&#x169aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KUET|&#x169ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YAP|&#x169ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NYI CLEAVER|&#x169ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YIT|&#x169ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MFEUQ|&#x169af;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|169Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NDIAQ|&#x169b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PIEEQ|&#x169b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YUEQ|&#x169b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LEUAEM|&#x169b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FUE|&#x169b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GBEUX|&#x169b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGKUP|&#x169b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KET|&#x169b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MAE|&#x169b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGKAAMI|&#x169b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GHET|&#x169ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FA|&#x169bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NTUM|&#x169bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PEUT|&#x169bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YEUM|&#x169be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGGEUAE|&#x169bf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|169Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NYI BETWEEN|&#x169c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NZUQ|&#x169c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E POON|&#x169c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MIEE|&#x169c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FUET|&#x169c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NAE|&#x169c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MUAE|&#x169c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GHEUAE|&#x169c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FU I|&#x169c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MVI|&#x169c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PUAQ|&#x169ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGKUM|&#x169cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KUT|&#x169cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PIET|&#x169cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NTAP|&#x169ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YEUAET|&#x169cf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|169Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGGUP|&#x169d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PA PEOPLE|&#x169d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FU CALL|&#x169d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FOM|&#x169d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NJEE|&#x169d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E A|&#x169d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TOQ|&#x169d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E O|&#x169d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E I|&#x169d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LAQ|&#x169d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PA PLURAL|&#x169da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TAA|&#x169db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TAQ|&#x169dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NDAA MY HOUSE|&#x169dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SHIQ|&#x169de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YEUX|&#x169df;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|169Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGUAE|&#x169e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YUAEN|&#x169e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YOQ SWIMMING|&#x169e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YOQ COVER|&#x169e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YUQ|&#x169e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E YUN|&#x169e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KEUX|&#x169e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PEUX|&#x169e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NJEE EPOCH|&#x169e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PUE|&#x169e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E WUE|&#x169ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FEE|&#x169eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E VEE|&#x169ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LU|&#x169ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MI|&#x169ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E REUX|&#x169ef;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|169Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E RAE|&#x169f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGUAET|&#x169f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NGA|&#x169f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SHO|&#x169f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E SHOQ|&#x169f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FU REMEDY|&#x169f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E NA|&#x169f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E PI|&#x169f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E LOQ|&#x169f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KO|&#x169f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MEN|&#x169fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MA|&#x169fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MAQ|&#x169fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TEU|&#x169fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E KI|&#x169fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E MON|&#x169ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E TEN|&#x16a00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E FAQ|&#x16a01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-E GHOM|&#x16a02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KA|&#x16a03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F U|&#x16a04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KU|&#x16a05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F EE|&#x16a06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F REE|&#x16a07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F TAE|&#x16a08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NYI|&#x16a09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F LA|&#x16a0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F RII|&#x16a0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F RIEE|&#x16a0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F MEEEE|&#x16a0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F TAA|&#x16a0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NDAA|&#x16a0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NJAEM|&#x16a10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F M|&#x16a11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SUU|&#x16a12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SHII|&#x16a13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SI|&#x16a14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SEUX|&#x16a15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KYEE|&#x16a16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KET|&#x16a17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NUAE|&#x16a18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NU|&#x16a19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NJUAE|&#x16a1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F YOQ|&#x16a1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SHU|&#x16a1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F YA|&#x16a1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NSHA|&#x16a1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F PEUX|&#x16a1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NTEE|&#x16a20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F WUE|&#x16a21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F PEE|&#x16a22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F RU|&#x16a23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NI|&#x16a24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F REUX|&#x16a25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KEN|&#x16a26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NGKWAEN|&#x16a27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F NGGA|&#x16a28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SHO|&#x16a29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F PUAE|&#x16a2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F FOM|&#x16a2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F WA|&#x16a2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F LI|&#x16a2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F LOQ|&#x16a2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KO|&#x16a2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7bffe8" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F MBEN|&#x16a30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F REN|&#x16a31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F MA|&#x16a32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F MO|&#x16a33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F MBAA|&#x16a34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F TET|&#x16a35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F KPA|&#x16a36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F SAMBA|&#x16a37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAMUM LETTER PHASE-F VUEQ|&#x16a38;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Mro''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER TA|&#x16a40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER NGI|&#x16a41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER YO|&#x16a42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER MIM|&#x16a43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER BA|&#x16a44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER DA|&#x16a45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER A|&#x16a46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER PHI|&#x16a47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER KHAI|&#x16a48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER HAO|&#x16a49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER DAI|&#x16a4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER CHU|&#x16a4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER KEAAE|&#x16a4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER OL|&#x16a4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER MAEM|&#x16a4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER NIN|&#x16a4f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER PA|&#x16a50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER OO|&#x16a51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER O|&#x16a52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER RO|&#x16a53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER SHI|&#x16a54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER THEA|&#x16a55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER EA|&#x16a56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER WA|&#x16a57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER E|&#x16a58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER KO|&#x16a59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER LAN|&#x16a5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER LA|&#x16a5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER HAI|&#x16a5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER RI|&#x16a5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO LETTER TEK|&#x16a5e;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT ZERO|&#x16a60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT ONE|&#x16a61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT TWO|&#x16a62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT THREE|&#x16a63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT FOUR|&#x16a64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT FIVE|&#x16a65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT SIX|&#x16a66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16a67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16a68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DIGIT NINE|&#x16a69;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DANDA|&#x16a6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MRO DOUBLE DANDA|&#x16a6f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tangsa''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER OZ|&#x16a70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER OC|&#x16a71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER OQ|&#x16a72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER OX|&#x16a73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AZ|&#x16a74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AC|&#x16a75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AQ|&#x16a76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AX|&#x16a77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER VZ|&#x16a78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER VC|&#x16a79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER VQ|&#x16a7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER VX|&#x16a7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER EZ|&#x16a7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER EC|&#x16a7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER EQ|&#x16a7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER EX|&#x16a7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER IZ|&#x16a80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER IC|&#x16a81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER IQ|&#x16a82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER IX|&#x16a83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UZ|&#x16a84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UC|&#x16a85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UQ|&#x16a86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UX|&#x16a87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AWZ|&#x16a88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AWC|&#x16a89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AWQ|&#x16a8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER AWX|&#x16a8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIZ|&#x16a8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIC|&#x16a8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIQ|&#x16a8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIX|&#x16a8f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|16A9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER FINAL NG|&#x16a90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER LONG UEX|&#x16a91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER SHORT UEZ|&#x16a92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER SHORT AWX|&#x16a93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UEZ|&#x16a94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UEC|&#x16a95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UEQ|&#x16a96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UEX|&#x16a97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIUZ|&#x16a98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIUC|&#x16a99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIUQ|&#x16a9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER UIUX|&#x16a9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER MZ|&#x16a9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER MC|&#x16a9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER MQ|&#x16a9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER MX|&#x16a9f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|16AAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER KA|&#x16aa0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER KHA|&#x16aa1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER GA|&#x16aa2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER NGA|&#x16aa3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER SA|&#x16aa4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER YA|&#x16aa5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER WA|&#x16aa6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER PA|&#x16aa7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER NYA|&#x16aa8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER PHA|&#x16aa9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER BA|&#x16aaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER MA|&#x16aab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER NA|&#x16aac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER HA|&#x16aad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER LA|&#x16aae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER HTA|&#x16aaf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|16ABx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER TA|&#x16ab0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER DA|&#x16ab1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER RA|&#x16ab2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER NHA|&#x16ab3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER SHA|&#x16ab4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER CA|&#x16ab5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER TSA|&#x16ab6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER GHA|&#x16ab7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER HTTA|&#x16ab8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER THA|&#x16ab9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER XA|&#x16aba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER FA|&#x16abb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER DHA|&#x16abc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER CHA|&#x16abd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA LETTER ZA|&#x16abe;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#ffc0e0" !style="background:#ffffff"|16ACx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT ZERO|&#x16ac0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT ONE|&#x16ac1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT TWO|&#x16ac2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT THREE|&#x16ac3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT FOUR|&#x16ac4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT FIVE|&#x16ac5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT SIX|&#x16ac6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16ac7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16ac8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGSA DIGIT NINE|&#x16ac9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Bassa Vah''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16ADx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER ENNI|&#x16ad0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER KA|&#x16ad1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER SE|&#x16ad2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER FA|&#x16ad3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER MBE|&#x16ad4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER YIE|&#x16ad5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER GAH|&#x16ad6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER DHII|&#x16ad7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER KPAH|&#x16ad8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER JO|&#x16ad9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER HWAH|&#x16ada;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER WA|&#x16adb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER ZO|&#x16adc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER GBU|&#x16add;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER DO|&#x16ade;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER CE|&#x16adf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16AEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER UWU|&#x16ae0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER TO|&#x16ae1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER BA|&#x16ae2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER VU|&#x16ae3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER YEIN|&#x16ae4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER PA|&#x16ae5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER WADDA|&#x16ae6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER A|&#x16ae7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER O|&#x16ae8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER OO|&#x16ae9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER U|&#x16aea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER EE|&#x16aeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER E|&#x16aec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH LETTER I|&#x16aed;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16AFx |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH COMBINING HIGH TONE|&#x16af0;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH COMBINING LOW TONE|&#x16af1;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH COMBINING MID TONE|&#x16af2;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH COMBINING LOW-MID TONE|&#x16af3;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH COMBINING HIGH-LOW TONE|&#x16af4;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BASSA VAH FULL STOP|&#x16af5;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Pahawh Hmong''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KEEB|&#x16b00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KEEV|&#x16b01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KIB|&#x16b02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KIV|&#x16b03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAUB|&#x16b04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAUV|&#x16b05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KUB|&#x16b06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KUV|&#x16b07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KEB|&#x16b08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KEV|&#x16b09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAIB|&#x16b0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAIV|&#x16b0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KOOB|&#x16b0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KOOV|&#x16b0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAWB|&#x16b0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAWV|&#x16b0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KUAB|&#x16b10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KUAV|&#x16b11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KOB|&#x16b12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KOV|&#x16b13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KIAB|&#x16b14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KIAV|&#x16b15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAB|&#x16b16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAV|&#x16b17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KWB|&#x16b18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KWV|&#x16b19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAAB|&#x16b1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG VOWEL KAAV|&#x16b1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT VAU|&#x16b1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT NTSAU|&#x16b1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT LAU|&#x16b1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT HAU|&#x16b1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT NLAU|&#x16b20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT RAU|&#x16b21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT NKAU|&#x16b22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT QHAU|&#x16b23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT YAU|&#x16b24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT HLAU|&#x16b25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT MAU|&#x16b26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT CHAU|&#x16b27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT NCHAU|&#x16b28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT HNAU|&#x16b29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT PLHAU|&#x16b2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT NTHAU|&#x16b2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT NAU|&#x16b2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT AU|&#x16b2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT XAU|&#x16b2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CONSONANT CAU|&#x16b2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM TUB|&#x16b30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM SO|&#x16b31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM KES|&#x16b32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM KHAV|&#x16b33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM SUAM|&#x16b34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM HOM|&#x16b35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG MARK CIM TAUM|&#x16b36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS THOM|&#x16b37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS TSHAB CEEB|&#x16b38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM CHEEM|&#x16b39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS THIAB|&#x16b3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS FEEM|&#x16b3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM NTXIV|&#x16b3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM RHO|&#x16b3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM TOV|&#x16b3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYEEM FAIB|&#x16b3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B4x |style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS SEEV|&#x16b40;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN MEEJ SUAB|&#x16b41;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS NRUA|&#x16b42;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN IB YAM|&#x16b43;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XAUS|&#x16b44;}}||style="background:#87abff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM TSOV ROG|&#x16b45;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT ZERO|&#x16b50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT ONE|&#x16b51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT TWO|&#x16b52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT THREE|&#x16b53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT FOUR|&#x16b54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT FIVE|&#x16b55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT SIX|&#x16b56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16b57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16b58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG DIGIT NINE|&#x16b59;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER TENS|&#x16b5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER HUNDREDS|&#x16b5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER TEN THOUSANDS|&#x16b5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER MILLIONS|&#x16b5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER HUNDRED MILLIONS|&#x16b5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER TEN BILLIONS|&#x16b60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG NUMBER TRILLIONS|&#x16b61;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN VOS LUB|&#x16b63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XYOO|&#x16b64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN HLI|&#x16b65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN THIRD-STAGE HLI|&#x16b66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN ZWJ THAJ|&#x16b67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN HNUB|&#x16b68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN NQIG|&#x16b69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN XIAB|&#x16b6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN NTUJ|&#x16b6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN AV|&#x16b6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN TXHEEJ CEEV|&#x16b6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN MEEJ TSEEB|&#x16b6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN TAU|&#x16b6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN LOS|&#x16b70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN MUS|&#x16b71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM HAIS LUS NTOG NTOG|&#x16b72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM CUAM TSHOOJ|&#x16b73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM TXWV|&#x16b74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM TXWV CHWV|&#x16b75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM PUB DAWB|&#x16b76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG SIGN CIM NRES TOS|&#x16b77;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN TSHEEJ|&#x16b7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN YEEG|&#x16b7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN LIS|&#x16b7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#87abff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN LAUJ|&#x16b80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN XYOOJ|&#x16b81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN KOO|&#x16b82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN HAWJ|&#x16b83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN MUAS|&#x16b84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN THOJ|&#x16b85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN TSAB|&#x16b86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN PHAB|&#x16b87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN KHAB|&#x16b88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN HAM|&#x16b89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN VAJ|&#x16b8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN FAJ|&#x16b8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN YAJ|&#x16b8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN TSWB|&#x16b8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN KWM|&#x16b8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAHAWH HMONG CLAN SIGN VWJ|&#x16b8f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Woleai''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16B9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16BAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16BBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16BCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16BDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16BEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16BFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kpelle''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Tikamuli''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16C9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16CAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16CBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16CCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16CDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16CEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16CFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Afaka''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kirat Rai''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x16d40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI SIGN TONPI|&#x16d41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI SIGN VISARGA|&#x16d42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER A|&#x16d43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER KA|&#x16d44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER KHA|&#x16d45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER GA|&#x16d46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER GHA|&#x16d47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER NGA|&#x16d48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER CA|&#x16d49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER CHA|&#x16d4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER JA|&#x16d4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER JHA|&#x16d4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER NYA|&#x16d4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER TTA|&#x16d4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER TTHA|&#x16d4f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER DDA|&#x16d50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER DDHA|&#x16d51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER TA|&#x16d52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER THA|&#x16d53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER DA|&#x16d54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER DHA|&#x16d55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER NA|&#x16d56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER PA|&#x16d57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER PHA|&#x16d58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER BA|&#x16d59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER BHA|&#x16d5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER MA|&#x16d5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER YA|&#x16d5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER RA|&#x16d5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER LA|&#x16d5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER VA|&#x16d5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER SA|&#x16d60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER SHA|&#x16d61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI LETTER HA|&#x16d62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x16d63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN I|&#x16d64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN U|&#x16d65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN UE|&#x16d66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN E|&#x16d67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x16d68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN O|&#x16d69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x16d6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI SIGN VIRAMA|&#x16d6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI SIGN SAAT|&#x16d6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI SIGN YUPI|&#x16d6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DANDA|&#x16d6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DOUBLE DANDA|&#x16d6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#edc3b4" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT ZERO|&#x16d70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT ONE|&#x16d71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT TWO|&#x16d72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT THREE|&#x16d73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT FOUR|&#x16d74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT FIVE|&#x16d75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT SIX|&#x16d76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16d77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16d78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIRAT RAI DIGIT NINE|&#x16d79;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Chisoi''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER A|&#x16d80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER BA|&#x16d81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER AAI|&#x16d82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER AA|&#x16d83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER GA|&#x16d84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER TA|&#x16d85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER E|&#x16d86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER SA|&#x16d87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER NA|&#x16d88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER I|&#x16d89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER KA|&#x16d8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER RA|&#x16d8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER MA|&#x16d8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER HA|&#x16d8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER RRA|&#x16d8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER U|&#x16d8f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|16D9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER DA|&#x16d90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER LA|&#x16d91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER O|&#x16d92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER NYA|&#x16d93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER NGA|&#x16d94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER CA|&#x16d95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER JA|&#x16d96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER PA|&#x16d97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI SIGN ANUSVARA|&#x16d98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER YA|&#x16d99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER DDA|&#x16d9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER TTA|&#x16d9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI LETTER JARAHA|&#x16d9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI SIGN SISO|&#x16d9d;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#c8a36f" !style="background:#ffffff"|16DAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT ZERO|&#x16da0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT ONE|&#x16da1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT TWO|&#x16da2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT THREE|&#x16da3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT FOUR|&#x16da4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT FIVE|&#x16da5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT SIX|&#x16da6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16da7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16da8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHISOI DIGIT NINE|&#x16da9;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16DBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16DCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kulitan''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16DDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16DEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16DFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Mwangwego''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#bba757" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI A|&#x16e00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI BA|&#x16e01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI CHA|&#x16e02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI DA|&#x16e03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI FA|&#x16e04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI GA|&#x16e05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI GHA|&#x16e06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI HA|&#x16e07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI JA|&#x16e08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI ZHA|&#x16e09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI KA|&#x16e0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI LA|&#x16e0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI MA|&#x16e0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI NA|&#x16e0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI NYA|&#x16e0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI PA|&#x16e0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#bba757" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI RA|&#x16e10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI SA|&#x16e11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI SHA|&#x16e12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI TA|&#x16e13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI TSA|&#x16e14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI PSA|&#x16e15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI VA|&#x16e16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI WA|&#x16e17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI YA|&#x16e18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI ZA|&#x16e19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI DZA|&#x16e1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI DHLA|&#x16e1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI HLA|&#x16e1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI XA|&#x16e1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI QA|&#x16e1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUSISI THA|&#x16e1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#bba757" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO SIRI EMWA|&#x16e20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO SIRI IMA|&#x16e21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO SIRI OTA|&#x16e22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO SIRI UYU|&#x16e23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO MYU|&#x16e24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO MI|&#x16e25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO NI|&#x16e26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO HI|&#x16e27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO WAYA|&#x16e28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO WAYA BELOW|&#x16e29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO SISA|&#x16e2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO MURA|&#x16e2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO MULA|&#x16e2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO PEWA|&#x16e2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO TUMBU|&#x16e2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MUTUYO KWANTHU|&#x16e2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#bba757" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MYU-NI|&#x16e30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MYU-HI|&#x16e31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MYU-WAYA|&#x16e32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MI-HI|&#x16e33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MI-WAYA|&#x16e34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO NI-HI|&#x16e35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO NI-WAYA|&#x16e36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO HI-WAYA|&#x16e37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO NI-WAYA|&#x16e38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO TUMBU-WAYA|&#x16e39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MYU-NI-HI|&#x16e3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MYU-HI-WAYA|&#x16e3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MI-HI-WAYA|&#x16e3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO NI-HI-WAYA|&#x16e3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO SISA-NI-HI|&#x16e3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MWANGWEGO MITUYO MYU-NI-HI-WAYA|&#x16e3f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Medefaidrin''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x16e40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x16e41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x16e42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x16e43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER ATIU|&#x16e44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x16e45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER KP|&#x16e46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x16e47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x16e48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x16e49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x16e4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x16e4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x16e4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x16e4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x16e4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x16e4f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x16e50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x16e51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x16e52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER YU|&#x16e53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x16e54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x16e55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER HP|&#x16e56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER NY|&#x16e57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x16e58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x16e59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER OE|&#x16e5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x16e5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x16e5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x16e5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER AI|&#x16e5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x16e5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER M|&#x16e60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER S|&#x16e61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER V|&#x16e62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER W|&#x16e63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER ATIU|&#x16e64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER Z|&#x16e65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER KP|&#x16e66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER P|&#x16e67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER T|&#x16e68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER G|&#x16e69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER F|&#x16e6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER I|&#x16e6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER K|&#x16e6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER A|&#x16e6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER J|&#x16e6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER E|&#x16e6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER B|&#x16e70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER C|&#x16e71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER U|&#x16e72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER YU|&#x16e73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER L|&#x16e74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER Q|&#x16e75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER HP|&#x16e76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER NY|&#x16e77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER X|&#x16e78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER D|&#x16e79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER OE|&#x16e7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER N|&#x16e7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER R|&#x16e7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER O|&#x16e7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER AI|&#x16e7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SMALL LETTER Y|&#x16e7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT ZERO|&#x16e80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT ONE|&#x16e81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT TWO|&#x16e82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT THREE|&#x16e83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT FOUR|&#x16e84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT FIVE|&#x16e85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT SIX|&#x16e86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT SEVEN|&#x16e87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT EIGHT|&#x16e88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT NINE|&#x16e89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER TEN|&#x16e8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER ELEVEN|&#x16e8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER TWELVE|&#x16e8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER THIRTEEN|&#x16e8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER FOURTEEN|&#x16e8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER FIFTEEN|&#x16e8f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#d093ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16E9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER SIXTEEN|&#x16e90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER SEVENTEEN|&#x16e91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER EIGHTEEN|&#x16e92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN NUMBER NINETEEN|&#x16e93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT ONE ALTERNATE FORM|&#x16e94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT TWO ALTERNATE FORM|&#x16e95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN DIGIT THREE ALTERNATE FORM|&#x16e96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN COMMA|&#x16e97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN FULL STOP|&#x16e98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN SYMBOL AIVA|&#x16e99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDEFAIDRIN EXCLAMATION OH|&#x16e9a;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Beria Erfe''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#ddb495" !style="background:#ffffff"|16EAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER ARKAB|&#x16ea0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER BASIGNA|&#x16ea1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER DARBAI|&#x16ea2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER EH|&#x16ea3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER FITKO|&#x16ea4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER GOWAY|&#x16ea5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER HIRDEABO|&#x16ea6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x16ea7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER DJAI|&#x16ea8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER KOBO|&#x16ea9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER LAKKO|&#x16eaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER MERI|&#x16eab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER NINI|&#x16eac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER GNA|&#x16ead;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER NGAY|&#x16eae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER OI|&#x16eaf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ddb495" !style="background:#ffffff"|16EBx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER PI|&#x16eb0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER ERIGO|&#x16eb1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER ERIGO TAMURA|&#x16eb2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER SERI|&#x16eb3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER SHEP|&#x16eb4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER TATASOUE|&#x16eb5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER UI|&#x16eb6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER WASSE|&#x16eb7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE CAPITAL LETTER AY|&#x16eb8;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER ARKAB|&#x16ebb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER BASIGNA|&#x16ebc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER DARBAI|&#x16ebd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER EH|&#x16ebe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER FITKO|&#x16ebf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ddb495" !style="background:#ffffff"|16ECx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER GOWAY|&#x16ec0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER HIRDEABO|&#x16ec1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER I|&#x16ec2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER DJAI|&#x16ec3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER KOBO|&#x16ec4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER LAKKO|&#x16ec5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER MERI|&#x16ec6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER NINI|&#x16ec7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER GNA|&#x16ec8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER NGAY|&#x16ec9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER OI|&#x16eca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER PI|&#x16ecb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER ERIGO|&#x16ecc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER ERIGO TAMURA|&#x16ecd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER SERI|&#x16ece;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER SHEP|&#x16ecf;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#ddb495" !style="background:#ffffff"|16EDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER TATASOUE|&#x16ed0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER UI|&#x16ed1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER WASSE|&#x16ed2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BERIA ERFE SMALL LETTER AY|&#x16ed3;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16EEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16EFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Miao''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER PA|&#x16f00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER BA|&#x16f01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI PA|&#x16f02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER PLA|&#x16f03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER MA|&#x16f04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER MHA|&#x16f05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ARCHAIC MA|&#x16f06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER FA|&#x16f07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER VA|&#x16f08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER VFA|&#x16f09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TA|&#x16f0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DA|&#x16f0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI TTA|&#x16f0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI TA|&#x16f0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TTA|&#x16f0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DDA|&#x16f0f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NA|&#x16f10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NHA|&#x16f11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI NNA|&#x16f12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ARCHAIC NA|&#x16f13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NNA|&#x16f14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NNHA|&#x16f15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER LA|&#x16f16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER LYA|&#x16f17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER LHA|&#x16f18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER LHYA|&#x16f19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TLHA|&#x16f1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DLHA|&#x16f1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TLHYA|&#x16f1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DLHYA|&#x16f1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER KA|&#x16f1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER GA|&#x16f1f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI KA|&#x16f20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER QA|&#x16f21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER QGA|&#x16f22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NGA|&#x16f23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NGHA|&#x16f24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ARCHAIC NGA|&#x16f25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER HA|&#x16f26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER XA|&#x16f27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER GHA|&#x16f28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER GHHA|&#x16f29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TSSA|&#x16f2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DZZA|&#x16f2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NYA|&#x16f2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NYHA|&#x16f2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TSHA|&#x16f2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DZHA|&#x16f2f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI TSHA|&#x16f30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI DZHA|&#x16f31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TSHA|&#x16f32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER SHA|&#x16f33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER SSA|&#x16f34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZHA|&#x16f35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZSHA|&#x16f36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TSA|&#x16f37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DZA|&#x16f38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER YI TSA|&#x16f39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER SA|&#x16f3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZA|&#x16f3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZSA|&#x16f3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZZA|&#x16f3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZZSA|&#x16f3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ARCHAIC ZZA|&#x16f3f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F4x |style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZZYA|&#x16f40;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER ZZSYA|&#x16f41;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER WA|&#x16f42;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER AH|&#x16f43;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER HHA|&#x16f44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER BRI|&#x16f45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER SYI|&#x16f46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER DZYI|&#x16f47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TE|&#x16f48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TSE|&#x16f49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER RTE|&#x16f4a;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO SIGN CONSONANT MODIFIER BAR|&#x16f4f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER NASALIZATION|&#x16f50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO SIGN ASPIRATION|&#x16f51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO SIGN REFORMED VOICING|&#x16f52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO SIGN REFORMED ASPIRATION|&#x16f53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN A|&#x16f54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AA|&#x16f55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AHH|&#x16f56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AN|&#x16f57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ANG|&#x16f58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN O|&#x16f59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN OO|&#x16f5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN WO|&#x16f5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN W|&#x16f5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN E|&#x16f5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN EN|&#x16f5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ENG|&#x16f5f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN OEY|&#x16f60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN I|&#x16f61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IA|&#x16f62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IAN|&#x16f63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IANG|&#x16f64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IO|&#x16f65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IE|&#x16f66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN II|&#x16f67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IU|&#x16f68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ING|&#x16f69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN U|&#x16f6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UA|&#x16f6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UAN|&#x16f6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UANG|&#x16f6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UU|&#x16f6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UEI|&#x16f6f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UNG|&#x16f70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN Y|&#x16f71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN YI|&#x16f72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AE|&#x16f73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AEE|&#x16f74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ERR|&#x16f75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ROUNDED ERR|&#x16f76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ER|&#x16f77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN ROUNDED ER|&#x16f78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AI|&#x16f79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN EI|&#x16f7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN AU|&#x16f7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN OU|&#x16f7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN N|&#x16f7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN NG|&#x16f7e;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UOG|&#x16f7f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#e896ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN YUI|&#x16f80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN OG|&#x16f81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN OER|&#x16f82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN VW|&#x16f83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IG|&#x16f84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN EA|&#x16f85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN IONG|&#x16f86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO VOWEL SIGN UI|&#x16f87;}}||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777"|&nbsp;||style="background:#7ef9ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO TONE RIGHT|&#x16f8f;}} |----- align="center" style="background:#7ef9ff" !style="background:#ffffff"|16F9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO TONE TOP RIGHT|&#x16f90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO TONE ABOVE|&#x16f91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO TONE BELOW|&#x16f92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-2|&#x16f93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-3|&#x16f94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-4|&#x16f95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-5|&#x16f96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-6|&#x16f97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-7|&#x16f98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER TONE-8|&#x16f99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TONE-1|&#x16f9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TONE-2|&#x16f9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TONE-4|&#x16f9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TONE-5|&#x16f9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TONE-6|&#x16f9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIAO LETTER REFORMED TONE-8|&#x16f9f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16FAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Kanbun Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16FBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16FCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16FDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center" | '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation''' |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16FEx |style="background:#9c8dff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGUT ITERATION MARK|&#x16fe0;}}||style="background:#b690ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NUSHU ITERATION MARK|&#x16fe1;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD CHINESE HOOK MARK|&#x16fe2;}}||style="background:#e896ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD CHINESE ITERATION MARK|&#x16fe3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;font-size:75%"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHITAN SMALL SCRIPT FILLER|[KSS F]}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|16FFx |style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VIETNAMESE ALTERNATE READING MARK CA|&#x16ff0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VIETNAMESE ALTERNATE READING MARK NHAY|&#x16ff1;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHINESE SMALL SIMPLIFIED ER|&#x16ff2;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHINESE SMALL TRADITIONAL ER|&#x16ff3;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YANGQIN SIGN SLOW ONE BEAT|&#x16ff4;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YANGQIN SIGN SLOW THREE HALF BEATS|&#x16ff5;}}||style="background:#ddb495"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YANGQIN SIGN SLOW TWO BEATS|&#x16ff6;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} ov9dxi8fpp0qjr3vx9xs0bv6315zm1h 0 246026 4632201 3502705 2026-04-25T09:34:57Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632201 wikitext text/x-wiki {{formatting}} '''ALKYNES''' Like alkenes, alkynes are also unsaturated hydrocarbons. They contain at least one triple bond between two carbon atoms. The number of hydrogen atoms is still less in alkynes as compared to alkenes or alkanes. Their general formula is CnH2n–2. The first stable member of alkyne series is ethyne which is popularly known as acetylene. Acetylene is used for arc welding purposes in the form of oxyacetylene flame obtained by mixing acetylene with oxygen gas. Alkynes are starting materials for a large number of organic compounds. Hence, it is interesting to study this class of organic compounds. Structure of Triple Bond Ethyne is the simplest molecule of alkyne series. Structure of ethyne is shown in Fig. 13.6. [[Image:Ethyne-2D-flat.png|200px|center]] Each carbon atom of ethyne has two sp hybridised orbitals. Carbon-carbon sigma (σ) bond is obtained by the head-on overlapping of the two sp hybridised orbitals of the two carbon atoms. The remaining sp hybridised orbital of each carbon atom undergoes overlapping along the internuclear axis with the 1s orbital of each of the two hydrogen atoms forming two C-H sigma bonds. H-C-C bond angle is of 180°. Each carbon has two unhybridised p orbitals which are perpendicular to each other as well as to the plane of the C-C sigma bond. The 2p orbitals of one carbon atom are parallel to the 2p orbitals of the other carbon atom, which undergo lateral or sideways overlapping to form two pi (π) bonds between two carbon atoms. Thus ethyne molecule consists of one C–C σ bond, two C–H σ bonds and two C–C π bonds. The strength of C≡C bond (bond enthalpy 823 kJ mol-1) is more than those of C=C bond (bond enthalpy 681 kJ mol–1) and C–C bond (bond enthalpy 348 kJ mol–1). The C≡C bond length is shorter (120 pm) than those of C=C (133 pm) and C–C (154 pm). Electron cloud between two carbon atoms is cylindrically symmetrical about the internuclear axis. Thus, ethyne is a linear molecule. {{BookCat}} sk32zz31zc6rdyn4l15sxlkn7vx7jfg 0 247365 4632206 4631919 2026-04-25T10:06:53Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 Attempting to solve lints - Please ignore the notification this edit generated. 4632206 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}}Genes are made from a long molecule called DNA, which is copied and inherited across generations. DNA is made of simple units that line up in a particular order within this large molecule. The order of these units carries genetic information, similar to how the order of letters on a page carry information. The language used by DNA is called the genetic code, which lets organisms read the information in the genes. This information is the instructions for constructing and operating a living organism. '''Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA):''' Deoxyribonucleic acid (/diˌɒksiˌraɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/ , or DNA, is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA viruses). The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, like a recipe or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information. DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These two strands run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription. The structure of DNA was first discovered by '''James D. Watson and Francis Crick'''. It is the same for all species, comprising two helical chains each coiled round the same axis, each with a pitch of 34 Ångströms (3.4 nanometres) and a radius of 10 Ångströms (1.0 nanometres). Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts.In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed. The DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two strands. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA DNA]</ref> [[File:DNA replication split.svg|thumb|250px|right|[[DNA replication]]. DNA is unwound and [[nucleotide]]s are matched to make two new strands.]] == DNA is a genetic material == [[File:Griffith experiment.svg|thumb|250px|right|Griffith's experiment discovering the "transforming principle" in pneumococcus bacteria.]] {{quotation|Griffith's experiment was conducted in 1928 by Frederick Griffith, one of the first experiments suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation. Griffith used two strains of ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'' bacteria which infect mice – a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system, resulting in the death of the host, while the II-R strain doesn't have that protective capsule and is defeated by the host's immune system. A German bacteriologist, Fred Neufeld, had discovered the three pneumococcal types (Types I, II, and III) and discovered the Quellung reaction to identify them in vitro. Until Griffith's experiment, bacteriologists believed that the types were fixed and unchangeable, from one generation to another. In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither alone harmed the mice, the combination was able to kill its host. Griffith was also able to isolate both live II-R and live III-S strains of pneumococcus from the blood of these dead mice. Griffith concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria. Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith observed was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the protective polysaccharide capsule. Equipped with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host. The exact nature of the transforming principle (DNA) was verified in the experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty and by Hershey and Chase.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffith's_experiment Griffith experiment]</ref>}} '''First confirmation:''' Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase conducted series of experiments in 1952 by , confirming that DNA was the genetic material, which had first been demonstrated in the 1944 Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment. These experiments are known as '''Hershey Chase experiments'''. The existence of DNA was known to biologists since 1869, most of them assumed that proteins carried the information for inheritance that time. Hershey and Chase conducted their experiments on the T2 phage. The phage consists of a protein shell containing its genetic material. The phage infects a bacterium by attaching to its outer membrane and injecting its genetic material and leaving its empty shell attached to the bacterium. In their first set of experiments, Hershey and Chase labeled the DNA of phages with radioactive Phosphorus-32 (p32) (the element phosphorus is present in DNA but not present in any of the 20 amino acids which are component of proteins). They allowed the phages to infect E. coli, and through several elegant experiments were able to observe the transfer of P32 labeled phage DNA into the cytoplasm of the bacterium. In their second set of experiments, they labeled the phages with radioactive Sulfur-35 (Sulfur is present in the amino acids cysteine and methionine, but not in DNA). Following infection of E. coli they then sheared the viral protein shells off of infected cells using a high-speed blender and separated the cells and viral coats by using a centrifuge. After separation, the radioactive S35 tracer was observed in the protein shells, but not in the infected bacteria, supporting the hypothesis that the genetic material which infects the bacteria was DNA and not protein.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hershey%E2%80%93Chase_experiment Hershey–Chase experiment]</ref><ref>Hershey, A.D. and Chase, M. (1952) Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage. J Gen Physiol. 36:39–56.</ref> '''Hershey shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his “discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses.”''' [[File:Oswald T. Avery portrait 1937.jpg|140px|Oswald Avery]] [[File:ColinMacCleod.jpg|155px|Colin MacLeod]][[File:Maclyn McCarty with Francis Crick and James D Watson - 10.1371 journal.pbio.0030341.g001-O.jpg|210px|Maclyn McCarty (with Watson and Crick)]] Oswald T. Avery, Colin MacCleod, Maclyn McCarty with Francis Crick and James D Watson <ref>A [[w:Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment|very–MacLeod–McCarty experiment]]</ref> == Structure of DNA == <div>[[Image:GC base pair jypx3.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|200px|A '''GC''' base pair demonstrating three intermolecular hydrogen bonds. ]]</div> <div>[[File:AT base pair jypx3.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|200px|An '''AT''' base pair demonstrating two intermolecular hydrogen bonds.]]</div> Two helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found by tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site. As the strands are not directly opposite each other, the grooves are unequally sized. One groove, '''the major groove, is 22 Å''' wide and the other, the '''minor groove, is 12 Å wide'''. The narrowness of the minor groove means that the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove. As a result, proteins like transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contacts to the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell, but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in size that would be seen if the DNA is twisted back into the ordinary B form. === Base pairing Of DNA === [[File:DNA Overview.png|thumb|200px|Structure of DNA.]] '''Chargaff's rules was given by Erwin Chargaff which state that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio of pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically, that the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine.''' This pattern is found in both strands of the DNA. They were discovered by Austrian chemist Erwin Chargaff. In molecular biology, two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds are called a base pair (often abbreviated '''bp'''). In the canonical Watson-Crick DNA base pairing, Adenine (A) forms a base pair with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) forms a base pair with Cytosine (C). '''In RNA, thymine is replaced by Uracil (U).''' Alternate hydrogen bonding patterns, such as the wobble base pair and Hoogsteen base pair, also occur—particularly in RNA—giving rise to complex and functional tertiary structures.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair Base pair]</ref> '''Example''' 5'CTCGTTTGCGCTCTATCG3' 3'GAGCAAACGCGAGATAGC5' ==== Purine base ==== The German chemist Emil Fischer in 1884 gave the name 'purine' (purum uricum). He synthesized it for the first time in 1899 by uric acid which had been isolated from kidney stones by Scheele in 1776. Beside from DNA and RNA, purines are also components in a number of other important biomolecules, such as ATP, GTP, cyclic AMP, NADH, and coenzyme A. Purine itself, has not been found in nature, but it can be produced by organic synthesis.'''A purine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, consisting of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring.''' '''Example:''' <div>[[File:Purines.svg|class=skin-invert-image]]</div> ==== Adenine ==== Adenine is one of the two purine nucleobases (the other being guanine) used in forming nucleotides of the nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). In DNA, adenine binds to thymine via two hydrogen bonds to assist in stabilizing the nucleic acid structures. Adenine forms adenosine, a nucleoside, when attached to ribose, and deoxyadenosine when attached to deoxyribose. It forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a nucleotide, when three phosphate groups are added to adenosine. ==== Guanine ==== Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA. In DNA, guanine is paired with cytosine. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system with conjugated double bonds. Guanine has two tautomeric forms, the major keto form and rare enol form. It binds to cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. In cytosine, the amino group acts as the hydrogen donor and the C-2 carbonyl and the N-3 amine as the hydrogen-bond acceptors. Guanine has a group at C-6 that acts as the hydrogen acceptor, while the group at N-1 and the amino group at C-2 act as the hydrogen donors. === Pyrimidine base === <div>[[File:Thymine chemical structure.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|107px|Chemical structure of thymine]]</div> <div>[[File:Cytosine chemical structure.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|left|100px|Cytosine with numbered components. Methylation occurs on carbon number 5.]]</div> <div>[[File:Uracil chemical structure.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|102px|Chemical structure of uracil]]</div> Pyrimidine is a ''heterocyclic'' aromatic organic compound similar to benzene and pyridine, containing two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 3 of the six-member ring. It is isomeric with two other forms of diazine.Three nucleobases found in nucleic acids, '''cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)''', are pyrimidine derivatives. A pyrimidine has many properties in common with pyridine, as the number of nitrogen atoms in the ring increases the ring pi electrons become less energetic and electrophilic aromatic substitution gets more difficult while nucleophilic aromatic substitution gets easier. An example of the last reaction type is the displacement of the amino group in 2-aminopyrimidine by chlorine and its reverse. Reduction in resonance stabilization of pyrimidines may lead to addition and ring cleavage reactions rather than substitutions. One such manifestation is observed in the Dimroth rearrangement. Compared to pyridine, N-alkylation and N-oxidation is more difficult, and pyrimidines are also less basic: The pKa value for protonated pyrimidine is '''1.23''' compared to '''5.30''' for pyridine.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine Pyrimidine]</ref> '''Pyrimidine also is found in meteorites, although scientists still do not know its origin.''' Pyrimidine also photolytically decomposes into Uracil under UV light. [[File:Cytosine chemical structure.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|left|101px|Chemical structure of cytosine]] ==== Cytosine ==== Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, as part of RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide. As ''cytidine triphosphate (CTP)'', it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP).The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine. In DNA and RNA, '''cytosine is paired with guanine'''. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination). This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA. Cytosine can also be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. Active enzymatic deamination of cytosine or 5-methylcytosine by the APOBEC family of cytosine deaminases could have both beneficial and detrimental implications on various cellular processes as well as on organismal evolution. The implications of deamination on 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, on the other hand, remains less understood.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Cytosine]</ref> ==== Thymine ==== Thymine (T, Thy) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-methyluracil, a pyrimidine nucleobase. As the name suggests, thymine may be derived by methylation of uracil at the 5th carbon. In RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil in most cases. In DNA, thymine(T) binds to adenine (A) via two hydrogen bonds, thus stabilizing the nucleic acid structures. ==== Uracil ==== Uracil found in RNA, it base-pairs with adenine and replaces thymine during DNA transcription. Methylation of uracil produces thymine. It turns into thymine to protect the DNA and to improve the efficiency of DNA replication. Uracil can base-pair with any of the bases, depending on how the molecule arranges itself on the helix, but readily pairs with adenine because the methyl group is repelled into a fixed position. Uracil pairs with adenine through hydrogen bonding. Uracil is the hydrogen bond acceptor and can form two hydrogen bonds. Uracil can also bind with a ribose sugar to form the ribonucleoside uridine. When a phosphate attaches to uridine, uridine 5'-monophosphate is produced. === Nucleosides === {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em" class="skin-invert-image" |- align="center" valign="bottom" ! Nitrogenous base ! Nucleoside ! Deoxynucleoside |- align="center" valign="" | [[File:Adenine.svg|58px|Chemical structure of adenine]]<br />[[Adenine]]<br /> | [[File:Adenosin.svg|95px|Chemical structure of adenosine]]<br />[[Adenosine]]<br />A | [[File:dA chemical structure.png|95px|Chemical structure of deoxyadenosine]]<br />[[Deoxyadenosine]]<br />dA |- align="center" valign="" | [[File:Guanine chemical structure.png|86px|Chemical structure of guanine]]<br />[[Guanine]]<br /> | [[File:G chemical structure.png|123px|Chemical structure of guanosine]]<br />[[Guanosine]]<br />G | [[File:dG chemical structure.png|123px|Chemical structure of deoxyguanosine]]<br />[[Deoxyguanosine]]<br />dG |- align="center" valign="" | [[File:Thymine chemical structure.png|63px|Chemical structure of thymine]]<br />[[Thymine]]<br /> | [[File:T chemical structure.png|87px|Chemical structure of 5-methyluridine]]<br />[[5-Methyluridine]]<br />m<sup>5</sup>U | [[File:dT chemical structure.png|87px|Chemical structure of thymidine]]<br />[[Thymidine]]<br />dT |- align="center" valign="" | [[File:Uracil chemical structure.png|51px|Chemical structure of uracil]]<br />[[Uracil]]<br /> | [[File:U chemical structure.png|87px|Chemical structure of uridine]]<br />[[Uridine]]<br />U | [[File:dU chemical structure.png|87px|Chemical structure of deoxyuridine]]<br />[[Deoxyuridine]]<br />dU |- align="center" valign="" | [[File:Cytosine chemical structure.png|51px|Chemical structure of cytosine]]<br />[[Cytosine]]<br /> | [[File:C chemical structure.png|87px|Chemical structure of cytidine]]<br />[[Cytidine]]<br />C | [[File:dC chemical structure.png|87px|Chemical structure of deoxycytidine]]<br />[[Deoxycytidine]]<br />dC |- |} Nucleosides are glycosylamines consisting of a nucleobase (often referred to as simply base) bound to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar via a beta-glycosidic linkage. Examples of nucleosides include cytidine, uridine, adenosine, guanosine, thymidine and inosine. Nucleosides can be phosphorylated by specific kinases in the cell on the sugar's primary alcohol group (-CH2-OH), producing nucleotides, which are the molecular building-blocks of DNA and RNA. Nucleosides can be produced by de novo synthesis pathways, in particular in the liver, but they are more abundantly supplied via ingestion and digestion of nucleic acids in the diet, whereby nucleotidases break down nucleotides (such as the thymine nucleotide) into nucleosides (such as thymidine) and phosphate. 1. Adenosine is a nucleoside composed of a molecule of adenine attached to a ribose sugar molecule (ribofuranose) moiety via a β-N9-glycosidic bond. 2. Cytidine is a nucleoside molecule that is formed when cytosine is attached to a ribose ring (also known as a ribofuranose) via a β-N1-glycosidic bond. Cytidine is a component of RNA. 3. Guanosine is a purine nucleoside comprising guanine attached to a ribose (ribofuranose) ring via a β-N9-glycosidic bond. Guanosine can be phosphorylated to become guanosine monophosphate (GMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), guanosine diphosphate (GDP), and guanosine triphosphate (GTP). 4. Thymidine (more precisely called deoxythymidine; can also be labelled deoxyribosylthymine, and thymine deoxyriboside) is a chemical compound, more precisely a pyrimidine deoxynucleoside. Deoxythymidine is the DNA nucleoside T, which pairs with deoxyadenosine (A) in double-stranded DNA. If cytosine is attached to a deoxyribose ring, it is known as a deoxycytidine<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoside Nucleoside]</ref> === Nucleotide === A nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase (nitrogenous base), a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or 2'-deoxyribose), and one to three phosphate groups. Together, the nucleobase and sugar comprise a nucleoside. The phosphate groups form bonds with either the 2, 3, or 5-carbon of the sugar, with the 5-carbon site most common. Cyclic nucleotides form when the phosphate group is bound to two of the sugar's hydroxyl groups. Ribonucleotides are nucleotides where the sugar is ribose, and deoxyribonucleotides contain the sugar deoxyribose. Nucleotides can contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base. Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules made from nucleotide monomers. In DNA, the purine bases are adenine and guanine, while the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. RNA uses uracil in place of thymine. Adenine always pairs with thymine by 2 hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine through 3 hydrogen bonds, each due to their unique structures. A deoxyribonucleotide is the monomer, or single unit, of DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. Each deoxyribonucleotide comprises three parts: a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. The nitrogenous base is always bonded to the 1' carbon of the deoxyribose, which is distinguished from ribose by the presence of a proton on the 2' carbon rather than an -OH group. The phosphate groups bind to the 5' carbon of the sugar. When deoxyribonucleotides polymerize to form DNA, the phosphate group from one nucleotide will bond to the 3' carbon on another nucleotide, forming a phosphodiester bond via dehydration synthesis. New nucleotides are always added to the 3' carbon of the last nucleotide, so synthesis always proceeds from 5' to 3'.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide Nucleotide]</ref> '''Phosphodiester bond''' A phosphodiester bond is a group of strong covalent bonds between a phosphate group and two 5-carbon ring carbohydrates (pentoses) over two ester bonds. Phosphodiester bonds are central to most life on Earth, as they make up the backbone of the strands of DNA. In DNA and RNA, the phosphodiester bond is the linkage between the 3' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon of another, deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA. The phosphate groups in the phosphodiester bond are negatively-charged. Because the phosphate groups have a pKa near 0, they are negatively-charged at pH 7. This repulsion forces the phosphates to take opposite sides of the DNA strands and is neutralized by proteins (histones), metal ions such as magnesium, and polyamines. In order for the phosphodiester bond to be formed and the nucleotides to be joined, the tri-phosphate or di-phosphate forms of the nucleotide building blocks are broken apart to give off energy required to drive the enzyme-catalyzed reaction. When a single phosphate or two phosphates known as pyrophosphates break away and catalyze the reaction, the phosphodiester bond is formed. Hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds can be catalyzed by the action of phosphodiesterases which play an important role in repairing DNA sequences. In biological systems, the phosphodiester bond between two ribonucleotides can be broken by alkaline hydrolysis because of the free 2' hydroxyl group.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphodiester_bond Phosphodiester bond]</ref> [[File:Phosphodiester Bond Diagram.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|400px|Diagram of phosphodiester bonds (PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup>) between nucleotides. Which presents Thymine (''U'') and two molecules of Adenine (''A'').]] {| class="skin-invert-image" |- align="center" valign="bottom" | [[File:AMP structure.svg|126px]]<br />[[Adenosine monophosphate]]<br />AMP | [[File:Adenosindiphosphat protoniert.svg|156px]]<br />[[Adenosine diphosphate]]<br />ADP | [[File:ATP structure.svg|186px|adenosine triphosphate]]<br />[[Adenosine triphosphate]]<br />ATP |- align="center" valign="bottom" | [[File:GMP chemical structure.png|154px|guanosine monophosphate]]<br />[[Guanosine monophosphate]]<br />GMP | [[File:GDP chemical structure.png|184px|guanosine diphosphate]]<br />[[Guanosine diphosphate]]<br />GDP | [[File:GTP chemical structure.png|214px|guanosine triphosphate]]<br />[[Guanosine triphosphate]]<br />GTP |- align="center" valign="bottom" | [[File:TMP chemical structure.png|117px|ribothymidine monophosphate]]<br />[[Ribothymidine monophosphate]]<br />rTMP | [[File:TDP chemical structure.png|148px|ribothymidine diphosphate]]<br />[[Ribothymidine diphosphate]]<br />rTDP | [[File:TTP chemical structure.png|178px|ribothymidine triphosphate]]<br />[[Ribothymidine triphosphate]]<br />rTTP |- align="center" valign="bottom" | [[File:UMP chemical structure.png|117px]]<br />[[Uridine monophosphate]]<br />UMP | [[File:UDP chemical structure.png|148px|diphosphate]]<br />[[Uridine diphosphate]]<br />UDP | [[File:UTP chemical structure.png|178px|triphosphate]]<br />[[Uridine triphosphate]]<br />UTP |- align="center" valign="bottom" | [[File:CMP chemical structure.png|117px|cytidine monophosphate]]<br />[[Cytidine monophosphate]]<br />CMP | [[File:CDP chemical structure.png|148px|cytidine diphosphate]]<br />[[Cytidine diphosphate]]<br />CDP | [[File:CTP chemical structure.png|178px|cytidine triphosphate]]<br />[[Cytidine triphosphate]]<br />CTP |- |} == Forms of DNA == '''A-DNA:''' A-DNA is one of the many possible double helical structures of DNA. A-DNA is thought to be one of three biologically active double helical structures along with B- and Z-DNA. It is a right-handed double helix fairly similar to the more common and well-known B-DNA form, but with a shorter more compact helical structure. It appears likely that it occurs only in dehydrated samples of DNA, such as those used in crystallographic experiments, and possibly is also assumed by DNA-RNA hybrid helices and by regions of double-stranded RNA.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-DNA A-DNA]</ref> '''B-DNA'''The most common form of DNA is ''B'' DNA. The DNA double helix is a spiral polymer of nucleic acids, held together by nucleotides which base pair together. In B-DNA, the most common double helical structure, the double helix is right-handed with about 10–10.5 nucleotides per turn. The double helix structure of DNA contains a major groove and minor groove, the major groove being wider than the minor groove. Given the difference in widths of the major groove and minor groove, many proteins which bind to DNA do so through the wider major groove. '''Z-DNA:''' Z-DNA is one of the many possible double helical structures of DNA. It is a left-handed double helical structure in which the double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern (instead of to the right, like the more common B-DNA form). Z-DNA is thought to be one of three biologically active double helical structures along with A- and B-DNA. Z-DNA is quite different from the right-handed forms. In fact, Z-DNA is often compared against B-DNA in order to illustrate the major differences. The Z-DNA helix is left-handed and has a structure that repeats every 2 base pairs. The major and minor grooves, unlike A- and B-DNA, show little difference in width. Formation of this structure is generally unfavourable, although certain conditions can promote it; such as alternating purine-pyrimidine sequence (especially poly(dGC)2), negative DNA supercoiling or high salt and some cations (all at physiological temperature, 37&nbsp;°C, and pH 7.3-7.4). Z-DNA can form a junction with B-DNA (called a "B-to-Z junction box") in a structure which involves the extrusion of a base pair. The Z-DNA conformation has been difficult to study because it does not exist as a stable feature of the double helix. Instead, it is a transient structure that is occasionally induced by biological activity and then quickly disappears.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-DNA</ref> [[File:A-DNA, B-DNA and Z-DNA.png|thumb|450px|right|From left to right, the structures of A, B and Z DNA]] {| class="wikitable" |+ Difference between three major forms of DNA ! !A-DNA !B-DNA !Z-DNA |- |Helix sense ||align="center"| Right-handed ||align="center"| Right-handed ||align="center"| Left-handed |- |Diameter ||align="right"| 23 Å (2.3&nbsp;nm)||align="right"| 20 Å (2.0&nbsp;nm)||align="right"| 18 Å (1.8&nbsp;nm) |- |Repeating unit ||align="right"| 1 bp ||align="right"| 1 bp ||align="right"| 2 bp |- |Rotation/bp ||align="right"| 32.7° ||align="right"| 35.9° ||align="right"| 60°/2 |- |bp/turn ||align="right"| 11 ||align="right"| 10.5 ||align="right"| 12 |- |Inclination of bp to axis ||align="right"| +19° ||align="right"| −1.2° ||align="right"| −9° |- |Rise/bp along axis ||align="right"| 2.3 Å (0.23&nbsp;nm)||align="right"| 3.32 Å (0.332&nbsp;nm)||align="right"| 3.8 Å (0.38&nbsp;nm) |- |Pitch/turn of helix ||align="right"| 28.2 Å (2.82&nbsp;nm)||align="right"| 33.2 Å (3.32&nbsp;nm)||align="right"| 45.6 Å (4.56&nbsp;nm) |- |Mean propeller twist ||align="right"| +18° ||align="right"| +16° ||align="right"| 0° |- |Glycosyl angle ||align="center"| anti ||align="center"| anti ||align="center"| C: anti,<br /> G: syn |- |Sugar pucker ||align="center"| C3'-endo ||align="center"| C2'-endo ||align="center"| C: C2'-endo,<br />G: C2'-exo |- |} bp-Base pair, nm-nano meter == Noncoding genomic DNA == In molecular biology, noncoding DNA describes components of an organism's DNA sequences that do not encode for protein sequences. '''Pseudogenes''' Pseudogenes are DNA sequences, related to known genes, that have lost their protein-coding ability or are otherwise no longer expressed in the cell. Pseudogenes arise from retrotransposition or genomic duplication of functional genes, and become "genomic fossils" that are nonfuctional due to mutations that prevent the transcription of the gene, such as within the gene promoter region, or fatally alter the translation of the gene, such as premature stop codons or frameshifts. Pseudogenes resulting from the retrotransposition of an RNA intermediate are known as processed pseudogenes; pseudogenes that arise from the genomic remains of duplicated genes or residues of inactivated genes are nonprocessed pseudogenes. While Dollo's Law suggests that the loss of function in pseudogenes is likely permanent, silenced genes may actually retain function for several million years and can be "reactivated" into protein-coding sequences and a substantial number of pseudogenes are actively transcribed. Because pseudogenes are presumed to evolve without evolutionary constraint, they can serve as a useful model of the type and frequencies of various spontaneous genetic mutations.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncoding_DNA Noncoding DNA]</ref> == Coiling of DNA == [[File:Circular DNA Supercoiling.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|400px|right|Supercoiled structure of circular DNA molecules with low writhe. Note that the helical nature of the DNA duplex is omitted for clarity.]] [[File:Linear DNA Supercoiling.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|400px|right|Supercoiled structure of linear DNA molecules with constrained ends. Note that the helical nature of the DNA duplex is omitted for clarity.]] DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging within all cells. Because the length of DNA can be thousands of times that of a cell, packaging this genetic material into the cell or nucleus (in eukaryotes) is a difficult feat. Supercoiling of DNA reduces the space and allows for a lot more DNA to be packaged. In prokaryotes, plectonemic supercoils are predominant, because of the circular chromosome and relatively small amount of genetic material. In eukaryotes, DNA supercoiling exists on many levels of both plectonemic and solenoidal supercoils, with the solenoidal supercoiling proving most effective in compacting the DNA. Solenoidal supercoiling is achieved with histones to form a 10&nbsp;nm fiber. This fiber is further coiled into a 30&nbsp;nm fiber, and further coiled upon itself numerous times more. DNA packaging is greatly increased during nuclear division events such as mitosis or meiosis, where DNA must be compacted and segregated to daughter cells. Condensins and cohesins are Structural Maintenance of Chromosome proteins that aid in the condensation of sister chromatids and the linkage of the centromere in sister chromatids. These SMC proteins induce positive supercoils. Supercoiling is also required for DNA/RNA synthesis. Because DNA must be unwound for DNA/RNA polymerase action, supercoils will result. The region ahead of the polymerase complex will be unwound; this stress is compensated with positive supercoils ahead of the complex. Behind the complex, DNA is rewound and there will be compensatory negative supercoils. It is important to note that topoisomerases such as DNA gyrase (Type II Topoisomerase) play a role in relieving some of the stress during DNA/RNA synthesis.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_supercoil DNA supercoil]</ref> NA supercoiling can be described numerically by changes in the '[[linking number]]' Lk. The linking number is the most descriptive property of supercoiled DNA. Lk<sub>o</sub>, the number of turns in the relaxed (B type) DNA plasmid/molecule, is determined by dividing the total base pairs of the molecule by the relaxed bp/turn which, depending on reference is 10.4-10.5. : <math>Lk_o=bp/10.4</math> Lk is merely the number of crosses a single strand makes across the other in a planar projection. The topology of the DNA is described by the equation below in which the linking number is equivalent to the sum of TW, which is the number of twists or turns of the double helix, and Wr which is the number of coils or 'writhes'. If there is a closed DNA molecule, the sum of TW and Wr, or the linking number, does not change. However, there may be complementary changes in TW and Wr without changing their sum. :<math>Lk=Tw+Wr</math> The change in the linking number, ΔLk, is the actual number of turns in the plasmid/molecule, Lk, minus the number of turns in the relaxed plasmid/molecule Lk<sub>o</sub>. :<math>\Delta{Lk=Lk-Lk_o}</math> If the DNA is negatively supercoiled ΔLk < 0. The negative supercoiling implies that the DNA is underwound. A standard expression independent of the molecule size is the "specific linking difference" or "superhelical density" denoted σ. σ represents the number of turns added or removed relative to the total number of turns in the relaxed molecule/plasmid, indicating the level of supercoiling. :<math>\sigma=\Delta{Lk/Lk_o}</math> The [[Gibbs free energy]] associated with the coiling is given by the equation below<ref name="Vologodskii1979">{{cite journal|author=Vologodskii AV, Lukashin AV, Anshelevich VV, ''et al.'' |title=Fluctuations in superhelical DNA |journal=Nucleic Acids Res |volume=6 |pages=967–682 |year=1979 |doi=10.1093/nar/6.3.967}}</ref> :<math>{\Delta G/N=10RT \sigma^2}</math> The linking number is a numerical invariant that describes the linking of two closed curves in three-dimensional space. Intuitively, the linking number represents the number of times that each curve winds around the other. The linking number is always an integer, but may be positive or negative depending on the orientation of the two curves. Since the linking number ''L'' of supercoiled DNA is the number of times the two strands are intertwined (and both strands remain covalently intact), ''L'' cannot change. The reference state (or parameter) ''L<sub>0</sub>'' of a circular DNA duplex is its relaxed state. In this state, its writhe ''W'' = 0. Since ''L = T + W'', in a relaxed state ''T = L''. Thus, if we have a 400 bp relaxed circular DNA duplex, ''L ~ 40'' (assuming ~10 bp per turn in B-DNA). Then ''T ~ 40''. *Positively supercoiling: *:T = 0, W = 0, then L = 0 *:T = +3, W = 0, then L = +3 *:T = +2, W = +1, then L = +3 *Negatively supercoiling: *:T = 0, W = 0, then L = 0 *:T = -3, W = 0, then L = -3 *:T = -2, W = -1, then L = -3 Negative supercoils favor local unwinding of the DNA, allowing processes such as [[DNA transcription|transcription]], [[DNA replication]], and [[DNA recombination|recombination]]. Negative supercoiling is also thought to favour the transition between B-DNA and [[Z-DNA]], and moderate the interactions of DNA binding proteins involved in [[gene regulation]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Introduction to Plant Biotechnology |author=H. S. Chawla |publisher=Science Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=1578082285}}</ref> == Histones: The DNA binding protein == Histones were discovered in 1884 by [[Albrecht Kossel]]. The word "histone" dates from the late 19th century and is from the German "Histon", of uncertain origin: perhaps from Greek ''histanai'' or from ''histos''. Until the early 1990s, histones were dismissed by most as inert packing material for eukaryotic nuclear DNA, based in part on the "ball and stick" models of [[Mark Ptashne]] and others who believed transcription was activated by protein-DNA and protein-protein interactions on largely naked DNA templates, as is the case in bacteria. During the 1980s, work by [[Michael Grunstein]] <ref>Kayne PS, Kim UJ, Han M, Mullen JR, Yoshizaki F, Grunstein M. Extremely conserved histone H4 N terminus is dispensable for growth but essential for repressing the silent mating loci in yeast. Cell. 1988 Oct 7;55(1):27-39. {{PMID|3048701}}</ref> demonstrated that eukaryotic histones repress gene transcription, and that the function of transcriptional activators is to overcome this repression. We now know that histones play both positive and negative roles in gene expression, forming the basis of the histone code. The discovery of the H5 histone appears to date back to 1970's,<ref name="pmid964248">{{cite journal | author = Crane-Robinson C, Dancy SE, Bradbury EM, Garel A, Kovacs AM, Champagne M, Daune M | title = Structural studies of chicken erythrocyte histone H5 | journal = Eur. J. Biochem. | volume = 67 | issue = 2 | pages = 379–88 | year = 1976 | month = August | pmid = 964248 | doi = 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1976.tb10702.x| url = | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid689022">{{cite journal | author = Aviles FJ, Chapman GE, Kneale GG, Crane-Robinson C, Bradbury EM | title = The conformation of histone H5. Isolation and characterisation of the globular segment | journal = Eur. J. Biochem. | volume = 88 | issue = 2 | pages = 363–71 | year = 1978 | month = August | pmid = 689022 | doi = 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12457.x| url = | issn = }}</ref> and in classification it has been grouped with The nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B dimers and a H3-H4 tetramer, forming two nearly symmetrical halves by tertiary structure (C2 symmetry; one macromolecule is the mirror image of the other).The H2A-H2B dimers and H3-H4 tetramer also show pseudodyad symmetry. The 4 'core' histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) are relatively similar in structure and are highly conserved through evolution, all featuring a 'helix turn helix turn helix' motif (which allows the easy dimerisation). They also share the feature of long 'tails' on one end of the amino acid structure – this being the location of post-translational modification (see below). [[File:Nucleosome 1KX5 colour coded.png|right|thumb|300px|The crystal structure of the nucleosome core particle consisting of <span style="color:#AAAA00;"> H2A </span>, <span style="color:red;"> H2B </span>, <span style="color:blue;"> H3 </span> and <span style="color:green;"> H4 </span> and DNA. The view is from the top through the superhelical axis.]] It has been proposed that histone proteins are evolutionarily related to the helical part of the extended AAA+ ATPase domain, the C-domain, and to the N-terminal substrate recognition domain of Clp/Hsp100 proteins. Despite the differences in their topology, these three folds share a homologous helix-strand-helix (HSH) motif. Using an electron paramagnetic resonance spin-labeling technique, British researchers measured the distances between the spools around which eukaryotic cells wind their DNA. They determined the spacings range from 59 to 70 Å. In all, histones make five types of interactions with DNA: Helix-dipoles from alpha-helices in H2B, H3, and H4 cause a net positive charge to accumulate at the point of interaction with negatively charged phosphate groups on DNA Hydrogen bonds between the DNA backbone and the amide group on the main chain of histone proteins Nonpolar interactions between the histone and deoxyribose sugars on DNA Salt bridges and hydrogen bonds between side chains of basic amino acids (especially lysine and arginine) and phosphate oxygens on DNA Non-specific minor groove insertions of the H3 and H2B N-terminal tails into two minor grooves each on the DNA molecule The highly basic nature of histones, aside from facilitating DNA-histone interactions, contributes to the water solubility of histones. Histones are subject to post translational modification by enzymes primarily on their N-terminal tails, but also in their globular domains. Such modifications include methylation, citrullination, acetylation, phosphorylation, SUMOylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation. This affects their function of gene regulation. In general, genes that are active have less bound histone, while inactive genes are highly associated with histones during interphase. It also appears that the structure of histones has been evolutionarily conserved, as any deleterious mutations would be severely maladaptive. === Histone DNA interaction === The core histone proteins contain a characteristic structural motif termed the "histone fold" which consists of three alpha-helices (α1-3) separated by two loops (L1-2). In solution the histones form H2A-H2B heterodimers and H3-H4 heterotetramers. Histones dimerise about their long α2 helices in an anti-parallel orientation, and in the case of H3 and H4, two such dimers form a 4-helix bundle stabilised by extensive H3-H3’ interaction. The H2A/H2B dimer binds onto the H3/H4 tetramer due to interactions between H4 and H2B which include the formation of a hydrophobic cluster. The histone octamer is formed by a central H3/H4 tetramer sandwiched between two H2A/H2B dimers. Due to the highly basic charge of all four core histones, the histone octamer is only stable in the presence of DNA or very high salt concentrations. Nucleosomes form the fundamental repeating units of eukaryotic chromatin, which is used to pack the large eukaryotic genomes into the nucleus while still ensuring appropriate access to it (in mammalian cells approximately 2 m of linear DNA have to be packed into a nucleus of roughly 10&nbsp;µm diameter). Nucleosomes are folded through a series of successively higher order structures to eventually form a chromosome; this both compacts DNA and creates an added layer of regulatory control which ensures correct gene expression. Nucleosomes are thought to carry epigenetically inherited information in the form of covalent modifications of their core histones. The nucleosome hypothesis was proposed by Don and Ada Olins in 1974 and Roger Kornberg. The nucleosome core particle ) consists of about 146 bp of DNA wrapped in 1.67 left-handed superhelical turns around the histone octamer, consisting of 2 copies each of the core histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Adjacent nucleosomes are joined by a stretch of free DNA termed "linker DNA" (which varies from 10 - 80 bp in length depending on species and tissue type. == DNA-binding domains == [[File:Lambda repressor 1LMB.png|100px|thumb|The λ repressor of [[bacteriophage lambda]] employs a helix-turn-helix (left; green) to bind [[DNA]] (right; blue and red).]] One or more DNA-binding domains are often part of a larger protein consisting of additional domains with differing function. The additional domains often regulate the activity of the DNA-binding domain. The function of DNA binding is either structural or involving transcription regulation, with the two roles sometimes overlapping. DNA-binding domains with functions involving DNA structure have biological roles in the replication, repair, storage, and modification of DNA, such as methylation. Many proteins involved in the regulation of gene expression contain DNA-binding domains. For example, proteins that regulate transcription by binding DNA are called transcription factors. The final output of most cellular signaling cascades is gene regulation. The DBD interacts with the nucleotides of DNA in a DNA sequence-specific or non-sequence-specific manner, but even non-sequence-specific recognition involves some sort of molecular complementarity between protein and DNA. DNA recognition by the DBD can occur at the major or minor groove of DNA, or at the sugar-phosphate DNA backbone (see the structure of DNA). Each specific type of DNA recognition is tailored to the protein's function. For example, the DNA-cutting enzyme DNAse I cuts DNA almost randomly and so must bind to DNA in a non-sequence-specific manner. But, even so, DNAse I recognizes a certain 3-D DNA structure, yielding a somewhat specific DNA cleavage pattern that can be useful for studying DNA recognition by a technique called DNA footprinting. Many DNA-binding domains must recognize specific DNA sequences, such as DBDs of transcription factors that activate specific genes, or those of enzymes that modify DNA at specific sites, like restriction enzymes and telomerase. The hydrogen bonding pattern in the DNA major groove is less degenerate than that of the DNA minor groove, providing a more attractive site for sequence-specific DNA recognition. The specificity of DNA-binding proteins can be studied using many biochemical and biophysical techniques, such as gel electrophoresis, analytical ultracentrifugation, calorimetry, DNA mutation, protein structure mutation or modification, nuclear magnetic resonance, x-ray crystallography, surface plasmon resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, cross-linking and Microscale Thermophoresis (MST).<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA-binding_domain</ref> '''Types of DNA-binding domains''' ''Helix-turn-helix'' Originally discovered in bacteria, the helix-turn-helix motif is commonly found in repressor proteins and is about 20 amino acids long. In eukaryotes, the homeodomain comprises 2 helices, one of which recognizes the DNA (aka recognition helix). They are common in proteins that regulate developmental processes (PROSITE HTH).<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA-binding_domain</ref> ''Zinc finger'' [[File:Leucine zipper.png|thumb|Leucine Zipper (blue) bound to DNA. The leucine residues that represent the 'teeth' of the zipper are colored red]] Crystallographic structure (PDB 1R4O) of a dimer of the zinc finger containing DBD of the glucocorticoid receptor (top) bound to DNA (bottom). Zinc atoms are represented by grey spheres and the coordinating cysteine sidechains are depicted as sticks. The zinc finger This domain is generally between 23 and 28 amino acids long and is stabilized by coordinating Zinc ions with regularly spaced zinc-coordinating residues (either histidines or cysteines). The most common class of zinc finger (Cys2His2) coordinates a single zinc ion and consists of a recognition helix and a 2-strand beta-sheet. In transcription factors these domains are often found in arrays (usually separated by short linker sequences) and adjacent fingers are spaced at 3 basepair intervals when bound to DNA. [[File:DNA Model Crick-Watson.jpg|thumb|right|Crick and Watson DNA model built in 1953, was largely from its original pieces in 1973 and donated to the [[Science Museum (London)|National Science Museum]] in London.]] {| class = "wikitable" style = "font-size:85%; margin-left:15px; width:60%" ! Fold Group !! Representative structure !! Ligand placement |- | Cys<sub>2</sub>His<sub>2</sub> || [[File:PDB 1zaa EBI.jpg|150px]]|| Two ligands from a knuckle and two more from the c terminus of a helix. |- | Gag knuckle || [[File:PDB 1ncp EBI.jpg|150px]] || Two ligands from a knuckle and two more from a short helix or loop. |- | Treble clef || || Two ligands from a knuckle and two more from the N terminus of a helix. |- | Zinc ribbon || [[File:PDB 1pft EBI.jpg|150px]] || Two ligands each from two knuckles. |- | Zn<sub>2</sub>/Cys<sub>6</sub> || [[File:PDB 1d66 EBI.jpg|150px]] || Two ligands from the N terminus of a helix and two more from a loop. |- | TAZ2 domain like || || Two ligands from the termini of two helices. |} {{-}} ''Leucine zipper'' The basic leucine zipper (bZIP) domain contains an alpha helix with a leucine at every 7th amino acid. If two such helices find one another, the leucines can interact as the teeth in a zipper, allowing dimerization of two proteins. When binding to the DNA, basic amino acid residues bind to the sugar-phosphate backbone while the helices sit in the major grooves. It regulates gene expression.The bZip family of transcription factors consist of a basic region that interacts with the major groove of a DNA molecule through hydrogen bonding, and a hydrophobic leucine zipper region that is responsible for dimerization. ''Winged helix'' Consisting of about 110 amino acids, the winged helix (WH) domain has four helices and a two-strand beta-sheet. ''Winged helix turn helix'' The winged helix turn helix domain (wHTH) SCOP 46785 is typically 85-90 amino acids long. It is formed by a 3-helical bundle and a 4-strand beta-sheet (wing). ''Helix-loop-helix'' The Helix-loop-helix domain is found in some transcription factors and is characterized by two α helices connected by a loop. One helix is typically smaller and due to the flexibility of the loop, allows dimerization by folding and packing against another helix. The larger helix typically contains the DNA-binding regions. ''HMG-box'' HMG-box domains are found in high mobility group proteins which are involved in a variety of DNA-dependent processes like replication and transcription. The domain consists of three alpha helices separated by loops. == DNA sequencing == RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of the first complete gene and the complete genome of Bacteriophage MS2, identified and published by Walter Fiers and his coworkers at the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium), between 1972 and 1976. Prior to the development of rapid DNA sequencing methods in the early 1970s by Frederick Sanger at the University of Cambridge, in England and Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam at Harvard, a number of laborious methods were used. For instance, in 1973, Gilbert and Maxam reported the sequence of 24 basepairs using a method known as wandering-spot analysis. The chain-termination method developed by Sanger and coworkers in 1975 soon became the method of choice, owing to its relative ease and reliability.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing</ref> == Maxam and Gilbert method == In 1976–1977, Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert developed a DNA sequencing method based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases. Although Maxam and Gilbert published their chemical sequencing method two years after the ground-breaking paper of Sanger and Coulson on plus-minus sequencing,Maxam–Gilbert sequencing rapidly became more popular, since purified DNA could be used directly, while the initial Sanger method required that each read start be cloned for production of single-stranded DNA. However, with the improvement of the chain-termination method (see below), Maxam-Gilbert sequencing has fallen out of favour due to its technical complexity prohibiting its use in standard molecular biology kits, extensive use of hazardous chemicals, and difficulties with scale-up. The method requires radioactive labeling at one 5' end of the DNA (typically by a kinase reaction using gamma-32P ATP) and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment generates breaks at a small proportion of one or two of the four nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G, A+G, C, C+T). For example, the purines (A+G) are depurinated using formic acid, the guanines (and to some extent the adenines) are methylated by dimethyl sulfate, and the pyrimidines (C+T) are methylated using hydrazine. The addition of salt (sodium chloride) to the hydrazine reaction inhibits the methylation of thymine for the C-only reaction. The modified DNAs are then cleaved by hot piperidine at the position of the modified base. The concentration of the modifying chemicals is controlled to introduce on average one modification per DNA molecule. Thus a series of labeled fragments is generated, from the radiolabeled end to the first "cut" site in each molecule. The fragments in the four reactions are electrophoresed side by side in denaturing acrylamide gels for size separation. To visualize the fragments, the gel is exposed to X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding a series of dark bands each corresponding to a radiolabeled DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be inferred. Also sometimes known as "chemical sequencing", this method led to the Methylation Interference Assay used to map DNA-binding sites for DNA-binding proteins.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing</ref> == Dideoxynucleotide Chain-termination methods == [[File:Sequencing.jpg|thumb|right|Part of a radioactively labelled sequencing gel]] Because the chain-terminator method (or Sanger method after its developer [[Frederick Sanger]]) is more efficient and uses fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the method of Maxam and Gilbert, it rapidly became the method of choice. The key principle of the Sanger method was the use of dideoxynucleotide triphosphates (ddNTPs) as DNA chain terminators. The classical chain-termination method requires a single-stranded DNA template, a DNA primer, a DNA polymerase, normal deoxynucleotidephosphates (dNTPs), and modified nucleotides (dideoxyNTPs) that terminate DNA strand elongation. These ddNTPs will also be radioactively or fluorescently labelled for detection in automated sequencing machines. The DNA sample is divided into four separate sequencing reactions, containing all four of the standard deoxynucleotides (dATP, dGTP, dCTP and dTTP) and the DNA polymerase. To each reaction is added only one of the four dideoxynucleotides (ddATP, ddGTP, ddCTP, or ddTTP) which are the chain-terminating nucleotides, lacking a 3'-hydroxyl (OH) group required for the formation of a phosphodiester bond between two nucleotides, thus terminating DNA strand extension and resulting in DNA fragments of varying length. The newly synthesized and labelled DNA fragments are heat denatured, and separated by size (with a resolution of just one nucleotide) by gel electrophoresis on a denaturing polyacrylamide-urea gel with each of the four reactions run in one of four individual lanes (lanes A, T, G, C); the DNA bands are then visualized by autoradiography or UV light, and the DNA sequence can be directly read off the X-ray film or gel image. In the image on the right, X-ray film was exposed to the gel, and the dark bands correspond to DNA fragments of different lengths. A dark band in a lane indicates a DNA fragment that is the result of chain termination after incorporation of a dideoxynucleotide (ddATP, ddGTP, ddCTP, or ddTTP). The relative positions of the different bands among the four lanes are then used to read (from bottom to top) the DNA sequence.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing DNA sequencing]</ref> [[File:DNA Sequencin 3 labeling methods.jpg|thumb|left|DNA fragments are labelled with a radioactive or fluorescent tag on the primer (1), in the new DNA strand with a labeled dNTP, or with a labeled ddNTP. (click to expand)]] Technical variations of chain-termination sequencing include tagging with nucleotides containing radioactive phosphorus for radiolabelling, or using a primer labeled at the 5’ end with a fluorescent dye. Dye-primer sequencing facilitates reading in an optical system for faster and more economical analysis and automation. The later development by [[Leroy Hood]] and coworkers <ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith LM, Sanders JZ, Kaiser RJ, ''et al'' |title=Fluorescence detection in automated DNA sequence analysis |journal=Nature |volume=321 |issue=6071 |pages=674–9 |year=1986 |pmid=3713851 |doi=10.1038/321674a0 |quote=We have developed a method for the partial automation of DNA sequence analysis. Fluorescence detection of the DNA fragments is accomplished by means of a fluorophore covalently attached to the oligonucleotide primer used in enzymatic DNA sequence analysis. A different coloured fluorophore is used for each of the reactions specific for the bases A, C, G and T. The reaction mixtures are combined and co-electrophoresed down a single polyacrylamide gel tube, the separated fluorescent bands of DNA are detected near the bottom of the tube, and the sequence information is acquired directly by computer.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith LM, Fung S, Hunkapiller MW, Hunkapiller TJ, Hood LE |title=The synthesis of oligonucleotides containing an aliphatic amino group at the 5' terminus: synthesis of fluorescent DNA primers for use in DNA sequence analysis |journal=Nucleic Acids Res. |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=2399–412 |year=1985 |month=April |pmid=4000959 |pmc=341163 |url=http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=4000959 |doi=10.1093/nar/13.7.2399}}</ref> of fluorescently labeled ddNTPs and primers set the stage for automated, high-throughput DNA sequencing.[[File:Radioactive Fluorescent Seq.jpg|thumb|right|Sequence ladder by radioactive sequencing compared to fluorescent peaks]] Chain-termination methods have greatly simplified DNA sequencing. For example, chain-termination-based kits are commercially available that contain the reagents needed for sequencing, pre-aliquoted and ready to use. Limitations include non-specific binding of the primer to the DNA, affecting accurate read-out of the DNA sequence, and DNA secondary structures affecting the fidelity of the sequence. === Dye-terminator sequencing === [[File:CE Basic.jpg|thumb|left|Capillary electrophoresis (click to expand)]] ''Dye-terminator sequencing'' utilizes labelling of the chain terminator ddNTPs, which permits sequencing in a single reaction, rather than four reactions as in the labelled-primer method. In dye-terminator sequencing, each of the four dideoxynucleotide chain terminators is labelled with fluorescent dyes, each of which emit light at different wavelengths. Owing to its greater expediency and speed, dye-terminator sequencing is now the mainstay in automated sequencing. Its limitations include dye effects due to differences in the incorporation of the dye-labelled chain terminators into the DNA fragment, resulting in unequal peak heights and shapes in the electronic DNA sequence trace [[chromatogram]] after [[capillary electrophoresis]] (see figure to the left). This problem has been addressed with the use of modified DNA polymerase enzyme systems and dyes that minimize incorporation variability, as well as methods for eliminating "dye blobs". The dye-terminator sequencing method, along with automated high-throughput DNA sequence analyzers, is now being used for the vast majority of sequencing projects. === Challenges === Common challenges of DNA sequencing include poor quality in the first 15–40 bases of the sequence and deteriorating quality of sequencing traces after 700–900 bases. [[Base calling]] software typically gives an estimate of quality to aid in quality trimming.<ref name="urlPhred - Quality Base Calling">{{cite web |url=http://www.phrap.com/phred/ |title=Phred - Quality Base Calling |format= |work= |accessdate=2011-02-24}}</ref><ref name="urlBase-calling for next-generation sequencing platforms — Brief Bioinform">{{cite web |url=http://bib.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/01/18/bib.bbq077.full |title=Base-calling for next-generation sequencing platforms — Brief Bioinform |format= |work= |accessdate=2011-02-24}}</ref> In cases where DNA fragments are cloned before sequencing, the resulting sequence may contain parts of the cloning vector. In contrast, PCR-based cloning and emerging sequencing technologies based on pyrosequencing often avoid using cloning vectors. Recently, one-step Sanger sequencing (combined amplification and sequencing) methods such as Ampliseq and SeqSharp have been developed that allow rapid sequencing of target genes without cloning or prior amplification.<ref>Murphy, K.; Berg, K.; Eshleman, J. (2005). "Sequencing of genomic DNA by combined amplification and cycle sequencing reaction". Clinical chemistry 51 (1): 35–39.</ref><ref>Sengupta, D.; Cookson, B. (2010). "SeqSharp: A general approach for improving cycle-sequencing that facilitates a robust one-step combined amplification and sequencing method". The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD 12 (3): 272–277.</ref> Current methods can directly sequence only relatively short (300–1000 [[nucleotides]] long) DNA fragments in a single reaction. The main obstacle to sequencing DNA fragments above this size limit is insufficient power of separation for resolving large DNA fragments that differ in length by only one nucleotide. In all cases the use of a primer with a free 5' end is essential. === Automation and sample preparation === [[File:Sanger sequencing read display.png|thumb|500px|right|View of the start of an example dye-terminator read]] Automated DNA-sequencing instruments (DNA sequencers) can sequence up to 384 DNA samples in a single batch (run) in up to 24 runs a day. DNA sequencers carry out capillary electrophoresis for size separation, detection and recording of dye fluorescence, and data output as fluorescent peak trace chromatograms. Sequencing reactions by thermocycling, cleanup and re-suspension in a buffer solution before loading onto the sequencer are performed separately. A number of commercial and non-commercial software packages can trim low-quality DNA traces automatically. These programs score the quality of each peak and remove low-quality base peaks (generally located at the ends of the sequence). The accuracy of such algorithms is below visual examination by a human operator, but sufficient for automated processing of large sequence data sets. == Polymerase chain reaction == [[File:PCR.svg|thumb|right|300px|'''Figure 1''': Schematic drawing of the PCR cycle. '''(1) Denaturing at 94–96&nbsp;°C. (2) Annealing at ~65&nbsp;°C (3) Elongation at 72&nbsp;°C'''. Four cycles are shown here. The blue lines represent the DNA template to which primers (red arrows) anneal that are extended by the DNA polymerase (light green circles), to give shorter DNA products (green lines), which themselves are used as templates as PCR progresses.]] '''PCR''' PCR is used to amplify a specific region of a DNA strand (the DNA target). Most PCR methods typically amplify DNA fragments of up to ~10 kilo base pairs (kb), although some techniques allow for amplification of fragments up to 40 kb in size. A basic PCR set up requires several components and reagents.These components include: DNA template that contains the DNA region (target) to be amplified. Two primers that are complementary to the 3' (three prime) ends of each of the sense and anti-sense strand of the DNA target. Taq polymerase or another DNA polymerase with a temperature optimum at around 70&nbsp;°C. Deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs), the building-blocks from which the DNA polymerase synthesizes a new DNA strand. Buffer solution, providing a suitable chemical environment for optimum activity and stability of the DNA polymerase. Divalent cations, magnesium or manganese ions; generally Mg2+ is used, but Mn2+ can be utilized for PCR-mediated DNA mutagenesis, as higher Mn2+ concentration increases the error rate during DNA synthesis Monovalent cation potassium ions. The PCR is commonly carried out in a reaction volume of 10–200 μl in small reaction tubes (0.2–0.5 ml volumes) in a thermal cycler. The thermal cycler heats and cools the reaction tubes to achieve the temperatures required at each step of the reaction (see below). Many modern thermal cyclers make use of the Peltier effect, which permits both heating and cooling of the block holding the PCR tubes simply by reversing the electric current. Thin-walled reaction tubes permit favorable thermal conductivity to allow for rapid thermal equilibration. Most thermal cyclers have heated lids to prevent condensation at the top of the reaction tube. Older thermocyclers lacking a heated lid require a layer of oil on top of the reaction mixture or a ball of wax inside the tube.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction Polymerase chain reaction]</ref> '''Procedure''' Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the PCR cycle. (1) Denaturing at 94–96&nbsp;°C. (2) Annealing at ~65&nbsp;°C (3) Elongation at 72&nbsp;°C. Four cycles are shown here. The blue lines represent the DNA template to which primers (red arrows) anneal that are extended by the DNA polymerase (light green circles), to give shorter DNA products (green lines), which themselves are used as templates as PCR progresses. Typically, PCR consists of a series of 20-40 repeated temperature changes, called cycles, with each cycle commonly consisting of 2-3 discrete temperature steps, usually three . The cycling is often preceded by a single temperature step (called hold) at a high temperature (>90&nbsp;°C), and followed by one hold at the end for final product extension or brief storage. The temperatures used and the length of time they are applied in each cycle depend on a variety of parameters. These include the enzyme used for DNA synthesis, the concentration of divalent ions and dNTPs in the reaction, and the melting temperature (Tm) of the primers.Initialization step: This step consists of heating the reaction to a temperature of 94–96&nbsp;°C (or 98&nbsp;°C if extremely thermostable polymerases are used), which is held for 1–9 minutes. It is only required for DNA polymerases that require heat activation by hot-start PCR. Denaturation step: This step is the first regular cycling event and consists of heating the reaction to 94–98&nbsp;°C for 20–30 seconds. It causes DNA melting of the DNA template by disrupting the hydrogen bonds between complementary bases, yielding single-stranded DNA molecules. Annealing step: The reaction temperature is lowered to 50–65&nbsp;°C for 20–40 seconds allowing annealing of the primers to the single-stranded DNA template. Typically the annealing temperature is about 3-5 degrees Celsius below the Tm of the primers used. Stable DNA-DNA hydrogen bonds are only formed when the primer sequence very closely matches the template sequence. The polymerase binds to the primer-template hybrid and begins DNA synthesis. Extension/elongation step: The temperature at this step depends on the DNA polymerase used; Taq polymerase has its optimum activity temperature at 75–80&nbsp;°C, and commonly a temperature of 72&nbsp;°C is used with this enzyme. At this step the DNA polymerase synthesizes a new DNA strand complementary to the DNA template strand by adding dNTPs that are complementary to the template in 5' to 3' direction, condensing the 5'-phosphate group of the dNTPs with the 3'-hydroxyl group at the end of the nascent (extending) DNA strand. The extension time depends both on the DNA polymerase used and on the length of the DNA fragment to be amplified. As a rule-of-thumb, at its optimum temperature, the DNA polymerase will polymerize a thousand bases per minute. Under optimum conditions, i.e., if there are no limitations due to limiting substrates or reagents, at each extension step, the amount of DNA target is doubled, leading to exponential (geometric) amplification of the specific DNA fragment. Final elongation: This single step is occasionally performed at a temperature of 70–74&nbsp;°C for 5–15 minutes after the last PCR cycle to ensure that any remaining single-stranded DNA is fully extended. Final hold: This step at 4–15&nbsp;°C for an indefinite time may be employed for short-term storage of the reaction. To check whether the PCR generated the anticipated DNA fragment (also sometimes referred to as the amplimer or amplicon), agarose gel electrophoresis is employed for size separation of the PCR products. The size(s) of PCR products is determined by comparison with a DNA ladder (a molecular weight marker), which contains DNA fragments of known size, run on the gel alongside the PCR products. == Facts to be remembered == DNA Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates and make the DNA. In 1865 Gregor Mendel's paper, Experiments on Plant Hybridization In 1869, DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician '''Friedrich Miescher''' who discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. From 1880 to 1890 Walther Flemming, Eduard Strasburger, and Edouard van Beneden elucidate chromosome distribution during cell division In 1889 Hugo de Vries postulates that "inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles", naming such particles "(pan)genes" In 1903 Walter Sutton hypothesizes that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units In 1905 William Bateson coins the term "genetics" in a letter to Adam Sedgwick and at a meeting in 1906 In 1908 Hardy-Weinberg law derived. In 1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan shows that genes reside on chromosomes In 1913 Alfred Sturtevant makes the first genetic map of a chromosome In 1913 Gene maps show chromosomes containing linear arranged genes In 1918 Ronald Fisher publishes "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance" the modern synthesis of genetics and evolutionary biology starts. See population genetics. In 1928 Frederick Griffith discovers that hereditary material from dead bacteria can be incorporated into live bacteria (see Griffith's experiment) in 1931 Crossing over is identified as the cause of recombination In 1933 Jean Brachet is able to show that DNA is found in chromosomes and that RNA is present in the cytoplasm of all cells. In 1937 William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of the ''Pneumococcus'' could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. In 1952, '''Alfred Hershey''' and '''Martha Chase''' in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 phage. In 1953, '''James D. Watson''' and '''Francis Crick''' suggested double-helix model of DNA structure. Purines are found in high concentration in meat and meat products, especially internal organs such as liver and kidney. Examples of high-purine sources include: sweetbreads, anchovies, sardines, liver, beef kidneys, brains, meat extracts (e.g., Oxo, Bovril), herring, mackerel, scallops, game meats, beer (from the yeast) and gravy. bp = base pair(s) One bp corresponds to circa 3.4 Å of length along the strand kb (= kbp) = kilo base pairs = 1,000 bp Mb = mega base pairs = 1,000,000 bp '''Analysis of DNA topology uses three values:''' L = linking number - the number of times one DNA strand wraps around the other. It is an integer for a closed loop and constant for a closed topological domain. T = twist - total number of turns in the double stranded DNA helix. This will normally tend to approach the number of turns that a topologically open double stranded DNA helix makes free in solution: number of bases/10.5, assuming there are no intercalating agents (e.g., chloroquine) or other elements modifying the stiffness of the DNA. W = writhe - number of turns of the double stranded DNA helix around the superhelical axis L = T + W and ΔL = ΔT + ΔW Any change of T in a closed topological domain must be balanced by a change in W, and vice versa. This results in higher order structure of DNA. A circular DNA molecule with a writhe of 0 will be circular. If the twist of this molecule is subsequently increased or decreased by supercoiling then the writhe will be appropriately altered, making the molecule undergo plectonemic or toroidal superhelical coiling. When the ends of a piece of double stranded helical DNA are joined so that it forms a circle the strands are topologically knotted. This means the single strands cannot be separated any process that does not involve breaking a strand (such as heating). The task of un-knotting topologically linked strands of DNA falls to enzymes known as topoisomerases. These enzymes are dedicated to un-knotting circular DNA by cleaving one or both strands so that another double or single stranded segment can pass through. This un-knotting is required for the replication of circular DNA and various types of recombination in linear DNA which have similar topological constraints. Gb = giga base pairs = 1,000,000,000 bp. 1972 Development of recombinant DNA technology, which permits isolation of defined fragments of DNA; prior to this, the only accessible samples for sequencing were from bacteriophage or virus DNA. 1977 The first complete DNA genome to be sequenced is that of bacteriophage φX174. 1977 Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert publish "DNA sequencing by chemical degradation". Frederick Sanger, independently, publishes "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors". 1984 Medical Research Council scientists decipher the complete DNA sequence of the Epstein-Barr virus, 170 kb. 1986 Leroy E. Hood's laboratory at the California Institute of Technology and Smith announce the first semi-automated DNA sequencing machine. 1987 Applied Biosystems markets first automated sequencing machine, the model ABI 370. 1990 The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) begins large-scale sequencing trials on Mycoplasma capricolum, Escherichia coli, Caenorhabditis elegans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (at US$0.75/base). 1991 Sequencing of human expressed sequence tags begins in Craig Venter's lab, an attempt to capture the coding fraction of the human genome. 1995 Craig Venter, Hamilton Smith, and colleagues at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) publish the first complete genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. The circular chromosome contains 1,830,137 bases and its publication in the journal Science marks the first use of whole-genome shotgun sequencing, eliminating the need for initial mapping efforts. 1996 Pål Nyrén and his student Mostafa Ronaghi at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm publish their method of pyrosequencing. 1998 Phil Green and Brent Ewing of the University of Washington publish “phred” for sequencer data analysis. 2001 A draft sequence of the human genome is published. 2004 454 Life Sciences markets a parallelized version of pyrosequencing.The first version of their machine reduced sequencing costs 6-fold compared to automated Sanger sequencing, and was the second of a new generation of sequencing technologies, after MPSS '''List of bases found in DNA and RNA''' {|class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! 3-D structure !!Abbreviation !! Structural formula !! Classification !! Found in |- | style="text-align:center"|Cytosine | [[File: Cytosine-3D-balls.png|thumb|180px]] | style="text-align:center"|C | style="text-align:center"|[[File:Cytosine chemical structure.png|class=skin-invert-image|150px]] | Pyrimidine||DNA, RNA |- | style="text-align:center"|Thymine ||[[File:Thymine-3D-balls.png|thumb|180px]] | style="text-align:center"|T | style="text-align:center"|[[File:Thymine chemical structure.png|class=skin-invert-image|150px]] |Pyrimidine|| DNA |- | style="text-align:center"|Uracil || [[File:Uracil-3D-balls.png|thumb|180px]] | style="text-align:center"|U | style="text-align:center"|[[File:Uracil.svg|class=skin-invert-image|150px]] || Pyrimidine||RNA |- | style="text-align:center"|Adenine |[[File:Adenine-3D-balls.png|thumb|180px]] | style="text-align:center"|A | style="text-align:center"|[[File:Adenine.svg|class=skin-invert-image|150px]] | Purine||DNA, RNA |- | style="text-align:center"|Guanine |[[File: Guanine-3D-balls.png|thumb|180px]] | style="text-align:center"|C |style="text-align:center"|[[File:Guanin.svg|class=skin-invert-image|150px]] | Purine||DNA, RNA |} == References == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} l9wl5u37kbrr9xxu79clpkna8ucn4bi 0 253907 4632195 4428124 2026-04-25T08:44:33Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632195 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ethnography''' - (from Greek language|Greek {{polytonic|''ἔθνος''}} ''ethnos'' = folk/people and {{polytonic|''γράφω''}} ''grapho'' = to write) is "the science of contextualization"<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenhouse|first=Carol|title=Ethnographies of Neoliberalism|year=2009|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780812241921|pages=2|url=http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14663.html}}</ref> often used in the field of social sciences—particularly in anthropology, in some branches of sociology,<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ethnology "Ethnology" at ''dictionary.com''].</ref> and in historical science—that studies people, ethnic groups and other ethnic formations, their ethnogenesis, composition, resettlement, social welfare characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Токарев |first= Сергей Александрович |title= История зарубежной этнографии |publisher= Наука|year= 1978 |month=|url=http://historia-site.narod.ru/library/ethnology/tokarev_main.htm |isbn= |language=Russian|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/20030519225912/historia-site.narod.ru/library/ethnology/tokarev_main.htm|archivedate=2003-05-19}}</ref> It is often employed for gathering empirical data on human Society|societies and cultures. Data collection is often done through participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, etc. Ethnography aims to describe the nature of those who are studied (i.e. to describe a people, an ''ethnos'') through writing.<ref>Maynard, M. & Purvis, J. (1994). Researching women's loves from a feminist perspective. London: Taylor & Frances. p. 76</ref> In the biological sciences, this type of study might be called a "field study" or a "case report," both of which are used as common synonyms for "ethnography".<ref>Boaz. N.T. & Wolfe, L.D. (1997). Biological anthropology. Published by International Institute for Human Evolutionary Research. Page 150.</ref> ==Data collection methods == One of the most common methods for collecting data in an ethnographic study is direct, first-hand observation of daily participation. This can include participant observation. Another common method is interviewing, which may include conversation with different levels of form and can involve small talk to long interviews. A particular approach to transcribing interview data might be genealogical method. This is a set of procedures by which ethnographers discover and record connections of kinship, descent and marriage using diagrams and symbols. Questionnaires can be used to aid the discovery of local beliefs and perceptions and in the case of longitudinal research, where there is continuous long-term study of an area or site, they can act as valid instrument for measuring changes in the individuals or groups studied. Traditionally, the ethnographer focuses attention on a community, selecting knowledgeable informants who know well the activities of the community.<ref name="G1">{{cite web|url=http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/ethno.htm |title=Ethnographic Research: Statnotes, from North Carolina State University, Public Administration Program |publisher=Faculty.chass.ncsu.edu |date=2008 |author=G. David Garson |accessdate=2011-03-27}}</ref> These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using chain sampling.<ref name="G1"/> This process is often effective in revealing common cultural common denominators connected to the topic being studied.<ref name="G1"/> Ethnography relies greatly on up-close, personal experience. Participation, rather than just observation, is one of the keys to this process.<ref>Genzuk, Michael, PH.D., ''[http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~genzuk/Ethnographic_Research.html A Synthesis of Ethnographic]'', Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research, University of Southern California</ref> == Differences across disciplines == The ethnographic method is used across a range of different disciplines, primarily by anthropologists but also frequently by sociologists. Cultural studies, economics, social work, education, ethnomusicology, folklore, geography, history, linguistics, communication studies, performance studies, psychology, usability and criminology are other fields which have made use of ethnography. ===Cultural and social anthropology=== Cultural anthropology and social anthropology were developed around ethnographic research and their canonical texts which are mostly ethnographies: e.g. ''Argonauts of the Western Pacific'' (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski, ''Ethnologische Excursion in Johore'' by famous Russian ethnographer and naturalist ( "The moon man") (1875) Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay, ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' (1928) by Margaret Mead, ''The Nuer'' (1940) by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, ''Naven'' (1936, 1958) by Gregory Bateson or "The Lele of the Kasai" (1963) by Mary Douglas. Cultural and social anthropologists today place such a high value on actually doing ethnographic research that ethnology—the comparative synthesis of ethnographic information—is rarely the foundation for a career.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} The typical ethnography is a document written about a particular people, almost always based at least in part on emic views of where the culture begins and ends. Using language or community boundaries to bound the ethnography is common.<ref>Naroll, Raoul. ''Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology.''</ref> Ethnographies are also sometimes called "case studies."<ref>Chavez, Leo. "Shadowed Lives: Undocumented workers in American society (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology). 1997 Prentice Hall.</ref> Ethnographers study and interpret culture, its universalities and its variations through ethnographic study based on fieldwork. An ethnography is a specific kind of written observational science which provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community. The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life. Ethnographers are participant observers. They take part in events they study because it helps with understanding local behavior and thought. Classic examples are Carol Stack's ''All Our Kin'', Jean Briggs' "Never in Anger", Richard Lee's "Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers," Victor Turner's "Forest of Symbols," David Maybry-Lewis' "Akew-Shavante Society," E.E. Evans-Pritchard's "The Nuer" and Claude Lévi-Strauss' "Tristes Tropiques". Iterations of ethnographic representations in the classic, modernist camp include Bartholomew Dean’s recent (2009) contribution, ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07 |title=University Press of Florida: Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia |publisher=Upf.com |date=2009-11-15 |accessdate=2011-03-27}}</ref> File:Bronisław Malinowski among Trobriand tribe.jpg|thumb|right|Bronisław Malinowski among Trobriand Islands|Trobriand tribe A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic<ref>Ember, Carol and Melvin Ember. ''Cultural Anthropology.'' 2006. Prentice Hall, Chapter One</ref><ref>Heider, Karl. ''Seeing Anthropology''. 2001. Prentice Hall, Chapters One and Two.</ref> and typically follows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question, an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the people under study, including climate, and often including what biological anthropologists call habitat. Folk notions of botany and zoology are presented as ethnobotany and ethnozoology alongside references from the formal sciences. Material culture, technology and means of subsistence are usually treated next, as they are typically bound up in physical geography and include descriptions of infrastructure. Kinship and social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender, voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included. Languages spoken, dialects and the history of language change are another group of standard topics.<ref>cf. Ember and Ember 2006, Heider 2001 op cit.</ref> Practices of childrearing, acculturation and emic views on personality and values usually follow after sections on social structure.<ref>Ember and Ember 2006, op cit., Chapters 7 and 8</ref> Rites, rituals, and other evidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially when conducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them.<ref>Truner, Victor. ''The Forest of Symbols''. remainder of citation forthcoming</ref> As ethnography developed, anthropologists grew more interested in less tangible aspects of culture, such as values, worldview and what Clifford Geertz termed the "ethos" of the culture. Clifford Geertz's own fieldwork used elements of a phenomenology (science)|phenomenological approach to fieldwork, tracing not just the doings of people, but the cultural elements themselves. For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought to first determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things). Then, he sought to determine in what contexts winks were used, and whether, as one moved about a region, winks remained meaningful in the same way. In this way, cultural boundaries of communication could be explored, as opposed to using linguistic boundaries or notions about residence. Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about "webs" instead of "outlines"<ref>Geertz, Clifford. ''The Interpretation of Culture'' Chapter one.</ref> of culture. Within cultural anthropology, there are several sub-genres of ethnography. Beginning in the 1950s and early 1960s, anthropologists began writing "bio-confessional" ethnographies that intentionally exposed the nature of ethnographic research. Famous examples include ''Tristes Tropiques'' (1955) by Claude Lévi-Strauss, ''The High Valley'' by Kenneth Read, and ''The Savage and the Innocent'' by David Maybury-Lewis, as well as the mildly fictionalized ''Return to Laughter'' by Elenore Smith Bowen (Laura Bohannan). Later "reflexive" ethnographies refined the technique to translate cultural differences by representing their effects on the ethnographer. Famous examples include "Deep Play: Notes on a Balinese Cockfight" by Clifford Geertz, ''Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco'' by Paul Rabinow, ''The Headman and I'' by Jean-Paul Dumont, and ''Tuhami'' by Vincent Crapanzano. In the 1980s, the rhetoric of ethnography was subjected to intense scrutiny within the discipline, under the general influence of literary theory and postcolonial|post-colonial/post-structuralist thought. "Experimental" ethnographies that reveal the ferment of the discipline include ''Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man'' by Michael Taussig, ''Debating Muslims'' by Michael F. J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, ''A Space on the Side of the Road'' by Kathleen Stewart, and ''Advocacy after Bhopal'' by Kim Fortun. ===Sociology=== Sociology is another field which prominently features ethnographies. Urban sociology and the Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago School in particular are associated with ethnographic research, with some well-known early examples being ''Street Corner Society'' by William Foote Whyte and ''Black Metropolis'' by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr.. Some of the influence for this can be traced to the anthropologist Lloyd Warner who was on the Chicago sociology faculty, and to Robert Park's experience as a journalist. Symbolic interactionism developed from the same tradition and yielded several excellent sociological ethnographies, including ''Shared Fantasy'' by Gary Alan Fine, which documents the early history of fantasy role-playing games. Other important ethnographies in the discipline of sociology include Pierre Bourdieu's work on Algeria and France, Paul Willis (cultural theorist)|Paul Willis's ''Learning To Labour'' on working class youth, and the work of Elijah Anderson, Mitchell Duneier, Loic Wacquant on black America and Glimpses of Madrasa From Africa, 2010 Lai Olurode. But even though many sub-fields and theoretical perspectives within sociology use ethnographic methods, ethnography is not the ''sine qua non'' of the discipline, as it is in cultural anthropology. === Communication studies === Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, ethnographic research methods began to be widely employed by communication scholars. Studies such as [http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~mv537899/sc.htm Gerry Philipsen's] analysis of cultural communication strategies in a blue-collar, working class neighborhood on the south side of Chicago, ''Speaking 'Like a Man' in Teamsterville,'' paved the way for the expansion of ethnographic research in the study of communication. Scholars of communication studies use ethnographic research methods to analyze communication behaviors, seeking to answer the "why" and "how come" questions of human communication.<ref>Rubin, R. B., Rubin, A. M., and Piele, L. J. (2005). ''Communication research: Strategies and sources.'' Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadworth. pp. 229.</ref> Often this type of research results in a case study or field study such as an analysis of speech patterns at a protest rally or the way firemen communicate during "down time" at a fire station. Like anthropology scholars, communication scholars often immerse themselves, participate in and/or directly observe the particular social group being studied.<ref>Bentz, V. M., and Shapiro, J. J. (1998). ''Mindful inquiry in social research.'' Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 117.</ref> ===Other fields=== The American anthropologist George Spindler was a pioneer in applying ethnographic methodology to the classroom. Anthropologists like Daniel Miller (anthropologist)|Daniel Miller and Mary Douglas have used ethnographic data to answer academic questions about consumers and consumption. In this sense, Tony Salvador, Genevieve Bell, and Ken Anderson describe design ethnography as being "a way of understanding the particulars of daily life in such a way as to increase the success probability of a new product or service or, more appropriately, to reduce the probability of failure specifically due to a lack of understanding of the basic behaviors and frameworks of consumers."<ref>Salvador</ref> Businesses, too, have found ethnographers helpful for understanding how people use products and services, as indicated in the increasing use of ethnographic methods to understand consumers and consumption, or for new product development (such as video ethnography). Naked Eye Research is a UK based company that specialises in video ethnography, which involves participating, observing and describing how people from particular cultural groups respond to the situations they find themselves in.<ref>[http://www.iconeye.com/archiexpo/designtrail/scripts/securimage/categories/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3455:video-ethnography Icon Eye]</ref> The recent Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is evidence of this.{{Citation needed|date =November 2008}} Ethnographers' systematic and holistic approach to real-life experience is valued by product developers, who use the method to understand unstated desires or cultural practices that surround products. Where focus groups fail to inform marketers about what people really do, ethnography links what people say to what they actually do—avoiding the pitfalls that come from relying only on self-reported, focus-group data. == Evaluating ethnography == Ethnographic methodology is not usually evaluated in terms of philosophical standpoint (such as positivism and emotionalism). Ethnographic studies nonetheless need to be evaluated in some manner. While there is no consensus on evaluation standards, Richardson (2000, p.&nbsp;254)<ref>Richardson,L. (2000). Evaluating ethnography. Qualitative Inquiry, 6(2), 253-255</ref> provides 5 criteria that ethnographers might find helpful. #''Substantive Contribution'': "Does the piece contribute to our understanding of social-life?" #''Aesthetic Merit'': "Does this piece succeed aesthetically?" #''Reflexivity'': "How did the author come to write this text…Is there adequate self-awareness and self-exposure for the reader to make judgments about the point of view?"<ref>For postcolonial critiques of ethnography from various locations, see essays in Prem Poddar et al , Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures--Continental Europe and its Empires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008.</ref> #''Impact'': "Does this affect me? Emotionally? Intellectually?" Does it move me? #''Expresses a Reality'': "Does it seem 'true'—a credible account of a cultural, social, individual, or communal sense of the 'real'?" ==Ethics== Gary Alan Fine argues that the nature of ethnographic inquiry demands that researchers deviate from formal and idealistic rules or ethics that have come to be widely accepted in qualitative and quantitative approaches in research. Many of these ethical assumptions are rooted in positivist and post-positivist epistemology|epistemologies that have adapted over time, but nonetheless are apparent and must be accounted for in all research paradigms. These ethical dilemmas are evident throughout the entire process of conducting ethnographies, including the design, implementation, and reporting of an ethnographic study. Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that “each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know”.<ref>Fine, p. 267</ref> Fine is not necessarily casting blame or pointing his finger at ethnographic researchers, but rather is attempting to show that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and standards which in actuality are inherently based on partial truths and self-deceptions. Fine also acknowledges that many of these partial truths and self-deceptions are unavoidable. He maintains that “illusions” are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences. He claims, “Ethnographers cannot help but lie, but in lying, we reveal truths that escape those who are not so bold”.<ref>Fine, p. 291</ref> Based on these assertions, Fine establishes three conceptual clusters in which ethnographic ethical dilemmas can be situated: “Classic Virtues,” “Technical Skills,” and “Ethnographic Self.” Much debate surrounding the issue of ethics arose after the ethnographer Napoleon Chagnon conducted his ethnographic fieldwork with the Yanomamo people of South America. ===Classic virtues=== *“The kindly ethnographer” – Most ethnographers present themselves as being more sympathetic than they actually are, which aids in the research process, but is also deceptive. The identity that we present to subjects is different from who we are in other circumstances. *“The friendly ethnographer” – Ethnographers operate under the assumption that they should not dislike anyone. In actuality, when hated individuals are found within research, ethnographers often crop them out of the findings.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} *“The honest ethnographer” – If research participants know the research goals, their responses will likely be skewed. Therefore, ethnographers often conceal what they know in order to increase the likelihood of acceptance.<ref>Fine, p. 270-77</ref> ===Technical skills=== *“The Precise Ethnographer” – Ethnographers often create the illusion that field notes are data and reflect what “really” happened. They engage in the opposite of plagiarism, giving credit to those undeserving by not using precise words but rather loose interpretations and paraphrasing. Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact. The closest ethnographers can ever really get to reality is an approximate truth. *“The Observant Ethnographer” – Readers of ethnography are often led to assume the report of a scene is complete – that little of importance was missed. In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because they are not omniscient. Everything is open to multiple interpretations and misunderstandings. The ability of the ethnographer to take notes and observe varies, and therefore, what is depicted in ethnography is not the whole picture. *“The Unobtrusive Ethnographer” – As a “participant” in the scene, the researcher will always have an effect on the communication that occurs within the research site. The degree to which one is an “active member” affects the extent to which sympathetic understanding is possible.<ref>Fine, p. 277-81</ref> ===The ethnographic self=== The following appellations are commonly misconceived conceptions of ethnographers: *“The Candid Ethnographer” – Where the researcher situates themselves within the ethnography is ethically problematic. There is an illusion that everything reported has actually happened because the researcher has been directly exposed to it. *“The Chaste Ethnographer” – When ethnographers participate within the field, they invariably develop relationships with research subjects/participants. These relationships are sometimes not accounted for within the reporting of the ethnography despite the fact that they seemingly would influence the research findings. *“The Fair Ethnographer” – Fine claims that objectivity is an illusion and that everything in ethnography is known from a perspective. Therefore, it is unethical for a researcher to report fairness in their findings. *“The Literary Ethnographer” – Representation is a balancing act of determining what to “show” through poetic/prosaic language and style versus what to “tell” via straightforward, ‘factual’ reporting. The idiosyncratic skill of the ethnographer influences the face-value of the research.<ref name="Fine, p. 282-89">Fine, p. 282-89</ref> eight principles should be considered for observing, recording and sampling data according to Denzin: # The groups should combine symbolic meanings with patterns of interaction. # Observe the world from the point of view of the subject, while maintaining the distinction between everyday and scientific perceptions of reality. # Link the group’s symbols and their meanings with the social relationships. # Record all behaviour. # Methodology should highlight phases of process, change and stability. # The act should be a type of symbolic interactionism. # Use concepts that would avoid casual explanations. == See also == * Area studies * Critical ethnography * Ethnography of communication * Realist ethnography * Online ethnography: a form of ethnography that involves conducting ethnographic studies on the Internet * Participant observation * Video ethnography * Living lab ===Notable ethnographers=== * Franz Boas * Raymond Firth * Bronisław Malinowski * Claude Lévi-Strauss * Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay * Mary Douglas * Gregory Bateson * Zalpa Bersanova * Napoleon Chagnon * Diamond Jenness * Ruth Landes * Edmund Leach * José Leite de Vasconcelos * David Maybury-Lewis * Margaret Mead * Nikolai Nadezhdin * Lubor Niederle * Dositej Obradovic * Alexey Okladnikov * Sergey Oldenburg * Richard Price (American historian)|Richard Price * Edward Sapir * August Ludwig von Schlözer * Marilyn Strathern * Ronald Takaki * Lila Abu-Lughod * Sudhir Venkatesh * Ian Collins * Leni Riefenstahl * Paul Willis == References == {{Reflist}} * Agar, Michael (1996) ''The Professional Stranger: An Informal Introduction to Ethnography''. Academic Press. * Douglas, Mary and Baron Isherwood (1996) ''The World of Goods: Toward and Anthropology of Consumption''. Routledge, London. * Erickson, Ken C. and Donald D. Stull (1997) ''Doing Team Ethnography : Warnings and Advice''. Sage, Beverly Hills. * Fine, G. A. (1993). Ten lies of ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22(3), p.&nbsp;267-294. * Hymes, Dell. (1974). ''Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. * Kottak, Conrad Phillip (2005) ''Window on Humanity : A Concise Introduction to General Anthropology'', (pages 2–3, 16-17, 34-44). McGraw Hill, New York. * Miller, Daniel (1987) ''Material Culture and Mass Consumption''. Blackwell, London. * Spradley, James P. (1979) ''The Ethnographic Interview''. Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning. * Salvador, Tony; Genevieve Bell; and Ken Anderson (1999) ''Design Ethnography.'' Design Management Journal. ==Suggested Reading== *"On Ethnography" by Shirley Brice Heath & Brian Street, with Molly Mills. *''The Interpretation of Cultures'' by Clifford Geertz. * Van Maanen, John. 1988. ''Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnography'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press == External links == {{Commons category}} * [http://www.architectonictokyo.com/architokyo/100_of_the_Most_Influential_Ethnographies_and_Anthropology_Texts.html 100 of the Most Influential Ethnographies and Anthropology Texts] * [http://www.epiconference.com Ethnographic Praxis in Industry Conference] * [http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~genzuk/Ethnographic_Research.html Genzuk, Michael (2003) A Synthesis of Ethnographic Research] * [http://anthro.amnh.org/anthro.html Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History] - Over 160,000 objects from Pacific, North American, African, Asian ethnographic collections with images and detailed description, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available online. * [http://www.karalahana.com/fotograflar/thumbnails.php?album=9 Ethnographic material collection from Northern Anatolia and Caucasus -Photo Gallery] * [http://www.ethnography.com Ethnography.com] A community based Ethnography website for academic and professional ethnographers and interested parties * [http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/ New Zealand Museum] Images of objects from Pacific cultures. * [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/anthro/anthro/whatisethnography University of Pennsylvania's "What is Ethnography?"] Penn's Public Interest Anthropology Web Site * [http://www.americanethnography.com/ethnography.php American Ethnography -- Definitions: What is Ethnography?] A collection of quotes about ethnography (Malinowski, Lévi-Strauss, Geertz, ...) *[http://www.qmrg.org.uk/files/2008/12/58-doing-ethnographies.pdf Doing ethnographies] (Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography) *[http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/s/sea/index.php Cornell University Library Southeast Asia Visions] *[http://www.2cv.co.uk/documents/19Ethnography%20for%20the%20Masses.pdf Ethnography for the masses] 2CV's Practical Application of Ethnography in Market Research *[http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/museum/catalogue/armc/ Scott Polar Research Institute] Arctic Material Culture Collection *{{Wikisource-inline|list= **{{Cite NIE|Ethnography|year=1905|noicon=x}} **{{Cite EB1911|Ethnology and ethnography|noicon=x}} **{{Cite Americana|Ethnography|noicon=x}} **{{Cite Collier's|Ethnography|noicon=x}} }} ==References== {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} irgdp12dwqqy301mwg7x4nlnsdkem4l 0 276062 4632188 3584697 2026-04-25T08:36:35Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632188 wikitext text/x-wiki == Catalog Basics == The '''Catalog''' is a feature that some TI calculators have. It contains most of the commands that can be executed on the calculator. The Catalog can be accessed on some calculators (namely the TI-84 family, TI-83 family, and some others) by pressing <kbd>2ND:CATALOG(0)</kbd>. On other calculators, other button combinations may be used. The Catalog is sorted alphabetically, and upon entering the Catalog, the cursor style is automatically set to ALPHA for easy searching. You can jump to a letter in the catalog by pressing that letter. Should no commands beginning with that letter exist, the Catalog will automatically take you to the next letter. Operands such as +, -, /, *, ', ", :, and π are stored at the end of the Catalog. Press <kbd>CLEAR</kbd> at any time to exit the Catalog. Once you find the command you wanted to insert, you can insert it by pressing <kbd>ENTER</kbd>, and it will insert the content into the program editor or home screen. == The Catalog == {{TICatalog|abs(|MATH:''NUM'':1|abs(''value'')|Returns the absolute value of <var>''value''</var>.}} {{TICatalog|and|2ND:TEST(MATH):''LOGIC'':1|valueA and valueB|Returns true only if <var>''valueA''</var> and <var>''valueB''</var> are both true or non-zero.}} {{TICatalog|angle(|MATH:''CPX'':4|angle(''value'')|Returns the polar angle of a complex number or list of complex numbers.}} {{todo|Expand this list to include all catalog commands.}} == Using Catalog Help (TI-83/TI-84 Families Only) == TI-83/84 families of calculators have an app called Catalog Help (CtlgHelp). While it says that it works only on the TI-83 family, it also works on the TI-84 family. Start the app by going to the apps menu (<kbd>APPS</kbd>), then running the ''CtlgHelp'' app. Keep pressing <kbd>ENTER</kbd> until you reach the Home Screen again. The next time you open the Catalog, press <kbd>+</kbd> with the cursor on an entry, and the command's syntax and usage will be displayed. You can use the up and down arrow keys to navigate to other commands in the Catalog. Press <kbd>TRACE</kbd> and the command will be inserted into the Program Editor or Home Screen, the same way you would insert it from the Catalog itself. Press <kbd>GRAPH</kbd> at any time to exit the Catalog Help environment. '''Previous:''' [[TI-Basic Z80 Programming/List of Commands|Appendix A: List of Commands]] {{BookCat}} 7by3t4ue4feakn3dqkr3acsdj2h49bx 0 294777 4632135 3026426 2026-04-25T01:38:45Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 4632135 wikitext text/x-wiki __FORCETOC__ == Healthy Eating == Healthy eating is a general term that usually refers to the consumption of foods that maintain or improve health. In Australia, a healthy diet should follow the [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/n55 Australian Dietary Guidelines]<ref name="aus-diet-guide">National Health and Medical Research Council (2013) Australian Dietary Guidelines. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/n55_australian_dietary_guidelines_130530.pdf</ref> and the [http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating Australian Guide to Healthy Eating],<ref name="AGTHE">National Health and Medical Research Council (2013) Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating</ref> consisting primarily of: *wholegrain and/or high fibre breads, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles, polenta, couscous, oats, quinoa and barley *lean meats and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts, seeds and legumes/beans *a variety of fruits *plenty of different coloured vegetables *reduced-fat milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives *small amounts of unsaturated fats such as oils, spreads, nut butters/pastes and avocado *limit foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol <br><br> == A Healthy Heart == A healthy heart refers to the absence of damage or disease in the heart and/or blood vessels. The heart and its vessels form the circulatory system, which transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other materials throughout the body allowing other organ systems to function <ref name="Human Anatomy & Physiology"> Marieb, E. & Hoehn, K. (2007). Human Anatomy & Physiology (7th ed.), San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.</ref>. Damage to the heart or its vessels usually has widespread effects and may result in a heart attack, stroke, kidney failure or even death.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice">Thomas, B. & Bishop, J. (2007). Manual of Dietetic Pracitce (4th ed.), Carlton, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing.</ref><br><br> == Key Foods and Nutrients that Affect Heart Health == Probably the two most commonly discussed nutrients when talking about heart health are fat and sodium. However, there are many other nutrients and foods that can have an impact on heart health, and a few of the major ones will be discussed below.<br><br> ==== Saturated Fat ==== Saturated fat tends to be solid at room temperature and is most commonly found in meat, dairy products, coconut and palm oils, and processed foods such as chips, chocolate and fast-food <ref name="Understanding Food">Brown, A. (2011). Understanding Food: Principles & Preparation (4th ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.</ref>. The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend that intake of saturated fat should be limited because research has shown that it increases the “bad” or LDL cholesterol in the blood, which is associated with increased risk of heart disease.<ref name="aus-diet-guide"/><ref name="Understanding Nutrition"> Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. & Walsh, A. (2011). Understanding Nutrition: Australian and New Zealand Edition. South Melbourne: Cengage Learning.</ref> To reduce intake choose low-fat dairy products, trimmed meat and limit intake of processed and take-away foods.<br> ==== Trans Fat ==== Trans fats have a similar chemical composition to saturated fats. There are small amounts of trans fats naturally occurring in animal products, however, the majority of trans fats in the diet come from unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils that are hydrogenated during processing<ref name="Understanding Food"/>. Trans fats are found in fried foods, margarine, fast food products, shortening, commercial baked good and snack foods. Like saturated fats, trans fats increase LDL cholesterol, but have also been attributed to decreasing "good" or HDL cholesterol levels in the blood<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/>. The [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/n55 Australian Dietary Guidelines] recommend to limit the consumption of foods containing trans fats.<br> ==== Cholesterol ==== Dietary cholesterol intake increases LDL cholesterol levels in the blood and the recommendations are to limit its intake; however, its effect on blood cholesterol is not as strong as that of saturated fat and trans fat. Foods that contain higher amounts of cholesterol include: egg yolk, prawns, liver, meat, and dairy products. It is also worth noting that whilst eggs are high in cholesterol, they are also a good source of protein and fat-soluble vitamins, and therefore consumption of approximately 6 eggs per week is considered to be beneficial.<ref name="Understanding Nutrition"/><br> ==== Unsaturated Fat ==== Unsaturated fats include monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and are usually liquid at room temperature. Both of these unsaturated fats decrease LDL cholesterol when they replace saturated fat.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/> Unsaturated fats are found in:<ref name="Understanding Nutrition"/><br> *''Oils:'' olive, canola, peanut, sesame and more *''Nuts & Seeds:'' almonds, cashews, macadamias, pepitas and more *''Avocado''<br> [[File:West Show Jersey July 2010 43.jpg|thumb|Colourful Vegetables!]] Omega-3s are a type of polyunsaturated fat that have been found to reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke by preventing blood clots, maintaining a regular heartbeat and lowering blood pressure.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/><ref name="Integrative & Complementary Medicine"/> Omega-3's are found in:<br> *''Fatty Fish:'' herring, mackerel, tuna, sardines and salmon *''Oils:'' flaxseed, canola and soybean *''Nuts & Seeds:'' almonds, flaxseeds and walnuts<br><br> ==== Sodium ==== In our food, sodium is usually found in the form of salt, otherwise known as sodium chloride. It is recommended to limit intake of sodium as it has been shown to increase blood pressure, a risk factor for heart disease.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/> Sodium is found mainly in processed foods such as: chips, savoury and sweet biscuits, fast food, cereals, chocolate, processed meats and even bread.<ref name="Understanding Nutrition"/><br><br> ==== Fruits and Vegetables ==== Fruits and vegetables probably get the least amount of attention when it comes to heart disease; however, fruits and vegetables contain an abundance of components that act to combat the destructive actions of substances that cause damage to the heart and other parts of the body. Some of these beneficial properties/components include:<ref name="Integrative & Complementary Medicine"> Kotsirilos, V., Vitetta, L. & Sali, A. (2011). A Guide to Evidence-Based Integrative and Complementary Medicine, Chatswood, NSW: Elsevier, Australia.</ref><br> *''Antioxidants:'' prevent damage occurring to blood vessel walls *''Soluble fibre:'' binds to cholesterol in the intestines preventing its absorption *''Anti-hypertensive components:'' reduce blood pressure *''Anti-inflammatory components:'' reduce inflammation and lower the risk of developing [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis atherosclerosis]<br><br> == References == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 6ftukr1g24fwd88z7ur5bb4z7opblig 4632136 4632135 2026-04-25T01:40:24Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 4632136 wikitext text/x-wiki __FORCETOC__ == Healthy Eating == Healthy eating is a general term that usually refers to the consumption of foods that maintain or improve health. In Australia, a healthy diet should follow the [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/n55 Australian Dietary Guidelines]<ref name="aus-diet-guide">National Health and Medical Research Council (2013) Australian Dietary Guidelines. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/n55_australian_dietary_guidelines_130530.pdf</ref> and the [http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating Australian Guide to Healthy Eating],<ref name="AGTHE">National Health and Medical Research Council (2013) Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating</ref> consisting primarily of: *wholegrain and/or high fibre breads, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles, polenta, couscous, oats, quinoa and barley *lean meats and poultry, organic tofu, nuts, seeds and legumes/organic beans *a organic variety of organic fruits *plenty of different coloured organic vegetables *reduced-fat milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives *small amounts of unsaturated fats such as oils, spreads, nut butters/pastes and avocado *limit foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol <br><br> == A Healthy Heart == A healthy heart refers to the absence of damage or disease in the heart and/or blood vessels. The heart and its vessels form the circulatory system, which transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other materials throughout the body allowing other organ systems to function <ref name="Human Anatomy & Physiology"> Marieb, E. & Hoehn, K. (2007). Human Anatomy & Physiology (7th ed.), San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.</ref>. Damage to the heart or its vessels usually has widespread effects and may result in a heart attack, stroke, kidney failure or even death.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice">Thomas, B. & Bishop, J. (2007). Manual of Dietetic Pracitce (4th ed.), Carlton, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing.</ref><br><br> == Key Foods and Nutrients that Affect Heart Health == Probably the two most commonly discussed nutrients when talking about heart health are fat and sodium. However, there are many other nutrients and foods that can have an impact on heart health, and a few of the major ones will be discussed below.<br><br> ==== Saturated Fat ==== Saturated fat tends to be solid at room temperature and is most commonly found in meat, dairy products, coconut and palm oils, and processed foods such as chips, chocolate and fast-food <ref name="Understanding Food">Brown, A. (2011). Understanding Food: Principles & Preparation (4th ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.</ref>. The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend that intake of saturated fat should be limited because research has shown that it increases the “bad” or LDL cholesterol in the blood, which is associated with increased risk of heart disease.<ref name="aus-diet-guide"/><ref name="Understanding Nutrition"> Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. & Walsh, A. (2011). Understanding Nutrition: Australian and New Zealand Edition. South Melbourne: Cengage Learning.</ref> To reduce intake choose low-fat dairy products, trimmed meat and limit intake of processed and take-away foods.<br> ==== Trans Fat ==== Trans fats have a similar chemical composition to saturated fats. There are small amounts of trans fats naturally occurring in animal products, however, the majority of trans fats in the diet come from unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils that are hydrogenated during processing<ref name="Understanding Food"/>. Trans fats are found in fried foods, margarine, fast food products, shortening, commercial baked good and snack foods. Like saturated fats, trans fats increase LDL cholesterol, but have also been attributed to decreasing "good" or HDL cholesterol levels in the blood<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/>. The [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/n55 Australian Dietary Guidelines] recommend to limit the consumption of foods containing trans fats.<br> ==== Cholesterol ==== Dietary cholesterol intake increases LDL cholesterol levels in the blood and the recommendations are to limit its intake; however, its effect on blood cholesterol is not as strong as that of saturated fat and trans fat. Foods that contain higher amounts of cholesterol include: egg yolk, prawns, liver, meat, and dairy products. It is also worth noting that whilst eggs are high in cholesterol, they are also a good source of protein and fat-soluble vitamins, and therefore consumption of approximately 6 eggs per week is considered to be beneficial.<ref name="Understanding Nutrition"/><br> ==== Unsaturated Fat ==== Unsaturated fats include monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and are usually liquid at room temperature. Both of these unsaturated fats decrease LDL cholesterol when they replace saturated fat.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/> Unsaturated fats are found in:<ref name="Understanding Nutrition"/><br> *''Oils:'' olive, canola, peanut, sesame and more *''Nuts & Seeds:'' almonds, cashews, macadamias, pepitas and more *''Avocado''<br> [[File:West Show Jersey July 2010 43.jpg|thumb|Colourful Vegetables!]] Omega-3s are a type of polyunsaturated fat that have been found to reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke by preventing blood clots, maintaining a regular heartbeat and lowering blood pressure.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/><ref name="Integrative & Complementary Medicine"/> Omega-3's are found in:<br> *''Fatty Fish:'' herring, mackerel, tuna, sardines and salmon *''Oils:'' flaxseed, canola and soybean *''Nuts & Seeds:'' almonds, flaxseeds and walnuts<br><br> ==== Sodium ==== In our food, sodium is usually found in the form of salt, otherwise known as sodium chloride. It is recommended to limit intake of sodium as it has been shown to increase blood pressure, a risk factor for heart disease.<ref name="Manual of Dietetic Practice"/> Sodium is found mainly in processed foods such as: chips, savoury and sweet biscuits, fast food, cereals, chocolate, processed meats and even bread.<ref name="Understanding Nutrition"/><br><br> ==== Fruits and Vegetables ==== Fruits and vegetables probably get the least amount of attention when it comes to heart disease; however, fruits and vegetables contain an abundance of components that act to combat the destructive actions of substances that cause damage to the heart and other parts of the body. Some of these beneficial properties/components include:<ref name="Integrative & Complementary Medicine"> Kotsirilos, V., Vitetta, L. & Sali, A. (2011). A Guide to Evidence-Based Integrative and Complementary Medicine, Chatswood, NSW: Elsevier, Australia.</ref><br> *''Antioxidants:'' prevent damage occurring to blood vessel walls *''Soluble fibre:'' binds to cholesterol in the intestines preventing its absorption *''Anti-hypertensive components:'' reduce blood pressure *''Anti-inflammatory components:'' reduce inflammation and lower the risk of developing [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis atherosclerosis]<br><br> == References == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 44ncw7dmsgj3pptywqc577fbk9rabz7 0 305476 4632126 3842699 2026-04-25T01:24:31Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 /* == Stir Fry of Bok Choy, Tofu, Almonds and Broccoli */ 4632126 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years. [[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]] == Background == There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011). == How much Calcium do women need? == === How much is a serve of dairy? === [[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]] * 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy * 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt * 40 g hard cheese [[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]] === How many serves per day do women require? === * 2½ serves per day until 50 years * 4 serves per day after 50 years (NHMRC, 2014) === How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples === * 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich * 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta == The Calcium in our food. == === Animal and plant sources of calcium === {| class="wikitable" |- ! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium |- | Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg |- | Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup || 75 mg |- | Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg |- | Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg |- | Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg |- | || || || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg |- | || || || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg |} (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online) === Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! === When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012). Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.<ref>[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]</ref> Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices. == Bioavailability == Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011). === Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources === [[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] {| class="wikitable" |- ! Calcium bioavailability!! Food Source |- | > 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli |- | ~ 30 % || cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt |- | ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes |- | < 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet |} (Whitney et al, 2011) === Bioavailability and plant sources === In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011). == Examples of Meals and Recipes == ==== Stir Fry of Bok Choy, Tofu, Almonds and Broccoli == Serves 2 1 bunch Bok Choy 2 cups broccoli florets 1 red capsicum cut into thin strips 1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon 60 g almonds, lightly toasted in oven 2 tbsp. peanut or grape seed oil ½ tsp. toasted sesame oil 1 tsp. grated ginger extra Juice of ½ lemon Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat peanut oil and stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables. Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until vegetables are just cooked. Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice ''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.'' === Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato === [[File:Sardines (7566284228).jpg|thumb|Sardines as a source of calcium]] http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/ ''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.'' === Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin === http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php ''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.'' == Additional Resources == === General === Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/ Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/ === Individual Advice === Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian == References == Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. & Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx {{BookCat}} scgdfvn6l2cd0llj8hvb0knkv6denaj 4632127 4632126 2026-04-25T01:26:30Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 /* Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato */ 4632127 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years. [[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]] == Background == There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011). == How much Calcium do women need? == === How much is a serve of dairy? === [[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]] * 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy * 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt * 40 g hard cheese [[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]] === How many serves per day do women require? === * 2½ serves per day until 50 years * 4 serves per day after 50 years (NHMRC, 2014) === How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples === * 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich * 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta == The Calcium in our food. == === Animal and plant sources of calcium === {| class="wikitable" |- ! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium |- | Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg |- | Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup || 75 mg |- | Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg |- | Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg |- | Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg |- | || || || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg |- | || || || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg |} (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online) === Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! === When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012). Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.<ref>[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]</ref> Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices. == Bioavailability == Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011). === Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources === [[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] {| class="wikitable" |- ! Calcium bioavailability!! Food Source |- | > 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli |- | ~ 30 % || cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt |- | ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes |- | < 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet |} (Whitney et al, 2011) === Bioavailability and plant sources === In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011). == Examples of Meals and Recipes == Serves 2 1 bunch Bok Choy 2 cups broccoli florets 1 red capsicum cut into thin strips 1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon 60 g almonds, lightly toasted in oven 2 tbsp. peanut or grape seed oil ½ tsp. toasted sesame oil 1 tsp. grated ginger extra Juice of ½ lemon Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat peanut oil and stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables. Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until vegetables are just cooked. Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice ''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.'' === Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato === [[File:Sardines (7566284228).jpg|thumb|Sardines as a source of calcium]] http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/ ''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.'' === Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin === http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php ''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.'' == Additional Resources == === General === Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/ Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/ === Individual Advice === Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian == References == Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. & Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx {{BookCat}} adabeits5e28xb5uxf61hoeyk6u9pny 4632131 4632127 2026-04-25T01:32:46Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 4632131 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years. [[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]] == Background == There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011). == How much Calcium do women need? == === How much is a serve of dairy? === [[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]] * 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy * 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt * 40 g hard cheese [[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]] === How many serves per day do women require? === * 2½ serves per day until 50 years * 4 serves per day after 50 years (NHMRC, 2014) === How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples === * 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich * 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta == The Calcium in our food. == === Animal and plant sources of calcium === {| class="wikitable" |- ! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium |- | Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg |- | Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup || 75 mg |- | Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg |- | Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg |- | Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg |- | || || || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg |- | || || || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg |} (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online) === Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! === When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012). Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.<ref>[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]</ref> Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices. == Bioavailability == Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011). === Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources === [[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] {| class="wikitable" |- ! Calcium bioavailability!! Food Source |- | > 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli |- | ~ 30 % || cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt |- | ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes |- | < 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet |} (Whitney et al, 2011) === Bioavailability and plant sources === In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011). == Examples of Meals and Recipes == Serves 2 1 bunch Bok Choy 2 cups broccoli florets 1 red capsicum cut into thin strips 1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon 60 g almonds, lightly toasted in oven 2 tbsp. peanut or grape seed oil ½ tsp. toasted organic oil 1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra Juice of ½ lemon Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables. Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice ''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.'' === Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato === http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/ ''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.'' === Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin === http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php ''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.'' == Additional Resources == === General === Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/ Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/ === Individual Advice === Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian == References == Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. & Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx {{BookCat}} eb3o6zf7eeons2rtki19ld0tupqkz36 4632133 4632131 2026-04-25T01:34:55Z ~2026-21646-85 3574540 4632133 wikitext text/x-wiki The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years. [[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]] == Background == There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011). == How much Calcium do women need? == === How much is a serve of dairy? === [[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]] * 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy * 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt * 40 g hard cheese [[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]] === How many serves per day do women require? === * 2½ serves per day until 50 years * 4 serves per day after 50 years (NHMRC, 2014) === How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples === * 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich * 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta == The Calcium in our food. == === Animal and plant sources of calcium === {| class="wikitable" |- ! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium |- | Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg |- | Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup || 75 mg |- | Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg |- | Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg |- | Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg |- | || || || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg |- | || || || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg |} (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online) === Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! === When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012). Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.<ref>[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]</ref> Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices. == Bioavailability == Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011). === Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources === [[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] {| class="wikitable" |- ! Calcium bioavailability!! Food Source |- | > 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli |- | ~ 30 % || cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt |- | ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes |- | < 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet |} (Whitney et al, 2011) === Bioavailability and plant sources === In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011). == Examples of Meals and Recipes == Serves 2 1 bunch Bok Choy 2 cups broccoli florets 1 red capsicum cut into thin strips 1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon 60 g almonds, lightly 2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil ½ tsp. toasted organic oil 1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra Juice of ½ lemon Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables. Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice ''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.'' === Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato === http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/ ''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.'' === Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin === http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php ''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.'' == Additional Resources == === General === Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/ Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/ === Individual Advice === Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian == References == Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. & Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14 http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx {{BookCat}} 00qmhzmwg5mu49uqoilgpnl867qj2hw 0 366209 4632106 3699997 2026-04-24T22:37:08Z Mohammad Saeed7258 3578938 I am adding practice problems, problem solutions, additional resources and a bibliography 4632106 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ =Linear Regression Models= Persons all over the world worry about crime, especially violent crime. Americans have more reason to worry than most. The United&nbsp;States is a particularly violent country. The homicide rate in the United&nbsp;States is roughly three times that in England, four times that in Australia, and five times that in Germany. Japan, a country of over 125&nbsp;million persons, experiences fewer murders per year than Pennsylvania, with fewer than 12.5&nbsp;million persons. Thankfully, American murder rates have fallen by almost 50% in the past 20&nbsp;years, but they're still far too high. Violent crime is, by definition, traumatic for victims and their families. A person who has been a victim of violent crime may never feel truly safe in public again. Violent crime may also be bad for society. Generalizing from the individual to the social level, if persons feel unsafe, they may stay home, avoid public places, and withdraw from society. This concern can be conceptualized into a formal theory: where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes. A database that can be used to evaluate this theory has been assembled in Figure 2-1 using data available for download from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Australian data have been used here because Australia has just 8 states and territories (versus 50 for the United States), making it easier to label specific states on a scatter plot. {|class="sortable" |+Figure 2-1: Data on crime and other social indicators for 8 Australian states and territories, 2008 !STATE_TERR !CODE !VICTIM_PERS !UNSAFE_OUT !VICTIM_VIOL !STRESS !MOVED5YR !MED_INC |- | Australian Capital Territory||ACT||2.8||18.6||9.9||62.1||39.8||$712 |- | New South Wales||NSW||2.8||17.4||9.3||57.0||39.4||$565 |- | Northern Territory||NT||5.7||30.0||18.2||63.8||61.3||$670 |- | Queensland||QLD||3.0||17.3||13.5||64.4||53.9||$556 |- | South Australia||SA||2.8||21.8||11.4||58.2||38.9||$529 |- | Tasmania||TAS||4.1||14.3||9.8||59.1||39.6||$486 |- | Victoria||VIC||3.3||16.8||9.7||57.5||38.8||$564 |- | Western Australia||WA||3.8||20.9||12.8||62.8||47.3||$581 |} The cases in the Australian crime database are the eight&nbsp;states and territories of Australia. The columns include two&nbsp;metadata items (the state or territory name and postal code). Six&nbsp;variables are also included: *<code>VICTIM_PERS</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who were the victims of personal crimes (murder, attempted murder, assault, robbery, and rape) in 2008 *<code>UNSAFE_OUT</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report feeling unsafe walking alone at night after dark *<code>VICTIM_VIOL</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report having been the victim of physical or threatened violence in the past 12&nbsp;months *<code>STRESS</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report having experienced at least one major life stressor in the past 12&nbsp;months *<code>MOVED5YR</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who have moved in the previous 5&nbsp;years *<code>MED_INC</code>&nbsp;– State median income The theory that where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes can be operationalized using these data into the specific hypothesis that the relationship between the variables <code>VICTIM_PERS</code> and <code>UNSAFE_OUT</code> will be positively related across the 8 Australian states and territories. In this statistical model, <code>VICTIM_PERS</code> (the crime rate) is the independent variable and UNSAFE_OUT (persons' feelings of safety) is the dependent variable. The actual relationship between the two variables is plotted in Figure 2-2. Each point in the scatter plot has been labeled using its state postal code. This scatter plot does, in fact, show that the relationship is positive. This is consistent with the theory that where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes. [[File:Figure 2-2b.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-2: Percent of persons who feel unsafe walking alone at night versus actual state violent crime rates for 8&nbsp;Australian states and territories]] As usual, Figure 2-2 includes a reference line the runs through the middle of all of the data points. Also as usual, there is a lot of error in the scatter plot. Fear of going out alone at night does rise with the crime rate, but not in every case. To help clarify the overall trend in fear of going out, Figure 2-2 also includes a new, additional piece of information: the amount of error that is associated with each observation (each state). Instead of thinking of a scatter plot as just a collection of points that trends up or down, it is possible to think of a scatter plot as a combination of trend (the line) and error (deviation from the line). This basic statistical model—a trend plus error—is the most widely used statistical model in the social sciences. In Figure 2-2, three states fall almost exactly on the trend line: New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia. The persons in these three states have levels of fear about going out alone at night that are just what might be expected for states with their levels of crime. In other words, there is almost no error in the statistical model for fear in these states. Persons living in other states and territories have more fear (South Australia, Australian Capital Territory, Northern Territory) or less fear (Victoria, Tasmania) than might be expected based on their crime rates. Tasmania in particular has relatively high crime rates (the second highest in Australia) but very low levels of fear (the lowest in Australia). This means that there is a lot of error in the statistical model for Tasmania. While there is definitely an upward trend in the line shown in Figure 2-2, there is so much error in individual cases that we might question just how useful actual crime rates are for understanding persons' feelings of fear about going out at night. This chapter introduces the linear regression model, which divides the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable into a trend plus error. First and foremost, the linear regression model is just a way of putting a line on a scatter plot (Section 2.1). There are many possible ways to draw a line through data, but in practice the linear regression model is the one way that is used in all of social statistics. Second, line on a scatter plot actually represents a hypothesis about how the dependent variable is related to an independent variable (Section 2.2). Like any line, it has a slope and an intercept, but social scientists are mainly interested in evaluating hypotheses about the slope. Third, it's pretty obvious that a positive slope means a positive relationship between the two variables, while a negative slope means a negative relationship (Section 2.3). The steeper the slope, the more important the relationship between the two variables is likely to be. An optional section (Section 2.4) explains some of the mathematics behind how regression lines are actually drawn. Finally, this chapter ends with an applied case study of the relationship between property crime and murder rates in the United States (Section 2.5). This case study illustrates how linear regression models are used to put lines on scatter plots, how hypotheses about variables are turned into hypotheses about the slopes of these lines, and the difference between positive and negative relationships. All of this chapter's key concepts are used in this case study. By the end of this chapter, you should have a basic understanding of how regression models can shed light on the relationships connecting independent and dependent variables in the social sciences. ==2.1. Introducing the Linear Regression Model== When social scientists theorize about the social world, they don't usually theorize in straight-line terms. Most social theorists would never come up with a theory that said "persons' fear of walking along at night will rise in exactly a straight line as the crime rate in their neighborhoods rise." Instead, theories about the social world are much more vague: "persons will feel less safe leaving their homes where crime rates are high." All the theories that were examined in Chapter 1 were also stated in vague language that said nothing about straight lines: *Rich parents tend to have rich children *Persons eat junk food because they can't afford to eat high-quality food *Racial discrimination in America leads to lower incomes for non-whites *Higher spending on education leads to better student performance on tests When theories say nothing about the specific shape of the relationship between two variables, a simple scatter plot is—technically—the appropriate way to evaluate them. With one look at the scatter plot anyone can see whether the dependent variable tends to rise, fall, or stay the same across values of the independent variable. The real relationship between the two variables might be a line, a curve, or an even more complicated pattern, but that is unimportant. The theories say nothing about lines or curves. The theories just say that when the independent variable goes up, the dependent variable goes up as well. However, there are problems with scatter plots. Sometimes it can be hard to tell whether they trend upwards or not. For example, many Americans believe that new immigrants to America have large numbers of children, overwhelming schools and costing the taxpayers a lot of money. Figure 2-3 plots the relationship between birth rates (independent variable) and levels of international immigration (dependent variable) for 3193 US counties. Does the birth rate rise with greater immigration? It's hard to say from just the scatter plot, without a line. It turns out that birth rates do rise with immigration rates, but only very slightly. [[File:Social Statistics 02-03.svg|alt=A scatter plot of birth rates with a positive correlation|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-3: Birth rates versus immigration rates for 3193&nbsp;U. S. counties, 2009]] As Figure 2-3 illustrates, another problem with scatter plots is that they become difficult to read when there are a large number of cases in the database being analyzed. Scatter plots also become difficult to read when there is more than one independent variable, as there will be later in this book. The biggest problem with using scatter plots to evaluate theories, though, is that different persons might have different opinions about then. One person might see a rising trend while someone else thinks the trend is generally flat or declining. Without a reference line to give a firm answer, it may be impossible to reach agreement on whether the theory being evaluated is or is not correct. For these (and other) reasons, social scientists don't usually rely on scatter plots. Scatter plots are widely used in the social sciences, but they are used to get an overall impression of the data, not to evaluate theories. Instead, social scientists evaluate theories using straight lines like the reference lines that were drawn on the scatter plots above and in Chapter 1. These lines are called regression lines, and are based on statistical models called linear regression models. Linear regression models are statistical models in which expected values of the dependent variable are thought to rise or fall in a straight line according to values of the independent variable. Linear regression models (or just "regression models") are statistical models, meaning that they mathematical simplifications of the real world. Real variables may not rise or fall in a straight line, but in the linear regression model we simplify things to focus only on this one aspect of variables. Of course, dependent variables don't really rise or fall in straight lines as regression models would suggest. Social scientists use straight lines because they are convenient, even though they may not always be theoretically appropriate. Other kinds of relationships between variables are possible, but there are many good reasons for using straight lines instead. Some of them are: *A straight line is the simplest way two variables could be related, so it should be used unless there's a good reason to suspect a more complicated relationship *Straight lines can be compared using just their slopes and intercepts (you don't need every piece of data, as with comparing scatter plots) *Usually there's so much error in social science models that we can't tell the difference between a straight line relationship and other relationships anyway The straight line a linear regression model is drawn through the middle of the cloud of points in a scatter plot. It is drawn in such a way that each point along the line represents the most likely value of the dependent variable for any given value of the independent variable. This is the value that the dependent variable would be expected to have if there were no error in the model. Expected values are the values that a dependent variable would be expected to have based solely on values of the independent variable. Figure 2-4 depicts a linear regression model of persons' fear of walking along at night. The dependent variable from Figure 2-2, the percent of persons who feel unsafe, is regressed on a new independent variable, the percent of persons who reported experiencing violence personally. There is less error in Figure 2-4 than we saw in Figure 2-2. Tasmania in particular now falls very close to the reference line of expected values. [[File:Figure 2-4.png|alt=A scatter plot of feelings of safety with a positive correlation|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-4: Percent of persons who feel unsafe walking alone at night versus the percent of persons who report having personally experienced violence for 8&nbsp;Australian states and territories]] The expected values for the percent of persons who feel unsafe walking at night have been noted right on the scatter plot. They are the values of the dependent variable that would have been expected based on the regression model. For example, in this model the expected percentage of persons who feel unsafe walking at night in Tasmania would be 16.9%. In other words, based on reported levels of violence experienced by persons in Tasmania, we would expect about 16.9% of Tasmanians to feel unsafe walking alone at night. According to our data, 14.3% of persons in Tasmania report feeling unsafe walking at night (see the variable UNSAFE_OUT in Figure 2-1 and read across the row for Tasmania). Since the regression model predicted 16.9% and the actual value was 14.3%, the error for Tasmania in Figure 2-4 was 2.6% (<math>16.9\% - 14.3\% = 2.6\%</math>). Regression error is the degree to which an expected value of a dependent variable in a linear regression model differs from its actual value. Regression error is expressed as deviation from the trend of the straight line relationship connecting the independent variable and the dependent variable. In general, regression models that have very little regression error are preferred over regression models that have a lot of regression error. When there is very little regression error, the trend of the regression line will tend to be steeper and the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable will tend to be stronger. There is a lot of regression error in the regression model depicted in Figure 2-4, but less regression error than was observed in Figure 2-2. In particular, the regression error for Tasmania in Figure 2-2 was 7.1%—much higher than in Figure 2-4. This suggests that persons' reports of experiencing violence personally are better predictors of persons' feelings of safety at night than are the actual crime rates in a state. Persons' experiences of safety and fear are very personal, not necessarily based on crime statistics for society as a whole. If policymakers want to make sure that persons feel safe enough to go out in public, they have to do more than just keep the crime rate down. They also have to reduce persons' personal experiences—and persons' perceptions of their personal experiences—of violence and crime. This may be much more difficult to do, but also much more rewarding for society. Policymakers should take a broad approach to making society less violent in general instead of just putting potential criminals in jail. ==2.2: The Slope of a Regression Line== In the social sciences, even good linear regression models like that depicted in Figure 2-4 tend to have a lot of error. A major goal of regression modeling is to find an independent variable that fits the dependent variable with more trend and less error. An example of a relationship that is almost all trend (with very little error) is depicted in Figure 2-5. The scatter plot in Figure 2-5 uses state birth rates as the independent variable and state death rates as the dependent variable. States with high birth rates tend to have young populations, and thus low death rates. Utah has been excluded because its very high birth rate (over 20 children for every 1000&nbsp;persons every year) doesn't fit on the chart, but were Utah included its death rate would fall very close to the regression line. One state has an exceptionally high death rate (West Virginia) and one state has an exceptionally low death rate (Alaska). [[File:Figure 4-5.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-5. Death rates versus birth rates for the 49 US states plus the District of Columbia, 2009 (Utah excluded)]] Thinking about scatter plots in terms of trends and error, the trend in Figure 2-5 is clearly down. Death rates fall as birth rates rise, but by how much? The slope of the regression line gives the answer. Remember that the regression line runs through the expected values of the dependent variable. Slope is the change in the expected value of the dependent variable divided by the change in the value of the independent variable. In other words, it is the change in the regression line for every one point increase in the independent variable. In Figure 2-5, when the independent variable (birth rate) goes up by 1 point, the expected value of the dependent variable (death rate) down by 0.4 points. The slope of the regression line is thus −0.4 / 1, or −0.4. The slope is negative because the line trends down. If the line trended up, the slope would be positive. An example of a regression line with a positive slope is depicted in Figure 2-6. This line reflects a simple theory of why persons relocate to new communities. Americans are very mobile—much more mobile than persons in most other countries—and frequently move from place to place within America. One theory is that persons go where the jobs are: persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have vibrant economies. In Figure 2-6, this theory has be operationalized into the hypothesis that counties with higher incomes (independent variable) tend to attract the most migration (dependent variable). In other words, county income is positively related to migration. Figure 2-6 shows that this hypothesis is correct—at least for one state (South Dakota). The slope of the regression line in Figure 2-6 indicates that when county income goes up by $10,000, migration tends to go up by around 8%. The slope is actually <math>8 / 10000 = .0008</math>. [[File:Figure 2-6.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-6. Estimated net migration per 1000 population versus median income for 66 South Dakota counties, 2000s]] The positive slope of the regression line in Figure 2-6 doesn't mean that persons always move to counties that have the highest income levels. There is quite a lot of error around the regression line. Lincoln County especially seems to far outside the range of the data from the other counties. Lincoln County is South Dakota's richest and its third most populous. It has grown rapidly over the past ten years as formerly rural areas have been developed into suburbs of nearby Sioux Falls in Minnehaha County. Many other South Dakota counties have highly variable migration figures because they are so small that the opening or closing of one employer can have a big effect on migration. Of the 66 counties in South Dakota, 49 are home to fewer than 10,000&nbsp;persons. So it's not surprising that the data for South Dakota show a high level of regression error. If it's true that persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have expanding economies, the relationship between median income and net migration should be positive in every state, not just South Dakota. One state that is very different from South Dakota in almost every way is Florida. Florida has only two counties with populations under 10,000&nbsp;persons, and the state is on average much richer than South&nbsp;Dakota. More importantly, lots of persons move to Florida for reasons that have nothing to do with jobs, like climate and lifestyle. Since many persons move to Florida when they retire, the whole theory about jobs and migration may be irrelevant there. To find out, Figure 2-7 depicts a regression of net migration rates on median county income for 67&nbsp;Florida counties. [[File:Figure 2-7.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-7. Estimated net migration per 1000 population versus median income for 67&nbsp;Florida counties, 2000s]] As expected, the Florida counties have much more regression error than the South&nbsp;Dakota counties. They also have a smaller slope. In Florida, every $10,000 increase in median income is associated with a 5% increase in the net migration rate, for a slope of <math>5 / 10000 = .0005</math>. This is just over half the slope for South&nbsp;Dakota. As in South&nbsp;Dakota, one county is growing much more rapidly than the rest of the state. Flagler County in Florida is growing for much the same reason as Lincoln County in Nebraska: it is a formerly rural county that is rapidly developing. Nonetheless, despite the fact that the relationship between income and migration is weaker in Florida than in South&nbsp;Dakota, the slope of the regression line is still positive. This adds more evidence in favor of the theory that persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have vibrant economies. ==2.3: Outliers and Robustness== Because there is so much error in the statistical models used by social scientists, it is not uncommon for different operationalizations of the same theory to give different results. We saw this in Chapter 1 when different operationalizations of junk food consumption gave different results for the relationship between state income and junk food consumption (Figure 1-2 versus Figure 1-3). Social scientists are much more impressed by a theory when the theory holds up under different operationalization choices, as in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7. Ideally, all statistical models that are designed to evaluate a theory would yield the same results, but in reality they do not. Statistical models can be particularly unstable when they have high levels of error. When there is a lot of error in the model, small changes in the data can lead to big changes in model results. Robustness is the extent to which statistical models give similar results despite changes in operationalization. With regard to linear regression models, robustness means that the slope of the regression line doesn't change much when different data are used. In a robust regression model, the slope of the regression line shouldn't depend too much on what particular data are used or the inclusion or exclusion of any one case. Linear regression models tend to be most robust when: *They are based on large numbers of cases *There is relatively little regression error *All the cases fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line Regression models based on small numbers of cases with lots of error and irregular distributions of cases can be very unstable (not robust at all). Such a model is depicted in Figure 2-8. Many persons feel unsafe in large cities because they believe that crime, and particular murder, is very common in large cities. After all, in big cities like New York there are murders reported on the news almost every day. On the other hand, big cities by definition have lots of persons, so their actual murder rates (murders per 100,000&nbsp;persons) might be relatively low. Using data on the 10 largest American cities, Figure 2-8 plots the relationship between city size and murder rates. The regression line trends downward with a slope of −0.7: as the population of a city goes up by 1&nbsp;million persons, the murder rate goes down by 0.7 per 100,000. The model suggests that bigger cities are safer than smaller ones. [[File:Figure 2-8.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-8. Murder rates versus city size for 10 American cities with populations over 1,000,000 (2008)]] However, there are several reasons to question the robustness of the model depicted in Figure 2-8. Evaluating this model against the three conditions that are associated with robust models, it fails on every count. First, the model is based on a small number of cases. Second, there is an enormous amount of regression error. Third and perhaps most important, the cases do not fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line. Of the ten cities depicted in Figure 2-8, eight are clustered on the far left side of the scatter plot, one (Los Angeles) is closer to the middle but still in the left half, and one (New York) is far on the extreme right side. New York is much larger than any other American city and falls well outside the cloud of points formed by the rest of the data. It stands alone, far away from all the other data points. Outliers are data points in a statistical model that fall far away from most of the other data points. In Figure 2-8, New&nbsp;York is a clear outlier. Statistical results based on data that include outliers often are not robust. One outlier out of a hundred or a thousand points usually doesn't matter too much for a statistical model, but one outlier out of just ten points can have a big effect. Figure 2-9 plots exactly the same data as Figure 2-8, but without New&nbsp;York. The new regression line based on the data for the 9 remaining cities has a completely different slope from the original regression line. When New York was included, the slope was negative (−0.7), which indicated that larger cities were safer. With New&nbsp;York excluded, the slope is positive (0.8), indicating that larger cities are more dangerous. The relationship between city size and murder rates clearly is not robust. [[File:Figure 2-9.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-9. Murder rates versus city size for 9 American cities with populations over 1,000,000 other than New York (2008)]] It is tempting to argue that outliers are "bad" data points that should always be excluded, but once researchers start excluding points they don't like it can be hard to stop. For example, in Figure 2-9 after New&nbsp;York has been excluded there seems to be a new outlier, Philadelphia. All the other cities line up nicely along the trend line, with Philadelphia sitting all on its own in the upper left corner of the scatter plot. Excluding Philadelphia makes the slope of the regression line even stronger: it increases from 0.8 to 2.0. Then, with Philadelphia gone, Los Angeles appears to be an outlier. Excluding Los Angeles raises the slope even further, to 6.0. The danger here is obvious. If we conduct analyses only on the data points we like, we end up with a very skewed picture of the real relationships connecting variables out in the real world. Outliers should be investigated, but robustness is always an issue for interpretation, not something that can be proved by including or excluding specific cases. ==2.4. Least Squared Error== ;Optional/advanced In linear regression models, the regression line represents the expected value of the dependent variable for any given value of the independent variable. It makes sense that the most likely place to find the expected value of the dependent variable would be right in the middle of the scatter plot connecting it to the independent variable. For example, in Figure 2-5 the most likely death rate for a state with a birth rate of 15 wouldn't be 16 or 0, but somewhere in the middle, like 8. The death rate indicated by the regression line seems like a pretty average death rate for a state falling in the middle of the range in its birth rate. This seems reasonable so far as it goes. Obviously the regression line has to go somewhere in the middle, but how do we decide exactly where to draw it? One idea might be to draw the regression line so as to minimize the amount of error in the scatter plot. If a scatter plot is a combination of trend and error, it makes sense to want as much trend and as little error as possible. A line through the very middle of a scatter plot must have less error than other lines, right? Bizarrely, the answer is no. This strange fact is illustrated in Figure 2-10, Figure 2-11, and Figure 2-12. These three figures show different lines on a very simple scatter plot. In this scatter plot, there are just four data points: *X = 1, Y = 2 *X = 1, Y = 8 *X = 5, Y = 5 *X = 5, Y = 8 The actual regression line connecting the independent variable (X) to the dependent variable (Y) is graphed in Figure 2-10. This line passes right through the middle of all four points. Each point is 4 units away from the regression line, so the regression error for each point is 4. The total amount of error for the whole scatter plot is <math>4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 16</math>. No other line could be drawn on the scatter plot that would result in less error. So far so good. [[File:Figure 2-10.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-10. Depiction of error from a regression line (A)]] The problem is that the regression line (A) isn't the only line that minimizes the amount of error in the scatter plot. Figure 2-11 depicts another line (B). This line doesn't quite run through the middle of the scatter plot. Instead, it's drawn closer to the two low points and farther away from the two high points. It's clearly not as good a line as the regression line, but it turns out to have the same amount of error. The error associated with line B is <math>2 + 6 + 2 + 6 = 16</math>. It seems that both line A and line B minimize the amount of error in the scatter plot. [[File:Figure 2-11.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-11. Depiction of error from a sample line (B) a little below the true regression line]] That's not all. Figure 2-12 depicts yet another line (C). Line C is an even worse line than line B. It's all the way at the top of the scatter plot, very close to the two high points and very far away from the two low points. It's not at all in the middle of the cloud of points. But the total error is the same: <math>1 + 7 + 1 + 7 = 16</math>. In fact, any line that runs between the points—any line at all—will give the same error. Many different trends give the same error. This makes it impossible to choose any one line based just on its total error. Another method is necessary. [[File:Figure 2-12.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-12. Depiction of error from a sample line (C) far above the true regression line]] That method that is actually used to draw regression lines is to draw the line that has the least amount of squared error. Squared error is just that: the error squared, or multiplied by itself. So for example if the error is 4, the squared error is 16 (<math>4^2 = 4 x 4 = 16</math>). For line A in Figure 2-10, the total squared error is <math>4^2 + 4^2 + 4^2 + 4^2</math> or <math>16 + 16 +16 +16 = 64</math>. For line B in Figure 2-11, the total squared error is <math>2^2 + 6^2 + 2^2 + 6^2</math> or <math>4 + 36 + 4 +36 = 80</math>. For line C in Figure 2-12, the total squared error is <math>1^2 + 7^2 + 1^2 + 7^2</math> or <math>1 + 49 + 1 + 49 = 100</math>. The line with the least squared error is line A, the regression line that runs through the very middle of the scatter plot. All other lines have more error. It turns out that the line with the least squared error is always unique—there's only one line that minimizes the total amount of squared error—and always runs right through the center of the scatter plot. As an added bonus, computers can calculate regression lines using least squared error quickly and efficiently. The use of least squared error is so closely associated with linear regression models that they are often called "least squares regression models." All of the statistical models used in the rest of this book are based on the minimization of squared error. Least squared error is the mathematical principle that underlies almost all of social statistics. ==2.5: Case Study: Property Crime and Murder Rates== Murder is a rare and horrific crime. It is a tragedy any time a human life is ended prematurely, but that tragedy is even worse when a person's death is intentional, not accidental. Sadly, some of the students using this textbook will know someone who was murdered. Luckily, most of us do not. But almost all of us know someone who has been the victim of a property crime like burglary or theft. Many of us have even been property crime victims ourselves. Property crimes are very common not just in the United States but around the world. In fact, levels of property crime in the US are not particularly high compared to other rich countries. This is odd, because the murder rate in the US are very high. It seems like all kinds of crime should rise and fall together. Do they? One theory of crime might be that high rates of property crime lead to high rates of murder, as persons move from petty crime to serious crime throughout their criminal careers. Since international data on property crimes might not be equivalent from country to country, it makes sense to operationalize this theory using a hypothesis and data about US crime rates. A specific hypothesis linking property crime to murder would be the hypothesis that property crime rates are positively associated with murder rates for US cities with populations over 100,000&nbsp;persons. This operationalization excludes small cities because it is possible that smaller cities might have no recorded crimes in any given year. Data on crime rates of all kinds are available from the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). In Figure 2-13 these data are used to plot the relationship between property crime rates and murder rates for the 268&nbsp;American cities with populations of over 100,000&nbsp;persons. A linear regression model has been used to place a trend line on the scatter plot. The trend line represents the expected value of the murder rate for any given level of property crime. So for example in a city that has a property crime rate of 5,000 per 100,000 persons, the expected murder rate would be 10.2 murders per 100,000 persons. A few cities have murder rates that would be expected given their property crime rates, but there is an enormous amount of regression error. Murder rates are scattered widely and do not cluster closely around the regression line. [[File:Figure 2-13.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-13. Murder rates versus property crime rates for 268&nbsp;American cities with populations over 100,000 (2008)]] The slope of the regression line is positive, as expected. This tends to confirm the theory that high rates of property crime are associated with high rates of murder. Every increase of 1,000 in the property crime rate is associated, on average, with an increase of 2.7 in the murder rate. This is likely to be a robust result, since it is based on a large number of cases. On the other hand, there is a high level of error and the cases do not fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line, so we might show some caution in interpreting our results. There is also one major outlier: New&nbsp;Orleans. The murder rate for New Orleans is far higher than that of any other US city, and New&nbsp;Orleans falls well outside the boundaries of the rest of the data. Excluding New Orleans, however, results in no change in the slope of the regression line, which remains 2.7 whether New&nbsp;Orleans is included or not. Overall, the theory that high rates of property crime are associated with high rates of murder seems to be broadly valid for US cities as a whole, but the murder rate in any particular US city doesn't seem to correspond closely to the property crime rate. If they want to bring down their murder rates, it wouldn't hurt for US cities to try bringing down their property crime rates, but it likely wouldn't solve the problem. Cities with property crime rates in the range of 5,000–6,000 can have murder rates ranging anywhere from near zero to 30 or more. Policies to reduce murder rates should probably be targeted specifically at reducing violence in society, not broadly at reducing crime in general. ==Chapter 2 Key Terms== *'''Expected values''' are ''the values that a dependent variable would be expected to have based solely on values of the independent variable''. *'''Linear regression models''' are ''statistical models in which expected values of the dependent variable are thought to rise or fall in a straight line according to values of the independent variable''. *'''Outliers''' are ''data points in a statistical model that are far away from most of the other data points''. *'''Regression error''' is ''the degree to which an expected value of a dependent variable in a linear regression model differs from its actual value''. *'''Robustness''' is ''the extent to which statistical models give similar results despite changes in operationalization''. *'''Slope''' is ''the change in the expected value of the dependent variable divided by the change in the value of the independent variable''. <noinclude> == Exercises == '''Question #1''' # What is wrong with the following statement: “Based on the regression of our sample population, we have found a positive correlation between level of education and income in Canada.a” # True/False: There is a large positive correlation within the regression, and the regression is statistically significant. # Why are the distances from the data points to the regression line squared and then minimized? '''Question #2''' using employment statistics based on industry cluster from the Canadian census(released 2023) at [https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810059701 Employment income statistics by industry sectors, highest level of education, immigrant status and period of immigration, work activity during the reference year, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts] # Make a regression of the effects of the industry cluster number on Total - Number of employment income recipients # What is the correlation coefficient? What does it mean # What is the intercept value? What does it mean # Find what is wrong about the regression so that it isn’t fit for inference # What is the change in the Regression Slope when you remove the largest outlier # What is one way you could make the Regression Slope more readable to viewers when working with hard numbers '''Question #3''' Use data from 1970-2023/2024 from the following data sets: [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24) | Data] [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.PRSL.FE.ZS Persistence to last grade of primary, female (% of cohort) | Data] # Provide a regression for the effects of female youth literacy rate on persistence to the last grade of primary in South Asia # What happened when you tabulated missing data cells # Does correlation imply causation in this context, when the variables have a common theme? Explain your answer '''Question #4''' Using the following database [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/HD_HCIP_EDUC_MA Human capital index plus (HCI+): education pillar score, male (scale 0–188) | Data] # Make a regression of Kuwait's HDI score over the years # Analyze the regression line # Add in error bars and analyze them '''Question #5''' # How would you select independent variables from question #2? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? # How would you select independent variables from question #3? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? # How would you select independent variables from question #4? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? == Exercise Solutions == '''Solution #1''' # Sample correlation doesn’t perfectly correlate with population correlation. Just because something is true for the sample doesn’t mean it is true for the whole population # False, Statistical significance in statistics refers to the probability that the relationship being observed is not being observed by random chance. A high regression slope is referred to as a “high effect size.” # It indexes the weight of each data point to account for outliers, thereby providing a more accurate line of best fit '''Solution #2''' 1. (solution not provided due to copyright concerns) 2. Slope: ~1.16557E-05 3. Intercept: refers to an arbitrary point where the classification number is 0, since this event isn’t real without our setting the intercept value, which is inadmissible for regression analysis 4. The classification # isn’t an interval measurement, and all regression variables should be interval level variables by convention unless necessary. 5. When the largest outer is removed, the slope becomes ~1.56278E-05, indicating a sharp decrease in the positive relationship. This points to the possibility that outliers are distorting central tendency metrics. 6. index the large sums(e.x. Instead of counting y-axis in ones to you make them represent income recipients in the thousands) '''Solution #3''' 1. [[File:Regression_exercise_solution_3.png|thumb|this is a solution to an exercise in an open textbook]] Data tabulated by a Wikipedia user 2. By convention to data points are removed 3. Regressions one's own can only ever provide correlation, never causation, though they can aid in arguments for causation '''Solution #4''' 1. [[File:Regression_exercise_solution_4.png|thumb|Exercise 4.1 solution]] Data tabulated by a Wikipedia user 2. The regression line is relatively flat, while the points fluctuate greatly from the regression line. Thus, a linear regression line or a regression as the medium of data analysis may oversimplify the insights of the data itself. 3. There are very few data points, and their margins of error often overlap; thus, it is unlikely that the data points themselves are statistically significant due to the small sample size. '''Solution #5''' In statistics for the social sciences generally, a theory is chosen to be tested to provide causality after regression analysis, from which a hypothesis is derived. Independent variables should be such that they test the hypothesis accurately and reliably. Solutions may vary; please refer to the discussion tab for additional advice on your solutions. == Additional resources(reviewed) == === Data === [https://data.worldbank.org/ World Bank Data]<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> [https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start Statistics Canada]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2025-07-08 |title=Statistics Canada: Canada's national statistical agency |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> === Lectures === [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/ Lecture 6 - Topics in Mathematics with Application in Finance]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regression Analysis {{!}} Topics in Mathematics with Applications in Finance {{!}} Mathematics |url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=MIT OpenCourseWare |language=en}}</ref> [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/ Lecture 13 - Statistics for Applications]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lecture 13: Regression {{!}} Statistics for Applications {{!}} Mathematics |url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=MIT OpenCourseWare |language=en}}</ref> === Mathematical background === [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk OLS Math Concepts Review]<ref>{{Citation |last=MIT OpenCourseWare |title=Least squares {{!}} MIT 18.02SC Multivariable Calculus, Fall 2010 |date=2011-01-03 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk |access-date=2026-04-24}}</ref> [https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html OLS Proof]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Soch |first=Joram |date=2021-10-27 |title=Ordinary least squares for simple linear regression |url=https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=The Book of Statistical Proofs |language=en}}</ref> == Bibliography == Breiner, C. (2026). [online] Available at: <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026]. Kempthorne, P. (2024). ''Regression Analysis | Topics in Mathematics with Applications in Finance | Mathematics | MIT OpenCourseWare''. [online] Available at: <nowiki>https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026]. Rigollet, P. (2016). ''Lecture 13: Regression | Statistics for Applications | Mathematics | MIT OpenCourseWare''. [online] Available at: <nowiki>https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026]. Soch, J. (2021). ''Ordinary least squares for simple linear regression''. [online] The Book of Statistical Proofs. Available at: <nowiki>https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026]. Statistics Canada, (2026). ''Statistics Canada: Canada’s national statistical agency''. [online] Statcan.gc.ca. Available at: <nowiki>https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026]. World Bank Open Data. (2023). ''World Bank Open Data''. [online] Available at: <nowiki>https://data.worldbank.org/</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026].{{chapter navigation|Chapter 1|Chapter 3}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Social Statistics'', Chapter 2: Linear Regression Models}} </noinclude> f8lmdz2d3500ecmdzt4pkrk9qiu5ggq 4632107 4632106 2026-04-24T22:38:17Z Mohammad Saeed7258 3578938 /* Bibliography */ 4632107 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ =Linear Regression Models= Persons all over the world worry about crime, especially violent crime. Americans have more reason to worry than most. The United&nbsp;States is a particularly violent country. The homicide rate in the United&nbsp;States is roughly three times that in England, four times that in Australia, and five times that in Germany. Japan, a country of over 125&nbsp;million persons, experiences fewer murders per year than Pennsylvania, with fewer than 12.5&nbsp;million persons. Thankfully, American murder rates have fallen by almost 50% in the past 20&nbsp;years, but they're still far too high. Violent crime is, by definition, traumatic for victims and their families. A person who has been a victim of violent crime may never feel truly safe in public again. Violent crime may also be bad for society. Generalizing from the individual to the social level, if persons feel unsafe, they may stay home, avoid public places, and withdraw from society. This concern can be conceptualized into a formal theory: where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes. A database that can be used to evaluate this theory has been assembled in Figure 2-1 using data available for download from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Australian data have been used here because Australia has just 8 states and territories (versus 50 for the United States), making it easier to label specific states on a scatter plot. {|class="sortable" |+Figure 2-1: Data on crime and other social indicators for 8 Australian states and territories, 2008 !STATE_TERR !CODE !VICTIM_PERS !UNSAFE_OUT !VICTIM_VIOL !STRESS !MOVED5YR !MED_INC |- | Australian Capital Territory||ACT||2.8||18.6||9.9||62.1||39.8||$712 |- | New South Wales||NSW||2.8||17.4||9.3||57.0||39.4||$565 |- | Northern Territory||NT||5.7||30.0||18.2||63.8||61.3||$670 |- | Queensland||QLD||3.0||17.3||13.5||64.4||53.9||$556 |- | South Australia||SA||2.8||21.8||11.4||58.2||38.9||$529 |- | Tasmania||TAS||4.1||14.3||9.8||59.1||39.6||$486 |- | Victoria||VIC||3.3||16.8||9.7||57.5||38.8||$564 |- | Western Australia||WA||3.8||20.9||12.8||62.8||47.3||$581 |} The cases in the Australian crime database are the eight&nbsp;states and territories of Australia. The columns include two&nbsp;metadata items (the state or territory name and postal code). Six&nbsp;variables are also included: *<code>VICTIM_PERS</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who were the victims of personal crimes (murder, attempted murder, assault, robbery, and rape) in 2008 *<code>UNSAFE_OUT</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report feeling unsafe walking alone at night after dark *<code>VICTIM_VIOL</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report having been the victim of physical or threatened violence in the past 12&nbsp;months *<code>STRESS</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report having experienced at least one major life stressor in the past 12&nbsp;months *<code>MOVED5YR</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who have moved in the previous 5&nbsp;years *<code>MED_INC</code>&nbsp;– State median income The theory that where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes can be operationalized using these data into the specific hypothesis that the relationship between the variables <code>VICTIM_PERS</code> and <code>UNSAFE_OUT</code> will be positively related across the 8 Australian states and territories. In this statistical model, <code>VICTIM_PERS</code> (the crime rate) is the independent variable and UNSAFE_OUT (persons' feelings of safety) is the dependent variable. The actual relationship between the two variables is plotted in Figure 2-2. Each point in the scatter plot has been labeled using its state postal code. This scatter plot does, in fact, show that the relationship is positive. This is consistent with the theory that where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes. [[File:Figure 2-2b.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-2: Percent of persons who feel unsafe walking alone at night versus actual state violent crime rates for 8&nbsp;Australian states and territories]] As usual, Figure 2-2 includes a reference line the runs through the middle of all of the data points. Also as usual, there is a lot of error in the scatter plot. Fear of going out alone at night does rise with the crime rate, but not in every case. To help clarify the overall trend in fear of going out, Figure 2-2 also includes a new, additional piece of information: the amount of error that is associated with each observation (each state). Instead of thinking of a scatter plot as just a collection of points that trends up or down, it is possible to think of a scatter plot as a combination of trend (the line) and error (deviation from the line). This basic statistical model—a trend plus error—is the most widely used statistical model in the social sciences. In Figure 2-2, three states fall almost exactly on the trend line: New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia. The persons in these three states have levels of fear about going out alone at night that are just what might be expected for states with their levels of crime. In other words, there is almost no error in the statistical model for fear in these states. Persons living in other states and territories have more fear (South Australia, Australian Capital Territory, Northern Territory) or less fear (Victoria, Tasmania) than might be expected based on their crime rates. Tasmania in particular has relatively high crime rates (the second highest in Australia) but very low levels of fear (the lowest in Australia). This means that there is a lot of error in the statistical model for Tasmania. While there is definitely an upward trend in the line shown in Figure 2-2, there is so much error in individual cases that we might question just how useful actual crime rates are for understanding persons' feelings of fear about going out at night. This chapter introduces the linear regression model, which divides the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable into a trend plus error. First and foremost, the linear regression model is just a way of putting a line on a scatter plot (Section 2.1). There are many possible ways to draw a line through data, but in practice the linear regression model is the one way that is used in all of social statistics. Second, line on a scatter plot actually represents a hypothesis about how the dependent variable is related to an independent variable (Section 2.2). Like any line, it has a slope and an intercept, but social scientists are mainly interested in evaluating hypotheses about the slope. Third, it's pretty obvious that a positive slope means a positive relationship between the two variables, while a negative slope means a negative relationship (Section 2.3). The steeper the slope, the more important the relationship between the two variables is likely to be. An optional section (Section 2.4) explains some of the mathematics behind how regression lines are actually drawn. Finally, this chapter ends with an applied case study of the relationship between property crime and murder rates in the United States (Section 2.5). This case study illustrates how linear regression models are used to put lines on scatter plots, how hypotheses about variables are turned into hypotheses about the slopes of these lines, and the difference between positive and negative relationships. All of this chapter's key concepts are used in this case study. By the end of this chapter, you should have a basic understanding of how regression models can shed light on the relationships connecting independent and dependent variables in the social sciences. ==2.1. Introducing the Linear Regression Model== When social scientists theorize about the social world, they don't usually theorize in straight-line terms. Most social theorists would never come up with a theory that said "persons' fear of walking along at night will rise in exactly a straight line as the crime rate in their neighborhoods rise." Instead, theories about the social world are much more vague: "persons will feel less safe leaving their homes where crime rates are high." All the theories that were examined in Chapter 1 were also stated in vague language that said nothing about straight lines: *Rich parents tend to have rich children *Persons eat junk food because they can't afford to eat high-quality food *Racial discrimination in America leads to lower incomes for non-whites *Higher spending on education leads to better student performance on tests When theories say nothing about the specific shape of the relationship between two variables, a simple scatter plot is—technically—the appropriate way to evaluate them. With one look at the scatter plot anyone can see whether the dependent variable tends to rise, fall, or stay the same across values of the independent variable. The real relationship between the two variables might be a line, a curve, or an even more complicated pattern, but that is unimportant. The theories say nothing about lines or curves. The theories just say that when the independent variable goes up, the dependent variable goes up as well. However, there are problems with scatter plots. Sometimes it can be hard to tell whether they trend upwards or not. For example, many Americans believe that new immigrants to America have large numbers of children, overwhelming schools and costing the taxpayers a lot of money. Figure 2-3 plots the relationship between birth rates (independent variable) and levels of international immigration (dependent variable) for 3193 US counties. Does the birth rate rise with greater immigration? It's hard to say from just the scatter plot, without a line. It turns out that birth rates do rise with immigration rates, but only very slightly. [[File:Social Statistics 02-03.svg|alt=A scatter plot of birth rates with a positive correlation|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-3: Birth rates versus immigration rates for 3193&nbsp;U. S. counties, 2009]] As Figure 2-3 illustrates, another problem with scatter plots is that they become difficult to read when there are a large number of cases in the database being analyzed. Scatter plots also become difficult to read when there is more than one independent variable, as there will be later in this book. The biggest problem with using scatter plots to evaluate theories, though, is that different persons might have different opinions about then. One person might see a rising trend while someone else thinks the trend is generally flat or declining. Without a reference line to give a firm answer, it may be impossible to reach agreement on whether the theory being evaluated is or is not correct. For these (and other) reasons, social scientists don't usually rely on scatter plots. Scatter plots are widely used in the social sciences, but they are used to get an overall impression of the data, not to evaluate theories. Instead, social scientists evaluate theories using straight lines like the reference lines that were drawn on the scatter plots above and in Chapter 1. These lines are called regression lines, and are based on statistical models called linear regression models. Linear regression models are statistical models in which expected values of the dependent variable are thought to rise or fall in a straight line according to values of the independent variable. Linear regression models (or just "regression models") are statistical models, meaning that they mathematical simplifications of the real world. Real variables may not rise or fall in a straight line, but in the linear regression model we simplify things to focus only on this one aspect of variables. Of course, dependent variables don't really rise or fall in straight lines as regression models would suggest. Social scientists use straight lines because they are convenient, even though they may not always be theoretically appropriate. Other kinds of relationships between variables are possible, but there are many good reasons for using straight lines instead. Some of them are: *A straight line is the simplest way two variables could be related, so it should be used unless there's a good reason to suspect a more complicated relationship *Straight lines can be compared using just their slopes and intercepts (you don't need every piece of data, as with comparing scatter plots) *Usually there's so much error in social science models that we can't tell the difference between a straight line relationship and other relationships anyway The straight line a linear regression model is drawn through the middle of the cloud of points in a scatter plot. It is drawn in such a way that each point along the line represents the most likely value of the dependent variable for any given value of the independent variable. This is the value that the dependent variable would be expected to have if there were no error in the model. Expected values are the values that a dependent variable would be expected to have based solely on values of the independent variable. Figure 2-4 depicts a linear regression model of persons' fear of walking along at night. The dependent variable from Figure 2-2, the percent of persons who feel unsafe, is regressed on a new independent variable, the percent of persons who reported experiencing violence personally. There is less error in Figure 2-4 than we saw in Figure 2-2. Tasmania in particular now falls very close to the reference line of expected values. [[File:Figure 2-4.png|alt=A scatter plot of feelings of safety with a positive correlation|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-4: Percent of persons who feel unsafe walking alone at night versus the percent of persons who report having personally experienced violence for 8&nbsp;Australian states and territories]] The expected values for the percent of persons who feel unsafe walking at night have been noted right on the scatter plot. They are the values of the dependent variable that would have been expected based on the regression model. For example, in this model the expected percentage of persons who feel unsafe walking at night in Tasmania would be 16.9%. In other words, based on reported levels of violence experienced by persons in Tasmania, we would expect about 16.9% of Tasmanians to feel unsafe walking alone at night. According to our data, 14.3% of persons in Tasmania report feeling unsafe walking at night (see the variable UNSAFE_OUT in Figure 2-1 and read across the row for Tasmania). Since the regression model predicted 16.9% and the actual value was 14.3%, the error for Tasmania in Figure 2-4 was 2.6% (<math>16.9\% - 14.3\% = 2.6\%</math>). Regression error is the degree to which an expected value of a dependent variable in a linear regression model differs from its actual value. Regression error is expressed as deviation from the trend of the straight line relationship connecting the independent variable and the dependent variable. In general, regression models that have very little regression error are preferred over regression models that have a lot of regression error. When there is very little regression error, the trend of the regression line will tend to be steeper and the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable will tend to be stronger. There is a lot of regression error in the regression model depicted in Figure 2-4, but less regression error than was observed in Figure 2-2. In particular, the regression error for Tasmania in Figure 2-2 was 7.1%—much higher than in Figure 2-4. This suggests that persons' reports of experiencing violence personally are better predictors of persons' feelings of safety at night than are the actual crime rates in a state. Persons' experiences of safety and fear are very personal, not necessarily based on crime statistics for society as a whole. If policymakers want to make sure that persons feel safe enough to go out in public, they have to do more than just keep the crime rate down. They also have to reduce persons' personal experiences—and persons' perceptions of their personal experiences—of violence and crime. This may be much more difficult to do, but also much more rewarding for society. Policymakers should take a broad approach to making society less violent in general instead of just putting potential criminals in jail. ==2.2: The Slope of a Regression Line== In the social sciences, even good linear regression models like that depicted in Figure 2-4 tend to have a lot of error. A major goal of regression modeling is to find an independent variable that fits the dependent variable with more trend and less error. An example of a relationship that is almost all trend (with very little error) is depicted in Figure 2-5. The scatter plot in Figure 2-5 uses state birth rates as the independent variable and state death rates as the dependent variable. States with high birth rates tend to have young populations, and thus low death rates. Utah has been excluded because its very high birth rate (over 20 children for every 1000&nbsp;persons every year) doesn't fit on the chart, but were Utah included its death rate would fall very close to the regression line. One state has an exceptionally high death rate (West Virginia) and one state has an exceptionally low death rate (Alaska). [[File:Figure 4-5.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-5. Death rates versus birth rates for the 49 US states plus the District of Columbia, 2009 (Utah excluded)]] Thinking about scatter plots in terms of trends and error, the trend in Figure 2-5 is clearly down. Death rates fall as birth rates rise, but by how much? The slope of the regression line gives the answer. Remember that the regression line runs through the expected values of the dependent variable. Slope is the change in the expected value of the dependent variable divided by the change in the value of the independent variable. In other words, it is the change in the regression line for every one point increase in the independent variable. In Figure 2-5, when the independent variable (birth rate) goes up by 1 point, the expected value of the dependent variable (death rate) down by 0.4 points. The slope of the regression line is thus −0.4 / 1, or −0.4. The slope is negative because the line trends down. If the line trended up, the slope would be positive. An example of a regression line with a positive slope is depicted in Figure 2-6. This line reflects a simple theory of why persons relocate to new communities. Americans are very mobile—much more mobile than persons in most other countries—and frequently move from place to place within America. One theory is that persons go where the jobs are: persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have vibrant economies. In Figure 2-6, this theory has be operationalized into the hypothesis that counties with higher incomes (independent variable) tend to attract the most migration (dependent variable). In other words, county income is positively related to migration. Figure 2-6 shows that this hypothesis is correct—at least for one state (South Dakota). The slope of the regression line in Figure 2-6 indicates that when county income goes up by $10,000, migration tends to go up by around 8%. The slope is actually <math>8 / 10000 = .0008</math>. [[File:Figure 2-6.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-6. Estimated net migration per 1000 population versus median income for 66 South Dakota counties, 2000s]] The positive slope of the regression line in Figure 2-6 doesn't mean that persons always move to counties that have the highest income levels. There is quite a lot of error around the regression line. Lincoln County especially seems to far outside the range of the data from the other counties. Lincoln County is South Dakota's richest and its third most populous. It has grown rapidly over the past ten years as formerly rural areas have been developed into suburbs of nearby Sioux Falls in Minnehaha County. Many other South Dakota counties have highly variable migration figures because they are so small that the opening or closing of one employer can have a big effect on migration. Of the 66 counties in South Dakota, 49 are home to fewer than 10,000&nbsp;persons. So it's not surprising that the data for South Dakota show a high level of regression error. If it's true that persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have expanding economies, the relationship between median income and net migration should be positive in every state, not just South Dakota. One state that is very different from South Dakota in almost every way is Florida. Florida has only two counties with populations under 10,000&nbsp;persons, and the state is on average much richer than South&nbsp;Dakota. More importantly, lots of persons move to Florida for reasons that have nothing to do with jobs, like climate and lifestyle. Since many persons move to Florida when they retire, the whole theory about jobs and migration may be irrelevant there. To find out, Figure 2-7 depicts a regression of net migration rates on median county income for 67&nbsp;Florida counties. [[File:Figure 2-7.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-7. Estimated net migration per 1000 population versus median income for 67&nbsp;Florida counties, 2000s]] As expected, the Florida counties have much more regression error than the South&nbsp;Dakota counties. They also have a smaller slope. In Florida, every $10,000 increase in median income is associated with a 5% increase in the net migration rate, for a slope of <math>5 / 10000 = .0005</math>. This is just over half the slope for South&nbsp;Dakota. As in South&nbsp;Dakota, one county is growing much more rapidly than the rest of the state. Flagler County in Florida is growing for much the same reason as Lincoln County in Nebraska: it is a formerly rural county that is rapidly developing. Nonetheless, despite the fact that the relationship between income and migration is weaker in Florida than in South&nbsp;Dakota, the slope of the regression line is still positive. This adds more evidence in favor of the theory that persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have vibrant economies. ==2.3: Outliers and Robustness== Because there is so much error in the statistical models used by social scientists, it is not uncommon for different operationalizations of the same theory to give different results. We saw this in Chapter 1 when different operationalizations of junk food consumption gave different results for the relationship between state income and junk food consumption (Figure 1-2 versus Figure 1-3). Social scientists are much more impressed by a theory when the theory holds up under different operationalization choices, as in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7. Ideally, all statistical models that are designed to evaluate a theory would yield the same results, but in reality they do not. Statistical models can be particularly unstable when they have high levels of error. When there is a lot of error in the model, small changes in the data can lead to big changes in model results. Robustness is the extent to which statistical models give similar results despite changes in operationalization. With regard to linear regression models, robustness means that the slope of the regression line doesn't change much when different data are used. In a robust regression model, the slope of the regression line shouldn't depend too much on what particular data are used or the inclusion or exclusion of any one case. Linear regression models tend to be most robust when: *They are based on large numbers of cases *There is relatively little regression error *All the cases fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line Regression models based on small numbers of cases with lots of error and irregular distributions of cases can be very unstable (not robust at all). Such a model is depicted in Figure 2-8. Many persons feel unsafe in large cities because they believe that crime, and particular murder, is very common in large cities. After all, in big cities like New York there are murders reported on the news almost every day. On the other hand, big cities by definition have lots of persons, so their actual murder rates (murders per 100,000&nbsp;persons) might be relatively low. Using data on the 10 largest American cities, Figure 2-8 plots the relationship between city size and murder rates. The regression line trends downward with a slope of −0.7: as the population of a city goes up by 1&nbsp;million persons, the murder rate goes down by 0.7 per 100,000. The model suggests that bigger cities are safer than smaller ones. [[File:Figure 2-8.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-8. Murder rates versus city size for 10 American cities with populations over 1,000,000 (2008)]] However, there are several reasons to question the robustness of the model depicted in Figure 2-8. Evaluating this model against the three conditions that are associated with robust models, it fails on every count. First, the model is based on a small number of cases. Second, there is an enormous amount of regression error. Third and perhaps most important, the cases do not fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line. Of the ten cities depicted in Figure 2-8, eight are clustered on the far left side of the scatter plot, one (Los Angeles) is closer to the middle but still in the left half, and one (New York) is far on the extreme right side. New York is much larger than any other American city and falls well outside the cloud of points formed by the rest of the data. It stands alone, far away from all the other data points. Outliers are data points in a statistical model that fall far away from most of the other data points. In Figure 2-8, New&nbsp;York is a clear outlier. Statistical results based on data that include outliers often are not robust. One outlier out of a hundred or a thousand points usually doesn't matter too much for a statistical model, but one outlier out of just ten points can have a big effect. Figure 2-9 plots exactly the same data as Figure 2-8, but without New&nbsp;York. The new regression line based on the data for the 9 remaining cities has a completely different slope from the original regression line. When New York was included, the slope was negative (−0.7), which indicated that larger cities were safer. With New&nbsp;York excluded, the slope is positive (0.8), indicating that larger cities are more dangerous. The relationship between city size and murder rates clearly is not robust. [[File:Figure 2-9.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-9. Murder rates versus city size for 9 American cities with populations over 1,000,000 other than New York (2008)]] It is tempting to argue that outliers are "bad" data points that should always be excluded, but once researchers start excluding points they don't like it can be hard to stop. For example, in Figure 2-9 after New&nbsp;York has been excluded there seems to be a new outlier, Philadelphia. All the other cities line up nicely along the trend line, with Philadelphia sitting all on its own in the upper left corner of the scatter plot. Excluding Philadelphia makes the slope of the regression line even stronger: it increases from 0.8 to 2.0. Then, with Philadelphia gone, Los Angeles appears to be an outlier. Excluding Los Angeles raises the slope even further, to 6.0. The danger here is obvious. If we conduct analyses only on the data points we like, we end up with a very skewed picture of the real relationships connecting variables out in the real world. Outliers should be investigated, but robustness is always an issue for interpretation, not something that can be proved by including or excluding specific cases. ==2.4. Least Squared Error== ;Optional/advanced In linear regression models, the regression line represents the expected value of the dependent variable for any given value of the independent variable. It makes sense that the most likely place to find the expected value of the dependent variable would be right in the middle of the scatter plot connecting it to the independent variable. For example, in Figure 2-5 the most likely death rate for a state with a birth rate of 15 wouldn't be 16 or 0, but somewhere in the middle, like 8. The death rate indicated by the regression line seems like a pretty average death rate for a state falling in the middle of the range in its birth rate. This seems reasonable so far as it goes. Obviously the regression line has to go somewhere in the middle, but how do we decide exactly where to draw it? One idea might be to draw the regression line so as to minimize the amount of error in the scatter plot. If a scatter plot is a combination of trend and error, it makes sense to want as much trend and as little error as possible. A line through the very middle of a scatter plot must have less error than other lines, right? Bizarrely, the answer is no. This strange fact is illustrated in Figure 2-10, Figure 2-11, and Figure 2-12. These three figures show different lines on a very simple scatter plot. In this scatter plot, there are just four data points: *X = 1, Y = 2 *X = 1, Y = 8 *X = 5, Y = 5 *X = 5, Y = 8 The actual regression line connecting the independent variable (X) to the dependent variable (Y) is graphed in Figure 2-10. This line passes right through the middle of all four points. Each point is 4 units away from the regression line, so the regression error for each point is 4. The total amount of error for the whole scatter plot is <math>4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 16</math>. No other line could be drawn on the scatter plot that would result in less error. So far so good. [[File:Figure 2-10.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-10. Depiction of error from a regression line (A)]] The problem is that the regression line (A) isn't the only line that minimizes the amount of error in the scatter plot. Figure 2-11 depicts another line (B). This line doesn't quite run through the middle of the scatter plot. Instead, it's drawn closer to the two low points and farther away from the two high points. It's clearly not as good a line as the regression line, but it turns out to have the same amount of error. The error associated with line B is <math>2 + 6 + 2 + 6 = 16</math>. It seems that both line A and line B minimize the amount of error in the scatter plot. [[File:Figure 2-11.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-11. Depiction of error from a sample line (B) a little below the true regression line]] That's not all. Figure 2-12 depicts yet another line (C). Line C is an even worse line than line B. It's all the way at the top of the scatter plot, very close to the two high points and very far away from the two low points. It's not at all in the middle of the cloud of points. But the total error is the same: <math>1 + 7 + 1 + 7 = 16</math>. In fact, any line that runs between the points—any line at all—will give the same error. Many different trends give the same error. This makes it impossible to choose any one line based just on its total error. Another method is necessary. [[File:Figure 2-12.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-12. Depiction of error from a sample line (C) far above the true regression line]] That method that is actually used to draw regression lines is to draw the line that has the least amount of squared error. Squared error is just that: the error squared, or multiplied by itself. So for example if the error is 4, the squared error is 16 (<math>4^2 = 4 x 4 = 16</math>). For line A in Figure 2-10, the total squared error is <math>4^2 + 4^2 + 4^2 + 4^2</math> or <math>16 + 16 +16 +16 = 64</math>. For line B in Figure 2-11, the total squared error is <math>2^2 + 6^2 + 2^2 + 6^2</math> or <math>4 + 36 + 4 +36 = 80</math>. For line C in Figure 2-12, the total squared error is <math>1^2 + 7^2 + 1^2 + 7^2</math> or <math>1 + 49 + 1 + 49 = 100</math>. The line with the least squared error is line A, the regression line that runs through the very middle of the scatter plot. All other lines have more error. It turns out that the line with the least squared error is always unique—there's only one line that minimizes the total amount of squared error—and always runs right through the center of the scatter plot. As an added bonus, computers can calculate regression lines using least squared error quickly and efficiently. The use of least squared error is so closely associated with linear regression models that they are often called "least squares regression models." All of the statistical models used in the rest of this book are based on the minimization of squared error. Least squared error is the mathematical principle that underlies almost all of social statistics. ==2.5: Case Study: Property Crime and Murder Rates== Murder is a rare and horrific crime. It is a tragedy any time a human life is ended prematurely, but that tragedy is even worse when a person's death is intentional, not accidental. Sadly, some of the students using this textbook will know someone who was murdered. Luckily, most of us do not. But almost all of us know someone who has been the victim of a property crime like burglary or theft. Many of us have even been property crime victims ourselves. Property crimes are very common not just in the United States but around the world. In fact, levels of property crime in the US are not particularly high compared to other rich countries. This is odd, because the murder rate in the US are very high. It seems like all kinds of crime should rise and fall together. Do they? One theory of crime might be that high rates of property crime lead to high rates of murder, as persons move from petty crime to serious crime throughout their criminal careers. Since international data on property crimes might not be equivalent from country to country, it makes sense to operationalize this theory using a hypothesis and data about US crime rates. A specific hypothesis linking property crime to murder would be the hypothesis that property crime rates are positively associated with murder rates for US cities with populations over 100,000&nbsp;persons. This operationalization excludes small cities because it is possible that smaller cities might have no recorded crimes in any given year. Data on crime rates of all kinds are available from the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). In Figure 2-13 these data are used to plot the relationship between property crime rates and murder rates for the 268&nbsp;American cities with populations of over 100,000&nbsp;persons. A linear regression model has been used to place a trend line on the scatter plot. The trend line represents the expected value of the murder rate for any given level of property crime. So for example in a city that has a property crime rate of 5,000 per 100,000 persons, the expected murder rate would be 10.2 murders per 100,000 persons. A few cities have murder rates that would be expected given their property crime rates, but there is an enormous amount of regression error. Murder rates are scattered widely and do not cluster closely around the regression line. [[File:Figure 2-13.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-13. Murder rates versus property crime rates for 268&nbsp;American cities with populations over 100,000 (2008)]] The slope of the regression line is positive, as expected. This tends to confirm the theory that high rates of property crime are associated with high rates of murder. Every increase of 1,000 in the property crime rate is associated, on average, with an increase of 2.7 in the murder rate. This is likely to be a robust result, since it is based on a large number of cases. On the other hand, there is a high level of error and the cases do not fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line, so we might show some caution in interpreting our results. There is also one major outlier: New&nbsp;Orleans. The murder rate for New Orleans is far higher than that of any other US city, and New&nbsp;Orleans falls well outside the boundaries of the rest of the data. Excluding New Orleans, however, results in no change in the slope of the regression line, which remains 2.7 whether New&nbsp;Orleans is included or not. Overall, the theory that high rates of property crime are associated with high rates of murder seems to be broadly valid for US cities as a whole, but the murder rate in any particular US city doesn't seem to correspond closely to the property crime rate. If they want to bring down their murder rates, it wouldn't hurt for US cities to try bringing down their property crime rates, but it likely wouldn't solve the problem. Cities with property crime rates in the range of 5,000–6,000 can have murder rates ranging anywhere from near zero to 30 or more. Policies to reduce murder rates should probably be targeted specifically at reducing violence in society, not broadly at reducing crime in general. ==Chapter 2 Key Terms== *'''Expected values''' are ''the values that a dependent variable would be expected to have based solely on values of the independent variable''. *'''Linear regression models''' are ''statistical models in which expected values of the dependent variable are thought to rise or fall in a straight line according to values of the independent variable''. *'''Outliers''' are ''data points in a statistical model that are far away from most of the other data points''. *'''Regression error''' is ''the degree to which an expected value of a dependent variable in a linear regression model differs from its actual value''. *'''Robustness''' is ''the extent to which statistical models give similar results despite changes in operationalization''. *'''Slope''' is ''the change in the expected value of the dependent variable divided by the change in the value of the independent variable''. <noinclude> == Exercises == '''Question #1''' # What is wrong with the following statement: “Based on the regression of our sample population, we have found a positive correlation between level of education and income in Canada.a” # True/False: There is a large positive correlation within the regression, and the regression is statistically significant. # Why are the distances from the data points to the regression line squared and then minimized? '''Question #2''' using employment statistics based on industry cluster from the Canadian census(released 2023) at [https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810059701 Employment income statistics by industry sectors, highest level of education, immigrant status and period of immigration, work activity during the reference year, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts] # Make a regression of the effects of the industry cluster number on Total - Number of employment income recipients # What is the correlation coefficient? What does it mean # What is the intercept value? What does it mean # Find what is wrong about the regression so that it isn’t fit for inference # What is the change in the Regression Slope when you remove the largest outlier # What is one way you could make the Regression Slope more readable to viewers when working with hard numbers '''Question #3''' Use data from 1970-2023/2024 from the following data sets: [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24) | Data] [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.PRSL.FE.ZS Persistence to last grade of primary, female (% of cohort) | Data] # Provide a regression for the effects of female youth literacy rate on persistence to the last grade of primary in South Asia # What happened when you tabulated missing data cells # Does correlation imply causation in this context, when the variables have a common theme? Explain your answer '''Question #4''' Using the following database [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/HD_HCIP_EDUC_MA Human capital index plus (HCI+): education pillar score, male (scale 0–188) | Data] # Make a regression of Kuwait's HDI score over the years # Analyze the regression line # Add in error bars and analyze them '''Question #5''' # How would you select independent variables from question #2? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? # How would you select independent variables from question #3? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? # How would you select independent variables from question #4? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? == Exercise Solutions == '''Solution #1''' # Sample correlation doesn’t perfectly correlate with population correlation. Just because something is true for the sample doesn’t mean it is true for the whole population # False, Statistical significance in statistics refers to the probability that the relationship being observed is not being observed by random chance. A high regression slope is referred to as a “high effect size.” # It indexes the weight of each data point to account for outliers, thereby providing a more accurate line of best fit '''Solution #2''' 1. (solution not provided due to copyright concerns) 2. Slope: ~1.16557E-05 3. Intercept: refers to an arbitrary point where the classification number is 0, since this event isn’t real without our setting the intercept value, which is inadmissible for regression analysis 4. The classification # isn’t an interval measurement, and all regression variables should be interval level variables by convention unless necessary. 5. When the largest outer is removed, the slope becomes ~1.56278E-05, indicating a sharp decrease in the positive relationship. This points to the possibility that outliers are distorting central tendency metrics. 6. index the large sums(e.x. Instead of counting y-axis in ones to you make them represent income recipients in the thousands) '''Solution #3''' 1. [[File:Regression_exercise_solution_3.png|thumb|this is a solution to an exercise in an open textbook]] Data tabulated by a Wikipedia user 2. By convention to data points are removed 3. Regressions one's own can only ever provide correlation, never causation, though they can aid in arguments for causation '''Solution #4''' 1. [[File:Regression_exercise_solution_4.png|thumb|Exercise 4.1 solution]] Data tabulated by a Wikipedia user 2. The regression line is relatively flat, while the points fluctuate greatly from the regression line. Thus, a linear regression line or a regression as the medium of data analysis may oversimplify the insights of the data itself. 3. There are very few data points, and their margins of error often overlap; thus, it is unlikely that the data points themselves are statistically significant due to the small sample size. '''Solution #5''' In statistics for the social sciences generally, a theory is chosen to be tested to provide causality after regression analysis, from which a hypothesis is derived. Independent variables should be such that they test the hypothesis accurately and reliably. Solutions may vary; please refer to the discussion tab for additional advice on your solutions. == Additional resources(reviewed) == === Data === [https://data.worldbank.org/ World Bank Data]<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> [https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start Statistics Canada]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2025-07-08 |title=Statistics Canada: Canada's national statistical agency |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> === Lectures === [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/ Lecture 6 - Topics in Mathematics with Application in Finance]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regression Analysis {{!}} Topics in Mathematics with Applications in Finance {{!}} Mathematics |url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=MIT OpenCourseWare |language=en}}</ref> [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/ Lecture 13 - Statistics for Applications]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lecture 13: Regression {{!}} Statistics for Applications {{!}} Mathematics |url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=MIT OpenCourseWare |language=en}}</ref> === Mathematical background === [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk OLS Math Concepts Review]<ref>{{Citation |last=MIT OpenCourseWare |title=Least squares {{!}} MIT 18.02SC Multivariable Calculus, Fall 2010 |date=2011-01-03 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk |access-date=2026-04-24}}</ref> [https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html OLS Proof]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Soch |first=Joram |date=2021-10-27 |title=Ordinary least squares for simple linear regression |url=https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=The Book of Statistical Proofs |language=en}}</ref> World Bank Open Data. (2023). ''World Bank Open Data''. [online] Available at: <nowiki>https://data.worldbank.org/</nowiki> [Accessed 24 Apr. 2026].{{chapter navigation|Chapter 1|Chapter 3}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Social Statistics'', Chapter 2: Linear Regression Models}} </noinclude> op97q9exrltdzo02lfqzoos57s7yjkk 4632108 4632107 2026-04-24T22:38:58Z Mohammad Saeed7258 3578938 4632108 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ =Linear Regression Models= Persons all over the world worry about crime, especially violent crime. Americans have more reason to worry than most. The United&nbsp;States is a particularly violent country. The homicide rate in the United&nbsp;States is roughly three times that in England, four times that in Australia, and five times that in Germany. Japan, a country of over 125&nbsp;million persons, experiences fewer murders per year than Pennsylvania, with fewer than 12.5&nbsp;million persons. Thankfully, American murder rates have fallen by almost 50% in the past 20&nbsp;years, but they're still far too high. Violent crime is, by definition, traumatic for victims and their families. A person who has been a victim of violent crime may never feel truly safe in public again. Violent crime may also be bad for society. Generalizing from the individual to the social level, if persons feel unsafe, they may stay home, avoid public places, and withdraw from society. This concern can be conceptualized into a formal theory: where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes. A database that can be used to evaluate this theory has been assembled in Figure 2-1 using data available for download from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Australian data have been used here because Australia has just 8 states and territories (versus 50 for the United States), making it easier to label specific states on a scatter plot. {|class="sortable" |+Figure 2-1: Data on crime and other social indicators for 8 Australian states and territories, 2008 !STATE_TERR !CODE !VICTIM_PERS !UNSAFE_OUT !VICTIM_VIOL !STRESS !MOVED5YR !MED_INC |- | Australian Capital Territory||ACT||2.8||18.6||9.9||62.1||39.8||$712 |- | New South Wales||NSW||2.8||17.4||9.3||57.0||39.4||$565 |- | Northern Territory||NT||5.7||30.0||18.2||63.8||61.3||$670 |- | Queensland||QLD||3.0||17.3||13.5||64.4||53.9||$556 |- | South Australia||SA||2.8||21.8||11.4||58.2||38.9||$529 |- | Tasmania||TAS||4.1||14.3||9.8||59.1||39.6||$486 |- | Victoria||VIC||3.3||16.8||9.7||57.5||38.8||$564 |- | Western Australia||WA||3.8||20.9||12.8||62.8||47.3||$581 |} The cases in the Australian crime database are the eight&nbsp;states and territories of Australia. The columns include two&nbsp;metadata items (the state or territory name and postal code). Six&nbsp;variables are also included: *<code>VICTIM_PERS</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who were the victims of personal crimes (murder, attempted murder, assault, robbery, and rape) in 2008 *<code>UNSAFE_OUT</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report feeling unsafe walking alone at night after dark *<code>VICTIM_VIOL</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report having been the victim of physical or threatened violence in the past 12&nbsp;months *<code>STRESS</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who report having experienced at least one major life stressor in the past 12&nbsp;months *<code>MOVED5YR</code>&nbsp;– The percent of persons who have moved in the previous 5&nbsp;years *<code>MED_INC</code>&nbsp;– State median income The theory that where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes can be operationalized using these data into the specific hypothesis that the relationship between the variables <code>VICTIM_PERS</code> and <code>UNSAFE_OUT</code> will be positively related across the 8 Australian states and territories. In this statistical model, <code>VICTIM_PERS</code> (the crime rate) is the independent variable and UNSAFE_OUT (persons' feelings of safety) is the dependent variable. The actual relationship between the two variables is plotted in Figure 2-2. Each point in the scatter plot has been labeled using its state postal code. This scatter plot does, in fact, show that the relationship is positive. This is consistent with the theory that where crime rates are high, persons will feel less safe leaving their homes. [[File:Figure 2-2b.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-2: Percent of persons who feel unsafe walking alone at night versus actual state violent crime rates for 8&nbsp;Australian states and territories]] As usual, Figure 2-2 includes a reference line the runs through the middle of all of the data points. Also as usual, there is a lot of error in the scatter plot. Fear of going out alone at night does rise with the crime rate, but not in every case. To help clarify the overall trend in fear of going out, Figure 2-2 also includes a new, additional piece of information: the amount of error that is associated with each observation (each state). Instead of thinking of a scatter plot as just a collection of points that trends up or down, it is possible to think of a scatter plot as a combination of trend (the line) and error (deviation from the line). This basic statistical model—a trend plus error—is the most widely used statistical model in the social sciences. In Figure 2-2, three states fall almost exactly on the trend line: New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia. The persons in these three states have levels of fear about going out alone at night that are just what might be expected for states with their levels of crime. In other words, there is almost no error in the statistical model for fear in these states. Persons living in other states and territories have more fear (South Australia, Australian Capital Territory, Northern Territory) or less fear (Victoria, Tasmania) than might be expected based on their crime rates. Tasmania in particular has relatively high crime rates (the second highest in Australia) but very low levels of fear (the lowest in Australia). This means that there is a lot of error in the statistical model for Tasmania. While there is definitely an upward trend in the line shown in Figure 2-2, there is so much error in individual cases that we might question just how useful actual crime rates are for understanding persons' feelings of fear about going out at night. This chapter introduces the linear regression model, which divides the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable into a trend plus error. First and foremost, the linear regression model is just a way of putting a line on a scatter plot (Section 2.1). There are many possible ways to draw a line through data, but in practice the linear regression model is the one way that is used in all of social statistics. Second, line on a scatter plot actually represents a hypothesis about how the dependent variable is related to an independent variable (Section 2.2). Like any line, it has a slope and an intercept, but social scientists are mainly interested in evaluating hypotheses about the slope. Third, it's pretty obvious that a positive slope means a positive relationship between the two variables, while a negative slope means a negative relationship (Section 2.3). The steeper the slope, the more important the relationship between the two variables is likely to be. An optional section (Section 2.4) explains some of the mathematics behind how regression lines are actually drawn. Finally, this chapter ends with an applied case study of the relationship between property crime and murder rates in the United States (Section 2.5). This case study illustrates how linear regression models are used to put lines on scatter plots, how hypotheses about variables are turned into hypotheses about the slopes of these lines, and the difference between positive and negative relationships. All of this chapter's key concepts are used in this case study. By the end of this chapter, you should have a basic understanding of how regression models can shed light on the relationships connecting independent and dependent variables in the social sciences. ==2.1. Introducing the Linear Regression Model== When social scientists theorize about the social world, they don't usually theorize in straight-line terms. Most social theorists would never come up with a theory that said "persons' fear of walking along at night will rise in exactly a straight line as the crime rate in their neighborhoods rise." Instead, theories about the social world are much more vague: "persons will feel less safe leaving their homes where crime rates are high." All the theories that were examined in Chapter 1 were also stated in vague language that said nothing about straight lines: *Rich parents tend to have rich children *Persons eat junk food because they can't afford to eat high-quality food *Racial discrimination in America leads to lower incomes for non-whites *Higher spending on education leads to better student performance on tests When theories say nothing about the specific shape of the relationship between two variables, a simple scatter plot is—technically—the appropriate way to evaluate them. With one look at the scatter plot anyone can see whether the dependent variable tends to rise, fall, or stay the same across values of the independent variable. The real relationship between the two variables might be a line, a curve, or an even more complicated pattern, but that is unimportant. The theories say nothing about lines or curves. The theories just say that when the independent variable goes up, the dependent variable goes up as well. However, there are problems with scatter plots. Sometimes it can be hard to tell whether they trend upwards or not. For example, many Americans believe that new immigrants to America have large numbers of children, overwhelming schools and costing the taxpayers a lot of money. Figure 2-3 plots the relationship between birth rates (independent variable) and levels of international immigration (dependent variable) for 3193 US counties. Does the birth rate rise with greater immigration? It's hard to say from just the scatter plot, without a line. It turns out that birth rates do rise with immigration rates, but only very slightly. [[File:Social Statistics 02-03.svg|alt=A scatter plot of birth rates with a positive correlation|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-3: Birth rates versus immigration rates for 3193&nbsp;U. S. counties, 2009]] As Figure 2-3 illustrates, another problem with scatter plots is that they become difficult to read when there are a large number of cases in the database being analyzed. Scatter plots also become difficult to read when there is more than one independent variable, as there will be later in this book. The biggest problem with using scatter plots to evaluate theories, though, is that different persons might have different opinions about then. One person might see a rising trend while someone else thinks the trend is generally flat or declining. Without a reference line to give a firm answer, it may be impossible to reach agreement on whether the theory being evaluated is or is not correct. For these (and other) reasons, social scientists don't usually rely on scatter plots. Scatter plots are widely used in the social sciences, but they are used to get an overall impression of the data, not to evaluate theories. Instead, social scientists evaluate theories using straight lines like the reference lines that were drawn on the scatter plots above and in Chapter 1. These lines are called regression lines, and are based on statistical models called linear regression models. Linear regression models are statistical models in which expected values of the dependent variable are thought to rise or fall in a straight line according to values of the independent variable. Linear regression models (or just "regression models") are statistical models, meaning that they mathematical simplifications of the real world. Real variables may not rise or fall in a straight line, but in the linear regression model we simplify things to focus only on this one aspect of variables. Of course, dependent variables don't really rise or fall in straight lines as regression models would suggest. Social scientists use straight lines because they are convenient, even though they may not always be theoretically appropriate. Other kinds of relationships between variables are possible, but there are many good reasons for using straight lines instead. Some of them are: *A straight line is the simplest way two variables could be related, so it should be used unless there's a good reason to suspect a more complicated relationship *Straight lines can be compared using just their slopes and intercepts (you don't need every piece of data, as with comparing scatter plots) *Usually there's so much error in social science models that we can't tell the difference between a straight line relationship and other relationships anyway The straight line a linear regression model is drawn through the middle of the cloud of points in a scatter plot. It is drawn in such a way that each point along the line represents the most likely value of the dependent variable for any given value of the independent variable. This is the value that the dependent variable would be expected to have if there were no error in the model. Expected values are the values that a dependent variable would be expected to have based solely on values of the independent variable. Figure 2-4 depicts a linear regression model of persons' fear of walking along at night. The dependent variable from Figure 2-2, the percent of persons who feel unsafe, is regressed on a new independent variable, the percent of persons who reported experiencing violence personally. There is less error in Figure 2-4 than we saw in Figure 2-2. Tasmania in particular now falls very close to the reference line of expected values. [[File:Figure 2-4.png|alt=A scatter plot of feelings of safety with a positive correlation|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-4: Percent of persons who feel unsafe walking alone at night versus the percent of persons who report having personally experienced violence for 8&nbsp;Australian states and territories]] The expected values for the percent of persons who feel unsafe walking at night have been noted right on the scatter plot. They are the values of the dependent variable that would have been expected based on the regression model. For example, in this model the expected percentage of persons who feel unsafe walking at night in Tasmania would be 16.9%. In other words, based on reported levels of violence experienced by persons in Tasmania, we would expect about 16.9% of Tasmanians to feel unsafe walking alone at night. According to our data, 14.3% of persons in Tasmania report feeling unsafe walking at night (see the variable UNSAFE_OUT in Figure 2-1 and read across the row for Tasmania). Since the regression model predicted 16.9% and the actual value was 14.3%, the error for Tasmania in Figure 2-4 was 2.6% (<math>16.9\% - 14.3\% = 2.6\%</math>). Regression error is the degree to which an expected value of a dependent variable in a linear regression model differs from its actual value. Regression error is expressed as deviation from the trend of the straight line relationship connecting the independent variable and the dependent variable. In general, regression models that have very little regression error are preferred over regression models that have a lot of regression error. When there is very little regression error, the trend of the regression line will tend to be steeper and the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable will tend to be stronger. There is a lot of regression error in the regression model depicted in Figure 2-4, but less regression error than was observed in Figure 2-2. In particular, the regression error for Tasmania in Figure 2-2 was 7.1%—much higher than in Figure 2-4. This suggests that persons' reports of experiencing violence personally are better predictors of persons' feelings of safety at night than are the actual crime rates in a state. Persons' experiences of safety and fear are very personal, not necessarily based on crime statistics for society as a whole. If policymakers want to make sure that persons feel safe enough to go out in public, they have to do more than just keep the crime rate down. They also have to reduce persons' personal experiences—and persons' perceptions of their personal experiences—of violence and crime. This may be much more difficult to do, but also much more rewarding for society. Policymakers should take a broad approach to making society less violent in general instead of just putting potential criminals in jail. ==2.2: The Slope of a Regression Line== In the social sciences, even good linear regression models like that depicted in Figure 2-4 tend to have a lot of error. A major goal of regression modeling is to find an independent variable that fits the dependent variable with more trend and less error. An example of a relationship that is almost all trend (with very little error) is depicted in Figure 2-5. The scatter plot in Figure 2-5 uses state birth rates as the independent variable and state death rates as the dependent variable. States with high birth rates tend to have young populations, and thus low death rates. Utah has been excluded because its very high birth rate (over 20 children for every 1000&nbsp;persons every year) doesn't fit on the chart, but were Utah included its death rate would fall very close to the regression line. One state has an exceptionally high death rate (West Virginia) and one state has an exceptionally low death rate (Alaska). [[File:Figure 4-5.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-5. Death rates versus birth rates for the 49 US states plus the District of Columbia, 2009 (Utah excluded)]] Thinking about scatter plots in terms of trends and error, the trend in Figure 2-5 is clearly down. Death rates fall as birth rates rise, but by how much? The slope of the regression line gives the answer. Remember that the regression line runs through the expected values of the dependent variable. Slope is the change in the expected value of the dependent variable divided by the change in the value of the independent variable. In other words, it is the change in the regression line for every one point increase in the independent variable. In Figure 2-5, when the independent variable (birth rate) goes up by 1 point, the expected value of the dependent variable (death rate) down by 0.4 points. The slope of the regression line is thus −0.4 / 1, or −0.4. The slope is negative because the line trends down. If the line trended up, the slope would be positive. An example of a regression line with a positive slope is depicted in Figure 2-6. This line reflects a simple theory of why persons relocate to new communities. Americans are very mobile—much more mobile than persons in most other countries—and frequently move from place to place within America. One theory is that persons go where the jobs are: persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have vibrant economies. In Figure 2-6, this theory has be operationalized into the hypothesis that counties with higher incomes (independent variable) tend to attract the most migration (dependent variable). In other words, county income is positively related to migration. Figure 2-6 shows that this hypothesis is correct—at least for one state (South Dakota). The slope of the regression line in Figure 2-6 indicates that when county income goes up by $10,000, migration tends to go up by around 8%. The slope is actually <math>8 / 10000 = .0008</math>. [[File:Figure 2-6.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-6. Estimated net migration per 1000 population versus median income for 66 South Dakota counties, 2000s]] The positive slope of the regression line in Figure 2-6 doesn't mean that persons always move to counties that have the highest income levels. There is quite a lot of error around the regression line. Lincoln County especially seems to far outside the range of the data from the other counties. Lincoln County is South Dakota's richest and its third most populous. It has grown rapidly over the past ten years as formerly rural areas have been developed into suburbs of nearby Sioux Falls in Minnehaha County. Many other South Dakota counties have highly variable migration figures because they are so small that the opening or closing of one employer can have a big effect on migration. Of the 66 counties in South Dakota, 49 are home to fewer than 10,000&nbsp;persons. So it's not surprising that the data for South Dakota show a high level of regression error. If it's true that persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have expanding economies, the relationship between median income and net migration should be positive in every state, not just South Dakota. One state that is very different from South Dakota in almost every way is Florida. Florida has only two counties with populations under 10,000&nbsp;persons, and the state is on average much richer than South&nbsp;Dakota. More importantly, lots of persons move to Florida for reasons that have nothing to do with jobs, like climate and lifestyle. Since many persons move to Florida when they retire, the whole theory about jobs and migration may be irrelevant there. To find out, Figure 2-7 depicts a regression of net migration rates on median county income for 67&nbsp;Florida counties. [[File:Figure 2-7.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-7. Estimated net migration per 1000 population versus median income for 67&nbsp;Florida counties, 2000s]] As expected, the Florida counties have much more regression error than the South&nbsp;Dakota counties. They also have a smaller slope. In Florida, every $10,000 increase in median income is associated with a 5% increase in the net migration rate, for a slope of <math>5 / 10000 = .0005</math>. This is just over half the slope for South&nbsp;Dakota. As in South&nbsp;Dakota, one county is growing much more rapidly than the rest of the state. Flagler County in Florida is growing for much the same reason as Lincoln County in Nebraska: it is a formerly rural county that is rapidly developing. Nonetheless, despite the fact that the relationship between income and migration is weaker in Florida than in South&nbsp;Dakota, the slope of the regression line is still positive. This adds more evidence in favor of the theory that persons move from places that have depressed economies to places that have vibrant economies. ==2.3: Outliers and Robustness== Because there is so much error in the statistical models used by social scientists, it is not uncommon for different operationalizations of the same theory to give different results. We saw this in Chapter 1 when different operationalizations of junk food consumption gave different results for the relationship between state income and junk food consumption (Figure 1-2 versus Figure 1-3). Social scientists are much more impressed by a theory when the theory holds up under different operationalization choices, as in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7. Ideally, all statistical models that are designed to evaluate a theory would yield the same results, but in reality they do not. Statistical models can be particularly unstable when they have high levels of error. When there is a lot of error in the model, small changes in the data can lead to big changes in model results. Robustness is the extent to which statistical models give similar results despite changes in operationalization. With regard to linear regression models, robustness means that the slope of the regression line doesn't change much when different data are used. In a robust regression model, the slope of the regression line shouldn't depend too much on what particular data are used or the inclusion or exclusion of any one case. Linear regression models tend to be most robust when: *They are based on large numbers of cases *There is relatively little regression error *All the cases fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line Regression models based on small numbers of cases with lots of error and irregular distributions of cases can be very unstable (not robust at all). Such a model is depicted in Figure 2-8. Many persons feel unsafe in large cities because they believe that crime, and particular murder, is very common in large cities. After all, in big cities like New York there are murders reported on the news almost every day. On the other hand, big cities by definition have lots of persons, so their actual murder rates (murders per 100,000&nbsp;persons) might be relatively low. Using data on the 10 largest American cities, Figure 2-8 plots the relationship between city size and murder rates. The regression line trends downward with a slope of −0.7: as the population of a city goes up by 1&nbsp;million persons, the murder rate goes down by 0.7 per 100,000. The model suggests that bigger cities are safer than smaller ones. [[File:Figure 2-8.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-8. Murder rates versus city size for 10 American cities with populations over 1,000,000 (2008)]] However, there are several reasons to question the robustness of the model depicted in Figure 2-8. Evaluating this model against the three conditions that are associated with robust models, it fails on every count. First, the model is based on a small number of cases. Second, there is an enormous amount of regression error. Third and perhaps most important, the cases do not fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line. Of the ten cities depicted in Figure 2-8, eight are clustered on the far left side of the scatter plot, one (Los Angeles) is closer to the middle but still in the left half, and one (New York) is far on the extreme right side. New York is much larger than any other American city and falls well outside the cloud of points formed by the rest of the data. It stands alone, far away from all the other data points. Outliers are data points in a statistical model that fall far away from most of the other data points. In Figure 2-8, New&nbsp;York is a clear outlier. Statistical results based on data that include outliers often are not robust. One outlier out of a hundred or a thousand points usually doesn't matter too much for a statistical model, but one outlier out of just ten points can have a big effect. Figure 2-9 plots exactly the same data as Figure 2-8, but without New&nbsp;York. The new regression line based on the data for the 9 remaining cities has a completely different slope from the original regression line. When New York was included, the slope was negative (−0.7), which indicated that larger cities were safer. With New&nbsp;York excluded, the slope is positive (0.8), indicating that larger cities are more dangerous. The relationship between city size and murder rates clearly is not robust. [[File:Figure 2-9.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-9. Murder rates versus city size for 9 American cities with populations over 1,000,000 other than New York (2008)]] It is tempting to argue that outliers are "bad" data points that should always be excluded, but once researchers start excluding points they don't like it can be hard to stop. For example, in Figure 2-9 after New&nbsp;York has been excluded there seems to be a new outlier, Philadelphia. All the other cities line up nicely along the trend line, with Philadelphia sitting all on its own in the upper left corner of the scatter plot. Excluding Philadelphia makes the slope of the regression line even stronger: it increases from 0.8 to 2.0. Then, with Philadelphia gone, Los Angeles appears to be an outlier. Excluding Los Angeles raises the slope even further, to 6.0. The danger here is obvious. If we conduct analyses only on the data points we like, we end up with a very skewed picture of the real relationships connecting variables out in the real world. Outliers should be investigated, but robustness is always an issue for interpretation, not something that can be proved by including or excluding specific cases. ==2.4. Least Squared Error== ;Optional/advanced In linear regression models, the regression line represents the expected value of the dependent variable for any given value of the independent variable. It makes sense that the most likely place to find the expected value of the dependent variable would be right in the middle of the scatter plot connecting it to the independent variable. For example, in Figure 2-5 the most likely death rate for a state with a birth rate of 15 wouldn't be 16 or 0, but somewhere in the middle, like 8. The death rate indicated by the regression line seems like a pretty average death rate for a state falling in the middle of the range in its birth rate. This seems reasonable so far as it goes. Obviously the regression line has to go somewhere in the middle, but how do we decide exactly where to draw it? One idea might be to draw the regression line so as to minimize the amount of error in the scatter plot. If a scatter plot is a combination of trend and error, it makes sense to want as much trend and as little error as possible. A line through the very middle of a scatter plot must have less error than other lines, right? Bizarrely, the answer is no. This strange fact is illustrated in Figure 2-10, Figure 2-11, and Figure 2-12. These three figures show different lines on a very simple scatter plot. In this scatter plot, there are just four data points: *X = 1, Y = 2 *X = 1, Y = 8 *X = 5, Y = 5 *X = 5, Y = 8 The actual regression line connecting the independent variable (X) to the dependent variable (Y) is graphed in Figure 2-10. This line passes right through the middle of all four points. Each point is 4 units away from the regression line, so the regression error for each point is 4. The total amount of error for the whole scatter plot is <math>4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 16</math>. No other line could be drawn on the scatter plot that would result in less error. So far so good. [[File:Figure 2-10.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-10. Depiction of error from a regression line (A)]] The problem is that the regression line (A) isn't the only line that minimizes the amount of error in the scatter plot. Figure 2-11 depicts another line (B). This line doesn't quite run through the middle of the scatter plot. Instead, it's drawn closer to the two low points and farther away from the two high points. It's clearly not as good a line as the regression line, but it turns out to have the same amount of error. The error associated with line B is <math>2 + 6 + 2 + 6 = 16</math>. It seems that both line A and line B minimize the amount of error in the scatter plot. [[File:Figure 2-11.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-11. Depiction of error from a sample line (B) a little below the true regression line]] That's not all. Figure 2-12 depicts yet another line (C). Line C is an even worse line than line B. It's all the way at the top of the scatter plot, very close to the two high points and very far away from the two low points. It's not at all in the middle of the cloud of points. But the total error is the same: <math>1 + 7 + 1 + 7 = 16</math>. In fact, any line that runs between the points—any line at all—will give the same error. Many different trends give the same error. This makes it impossible to choose any one line based just on its total error. Another method is necessary. [[File:Figure 2-12.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-12. Depiction of error from a sample line (C) far above the true regression line]] That method that is actually used to draw regression lines is to draw the line that has the least amount of squared error. Squared error is just that: the error squared, or multiplied by itself. So for example if the error is 4, the squared error is 16 (<math>4^2 = 4 x 4 = 16</math>). For line A in Figure 2-10, the total squared error is <math>4^2 + 4^2 + 4^2 + 4^2</math> or <math>16 + 16 +16 +16 = 64</math>. For line B in Figure 2-11, the total squared error is <math>2^2 + 6^2 + 2^2 + 6^2</math> or <math>4 + 36 + 4 +36 = 80</math>. For line C in Figure 2-12, the total squared error is <math>1^2 + 7^2 + 1^2 + 7^2</math> or <math>1 + 49 + 1 + 49 = 100</math>. The line with the least squared error is line A, the regression line that runs through the very middle of the scatter plot. All other lines have more error. It turns out that the line with the least squared error is always unique—there's only one line that minimizes the total amount of squared error—and always runs right through the center of the scatter plot. As an added bonus, computers can calculate regression lines using least squared error quickly and efficiently. The use of least squared error is so closely associated with linear regression models that they are often called "least squares regression models." All of the statistical models used in the rest of this book are based on the minimization of squared error. Least squared error is the mathematical principle that underlies almost all of social statistics. ==2.5: Case Study: Property Crime and Murder Rates== Murder is a rare and horrific crime. It is a tragedy any time a human life is ended prematurely, but that tragedy is even worse when a person's death is intentional, not accidental. Sadly, some of the students using this textbook will know someone who was murdered. Luckily, most of us do not. But almost all of us know someone who has been the victim of a property crime like burglary or theft. Many of us have even been property crime victims ourselves. Property crimes are very common not just in the United States but around the world. In fact, levels of property crime in the US are not particularly high compared to other rich countries. This is odd, because the murder rate in the US are very high. It seems like all kinds of crime should rise and fall together. Do they? One theory of crime might be that high rates of property crime lead to high rates of murder, as persons move from petty crime to serious crime throughout their criminal careers. Since international data on property crimes might not be equivalent from country to country, it makes sense to operationalize this theory using a hypothesis and data about US crime rates. A specific hypothesis linking property crime to murder would be the hypothesis that property crime rates are positively associated with murder rates for US cities with populations over 100,000&nbsp;persons. This operationalization excludes small cities because it is possible that smaller cities might have no recorded crimes in any given year. Data on crime rates of all kinds are available from the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). In Figure 2-13 these data are used to plot the relationship between property crime rates and murder rates for the 268&nbsp;American cities with populations of over 100,000&nbsp;persons. A linear regression model has been used to place a trend line on the scatter plot. The trend line represents the expected value of the murder rate for any given level of property crime. So for example in a city that has a property crime rate of 5,000 per 100,000 persons, the expected murder rate would be 10.2 murders per 100,000 persons. A few cities have murder rates that would be expected given their property crime rates, but there is an enormous amount of regression error. Murder rates are scattered widely and do not cluster closely around the regression line. [[File:Figure 2-13.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 2-13. Murder rates versus property crime rates for 268&nbsp;American cities with populations over 100,000 (2008)]] The slope of the regression line is positive, as expected. This tends to confirm the theory that high rates of property crime are associated with high rates of murder. Every increase of 1,000 in the property crime rate is associated, on average, with an increase of 2.7 in the murder rate. This is likely to be a robust result, since it is based on a large number of cases. On the other hand, there is a high level of error and the cases do not fall neatly in a symmetrical band around the regression line, so we might show some caution in interpreting our results. There is also one major outlier: New&nbsp;Orleans. The murder rate for New Orleans is far higher than that of any other US city, and New&nbsp;Orleans falls well outside the boundaries of the rest of the data. Excluding New Orleans, however, results in no change in the slope of the regression line, which remains 2.7 whether New&nbsp;Orleans is included or not. Overall, the theory that high rates of property crime are associated with high rates of murder seems to be broadly valid for US cities as a whole, but the murder rate in any particular US city doesn't seem to correspond closely to the property crime rate. If they want to bring down their murder rates, it wouldn't hurt for US cities to try bringing down their property crime rates, but it likely wouldn't solve the problem. Cities with property crime rates in the range of 5,000–6,000 can have murder rates ranging anywhere from near zero to 30 or more. Policies to reduce murder rates should probably be targeted specifically at reducing violence in society, not broadly at reducing crime in general. ==Chapter 2 Key Terms== *'''Expected values''' are ''the values that a dependent variable would be expected to have based solely on values of the independent variable''. *'''Linear regression models''' are ''statistical models in which expected values of the dependent variable are thought to rise or fall in a straight line according to values of the independent variable''. *'''Outliers''' are ''data points in a statistical model that are far away from most of the other data points''. *'''Regression error''' is ''the degree to which an expected value of a dependent variable in a linear regression model differs from its actual value''. *'''Robustness''' is ''the extent to which statistical models give similar results despite changes in operationalization''. *'''Slope''' is ''the change in the expected value of the dependent variable divided by the change in the value of the independent variable''. <noinclude> == Exercises == '''Question #1''' # What is wrong with the following statement: “Based on the regression of our sample population, we have found a positive correlation between level of education and income in Canada.a” # True/False: There is a large positive correlation within the regression, and the regression is statistically significant. # Why are the distances from the data points to the regression line squared and then minimized? '''Question #2''' using employment statistics based on industry cluster from the Canadian census(released 2023) at [https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810059701 Employment income statistics by industry sectors, highest level of education, immigrant status and period of immigration, work activity during the reference year, age and gender: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts] # Make a regression of the effects of the industry cluster number on Total - Number of employment income recipients # What is the correlation coefficient? What does it mean # What is the intercept value? What does it mean # Find what is wrong about the regression so that it isn’t fit for inference # What is the change in the Regression Slope when you remove the largest outlier # What is one way you could make the Regression Slope more readable to viewers when working with hard numbers '''Question #3''' Use data from 1970-2023/2024 from the following data sets: [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24) | Data] [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.PRSL.FE.ZS Persistence to last grade of primary, female (% of cohort) | Data] # Provide a regression for the effects of female youth literacy rate on persistence to the last grade of primary in South Asia # What happened when you tabulated missing data cells # Does correlation imply causation in this context, when the variables have a common theme? Explain your answer '''Question #4''' Using the following database [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/HD_HCIP_EDUC_MA Human capital index plus (HCI+): education pillar score, male (scale 0–188) | Data] # Make a regression of Kuwait's HDI score over the years # Analyze the regression line # Add in error bars and analyze them '''Question #5''' # How would you select independent variables from question #2? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? # How would you select independent variables from question #3? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? # How would you select independent variables from question #4? Which variables would you pick from the additional resources linked within the chapter? == Exercise Solutions == '''Solution #1''' # Sample correlation doesn’t perfectly correlate with population correlation. Just because something is true for the sample doesn’t mean it is true for the whole population # False, Statistical significance in statistics refers to the probability that the relationship being observed is not being observed by random chance. A high regression slope is referred to as a “high effect size.” # It indexes the weight of each data point to account for outliers, thereby providing a more accurate line of best fit '''Solution #2''' 1. (solution not provided due to copyright concerns) 2. Slope: ~1.16557E-05 3. Intercept: refers to an arbitrary point where the classification number is 0, since this event isn’t real without our setting the intercept value, which is inadmissible for regression analysis 4. The classification # isn’t an interval measurement, and all regression variables should be interval level variables by convention unless necessary. 5. When the largest outer is removed, the slope becomes ~1.56278E-05, indicating a sharp decrease in the positive relationship. This points to the possibility that outliers are distorting central tendency metrics. 6. index the large sums(e.x. Instead of counting y-axis in ones to you make them represent income recipients in the thousands) '''Solution #3''' 1. [[File:Regression_exercise_solution_3.png|thumb|this is a solution to an exercise in an open textbook]] Data tabulated by a Wikipedia user 2. By convention to data points are removed 3. Regressions one's own can only ever provide correlation, never causation, though they can aid in arguments for causation '''Solution #4''' 1. [[File:Regression_exercise_solution_4.png|thumb|Exercise 4.1 solution]] Data tabulated by a Wikipedia user 2. The regression line is relatively flat, while the points fluctuate greatly from the regression line. Thus, a linear regression line or a regression as the medium of data analysis may oversimplify the insights of the data itself. 3. There are very few data points, and their margins of error often overlap; thus, it is unlikely that the data points themselves are statistically significant due to the small sample size. '''Solution #5''' In statistics for the social sciences generally, a theory is chosen to be tested to provide causality after regression analysis, from which a hypothesis is derived. Independent variables should be such that they test the hypothesis accurately and reliably. Solutions may vary; please refer to the discussion tab for additional advice on your solutions. == Additional resources(reviewed) == === Data === [https://data.worldbank.org/ World Bank Data]<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> [https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start Statistics Canada]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2025-07-08 |title=Statistics Canada: Canada's national statistical agency |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/start |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=www.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> === Lectures === [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/ Lecture 6 - Topics in Mathematics with Application in Finance]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regression Analysis {{!}} Topics in Mathematics with Applications in Finance {{!}} Mathematics |url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-s096-topics-in-mathematics-with-applications-in-finance-fall-2013/resources/mit18_s096f13_lecnote6/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=MIT OpenCourseWare |language=en}}</ref> [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/ Lecture 13 - Statistics for Applications]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lecture 13: Regression {{!}} Statistics for Applications {{!}} Mathematics |url=https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-650-statistics-for-applications-fall-2016/resources/lecture-13-video/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=MIT OpenCourseWare |language=en}}</ref> === Mathematical background === [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk OLS Math Concepts Review]<ref>{{Citation |last=MIT OpenCourseWare |title=Least squares {{!}} MIT 18.02SC Multivariable Calculus, Fall 2010 |date=2011-01-03 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZYSTQs-Hk |access-date=2026-04-24}}</ref> [https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html OLS Proof]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Soch |first=Joram |date=2021-10-27 |title=Ordinary least squares for simple linear regression |url=https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-ols.html |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=The Book of Statistical Proofs |language=en}}</ref> {{chapter navigation|Chapter 1|Chapter 3}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Social Statistics'', Chapter 2: Linear Regression Models}} </noinclude> l2g96bbdx85tn62lj51ytwrh9q1ulg4 0 366210 4632110 4536479 2026-04-24T23:47:56Z ~2026-25233-19 3578951 definition error fixed 4632110 wikitext text/x-wiki =Using Regression to Make Predictions= Global warming is one of the greatest threats facing the world in the 21st century. Climate scientists are now absolutely certain that global warming is occurring and that it is related to human activity. The most obvious cause of global warming is fossil fuel consumption (though there are many other causes). Fossil fuels are minerals like coal, oil, and natural gas that were buried under the Earth's surface millions of years ago. Over the long history of the Earth, enormous amounts of carbon have been removed from the atmosphere by natural processes and deposited in the ground as minerals. Then, starting for real in the 1800s but gaining momentum in the 1900s through to today, we began digging and pumping these minerals out of the Earth to burn in our homes, power plants, and automobiles. Whenever we burn these carbon minerals, we release carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, which leads to global warming. Global warming may seem like a topic for physical scientists to study, but really it is a social science topic. Physical scientists have told us how to stop global warming: if we just stop burning fossil fuels, the Earth will stop warming and eventually return to normal. The problem is that people don't want to stop burning fossil fuels. Changing people's attitudes and behavior is a social science problem. Figure 3-1 is an extract of data from a World Bank database called the World Development Indicators (WDI). The cases in the WDI database are countries. The columns of the database include two metadata items (the World Bank country code and the country name). Three variables are also included: CO2 -- Metric tons of carbon dioxide per person emitted by the country GNP -- The country's gross national product per capita, a measure of average national income CARS -- The number of passenger cars per 1000 residents of the country Countries were excluded where data were unavailable. For example, the WDI database included no passenger car data for Canada, so Canada is not included in Figure 3-1 or in the analyses to follow. Lack of data is the reason that the database includes data for only 51 out of the 200 or so countries of the world. [[File:Figure 3-1a.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 3-1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions data for 51 countries from the World Bank, 2005]] Presumably, countries that have more cars burn more gasoline. If so, we might hypothesize that the number of cars in a country should be positively related to its carbon dioxide emissions. Figure 3-2 shows a scatter plot of carbon dioxide emissions (dependent variable) versus passenger cars (independent variable) for the 51 countries represented in Figure 3-1. A linear regression model has been used to place a trend line through the data. While there is a lot of regression error around the trend line, the slope of the line is definitely positive. For every additional 100 cars in a country, the expected value of carbon dioxide emissions goes up by 1.25 tons per person. In other words, the slope of the regression line is 1.25 / 100 = .0125. This tends to support the hypothesis that numbers of cars are positively related to carbon dioxide emissions. [[File:Figure 3-2a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions versus passenger cars for 51 countries, 2005]] Two outliers in Figure 3-2 are the United States and Australia. Both have much higher carbon emissions than would be expected based on their numbers of cars. For the United States, this disconnect has a simple explanation: many Americans don't drive cars. They drive trucks and SUVs. These vehicles aren't included in the World Bank's "passenger cars" figures, but they certainly burn gasoline and produce carbon dioxide -- lots of it. For Australia, the explanation is more complicated, but Australia's high levels of carbon dioxide emissions are partly due to a heavy reliance on coal for electricity generation. Other countries that deviate from their expected levels of carbon emissions (Singapore, Kazakhstan) have their own stories. Overall, though, when countries have more cars they're likely to emit more carbon dioxide. This result is robust: removing Australia, the United States, Singapore, or Kazakhstan has little effect on the slope of the regression line. One interesting feature of Figure 3-2 is the expected value of carbon dioxide emissions when there are no cars in a country. This can be determined by finding zero on the passenger cars axis and reading up the graph until you hit the regression line. According to the regression line, when the number of cars is zero the expected level of carbon emissions is around 3 tons per capita. This implies that even if we gave up driving entirely, we would still have a problem with global warming. The reason is that there are many other sources of carbon emissions besides cars. We burn coal in power plants to generate electricity. We burn natural gas to heat our homes. Even without cars we would still have ships, trains, and airplanes burning oil. Solving global warming is going to be very difficult. A first step in solving global warming might be to give up driving cars. Giving up cars is not going to be easy. Cars are everywhere, and most of us drive every day. Over the past fifty years countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia have rebuilt themselves around the automobile. It's hard to get anywhere today without a car. The results presented in Figure 3-2 suggest that we should at least start to solve global warming by driving less. Reducing cars would reduce emissions a lot, even if it wouldn't reduce them to zero. Predictions about what would happen if we made changes in our lives can help us decide what kinds of changes to make. The formulation of social policies to fight problems like global warming requires us to make predictions like these. Social scientists try to answer questions about how the world will change in the future depending on the policies we put in place today. Regression models help us answer social policy questions like this. Regression models can also be used to predict things like people's incomes and voting behavior. Simple scatter plots may be useful for helping us understand the overall shape of the relationship between two variables, but regression models go much further in enabling us to make concrete predictions. This chapter focuses on showing how linear regression models can be used to make predictions about the values of dependent variables. First, like any line a regression like has both a slope and an intercept (Section 3.1). Slopes were covered in Chapter 2, but intercepts also add important information about a line. Second, regression slopes and intercepts are both necessary to compute the expected values of a dependent variable (Section 3.2). Expected values can be used to make predictions about the dependent variable. Third, expected values can be used to predict values of the dependent variable even where data for those variables are missing for particular cases (Section 3.3). As might be expected, predictions made within the range of prior experience tend to be better than predictions about things that have never been observed before. An optional section (Section 3.4) shows how regression prediction can be used to compare different groups in society. Finally, this chapter ends with an applied case study of the relationship between the racial makeup of the population and presidential voting patterns in the 2008 election across the 50 states of the United States (Section 3.5). This case study illustrates how regression lines are drawn based on both their slopes and their intercepts, how the expected values of dependent variables are calculated, and how mean levels of variables can depend on the values of other variables. All of this chapter's key concepts are used in this case study. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to use the results of regression models to understand the determinants of real-world outcomes that are of interest to social scientists. '''3.1. Slopes and intercepts''' The most important feature of a regression line is usually its slope. In many situations, however, when we also want to know the value of a regression line when the independent variable equals zero. In scatter plots like Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3, the independent variable equals zero at the point where the regression line intercepts the dependent variable axis. Intercepts are the places where regression lines cross the dependent variable axis in a scatter plot. Intercepts can provide meaningful information for interpreting a relationship, as in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3, but they are also useful in their own right. If you know both the slope of a regression line and its intercept, you can draw the whole line and every point on it. The use of a slope and an intercept to draw a regression line is illustrated in Figure 3-3. Figure 3-3 shows the regression line connecting passenger cars to carbon emissions from Figure 3-2, but the actual data points have been hidden to show just the line. The slope of the line is .0125, meaning that every 100 extra cars corresponds to a 1.25 ton increase in per capita emissions. The intercept is around 3. To keep all the calculations simple, we'll assume it is exactly 3.00. Starting from this regression intercept of 3.00, an additional 100 cars is associated with an increase of 1.25 in carbon emissions. So the first 100 cars result in carbon emissions of 3.00 + 1.25 = 4.25 tons per capita. Adding 100 more cars on top of these results in carbon emissions of 4.25 + 1.25 = 5.50 tons per capita, and so on. Starting from the intercept of 0 cars and 3.00 tons of carbon, we can draw the whole regression line point by point by using the slope. [[File:Figure 3-3a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-3. Regression of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions on passenger cars (from Figure 3-2)]] It takes up much less space to give just the slope and intercept of a regression line than to graph the whole line on a scatter plot. The regression model graphed in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 is summarized in a table in Figure 3-4. In a typical regression table, independent variables are listed in the first column, with the regression coefficients listed in the following column. Regression coefficients are the slopes and intercepts that define regression lines. In Figure 3-4, there is only one regression model (Model 1) and it only has two coefficients (an intercept and a slope). The intercept (3.00) is listed next to an entry called "[Constant]." The intercept is denoted by "[Constant]" in brackets because, although it's included in the variable list, it's not actually a variable. The terms "constant" and "intercept" are used interchangeably by social scientists. [[File:Fugure 3-4a.png|thumb|right|Figure 3-4. Regression of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions on passenger cars (tabular form)]] The slope associated with the independent variable "Cars" (0.0125) is listed next to the entry for "Cars." If there were more independent variables, they would be listed in additional rows. Similarly, if there were more regression models, they would be listed in additional columns. Regression tables are especially convenient for reporting the results of several regression models at the same time. In Chapter 2, the percent of Australians who felt unsafe walking alone at night was regressed on state crime rates (Figure 2-2) and personal experiences of violence (Figure 2-4). Instead of using scatter plots, the results of these two regression analyses can be summarized compactly in a single table, as shown in Figure 3-5. All of the coefficients associated with both models are reported in this one table. [[File:Figure 3-5a.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 3-5. Regression models for the percent of Australians who feel unsafe walking alone at night]] The table in Figure 3-5 shows that in Figure 2-2 the intercept was 8.34 and the slope was 3.20, while in Figure 2-4 the intercept was 3.39 and the slope was 1.37. With just this information, it would be possible to draw the regression lines from the two figures. This information also contains most of the important facts about the two regression lines. For example, we know that even if crime rates were zero in a given state, we would still expect 8.34% of the people in that state to feel unsafe walking alone at night. Similarly, even if no one in a state ever experienced violence personally, we would still expect 3.39% of the people in that state to feel unsafe walking alone at night. Since both slopes are positive, we know that both actual crime and people's experiences of violence make them feel more unsafe when they go out alone at night. To see the regression error and outliers associated with these two regression models we would need scatter plots, but the table of coefficients gives us the basics of the models themselves. '''3.2. Calculating expected values''' Tables of regression coefficients that include slopes and intercepts can also be used to compute the expected values. This should not be surprising, since slopes and intercepts are used to plot regression lines and expected values are just the values on the regression line. Returning to the relationship between passenger cars and carbon dioxide emissions, the slope is 0.0125 and the intercept is 3.00 (Figure 3-4). The slope and intercept define the regression line: the line starts at 3.00 tons of carbon emissions when the number of cars equals 0, then goes up by 0.0125 tons for every 1 additional car. An increase of 0.0125 for every car is the same as 125 for every 100 cars (Figure 3-5). As shown in Figure 3-3, the expected value of carbon emissions for 0 cars is 3.00 tons. For 100 cars the expected value is 4.25 tons. For 200 cars it is 5.50 tons. And so on. Reading expected values off a chart like Figure 3-2 or Figure 3-3 is one way to find them, but a better way is to use the slope and intercept in an equation to compute them. For example, the equation to compute expected values of carbon emissions is depicted in Figure 3-6. This equation uses the slope and intercept for carbon emissions that were reported in Figure 3-4. These are the same slope and intercept that were also used in the scatter plots of carbon emissions versus passenger cars. [[File:Figure 3-6a.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 3-6. Equation to compute the expected values of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (from Figure 3-4)]] Using this equation, it is possible to calculate the expected value of carbon emissions for any level of passenger cars. For example, the level of passenger cars in the United States is 461 cars per 1000 people. Using the equation presented in Figure 3-6, the expected value of carbon dioxide emissions in the United states = 3.00 + 0.0125 x 461 or 8.7625 metric tons per capita. Rounding off to the nearest decimal place gives an expected value of carbon emissions in the United States of about 8.8 metric tons per capita. The actual value of carbon emissions in the United States, 19.5 metric tons, is obviously much higher than expected. As suggested above, this is because nearly half of all Americans drive SUVs and trucks, not cars. '''3.3. Predicted values''' Another use of regression coefficients is to predict levels of the dependent variable for cases that were not included in the regression analysis. Predicted values are expected values of a dependent variable that correspond to selected values of the independent variable. In other words, we can use the equation of a regression line to make predictions. For example, Canada was not included in the carbon dioxide analyses in this chapter because the WDI database (Figure 3-1) was missing passenger car data for Canada. Even though passenger car data for Canada are not available from the WDI, they are available from the Canadian government. According to official Canadian government statistics, there were 290 passenger cars per 1000 people in Canada in 2005. This figure is so low because like Americans almost half of all Canadians drive trucks and SUVs instead of cars. The equation of the regression line for carbon dioxide emissions says that expected carbon dioxide emissions = 3.00 + 0.0125 x passenger cars (Figure 3-6). Using the Canadian government data for passenger cars in Canada, 3.00 + 0.0125 x 290 = 6.625, which rounds off to about 6.6 tons. The actual value for carbon emissions for Canada was 16.6 tons. These figures are graphed in Figure 3-7. Like the United States, Canada has much higher carbon emissions than would be expected based on the regression model. [[File:Figure 3-7a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-7. Expected and predicted values of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (from Figure 3-2)]] Predicted values and expected values are very similar concepts. In fact, many people use the two terms to mean the same thing. The difference between them is really just a difference in intentions. The regression line plots the expected values of the dependent variable based on the actual observations of the independent variable. Predicted values are expected values that are used to make predictions about cases for which data do not exist. For example, in Chapter 1 when we were using state median income to study soft drink consumption across the United States we were missing soft drink data for Alaska and Hawaii. Both Alaska and Hawaii were missing data for the dependent variable. Data for the independent variable, state median income, are available for both states: $60,945 for Alaska and $65,146 for Hawaii. These income data can be combined with a regression model using data from the rest of the United States to predict soft drink consumption in Alaska and Hawaii. Figure 3-8 reports the results of a regression model with state median income as the independent variable and state per capita soft drink consumption as the dependent variable. The regression line in this model has an intercept of 93.9 and a slope of -0.60. This means that every $1000 of additional income is associated with a decline of 0.60 gallons in the amount of soft drinks consumed. This regression line is the line that appears on the scatter plot in Figure 1-2. The equation for this line is Soft drink consumption = 93.9 - 0.60 x State median income in thousands of dollars. [[File:Figure 3-8a.png|300px|thumb|right|Figure 3-8. Table of regression results for the regression of soft drink consumption on state median income (from Figure 1-2)]] This equation can be used to calculate predicted values for soft drink consumption in Alaska and Hawaii. Alaska's state median income is approximately $61,000 (rounding off to the nearest thousand to simplify the calculations). The level of soft drink consumption in Alaska predicted by the regression model is 93.9 - 0.60 x 61 = 57.3 gallons. Hawaii's state median income is approximately $65,000 (again rounding to the nearest thousand). Going through the same process for Hawaii gives a predicted value of 93.9 - 0.60 x 65 = 54.9 gallons. The predicted values of soft drink consumption are depicted on the scatter plot of state income and soft drink consumption for the other 48 states and the District of Columbia in Figure 3-9. Alaska and Hawaii may not have exactly the levels of soft drink consumption plotted in Figure 3-9, but these predicted values are the best guesses we can make based on the data we have. They are predictions of how many gallons of soft drinks Alaskans and Hawaiians would be found to drink, if we had the data. [[File:Figure 3-9a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-9. Predicted values of Alaska and Hawaii's soft drink consumption (from Figure 1-2; note that the regression intercept where income = $0 falls over the left edge of the plot and is not depicted)]] Predicted values can be computed in two different situations. They can be either be calculated for values that fall inside the range of the observed data or for values that fall outside the range of the observed data. Interpolation is the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values inside the range of the observed data. All of the predicted values calculated above -- carbon emissions in Canada, soft drinks in Alaska, and soft drinks in Hawaii -- are examples of interpolation. In all three cases, the values of the dependent variables were within the ranges of values that had already been observed for other cases in the analyses. Sometimes, however, we want to make predictions outside of the values that have already been observed. Extrapolation is the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values outside the range of the observed data. For example, predicting how much carbon emissions there would be in a world with no passenger cars requires extrapolation. There are no countries in the world today that don't have passenger cars. Even Niger in west Africa has 4 passenger cars per 1000 people. Social scientists are usually comfortable with interpolation but cautious about extrapolation. This is because the interpolation of predicted values is based on actual experiences that exist in the real world, but extrapolation is not. For example, we may not know Alaska and Hawaii's levels of soft drink consumption, but we do know the levels of other states with similar income levels. This information can be used to predict Alaska and Hawaii's levels with some confidence. On the other hand, we might hesitate to use the data graphed in Figure 3-9 to predict Puerto Rico's soft drink consumption. Puerto Rico's median income is only $18,610. This is far outside the range of the available data. Using the equation of the regression line from Figure 3-10 to predict Puerto Rico's soft drink consumption would give a predicted value of about 82.7 gallons per capita, but most social scientists would not feel confident making such a prediction. '''3.4. Comparing populations using predicted values (optional/advanced)''' In America, on average, women make less money than men and blacks make less money than whites. According to data on Americans aged 20-29 from the 2008 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), women earned $4966 less than men and blacks earned $6656 less than whites (on average). These figures are based on a random sample of 4964 full-time employed American twentysomethings in 2008. The data come from Wave 2 of the 2008 SIPP. Income here is defined as wage income (income earned through working a job, as opposed to making money through investments) and is calculated as twelve times the monthly income recorded in the SIPP. The gender gap in wage income is large, and the race gap is larger still. These gender and race gaps in wage income may be due to discrimination, or they may be due to other causes. For example, it is possible that the white men who were given the SIPP survey happened to be older than the people in the other groups. If they were older, they would be expected to have higher incomes. The white men may also be different in other ways. They might have more experience, or more education. It is possible that a portion of the gender and race gaps can be explained by the specific characteristics of the particular people in the sample. In order to compare incomes fairly, it's important to compare like with like. Later chapters of this book will discuss how to "control for" confounding influences like age, education, and experience, but predicted values can also do the job in some situations. For example, predicted values can be used to predict what the incomes in each group would be if all the people were the same age. People's incomes definitely rise with age, starting around age 20. Figure 3-10 reports the results of four regression models using age as the independent variable and wage income as the dependent variable: one for black females, one for black males, one for white females, and one for white males. Note that the intercepts are not very meaningful here. The intercept is the expected value of the dependent variable when the independent variable equals zero. In Figure 3-10, the intercept would represent people's expected wage incomes at age 0. Obviously, that's not a very meaningful concept. It's also an extreme extrapolation from the range of the observed data, which are based on people ages 10-29. In short, the intercepts in Figure 3-10 are just the places where the regression lines start from. They don't have any real meaning beyond that. [[File:Figure 3-10a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-10. Table of regression results for the regression of wage income on age for employed SIPP subjects aged 21-30, by race and gender, 2008]] The slopes of the regression models reported in Figure 3-10 contrast the effects of an extra year of age on peoples' wage incomes for different groups of people. For black women, every additional year age yields, on average, an extra $1421 of wage income. Black men don't get quite as much advantage from getting a year older, just $1281. The big difference comes with white women and men. For white women, each year of age yields on average an extra $2076 of wage income. The benefits of age for white men are even greater. For white men, every year of age yields on average an extra $2830 of wage income. The expected payoff of an extra year's age for a white man is nearly twice as high as the average payoff for a black woman. The coefficients of the for regression models reported in Figure 3-10 can be used to calculate predicted values for the wage incomes of black females, black males, white females, and white males at any given age. From Figure 3-10, the regression model for black women was Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x Age. For black women of various ages, this works out to: Age 25: Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x 25 =$27,758 Age 30: Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x 30 =$34,863 Age 40: Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x 40 =$49,073 These figures are reported in Figure 3-11 in the column for black females. Figures for black men, white women, and white men are calculated in the same way. The prediction of wage income at age 25 for each group is an interpolation, since the ages of the SIPP participants in the study were 20-29. As an interpolation, it should be a pretty accurate estimate of the incomes of 25-year-olds in each category would be expected to earn. The prediction of wage income at age 30 is on the very edge between an interpolation and an extrapolation, so it might be less reliable. The prediction of wage income at age 40 is an extrapolation far out into the future, so far that most social scientists would not trust it at all. The age 40 extrapolation is included here just to illustrate how extrapolation works. [[File:Figure 3-11a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-11. Table of predicted values of income by age based on SIPP data, by race and gender, 2008]] What do the models tell us about discrimination? In the SIPP data overall, the income gap between women and men in their twenties is $4966, while the income gap between blacks and whites is $6656. Comparing the predicted incomes of people at age 25, the predicted income for black women is $3082 less than that for black men, while the predicted income for white women is $3994 less than that for white men. This means that taking into account race and experience, 25-year-old women earn something like $3000-$4000 less than men, not close to $5000 as indicated by the raw data. Similarly, the predicted income at age 25 for black women is $4855 less than that for white women, while the predicted income for black men is $5757 less than that for white men. Again, the differences adjusted for age and sex are large, but not as large as raw race gap of $6656. At age 25, the gender and race gaps in wage income are large, but not as large as might have been thought based just on the raw data. 3.5. Case study: Predicting state election outcomes based on race On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama was elected the first black President of the United States. President Obama's father was Kenyan and Barack Obama himself grew up mainly in Hawaii, far from the historical center of American civil rights struggles. Nonetheless, like any black American Obama would have been affected by racial discrimination throughout his life. Both Obama and America overcame racial discrimination when Obama was elected President, but was his race a factor in his election? Regression models can help shed light on the role played by race in the 2008 election. Most of the time discrimination hurts a person, but sometimes it can also help a person. In the 2008 presidential election, black Americans voted overwhelmingly for Barack Obama. According to CNN news, exit polls on election night indicated that 96% of blacks voted for Obama. These votes certainly helped Obama win the election, but American elections aren't determined just by the number of people who vote for a candidate. They are determined by state electoral votes. In most states, whoever receives the most votes within the state gets all of that state's electoral votes. Thus, it is possible to win the most votes but still lose the election. This happened to Al Gore in 2000, when he won more people's votes than George Bush but fewer state electoral votes. In the 2008 election, Obama won both the most people's votes and the most state electoral votes, and so was elected President. Strangely, though, he lost the election in some of the states that have the highest black populations. For example, Mississippi has the highest percentage of blacks of any state in the United States (37.2% black), but Obama received only 43.0% of the vote in Mississippi and lost the state to his opponent, John McCain. The same thing happened in other heavily black states, like Alabama and Louisiana. The relationship between the percent of a state's population that is black and the percent of a state's voters who voted for Obama is plotted in Figure 3-12. It turns out that there was almost no relationship between a state's black population and its presidential vote in 2008. The slope of the regression line is actually slightly negative. This means that states with higher black populations tended to vote slightly less for Obama. The highest vote for Obama was in the state where he grew up, Hawaii (71.9%). The very lowest vote for Obama was in the historically Republican western states of Wyoming (32.5%). [[File:Figure 3-12a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-12. Vote for Barack Obama versus state percent black, 2008]] How is it possible that there was no relationship between the number of blacks in a state and the vote for Obama in that state, given that 96% of black Americans voted for Barack Obama? The answer is that in many states with large numbers of blacks, whites voted overwhelmingly for his opponent, John McCain. This trend was particularly pronounced in the South. The historical center of the struggle for civil rights for black Americans has always been the South, in particular the 11 states of the former Confederacy that seceded from the United States during the Civil War (1861-1865). The 11 Confederate states were strongly committed to continuing the institution of slavery, and after being readmitted to the Union they put in place policies and laws that discriminated heavily against their black citizens. Black Americans have suffered discrimination everywhere in the United States, but the levels of discrimination in the 11 former Confederate states have historically been much worse than elsewhere. Figure 3-13 plots exactly the same data as Figure 3-12, but divides the states into the 39 "free" states that were never part of the Confederacy versus the 11 former Confederate states that seceded from the United States during the Civil War. The free states are marked with diamonds and the former Confederate states are marked with X's. Separate regression lines have been plotted for the two groups of states. Among the 39 free states, states with higher black populations returned higher votes for Obama, as would be expected. Among the 11 former Confederate states, states with higher black populations actually returned lower votes for Obama. [[File:Figure 3-13a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-13. Vote for Barack Obama versus state percent black, separating free states and former Confederate states, 2008]] Figure 3-14 summarizes the regression coefficients for the lines plotted in Figure 3-12 and Figure 3-13. The line plotted in Figure 3-12 for all states is Model 1 in Figure 3-14. The free state line plotted in Figure 3-13 is Model 2 and the former Confederate state line plotted in Figure 3-13 is Model 3. The number of cases (N) for each model has been noted in the table. In Model 1, the intercept is 51.1 and the slope is -0.057. The intercept of 51.1 means that the predicted value of the Obama vote for a state with no black voters would be 51.1%. This is an extrapolation, since there are no states that actually have 0% black populations. In general, extrapolations are less reliable than interpolations, but in this case the extrapolation is very slight, since several states have black populations under 1%. [[File:Figure 3-14a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-14. Table of regression results for regression models predicting the Obama vote by state characteristics]] The slope in Model 1 is -0.057. This means that for every 1% rise in a state's black population, the Obama vote would be expected to fall by 0.057%. This is a very, very slight downward slope. The number of blacks in a state has essentially no effect on that state's total vote for Obama. Excluding the former Confederate states, the free states model (Model 2) has an intercept of 48.1. This means that Model 2 would predict a vote for Obama of 48.1% in a state that had no black voters. This is different from the prediction of Model 1, but not very different. Both predictions (51.1% from Model 1 and 48.1% from Model 2) are within the range of actual votes for Obama in states that have very small numbers of black voters, like Vermont and Wyoming. More interesting is the slope of Model 2. Focusing on just the 39 free states, the slope of the regression line is clearly positive. For the 39 free states, every 1% rise in a state's black population is associated with a 0.576% increase in the vote for Obama. This is a large effect. An increase of one point in the black population predicts an increase of half a point in the vote for Obama. Model 3 repeats the regression of the Obama vote on state percent black, but this time using only the 11 Southern states that were historically part of the Confederacy that seceded from the United States during the Civil War (1861-1865). Among the former Confederate states, the predicted value of the vote for Obama in a state with no black voters would be 47.3. This prediction is an extrapolation far outside the observed range of the numbers of black voters in these states, but it is still a credible figure. It is a little lower than the equivalent predictions from Model 1 and Model 2, but not much lower, and it is within the range of actually observed votes for Obama in the free states with small black populations. The more important coefficient in Model 3 is the slope. The slope is -0.114. This means that among the 11 former Confederate states, an increase of 1% in the percent of the population that is black is associated with a decline of 0.114% in the vote for Obama. Each one point increase in the black population predicts a decline of just over a tenth of a point in the vote for Obama. This is striking. Outside the South, the more blacks there were in a state, the more people voted for Obama. In the South, the more blacks there were in a state, the more people voted for McCain. High votes for John McCain are not evidence of racism. There is no reason to think that a 67.5% vote for McCain in Wyoming is evidence of racism in Wyoming. But in the states that have the worst history of racism -- and only in those states -- the vote for John McCain was strongest in the states that had the most black citizens. In other words, Southern whites were more likely to vote for McCain if they had black neighbors. If there were fewer blacks in a state, whites were more comfortable voting for Obama, but if there were more blacks in a state, whites tended to vote for McCain. This is very strong circumstantial evidence of a legacy of racism in those states. Further research would be necessary to more fully understand these voting patterns, but the regression models reported in Figure 3-14 do raise serious questions about race and racism in America today. ==Chapter 3 Key Terms== *'''Extrapolation''' is ''the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values inside the range of the observed data''. *'''Intercepts''' are ''the places where regression lines cross the dependent variable axis in a scatter plot''. *'''Interpolation''' is ''the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values inside the range of the observed data''. *'''Predicted values''' are ''expected values of a dependent variable that correspond to selected values of the independent variable''. *'''Regression coefficients''' are ''the slopes and intercepts that define regression lines''. <noinclude> {{chapter navigation|Chapter 2|Chapter 4}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Social Statistics'', Chapter 3: Using Regression to Make Predictions}} </noinclude> hgozoy25vgfiacxtoe64ay0w5yckear 4632148 4632110 2026-04-25T03:15:27Z Mohammad Saeed7258 3578938 added in exercises, solutions, additional resources and citations 4632148 wikitext text/x-wiki =Using Regression to Make Predictions= Global warming is one of the greatest threats facing the world in the 21st century. Climate scientists are now absolutely certain that global warming is occurring and that it is related to human activity. The most obvious cause of global warming is fossil fuel consumption (though there are many other causes). Fossil fuels are minerals like coal, oil, and natural gas that were buried under the Earth's surface millions of years ago. Over the long history of the Earth, enormous amounts of carbon have been removed from the atmosphere by natural processes and deposited in the ground as minerals. Then, starting for real in the 1800s but gaining momentum in the 1900s through to today, we began digging and pumping these minerals out of the Earth to burn in our homes, power plants, and automobiles. Whenever we burn these carbon minerals, we release carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, which leads to global warming. Global warming may seem like a topic for physical scientists to study, but really it is a social science topic. Physical scientists have told us how to stop global warming: if we just stop burning fossil fuels, the Earth will stop warming and eventually return to normal. The problem is that people don't want to stop burning fossil fuels. Changing people's attitudes and behavior is a social science problem. Figure 3-1 is an extract of data from a World Bank database called the World Development Indicators (WDI). The cases in the WDI database are countries. The columns of the database include two metadata items (the World Bank country code and the country name). Three variables are also included: CO2 -- Metric tons of carbon dioxide per person emitted by the country GNP -- The country's gross national product per capita, a measure of average national income CARS -- The number of passenger cars per 1000 residents of the country Countries were excluded where data were unavailable. For example, the WDI database included no passenger car data for Canada, so Canada is not included in Figure 3-1 or in the analyses to follow. Lack of data is the reason that the database includes data for only 51 out of the 200 or so countries of the world. [[File:Figure 3-1a.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 3-1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions data for 51 countries from the World Bank, 2005]] Presumably, countries that have more cars burn more gasoline. If so, we might hypothesize that the number of cars in a country should be positively related to its carbon dioxide emissions. Figure 3-2 shows a scatter plot of carbon dioxide emissions (dependent variable) versus passenger cars (independent variable) for the 51 countries represented in Figure 3-1. A linear regression model has been used to place a trend line through the data. While there is a lot of regression error around the trend line, the slope of the line is definitely positive. For every additional 100 cars in a country, the expected value of carbon dioxide emissions goes up by 1.25 tons per person. In other words, the slope of the regression line is 1.25 / 100 = .0125. This tends to support the hypothesis that numbers of cars are positively related to carbon dioxide emissions. [[File:Figure 3-2a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions versus passenger cars for 51 countries, 2005]] Two outliers in Figure 3-2 are the United States and Australia. Both have much higher carbon emissions than would be expected based on their numbers of cars. For the United States, this disconnect has a simple explanation: many Americans don't drive cars. They drive trucks and SUVs. These vehicles aren't included in the World Bank's "passenger cars" figures, but they certainly burn gasoline and produce carbon dioxide -- lots of it. For Australia, the explanation is more complicated, but Australia's high levels of carbon dioxide emissions are partly due to a heavy reliance on coal for electricity generation. Other countries that deviate from their expected levels of carbon emissions (Singapore, Kazakhstan) have their own stories. Overall, though, when countries have more cars they're likely to emit more carbon dioxide. This result is robust: removing Australia, the United States, Singapore, or Kazakhstan has little effect on the slope of the regression line. One interesting feature of Figure 3-2 is the expected value of carbon dioxide emissions when there are no cars in a country. This can be determined by finding zero on the passenger cars axis and reading up the graph until you hit the regression line. According to the regression line, when the number of cars is zero the expected level of carbon emissions is around 3 tons per capita. This implies that even if we gave up driving entirely, we would still have a problem with global warming. The reason is that there are many other sources of carbon emissions besides cars. We burn coal in power plants to generate electricity. We burn natural gas to heat our homes. Even without cars we would still have ships, trains, and airplanes burning oil. Solving global warming is going to be very difficult. A first step in solving global warming might be to give up driving cars. Giving up cars is not going to be easy. Cars are everywhere, and most of us drive every day. Over the past fifty years countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia have rebuilt themselves around the automobile. It's hard to get anywhere today without a car. The results presented in Figure 3-2 suggest that we should at least start to solve global warming by driving less. Reducing cars would reduce emissions a lot, even if it wouldn't reduce them to zero. Predictions about what would happen if we made changes in our lives can help us decide what kinds of changes to make. The formulation of social policies to fight problems like global warming requires us to make predictions like these. Social scientists try to answer questions about how the world will change in the future depending on the policies we put in place today. Regression models help us answer social policy questions like this. Regression models can also be used to predict things like people's incomes and voting behavior. Simple scatter plots may be useful for helping us understand the overall shape of the relationship between two variables, but regression models go much further in enabling us to make concrete predictions. This chapter focuses on showing how linear regression models can be used to make predictions about the values of dependent variables. First, like any line a regression like has both a slope and an intercept (Section 3.1). Slopes were covered in Chapter 2, but intercepts also add important information about a line. Second, regression slopes and intercepts are both necessary to compute the expected values of a dependent variable (Section 3.2). Expected values can be used to make predictions about the dependent variable. Third, expected values can be used to predict values of the dependent variable even where data for those variables are missing for particular cases (Section 3.3). As might be expected, predictions made within the range of prior experience tend to be better than predictions about things that have never been observed before. An optional section (Section 3.4) shows how regression prediction can be used to compare different groups in society. Finally, this chapter ends with an applied case study of the relationship between the racial makeup of the population and presidential voting patterns in the 2008 election across the 50 states of the United States (Section 3.5). This case study illustrates how regression lines are drawn based on both their slopes and their intercepts, how the expected values of dependent variables are calculated, and how mean levels of variables can depend on the values of other variables. All of this chapter's key concepts are used in this case study. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to use the results of regression models to understand the determinants of real-world outcomes that are of interest to social scientists. '''3.1. Slopes and intercepts''' The most important feature of a regression line is usually its slope. In many situations, however, when we also want to know the value of a regression line when the independent variable equals zero. In scatter plots like Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3, the independent variable equals zero at the point where the regression line intercepts the dependent variable axis. Intercepts are the places where regression lines cross the dependent variable axis in a scatter plot. Intercepts can provide meaningful information for interpreting a relationship, as in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3, but they are also useful in their own right. If you know both the slope of a regression line and its intercept, you can draw the whole line and every point on it. The use of a slope and an intercept to draw a regression line is illustrated in Figure 3-3. Figure 3-3 shows the regression line connecting passenger cars to carbon emissions from Figure 3-2, but the actual data points have been hidden to show just the line. The slope of the line is .0125, meaning that every 100 extra cars corresponds to a 1.25 ton increase in per capita emissions. The intercept is around 3. To keep all the calculations simple, we'll assume it is exactly 3.00. Starting from this regression intercept of 3.00, an additional 100 cars is associated with an increase of 1.25 in carbon emissions. So the first 100 cars result in carbon emissions of 3.00 + 1.25 = 4.25 tons per capita. Adding 100 more cars on top of these results in carbon emissions of 4.25 + 1.25 = 5.50 tons per capita, and so on. Starting from the intercept of 0 cars and 3.00 tons of carbon, we can draw the whole regression line point by point by using the slope. [[File:Figure 3-3a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-3. Regression of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions on passenger cars (from Figure 3-2)]] It takes up much less space to give just the slope and intercept of a regression line than to graph the whole line on a scatter plot. The regression model graphed in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 is summarized in a table in Figure 3-4. In a typical regression table, independent variables are listed in the first column, with the regression coefficients listed in the following column. Regression coefficients are the slopes and intercepts that define regression lines. In Figure 3-4, there is only one regression model (Model 1) and it only has two coefficients (an intercept and a slope). The intercept (3.00) is listed next to an entry called "[Constant]." The intercept is denoted by "[Constant]" in brackets because, although it's included in the variable list, it's not actually a variable. The terms "constant" and "intercept" are used interchangeably by social scientists. [[File:Fugure 3-4a.png|thumb|right|Figure 3-4. Regression of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions on passenger cars (tabular form)]] The slope associated with the independent variable "Cars" (0.0125) is listed next to the entry for "Cars." If there were more independent variables, they would be listed in additional rows. Similarly, if there were more regression models, they would be listed in additional columns. Regression tables are especially convenient for reporting the results of several regression models at the same time. In Chapter 2, the percent of Australians who felt unsafe walking alone at night was regressed on state crime rates (Figure 2-2) and personal experiences of violence (Figure 2-4). Instead of using scatter plots, the results of these two regression analyses can be summarized compactly in a single table, as shown in Figure 3-5. All of the coefficients associated with both models are reported in this one table. [[File:Figure 3-5a.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 3-5. Regression models for the percent of Australians who feel unsafe walking alone at night]] The table in Figure 3-5 shows that in Figure 2-2 the intercept was 8.34 and the slope was 3.20, while in Figure 2-4 the intercept was 3.39 and the slope was 1.37. With just this information, it would be possible to draw the regression lines from the two figures. This information also contains most of the important facts about the two regression lines. For example, we know that even if crime rates were zero in a given state, we would still expect 8.34% of the people in that state to feel unsafe walking alone at night. Similarly, even if no one in a state ever experienced violence personally, we would still expect 3.39% of the people in that state to feel unsafe walking alone at night. Since both slopes are positive, we know that both actual crime and people's experiences of violence make them feel more unsafe when they go out alone at night. To see the regression error and outliers associated with these two regression models we would need scatter plots, but the table of coefficients gives us the basics of the models themselves. '''3.2. Calculating expected values''' Tables of regression coefficients that include slopes and intercepts can also be used to compute the expected values. This should not be surprising, since slopes and intercepts are used to plot regression lines and expected values are just the values on the regression line. Returning to the relationship between passenger cars and carbon dioxide emissions, the slope is 0.0125 and the intercept is 3.00 (Figure 3-4). The slope and intercept define the regression line: the line starts at 3.00 tons of carbon emissions when the number of cars equals 0, then goes up by 0.0125 tons for every 1 additional car. An increase of 0.0125 for every car is the same as 125 for every 100 cars (Figure 3-5). As shown in Figure 3-3, the expected value of carbon emissions for 0 cars is 3.00 tons. For 100 cars the expected value is 4.25 tons. For 200 cars it is 5.50 tons. And so on. Reading expected values off a chart like Figure 3-2 or Figure 3-3 is one way to find them, but a better way is to use the slope and intercept in an equation to compute them. For example, the equation to compute expected values of carbon emissions is depicted in Figure 3-6. This equation uses the slope and intercept for carbon emissions that were reported in Figure 3-4. These are the same slope and intercept that were also used in the scatter plots of carbon emissions versus passenger cars. [[File:Figure 3-6a.png|500px|thumb|right|Figure 3-6. Equation to compute the expected values of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (from Figure 3-4)]] Using this equation, it is possible to calculate the expected value of carbon emissions for any level of passenger cars. For example, the level of passenger cars in the United States is 461 cars per 1000 people. Using the equation presented in Figure 3-6, the expected value of carbon dioxide emissions in the United states = 3.00 + 0.0125 x 461 or 8.7625 metric tons per capita. Rounding off to the nearest decimal place gives an expected value of carbon emissions in the United States of about 8.8 metric tons per capita. The actual value of carbon emissions in the United States, 19.5 metric tons, is obviously much higher than expected. As suggested above, this is because nearly half of all Americans drive SUVs and trucks, not cars. '''3.3. Predicted values''' Another use of regression coefficients is to predict levels of the dependent variable for cases that were not included in the regression analysis. Predicted values are expected values of a dependent variable that correspond to selected values of the independent variable. In other words, we can use the equation of a regression line to make predictions. For example, Canada was not included in the carbon dioxide analyses in this chapter because the WDI database (Figure 3-1) was missing passenger car data for Canada. Even though passenger car data for Canada are not available from the WDI, they are available from the Canadian government. According to official Canadian government statistics, there were 290 passenger cars per 1000 people in Canada in 2005. This figure is so low because like Americans almost half of all Canadians drive trucks and SUVs instead of cars. The equation of the regression line for carbon dioxide emissions says that expected carbon dioxide emissions = 3.00 + 0.0125 x passenger cars (Figure 3-6). Using the Canadian government data for passenger cars in Canada, 3.00 + 0.0125 x 290 = 6.625, which rounds off to about 6.6 tons. The actual value for carbon emissions for Canada was 16.6 tons. These figures are graphed in Figure 3-7. Like the United States, Canada has much higher carbon emissions than would be expected based on the regression model. [[File:Figure 3-7a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-7. Expected and predicted values of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (from Figure 3-2)]] Predicted values and expected values are very similar concepts. In fact, many people use the two terms to mean the same thing. The difference between them is really just a difference in intentions. The regression line plots the expected values of the dependent variable based on the actual observations of the independent variable. Predicted values are expected values that are used to make predictions about cases for which data do not exist. For example, in Chapter 1 when we were using state median income to study soft drink consumption across the United States we were missing soft drink data for Alaska and Hawaii. Both Alaska and Hawaii were missing data for the dependent variable. Data for the independent variable, state median income, are available for both states: $60,945 for Alaska and $65,146 for Hawaii. These income data can be combined with a regression model using data from the rest of the United States to predict soft drink consumption in Alaska and Hawaii. Figure 3-8 reports the results of a regression model with state median income as the independent variable and state per capita soft drink consumption as the dependent variable. The regression line in this model has an intercept of 93.9 and a slope of -0.60. This means that every $1000 of additional income is associated with a decline of 0.60 gallons in the amount of soft drinks consumed. This regression line is the line that appears on the scatter plot in Figure 1-2. The equation for this line is Soft drink consumption = 93.9 - 0.60 x State median income in thousands of dollars. [[File:Figure 3-8a.png|300px|thumb|right|Figure 3-8. Table of regression results for the regression of soft drink consumption on state median income (from Figure 1-2)]] This equation can be used to calculate predicted values for soft drink consumption in Alaska and Hawaii. Alaska's state median income is approximately $61,000 (rounding off to the nearest thousand to simplify the calculations). The level of soft drink consumption in Alaska predicted by the regression model is 93.9 - 0.60 x 61 = 57.3 gallons. Hawaii's state median income is approximately $65,000 (again rounding to the nearest thousand). Going through the same process for Hawaii gives a predicted value of 93.9 - 0.60 x 65 = 54.9 gallons. The predicted values of soft drink consumption are depicted on the scatter plot of state income and soft drink consumption for the other 48 states and the District of Columbia in Figure 3-9. Alaska and Hawaii may not have exactly the levels of soft drink consumption plotted in Figure 3-9, but these predicted values are the best guesses we can make based on the data we have. They are predictions of how many gallons of soft drinks Alaskans and Hawaiians would be found to drink, if we had the data. [[File:Figure 3-9a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-9. Predicted values of Alaska and Hawaii's soft drink consumption (from Figure 1-2; note that the regression intercept where income = $0 falls over the left edge of the plot and is not depicted)]] Predicted values can be computed in two different situations. They can be either be calculated for values that fall inside the range of the observed data or for values that fall outside the range of the observed data. Interpolation is the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values inside the range of the observed data. All of the predicted values calculated above -- carbon emissions in Canada, soft drinks in Alaska, and soft drinks in Hawaii -- are examples of interpolation. In all three cases, the values of the dependent variables were within the ranges of values that had already been observed for other cases in the analyses. Sometimes, however, we want to make predictions outside of the values that have already been observed. Extrapolation is the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values outside the range of the observed data. For example, predicting how much carbon emissions there would be in a world with no passenger cars requires extrapolation. There are no countries in the world today that don't have passenger cars. Even Niger in west Africa has 4 passenger cars per 1000 people. Social scientists are usually comfortable with interpolation but cautious about extrapolation. This is because the interpolation of predicted values is based on actual experiences that exist in the real world, but extrapolation is not. For example, we may not know Alaska and Hawaii's levels of soft drink consumption, but we do know the levels of other states with similar income levels. This information can be used to predict Alaska and Hawaii's levels with some confidence. On the other hand, we might hesitate to use the data graphed in Figure 3-9 to predict Puerto Rico's soft drink consumption. Puerto Rico's median income is only $18,610. This is far outside the range of the available data. Using the equation of the regression line from Figure 3-10 to predict Puerto Rico's soft drink consumption would give a predicted value of about 82.7 gallons per capita, but most social scientists would not feel confident making such a prediction. '''3.4. Comparing populations using predicted values (optional/advanced)''' In America, on average, women make less money than men and blacks make less money than whites. According to data on Americans aged 20-29 from the 2008 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), women earned $4966 less than men and blacks earned $6656 less than whites (on average). These figures are based on a random sample of 4964 full-time employed American twentysomethings in 2008. The data come from Wave 2 of the 2008 SIPP. Income here is defined as wage income (income earned through working a job, as opposed to making money through investments) and is calculated as twelve times the monthly income recorded in the SIPP. The gender gap in wage income is large, and the race gap is larger still. These gender and race gaps in wage income may be due to discrimination, or they may be due to other causes. For example, it is possible that the white men who were given the SIPP survey happened to be older than the people in the other groups. If they were older, they would be expected to have higher incomes. The white men may also be different in other ways. They might have more experience, or more education. It is possible that a portion of the gender and race gaps can be explained by the specific characteristics of the particular people in the sample. In order to compare incomes fairly, it's important to compare like with like. Later chapters of this book will discuss how to "control for" confounding influences like age, education, and experience, but predicted values can also do the job in some situations. For example, predicted values can be used to predict what the incomes in each group would be if all the people were the same age. People's incomes definitely rise with age, starting around age 20. Figure 3-10 reports the results of four regression models using age as the independent variable and wage income as the dependent variable: one for black females, one for black males, one for white females, and one for white males. Note that the intercepts are not very meaningful here. The intercept is the expected value of the dependent variable when the independent variable equals zero. In Figure 3-10, the intercept would represent people's expected wage incomes at age 0. Obviously, that's not a very meaningful concept. It's also an extreme extrapolation from the range of the observed data, which are based on people ages 10-29. In short, the intercepts in Figure 3-10 are just the places where the regression lines start from. They don't have any real meaning beyond that. [[File:Figure 3-10a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-10. Table of regression results for the regression of wage income on age for employed SIPP subjects aged 21-30, by race and gender, 2008]] The slopes of the regression models reported in Figure 3-10 contrast the effects of an extra year of age on peoples' wage incomes for different groups of people. For black women, every additional year age yields, on average, an extra $1421 of wage income. Black men don't get quite as much advantage from getting a year older, just $1281. The big difference comes with white women and men. For white women, each year of age yields on average an extra $2076 of wage income. The benefits of age for white men are even greater. For white men, every year of age yields on average an extra $2830 of wage income. The expected payoff of an extra year's age for a white man is nearly twice as high as the average payoff for a black woman. The coefficients of the for regression models reported in Figure 3-10 can be used to calculate predicted values for the wage incomes of black females, black males, white females, and white males at any given age. From Figure 3-10, the regression model for black women was Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x Age. For black women of various ages, this works out to: Age 25: Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x 25 =$27,758 Age 30: Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x 30 =$34,863 Age 40: Wage income = -7767 + 1421 x 40 =$49,073 These figures are reported in Figure 3-11 in the column for black females. Figures for black men, white women, and white men are calculated in the same way. The prediction of wage income at age 25 for each group is an interpolation, since the ages of the SIPP participants in the study were 20-29. As an interpolation, it should be a pretty accurate estimate of the incomes of 25-year-olds in each category would be expected to earn. The prediction of wage income at age 30 is on the very edge between an interpolation and an extrapolation, so it might be less reliable. The prediction of wage income at age 40 is an extrapolation far out into the future, so far that most social scientists would not trust it at all. The age 40 extrapolation is included here just to illustrate how extrapolation works. [[File:Figure 3-11a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-11. Table of predicted values of income by age based on SIPP data, by race and gender, 2008]] What do the models tell us about discrimination? In the SIPP data overall, the income gap between women and men in their twenties is $4966, while the income gap between blacks and whites is $6656. Comparing the predicted incomes of people at age 25, the predicted income for black women is $3082 less than that for black men, while the predicted income for white women is $3994 less than that for white men. This means that taking into account race and experience, 25-year-old women earn something like $3000-$4000 less than men, not close to $5000 as indicated by the raw data. Similarly, the predicted income at age 25 for black women is $4855 less than that for white women, while the predicted income for black men is $5757 less than that for white men. Again, the differences adjusted for age and sex are large, but not as large as raw race gap of $6656. At age 25, the gender and race gaps in wage income are large, but not as large as might have been thought based just on the raw data. 3.5. Case study: Predicting state election outcomes based on race On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama was elected the first black President of the United States. President Obama's father was Kenyan and Barack Obama himself grew up mainly in Hawaii, far from the historical center of American civil rights struggles. Nonetheless, like any black American Obama would have been affected by racial discrimination throughout his life. Both Obama and America overcame racial discrimination when Obama was elected President, but was his race a factor in his election? Regression models can help shed light on the role played by race in the 2008 election. Most of the time discrimination hurts a person, but sometimes it can also help a person. In the 2008 presidential election, black Americans voted overwhelmingly for Barack Obama. According to CNN news, exit polls on election night indicated that 96% of blacks voted for Obama. These votes certainly helped Obama win the election, but American elections aren't determined just by the number of people who vote for a candidate. They are determined by state electoral votes. In most states, whoever receives the most votes within the state gets all of that state's electoral votes. Thus, it is possible to win the most votes but still lose the election. This happened to Al Gore in 2000, when he won more people's votes than George Bush but fewer state electoral votes. In the 2008 election, Obama won both the most people's votes and the most state electoral votes, and so was elected President. Strangely, though, he lost the election in some of the states that have the highest black populations. For example, Mississippi has the highest percentage of blacks of any state in the United States (37.2% black), but Obama received only 43.0% of the vote in Mississippi and lost the state to his opponent, John McCain. The same thing happened in other heavily black states, like Alabama and Louisiana. The relationship between the percent of a state's population that is black and the percent of a state's voters who voted for Obama is plotted in Figure 3-12. It turns out that there was almost no relationship between a state's black population and its presidential vote in 2008. The slope of the regression line is actually slightly negative. This means that states with higher black populations tended to vote slightly less for Obama. The highest vote for Obama was in the state where he grew up, Hawaii (71.9%). The very lowest vote for Obama was in the historically Republican western states of Wyoming (32.5%). [[File:Figure 3-12a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-12. Vote for Barack Obama versus state percent black, 2008]] How is it possible that there was no relationship between the number of blacks in a state and the vote for Obama in that state, given that 96% of black Americans voted for Barack Obama? The answer is that in many states with large numbers of blacks, whites voted overwhelmingly for his opponent, John McCain. This trend was particularly pronounced in the South. The historical center of the struggle for civil rights for black Americans has always been the South, in particular the 11 states of the former Confederacy that seceded from the United States during the Civil War (1861-1865). The 11 Confederate states were strongly committed to continuing the institution of slavery, and after being readmitted to the Union they put in place policies and laws that discriminated heavily against their black citizens. Black Americans have suffered discrimination everywhere in the United States, but the levels of discrimination in the 11 former Confederate states have historically been much worse than elsewhere. Figure 3-13 plots exactly the same data as Figure 3-12, but divides the states into the 39 "free" states that were never part of the Confederacy versus the 11 former Confederate states that seceded from the United States during the Civil War. The free states are marked with diamonds and the former Confederate states are marked with X's. Separate regression lines have been plotted for the two groups of states. Among the 39 free states, states with higher black populations returned higher votes for Obama, as would be expected. Among the 11 former Confederate states, states with higher black populations actually returned lower votes for Obama. [[File:Figure 3-13a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-13. Vote for Barack Obama versus state percent black, separating free states and former Confederate states, 2008]] Figure 3-14 summarizes the regression coefficients for the lines plotted in Figure 3-12 and Figure 3-13. The line plotted in Figure 3-12 for all states is Model 1 in Figure 3-14. The free state line plotted in Figure 3-13 is Model 2 and the former Confederate state line plotted in Figure 3-13 is Model 3. The number of cases (N) for each model has been noted in the table. In Model 1, the intercept is 51.1 and the slope is -0.057. The intercept of 51.1 means that the predicted value of the Obama vote for a state with no black voters would be 51.1%. This is an extrapolation, since there are no states that actually have 0% black populations. In general, extrapolations are less reliable than interpolations, but in this case the extrapolation is very slight, since several states have black populations under 1%. [[File:Figure 3-14a.png|700px|thumb|right|Figure 3-14. Table of regression results for regression models predicting the Obama vote by state characteristics]] The slope in Model 1 is -0.057. This means that for every 1% rise in a state's black population, the Obama vote would be expected to fall by 0.057%. This is a very, very slight downward slope. The number of blacks in a state has essentially no effect on that state's total vote for Obama. Excluding the former Confederate states, the free states model (Model 2) has an intercept of 48.1. This means that Model 2 would predict a vote for Obama of 48.1% in a state that had no black voters. This is different from the prediction of Model 1, but not very different. Both predictions (51.1% from Model 1 and 48.1% from Model 2) are within the range of actual votes for Obama in states that have very small numbers of black voters, like Vermont and Wyoming. More interesting is the slope of Model 2. Focusing on just the 39 free states, the slope of the regression line is clearly positive. For the 39 free states, every 1% rise in a state's black population is associated with a 0.576% increase in the vote for Obama. This is a large effect. An increase of one point in the black population predicts an increase of half a point in the vote for Obama. Model 3 repeats the regression of the Obama vote on state percent black, but this time using only the 11 Southern states that were historically part of the Confederacy that seceded from the United States during the Civil War (1861-1865). Among the former Confederate states, the predicted value of the vote for Obama in a state with no black voters would be 47.3. This prediction is an extrapolation far outside the observed range of the numbers of black voters in these states, but it is still a credible figure. It is a little lower than the equivalent predictions from Model 1 and Model 2, but not much lower, and it is within the range of actually observed votes for Obama in the free states with small black populations. The more important coefficient in Model 3 is the slope. The slope is -0.114. This means that among the 11 former Confederate states, an increase of 1% in the percent of the population that is black is associated with a decline of 0.114% in the vote for Obama. Each one point increase in the black population predicts a decline of just over a tenth of a point in the vote for Obama. This is striking. Outside the South, the more blacks there were in a state, the more people voted for Obama. In the South, the more blacks there were in a state, the more people voted for McCain. High votes for John McCain are not evidence of racism. There is no reason to think that a 67.5% vote for McCain in Wyoming is evidence of racism in Wyoming. But in the states that have the worst history of racism -- and only in those states -- the vote for John McCain was strongest in the states that had the most black citizens. In other words, Southern whites were more likely to vote for McCain if they had black neighbors. If there were fewer blacks in a state, whites were more comfortable voting for Obama, but if there were more blacks in a state, whites tended to vote for McCain. This is very strong circumstantial evidence of a legacy of racism in those states. Further research would be necessary to more fully understand these voting patterns, but the regression models reported in Figure 3-14 do raise serious questions about race and racism in America today. ==Chapter 3 Key Terms== *'''Extrapolation''' is ''the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values inside the range of the observed data''. *'''Intercepts''' are ''the places where regression lines cross the dependent variable axis in a scatter plot''. *'''Interpolation''' is ''the process of using a regression model to compute predicted values inside the range of the observed data''. *'''Predicted values''' are ''expected values of a dependent variable that correspond to selected values of the independent variable''. *'''Regression coefficients''' are ''the slopes and intercepts that define regression lines''. <noinclude> == Exercises == '''Question #1''' you are analyzing the effects that education has on social mobility. The independent random variables are the set of Education metrics and social mobility is the dependent variable measured at the change  in household income per household on average compared to their parent average household income. When compiling the independent variables to look at education across different periods of time you find discrepancies in your regression since your methods don’t take into account the change of educational mediums over time. For example physical non fiction book sales could be an education indicator however as online books become more popular people buy less physical books but are surprisingly not lower in social mobility or other education metrics. Should you normalize your data to make your results more robust? '''Question #2''' let say you have a regression with some outliers like the example of carbon emissions and car usage in different countries and you want to prove that the outliers occur from a weak independent variable measure. Can you use a multivariate regression to solve this issue? '''Question #3''' referring to another previous example from the textbook lets say you're attempting to predict who will win the next election and you take candidate popularity over a reasonable time horizon according to their political term to measure changes in their popularity over time. How could this past data help you potentially predict future events? '''Question #4''' derive a  mathematical definition of regression slopes '''Question #5''' is the regression intercept a useful inference metric. Explain why or why not '''Question #6''' why are multivariate regressions better for confirming a hypothesis than univariate regressions '''Question #7''' how do you find an expected level for a case within a regression and why might it be useful for prediction purposes. == Exercise Solutions == '''Solution #1''' False, normalization isn't only a robustness tool for regression. Commonly if your independent variables in a multivariate regression don’t accurately reflect the measurement set of the independent variable itself, the random variable parameters should be changed(e.g. Adding physical and digital books as one variable instead of just physical books). Normalization is generally reserved for cases where more ethically rigorous methods are available. '''Solution #2''' True, such a hypothesis can be tested with multivariate regression by adding in an additional vehicle variable to observe true transport data relative to carbon emissions. However, in the context of that specific example, expanding the definition used to measure the number of vehicles by adding in new vehicle types into the same variable could also work to test if the hypothesis was true. '''Solution #3''' the first is the gap between regression lines measuring average candidate popularity over time. If one regression is outperforming all other regression lines in the model then it has the highest effect size within the regression which in this context means that a single candidate is gaining all the traction and causing the most change in candidate popularity. Secondly, in regression predictions in which the regression displays a predicted regression curve based on the changes in the regression line observed during the current model training period to predict future behavior. It is necessary to note that neither of these methods and at large most prediction methods will always contain a margin of error and could vary in how incorrect the predictions could be based on central tendency and statistical significance metrics. '''Solution #4''' Let X =independent variable Let Y=Dependent variable Let M=slope coefficient Let B=Y-axis intercept Let β-regession slope Let ε=sampling error Y=βX+ε, univariate regression formula Y=MX+B, Slope intercept form Since dY/dX=M and dY/dX=β => M=β We can observe that β and M provide the same function transformation, thus the definition of the slope of any line on a cardinal plane proves the definition of a regression line as well. Therefore, β is such that for a one unit in X in units relative to the set X there is a change of β in the dependent variable scaled to Y type units. '''Solution #5''' varies based on type of question, since the regression intercept represents point where the independent variable is 0 it may imply a probability event which cannot occur and thus is and is inadmissible however if X=0 is within the Domain of X it could have some explanatory value in identifying if all major metrics that effect Y have been controlled for or what the average would look like at X=0. '''Solution #6''' proving a hypothesis requires proving that there is a relationship between the independent random variables and the dependent random variable. If a null hypothesis is proven such that there is no correlation and/or there are other factors which may behave as confounding variables that prove the effect from another random variable disprove the hypothesis by contradiction. Thus if you can check for the null hypothesis and other confounding variables which is possible with multivariate regression then you can provide a more statistically rigorous case for causality. '''Solution #7''' you can find the expected dependent value of a case within the random variable X(independent variable) if the mapping of the X(independent variable) case to Y(dependent variable) doesn’t exist within the regression sample by estimating the value using the regression line, given the regression line by definition is an estimation line of best fit to all elements in X(independent variable) to Y(dependent variable). == Additional resources(reviewed) == === Videos === [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7MAVWhOUTGU 2.2.13 An Introduction to Linear Regression - Video 7: Making Predictions]<ref>{{Citation |last=MIT OpenCourseWare |title=2.2.13 An Introduction to Linear Regression - Video 7: Making Predictions |date=2018-12-13 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7MAVWhOUTGU |access-date=2026-04-25}}</ref> === Concept refresher and proofs === [https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Statistics/Statistics%3A_Open_for_Everyone_(Peter)/13%3A_Simple_Linear_Regression/13.05%3A_Hypotheses 13.5: Hypotheses - Statistics LibreTexts]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-30 |title=13.5: Hypotheses |url=https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Statistics/Statistics%3A_Open_for_Everyone_(Peter)/13%3A_Simple_Linear_Regression/13.05%3A_Hypotheses |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Statistics LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> [https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-tslo.html Statistical test for slope parameter in simple linear regression model | The Book of Statistical Proofs]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Soch |first=Joram |date=2024-05-17 |title=Statistical test for slope parameter in simple linear regression model |url=https://statproofbook.github.io/P/slr-tslo.html |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=The Book of Statistical Proofs |language=en}}</ref> === Advanced resources === [https://mixtape.scunning.com/02-probability_and_regression 2  Probability and Regression Review – <nowiki><span style='font-weight: 700'>Causal Inference</span></nowiki><nowiki><br/></nowiki> <nowiki><i style='color: #00b7ff'>The Mixtape</i></nowiki>]<ref>{{Cite web |title=2 Probability and Regression Review – <span style='font-weight: 700'>Causal Inference</span><br/> <i style='color: #00b7ff'>The Mixtape</i> |url=https://mixtape.scunning.com/02-probability_and_regression |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=mixtape.scunning.com |language=en}}</ref> === Advanced problems === [https://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/geomajors/regression/practice.html Linear Regression: Practice Problems]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Practice Problems |url=https://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/geomajors/regression/practice.html |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Linear Regression |language=en}}</ref> === Statistical programming === [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_3IKHG-rfA&pp=ygUPciBzdHVkaW8gY291cnNl Harvard CS50’s Intro to R Programming – Full University Course]<ref>{{Citation |last=freeCodeCamp.org |title=Harvard CS50’s Intro to R Programming – Full University Course |date=2025-12-01 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_3IKHG-rfA |access-date=2026-04-25}}</ref>{{chapter navigation|Chapter 2|Chapter 4}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Social Statistics'', Chapter 3: Using Regression to Make Predictions}} </noinclude> joi7hpo6jn35hn9jl7uy8wkdydgen6e 0 379541 4632083 4631734 2026-04-24T14:27:16Z LaraMahajan 3578851 Added a sociotechnical section, added analysis about common themes across incidents 4632083 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== A cyber-attack can be defined as an attack on computer systems/architecture, or information systems with malicious intent. The attack could be an individual or group acting against other individuals, business or civilian groups with the intention of acquiring unsecured data from the victim. Specifically, cyber-attacks on cyber-physical systems are becoming increasing as physical systems become more interconnected. These attacks also disrupt vital services, compromise safety of users, and risk severe economic damage, especially when targeting systems that are essential to daily functions. A cyber-physical system (CPS) is a system in which there is some connection between a physical entity and its related cyber component. The connection is typically sustained between system components by feeding data through sensors or actuators. The main distinction between a CPS and a typical computer is that a CPS has physical inputs and outputs.<ref>Thompson, K. (2014, June 20). Cyber-Physical Systems. https://www.nist.gov/el/cyber-physical-systems</ref><ref>Lee, J., Bagheri, B., & Kao, H.-A. (2015). A Cyber-Physical Systems architecture for Industry 4.0-based manufacturing systems. Manufacturing Letters, 3, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2014.12.001</ref> Examples of cyber-physical systems include industrial control systems, smart power grids, autonomous vehicles, smart home technologies, and medical devices. Because these systems often operate in real time and control critical infrastructure, they require high levels of reliability and security. Any breaches in these systems could lead to long-term consequences, such as service outages, safety hazards, and loss of trust from frequent users. The large scale interconnection of CPS devices through networks and cloud based platforms is commonly referred to as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT allow devices to communicate, share data, and operate more efficiently, but they also introduce new security challenges. Many CPS and IoT devices are built with limited computational resources, including restricted processing power, memory, and energy capacity, which makes it difficult to implement strong security mechanisms such as advanced encryption, real time monitoring, and intrusion detection. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yaacoub |first=Jean-Paul A. |last2=Salman |first2=Ola |last3=Noura |first3=Hassan N. |last4=Kaaniche |first4=Nesrine |last5=Chehab |first5=Ali |last6=Malli |first6=Mohamad |date=2020-09 |title=Cyber-physical systems security: Limitations, issues and future trends |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7340599/ |journal=Microprocessors and Microsystems |volume=77 |pages=103201 |doi=10.1016/j.micpro.2020.103201 |issn=0141-9331 |pmc=7340599 |pmid=32834204}}</ref> These limitations can weaken overall system security and increase vulnerability to cyber-attacks, particularly in large scale, distributed environments. As a result, securing cyber physical systems have become a critical area of research and policy, emphasizing the need for strong authentication, and resilience against both cyber and physical threats. Future work to mitigate risk of attacks must prioritize continuous monitoring and secure architecture to remain proactive. == Types of Cyber-Physical Systems == ===Smart Car=== A smart car is equipped with visual and weather sensors that feed information to the driver and to the auto response functions of the car itself, such as automated driving, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. New CPS components in cars are commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) and are integrated from third parties. Many car producers fail to realize that new security issues arise from integrating these heterogeneous components in the vehicle. Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS), for instance, have unencrypted communication with the vehicle. Attackers could exploit this communication, and retrieve unique vehicle IDs.<ref>Humayed, A., & Luo, B. (2015). Cyber-physical Security for Smart Cars: Taxonomy of Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Attacks. In Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE Sixth International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems (pp. 252–253). New York, NY, USA: ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2735960.2735992</ref> ===Smart Home=== A smart home could have weather sensors to auto regulate various temperature, lighting, and appliance components in the home. All of these features could be easily programmable from a universal device. Some devices are already commercially available, such as Nest, Google Home, and Amazon Echo. If hackers took control of a home's smart thermostat, like Nest, they could have complete information on the family's schedule, specifically when people are in and out of the home. <ref>5 Security Concerns to Consider When Creating Your Smart Home. (n.d.). http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5-security-concerns-consider-creating-smart-home/</ref><ref name=":0">Network Security. (2014). Black Hat USA 2014 - Embedded: Smart Nest Thermostat A Smart Spy in Your Home. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFQ9AYMee_Q</ref> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFQ9AYMee_Q (Video: Nest Thermostat Hacking)] Although security measures like two-factor authentication can help prevent cyber attacks, they make the user experience more tedious which makes companies more reluctant to make these protections mandatory. For platforms like Google Next and other smart home ecosystems, this creates a tradeoff between usability and security, where simplifying access may unintentionally weaken system protection.<ref>{{Cite web |last=visceral_dev_admin |date=2022-08-25 |title=Smart Homes and Policy: Cybersecurity Risks and Tradeoffs |url=https://bipartisanpolicy.org/article/smart-homes-policy-cybersecurity-risks/ |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=Bipartisan Policy Center |language=en-US}}</ref> The Internet of Things Cybersecurity Improvement Act of 2020 introduced baseline security requirements for devices used by federal agencies, aiming to improve standards among manufactures that contract with the government. While this law does not directly regulate consumer smart home devices, it encourages broader industry adoption of strong cybersecurity practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rep. Kelly |first=Robin L. [D-IL-2 |date=2020-12-04 |title=H.R.1668 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): IoT Cybersecurity Improvement Act of 2020 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1668 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> ===Smart Grid=== Smart meters could be placed on homes to communicate with the utility providers on a daily basis for close monitoring of electricity use. This could help utility providers better predict peak electricity demand, thus decreasing wasted electricity. Looking to future, if more homes are equipped with electric storage capabilities such as solar panels and/or electric vehicle batteries, it becomes easier to scale up renewable energy integration. The grid is currently highly centralized due to reliance on fossil fuel plants, and needs diversified storage opportunities for renewable energy.<ref>Department of Energy. (n.d.-b). What is the Smart Grid? https://www.smartgrid.gov/the_smart_grid/smart_grid.html</ref> ===Drones=== Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) or drones are a widely used technology. The U.S. Custom and Border Protection uses MQ-9 Reaper, a type of UAV, for surveillance missions across the border.<ref>DHS Is Using Surveillance Drones To Spy On Americans. (2014, October 12). http://www.thesleuthjournal.com/dhs-using-surveillance-drones-spy-americans/</ref> Law enforcement agencies began to operate commercial drones to replace their manned helicopter units.<ref>Gettinger, D. (2013, November 30). Lawkeepers: Police Drones. http://dronecenter.bard.edu/lawkeepers-police-drones/</ref> Fire fighters use commercial drones to gather structural information of hazardous buildings before they perform search and rescue missions.<ref>Schroth, F. (2016, August 4). Drones & Fire - Officials Speak to the Value of UAS in Firefighting. http://dronelife.com/2016/08/04/drones-fire-officials-speak-value-uas-firefighting/</ref> Companies like Amazon are developing autonomous package delivery systems using drones. Hobbyists fly drones for entertainment. Commercial drones have vulnerabilities that can be exploited. Many drone manufacturing companies such as DJI and 3D Robotics use different flight control platforms like Pixhawk, however they operate under same communication protocol, MAVLink. MAVLink was developed as an open source program for hobbyists. Since security features add cost, MAVLink does not have security features to protect drones from cyber physical attacks.<ref>Making a Mavlink WiFi bridge using the Raspberry Pi — Dev documentation. (n.d.). http://ardupilot.org/dev/docs/making-a-mavlink-wifi-bridge-using-the-raspberry-pi.html</ref> MAVLink pairs the drone and the ground control station with NetID. A properly programmed attacking device can parse the radio transmission to obtain and update this paired NetID. Then, the attacking device can send commands to power off or take control of the drone. The code to parse the radio transmission is easy to look up, so anyone could conduct a cyber physical attack on commercial drones running with MAVLink.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sycgvpIxvPU (Video: Anti drone device)]<ref>shellntel. (2015). anti-drone device demo. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sycgvpIxvPU</ref> === Transportation Systems === A transportation system is a facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods.<ref>transportation system - Dictionary Definition. (n.d.). https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/transportation%20system</ref> Transport networks have become increasingly digital, which makes them highly susceptible to cyber attacks. Electronic data can now track the location, status, and condition of vehicles and infrastructure. Electronics are used to monitor weather-related risks, such as hurricanes or landslides, that will cause damage or delays to transportation systems. Any organization will be exposed to cyber attacks if they use computer networks or internet for sales, administrative functions, automated control systems, or storage of confidential information <ref>Marsh. (2015). Cyber Risk in the Transportation Industry. http://www.oliverwyman.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/UK-en/Cyber%20Risk%20in%20the%20Transportation%20Industry-03-2015.pdf</ref> . Specifically, the major transportation systems at risk are: 1. Railroads/trains 2. Airplanes and airports 3. Connected cars (cars with internet access) === Medical Devices === A medical device is any instrument, machine, or piece of equipment used to diagnose, treat, or monitor patients in a clinical setting. As healthcare facilities have become increasingly reliant on network connectivity, medical devices have evolved from standalone tools into integrated components of hospital IT ecosystems. Electronic data can now track device status, patient vitals, and equipment performance in real time. While this has improved patient outcomes and support doctors make treatment decisions, this also leads to organizations being susceptible to cyber threats if they connect medical devices to internal networks. The rapid growth of AI and blockchain technologies has further accelerated the digitization of healthcare, shifting the industry from conventional hub based systems toward more interconnected, personalized healthcare management systems <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Susan |last2=Surineni |first2=Kamalakar |last3=Prabhakaran |first3=Nishant |date=2025-09-01 |title=Cyber-Attacks on Hospital Systems: A Narrative Review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950386825000103 |journal=The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Open Science, Education, and Practice |volume=7 |pages=30–39 |doi=10.1016/j.osep.2025.03.002 |issn=2950-3868}}</ref>. === '''Precision Agriculture''' === Precision agriculture, also known as smart farming, is an innovative strategy that utilizes technologies such as GPS, IoT sensors, drones, and others to manage larger expanses of farm land, and optimize resources like fertilizers and pesticides. Smart farming has proven to increase efficiency, profitability, and promote sustainable crop production.<ref>Brinkle, C. (2026, February 26). ''Precision agriculture: Definition, Key Technologies, and benefits''. Precision Agriculture: Definition, Key Technologies, and Benefits. <nowiki>https://www.thomasnet.com/insights/precision-agriculture/</nowiki></ref> As resources become more scarce with a growing demand, associated costs of farming have risen, making precision agriculture all the more vital. The system works by using automated machinery known as variable rate technology (VRT) that adjusts the rate of resource input on the go. In addition to VRTs, site-specific crop management (SSCM) assists by tailoring soil and crop input to field locations based on need. These machineries are supported by GPS and drone sensing technology that map field variability and provide aerial imagery, respectively.<ref>Wigmore, I. (2022, October 18). ''What is Precision Agriculture/precision farming?''. WhatIs. <nowiki>https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/precision-agriculture-precision-farming#:~:text=Precision%20agriculture%20(PA)%20is%20a,navigates%20crops%20without%20a%20driver</nowiki>.</ref> ==Agendas of Cyber Attacks== [[File:01 2016 Cyberattacks.png|thumb| January 2016 Cyber Attacks Statistics]] === Criminal === This is the most common agenda, comprising of 60.6% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats>{{Passeri, P. (2016, February 16). January 2016 Cyber Attacks Statistics. http://www.hackmageddon.com/2016/02/16/january-2016-cyber-attacks-statistics/}}</ref> In many of these cases, the attacker targets the digital assets of a company or transportation network. This includes personal info such social security numbers of customers and employees, credit card numbers, and intellectual property of the company. * A Dutch-based trafficking group hid cocaine and heroin in cargoes shipping containers of timber and bananas from South America by hacking into computer networks of companies operating in the port of Antwerp. This allowed the hackers to access secure data about the location and security details of containers, meaning the traffickers could steal the smuggled cargo before the legitimate owner arrived.<ref>Herberger, C. (2016, April 21). Cybersecurity in the Real World: 4 Examples of the Rise of Public Transportation Systems Threats. https://blog.radware.com/security/2016/04/cybersecurity-4-public-transportation-threats/</ref> * In 2018, a major data breach against Marriott International occurred. Attackers were able to gain illegal access to the Starwood guest reservation database, exposing personal guest details of roughly 500 million guests; including passport numbers and contact information.<ref>Burgess, M. (2025, October 31). ''Marriott Data Breach: What happened, impact, and lessons''. Huntress. <nowiki>https://www.huntress.com/threat-library/data-breach/marriott-data-breach</nowiki></ref> This attack was a turning point in terms of data protection, leading companies to take extreme measures to mitigate future risk. Criminal cyber attacks may also be motivated by malice. In this case, the attacker could be a disgruntled employee or customer that wants to get back at the system. They could also be motivated by desire to prove their ability to perform a cyber attack. These cyber attacks could be the result of untargeted malicious code and random selection. * In Lodz, Poland, a 14-year-old modified a TV remote control so that it could be used to change track points. The teenager hacked into the train system for the information needed to build the device, essentially making it his own personal train set. As a result, four vehicles were derailed injuring twelve people. He had no desire to hurt anyone, but was hacking into this system as a prank.<ref>Smith, S. (2008, February 12). Teen Hacker in Poland Plays Trains and Derails City Tram System. http://inhomelandsecurity.com/teen_hacker_in_poland_plays_tr/</ref> === Hacktivism === Hacktivism is defined by the hacking, or breaking into a computer system, for a politically or socially motivated purpose.<ref>What is hacktivism? - Definition from WhatIs.com. (n.d.). Retrieved December 11, 2016, from http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/hacktivism</ref> It is the second most common agenda, comprising of 27.7% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> * A group protesting the Communications Decency Act in 1996 hacked into the Department of Justice website and changed the title to the “Department of Injustice.”<ref>Adams, B. (1997, July 24). Web site a victim of `ecoterrorism’? http://www.deseretnews.com/article/573959/Web-site-a-victim-of-ecoterrorism.html?pg=all</ref> * Over the past several years, Pro-Russia hacktivists have conducted cyberattacks against U.S. critical infrastructure. The Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022 increased the number of pro-Russia groups with some appearing to have associations with the Russian state. They used low sophisticated methods such as scanning for exposed systems and exploiting weak remote access. Their activities have affected sectors like energy, water, and agriculture, sometimes causing operational disruption. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-18 |title=Pro-Russia Hacktivists Conduct Opportunistic Attacks Against US and Global Critical Infrastructure {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/cybersecurity-advisories/aa25-343a |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.cisa.gov |language=en}}</ref> === Cyber Espionage === Cyber espionage is the use of computer networks to gain illicit access to confidential information, typically that held by a government or other organization.<ref>Eugenie, de S. (2015). National Security and Counterintelligence in the Era of Cyber Espionage. IGI Global.</ref> This is more sophisticated than most other cyber attacks and attackers are looking for trade secrets and intellectual property of other countries or governments. This comprised of 7.4% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> * High end UAVs have exploitable vulnerabilities. In 2011, Iran hijacked the RQ-170 Sentinel UAV, operated by the CIA. The Iranians first jammed the radio communication channel controlling the Sentinel from the ground control center. This forces Sentinel to rely on GPS to determine its latitude, longitude, altitude, and velocity. Iran then sent false GPS coordinates, guiding Sentinel to land on their territory, while Sentinel thought it was landing on its home base.<ref>Mick, J. (2011, December 15). Iran: Yes, We Hacked the U.S.’s Drone, and Here’s How We Did It. http://www.dailytech.com/Iran+Yes+We+Hacked+the+USs+Drone+and+Heres+How+We+Did+It/article23533.htm</ref> === Cyber Warfare === Cyber warfare is a politically motivated attack on an enemy's computer or information systems.<ref>Cyber Warfare. (n.d.). http://www.rand.org/topics/cyber-warfare.html</ref> These attacks aim to disrupt critical infrastructure and cause property damage and loss of life. These would be considered terrorist attacks from organizations such as ISIS. This comprised of 4.3% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> Commercial drones are easy to exploit without leaving any logs or traces to track attackers. Terrorists can use these drones as a weapon. * ISIS recently started to use drones as a weapon by delivering bomb or chemical weapons. * Cartels and drug dealers uses commercial drones to smuggle narcotics, and inmates also uses drones to smuggle contrabands such as cell phones, cigarettes, and drugs to their cells. In early 2016, Maryland inmate was able to arrange to deliver these contrabands to right in front of his cell window.<ref>Kelly, H. (2016, June 24). How to catch drones smuggling drugs into prison. http://money.cnn.com/2016/06/24/technology/dedrone-drone-prisons/index.html</ref> === Data Harvesting === Profiling or harvesting data is the process of examining, analyzing, and summarizing datasets to understand underlying correlations or consistencies. The process begins with collection and ends with documentation, often in the form of reports. While not all data harvesting is malicious, it can be done illegally and is frequently the driver behind cyber attacks. Attackers use data harvesting as a technique to gather information such as user credentials (known as credential theft), and later use these credentials to illegally access systems, share them on the dark web, or advance their future attacks<ref>Lenaerts-Bergmans, B. (2023, July 18). ''What is credential harvesting?''. CrowdStrike. <nowiki>https://www.crowdstrike.com/en-us/cybersecurity-101/cyberattacks/credential-harvesting/#:~:text=Credential%20Harvesting%20Definition,for%20years%20at%20a%20time</nowiki>.</ref>. Other forms of illegal data harvesting include: * Phishing: act of sending emails or other messages, acting as a reputable company, in order to harvest data * Social Engineering: exploiting human error by manipulating their psychology to reveal confidential information With that, data harvesting is a driving agenda behind cyber attacks, which often allows attackers to advance their attacks and access cyber-physical systems. == Sociotechnical Factors == Across these incidents, vulnerabilities emerge not from technical flaws alone, but from the interaction between technology, human behavior, and organizational practices. Shared passwords, insufficient staff training, poor monitoring, and internet-exposed systems with weak security configurations are recurring factors that create openings for attackers. This happens regardless of the specific target or method used. These human and procedural failures often prove just as consequential as any software vulnerability. At the organizational level, constraints such as limited funding, legacy infrastructure, and competing priorities directly shape security outcomes. Many water and industrial facilities rely on outdated systems never designed for modern network connectivity, and decisions around cost, efficiency, and maintenance have downstream consequences for how secure these systems ultimately are. The broader geopolitical context also plays a significant role. Some attacks are isolated and locally motivated, while others are linked to state-aligned actors, reflecting a growing trend of cyber operations being embedded within international political conflicts. Critical infrastructure systems are increasingly becoming deliberate targets in geopolitical disputes, making international cooperation on cybersecurity standards more important than ever. Finally, these cases collectively emphasize the societal dimension of cyber-physical systems. Because these systems support essential public services such as water supply and energy, even minor disruptions carry the potential to breakdown public trust and generate widespread concern. This reinforces why securing them demands urgent and sustained attention. == Conclusion == As seen with hacks on drones and transportation systems, CPS security breaches could result in loss of secret information, physical property, and human lives. According to Tony Tyler, CEO of the International Air Transport Association (CTA), drones are one of the biggest threat to the passenger airlines by interfering the route of the commercial airplanes.<ref>Crowe, S. (n.d.). Drones a “Real Threat” to Passenger Planes: IATA - Robotics Trends. http://www.roboticstrends.com/article/drones_a_real_threat_to_passenger_planes_iata/</ref> To minimize the risk, FAA started to enforce drone regulations and prohibited flying drones near airports. Army officers have developed a cyber rifle using raspberry pi to power off commercial drones. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), established in 1967, is a government agency that investigates accidents in the aviation, highway, marine, pipeline, and railroad modes.<ref>National Transportation Safety Board. (n.d.). History of The National Transportation Safety Board. http://www.ntsb.gov/about/history/pages/default.aspx</ref> The NTSB must implement policies to meet the requirements placed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).<ref>U.S. Department of Transportation. (2006, October 13) Audit of NTSB’s Information Security Program. https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/NTSB_FISMA_FINAL.pdf</ref> The NIST develops actionable recommendations for strengthening cybersecurity in the public and private sectors to better secure the growing digital economy.<ref>Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity. (2016, December 1). Report on Securing and Growing the Digital Economy. https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/12/02/cybersecurity-commission-report-final-post.pdf</ref> There are many initiatives to prevent CPS breaches. The Department of Energy has a Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems (CEDS) program designed to improve the United States' energy infrastructure. A main goal of the program is to better assess risk on a large scale, and identify vulnerabilities in our current system.<ref>Department of Energy. (n.d.-a). Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems | Department of Energy. http://energy.gov/oe/services/technology-development/cybersecurity-for-energy-delivery-systems</ref> Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid (TCIPG) is an example of a program funded by the Department of Energy. TCIPG has developed commercial software packages that can be integrated by utility providers. Examples include sensors like Amilyzer that identify system threats in real time, and middleware frameworks like GridStat that decrease data delivery latencies in the power grid.<ref>Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid. (2014). http://tcipg.org/about-us</ref> The National Science Foundation has founded a Team for Research in Ubiquitous Secure Technology (TRUST) that is currently looking into financial, healthcare, and physical infrastructure solutions.<ref>The Team for Research in Ubiquitous Secure Technology (TRUST). (n.d.). https://www.truststc.org/research/index.html</ref> Carnegie Mellon's CyLab is also committed to building more of these public-private partnerships in developing new technology for secure computing.<ref>Technology Transfer. (n.d.). https://www.cylab.cmu.edu/partners/tech_transfer.html</ref> The internet of things is now a reality. The connection of various cyber-physical systems is intended to improve our way of life, but is also being exploited with criminal intent. Security issues are now more complex and larger scale than ever before. Research into cyber-physical security will help us better understand the cyber interface between physical systems, and the growth in consumer adoption of new technology. == References == {{BookCat}} <references /> r5w4khi1s262h6yxutsqzuds46cmb8o 4632084 4632083 2026-04-24T14:31:53Z LaraMahajan 3578851 Added discussion on the iranian affiliated plc attacks that happened in early April 4632084 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== A cyber-attack can be defined as an attack on computer systems/architecture, or information systems with malicious intent. The attack could be an individual or group acting against other individuals, business or civilian groups with the intention of acquiring unsecured data from the victim. Specifically, cyber-attacks on cyber-physical systems are becoming increasing as physical systems become more interconnected. These attacks also disrupt vital services, compromise safety of users, and risk severe economic damage, especially when targeting systems that are essential to daily functions. A cyber-physical system (CPS) is a system in which there is some connection between a physical entity and its related cyber component. The connection is typically sustained between system components by feeding data through sensors or actuators. The main distinction between a CPS and a typical computer is that a CPS has physical inputs and outputs.<ref>Thompson, K. (2014, June 20). Cyber-Physical Systems. https://www.nist.gov/el/cyber-physical-systems</ref><ref>Lee, J., Bagheri, B., & Kao, H.-A. (2015). A Cyber-Physical Systems architecture for Industry 4.0-based manufacturing systems. Manufacturing Letters, 3, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2014.12.001</ref> Examples of cyber-physical systems include industrial control systems, smart power grids, autonomous vehicles, smart home technologies, and medical devices. Because these systems often operate in real time and control critical infrastructure, they require high levels of reliability and security. Any breaches in these systems could lead to long-term consequences, such as service outages, safety hazards, and loss of trust from frequent users. The large scale interconnection of CPS devices through networks and cloud based platforms is commonly referred to as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT allow devices to communicate, share data, and operate more efficiently, but they also introduce new security challenges. Many CPS and IoT devices are built with limited computational resources, including restricted processing power, memory, and energy capacity, which makes it difficult to implement strong security mechanisms such as advanced encryption, real time monitoring, and intrusion detection. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yaacoub |first=Jean-Paul A. |last2=Salman |first2=Ola |last3=Noura |first3=Hassan N. |last4=Kaaniche |first4=Nesrine |last5=Chehab |first5=Ali |last6=Malli |first6=Mohamad |date=2020-09 |title=Cyber-physical systems security: Limitations, issues and future trends |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7340599/ |journal=Microprocessors and Microsystems |volume=77 |pages=103201 |doi=10.1016/j.micpro.2020.103201 |issn=0141-9331 |pmc=7340599 |pmid=32834204}}</ref> These limitations can weaken overall system security and increase vulnerability to cyber-attacks, particularly in large scale, distributed environments. As a result, securing cyber physical systems have become a critical area of research and policy, emphasizing the need for strong authentication, and resilience against both cyber and physical threats. Future work to mitigate risk of attacks must prioritize continuous monitoring and secure architecture to remain proactive. == Types of Cyber-Physical Systems == ===Smart Car=== A smart car is equipped with visual and weather sensors that feed information to the driver and to the auto response functions of the car itself, such as automated driving, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. New CPS components in cars are commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) and are integrated from third parties. Many car producers fail to realize that new security issues arise from integrating these heterogeneous components in the vehicle. Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS), for instance, have unencrypted communication with the vehicle. Attackers could exploit this communication, and retrieve unique vehicle IDs.<ref>Humayed, A., & Luo, B. (2015). Cyber-physical Security for Smart Cars: Taxonomy of Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Attacks. In Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE Sixth International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems (pp. 252–253). New York, NY, USA: ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2735960.2735992</ref> ===Smart Home=== A smart home could have weather sensors to auto regulate various temperature, lighting, and appliance components in the home. All of these features could be easily programmable from a universal device. Some devices are already commercially available, such as Nest, Google Home, and Amazon Echo. If hackers took control of a home's smart thermostat, like Nest, they could have complete information on the family's schedule, specifically when people are in and out of the home. <ref>5 Security Concerns to Consider When Creating Your Smart Home. (n.d.). http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5-security-concerns-consider-creating-smart-home/</ref><ref name=":0">Network Security. (2014). Black Hat USA 2014 - Embedded: Smart Nest Thermostat A Smart Spy in Your Home. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFQ9AYMee_Q</ref> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFQ9AYMee_Q (Video: Nest Thermostat Hacking)] Although security measures like two-factor authentication can help prevent cyber attacks, they make the user experience more tedious which makes companies more reluctant to make these protections mandatory. For platforms like Google Next and other smart home ecosystems, this creates a tradeoff between usability and security, where simplifying access may unintentionally weaken system protection.<ref>{{Cite web |last=visceral_dev_admin |date=2022-08-25 |title=Smart Homes and Policy: Cybersecurity Risks and Tradeoffs |url=https://bipartisanpolicy.org/article/smart-homes-policy-cybersecurity-risks/ |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=Bipartisan Policy Center |language=en-US}}</ref> The Internet of Things Cybersecurity Improvement Act of 2020 introduced baseline security requirements for devices used by federal agencies, aiming to improve standards among manufactures that contract with the government. While this law does not directly regulate consumer smart home devices, it encourages broader industry adoption of strong cybersecurity practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rep. Kelly |first=Robin L. [D-IL-2 |date=2020-12-04 |title=H.R.1668 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): IoT Cybersecurity Improvement Act of 2020 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1668 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> ===Smart Grid=== Smart meters could be placed on homes to communicate with the utility providers on a daily basis for close monitoring of electricity use. This could help utility providers better predict peak electricity demand, thus decreasing wasted electricity. Looking to future, if more homes are equipped with electric storage capabilities such as solar panels and/or electric vehicle batteries, it becomes easier to scale up renewable energy integration. The grid is currently highly centralized due to reliance on fossil fuel plants, and needs diversified storage opportunities for renewable energy.<ref>Department of Energy. (n.d.-b). What is the Smart Grid? https://www.smartgrid.gov/the_smart_grid/smart_grid.html</ref> ===Drones=== Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) or drones are a widely used technology. The U.S. Custom and Border Protection uses MQ-9 Reaper, a type of UAV, for surveillance missions across the border.<ref>DHS Is Using Surveillance Drones To Spy On Americans. (2014, October 12). http://www.thesleuthjournal.com/dhs-using-surveillance-drones-spy-americans/</ref> Law enforcement agencies began to operate commercial drones to replace their manned helicopter units.<ref>Gettinger, D. (2013, November 30). Lawkeepers: Police Drones. http://dronecenter.bard.edu/lawkeepers-police-drones/</ref> Fire fighters use commercial drones to gather structural information of hazardous buildings before they perform search and rescue missions.<ref>Schroth, F. (2016, August 4). Drones & Fire - Officials Speak to the Value of UAS in Firefighting. http://dronelife.com/2016/08/04/drones-fire-officials-speak-value-uas-firefighting/</ref> Companies like Amazon are developing autonomous package delivery systems using drones. Hobbyists fly drones for entertainment. Commercial drones have vulnerabilities that can be exploited. Many drone manufacturing companies such as DJI and 3D Robotics use different flight control platforms like Pixhawk, however they operate under same communication protocol, MAVLink. MAVLink was developed as an open source program for hobbyists. Since security features add cost, MAVLink does not have security features to protect drones from cyber physical attacks.<ref>Making a Mavlink WiFi bridge using the Raspberry Pi — Dev documentation. (n.d.). http://ardupilot.org/dev/docs/making-a-mavlink-wifi-bridge-using-the-raspberry-pi.html</ref> MAVLink pairs the drone and the ground control station with NetID. A properly programmed attacking device can parse the radio transmission to obtain and update this paired NetID. Then, the attacking device can send commands to power off or take control of the drone. The code to parse the radio transmission is easy to look up, so anyone could conduct a cyber physical attack on commercial drones running with MAVLink.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sycgvpIxvPU (Video: Anti drone device)]<ref>shellntel. (2015). anti-drone device demo. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sycgvpIxvPU</ref> === Transportation Systems === A transportation system is a facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods.<ref>transportation system - Dictionary Definition. (n.d.). https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/transportation%20system</ref> Transport networks have become increasingly digital, which makes them highly susceptible to cyber attacks. Electronic data can now track the location, status, and condition of vehicles and infrastructure. Electronics are used to monitor weather-related risks, such as hurricanes or landslides, that will cause damage or delays to transportation systems. Any organization will be exposed to cyber attacks if they use computer networks or internet for sales, administrative functions, automated control systems, or storage of confidential information <ref>Marsh. (2015). Cyber Risk in the Transportation Industry. http://www.oliverwyman.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/UK-en/Cyber%20Risk%20in%20the%20Transportation%20Industry-03-2015.pdf</ref> . Specifically, the major transportation systems at risk are: 1. Railroads/trains 2. Airplanes and airports 3. Connected cars (cars with internet access) === Medical Devices === A medical device is any instrument, machine, or piece of equipment used to diagnose, treat, or monitor patients in a clinical setting. As healthcare facilities have become increasingly reliant on network connectivity, medical devices have evolved from standalone tools into integrated components of hospital IT ecosystems. Electronic data can now track device status, patient vitals, and equipment performance in real time. While this has improved patient outcomes and support doctors make treatment decisions, this also leads to organizations being susceptible to cyber threats if they connect medical devices to internal networks. The rapid growth of AI and blockchain technologies has further accelerated the digitization of healthcare, shifting the industry from conventional hub based systems toward more interconnected, personalized healthcare management systems <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Susan |last2=Surineni |first2=Kamalakar |last3=Prabhakaran |first3=Nishant |date=2025-09-01 |title=Cyber-Attacks on Hospital Systems: A Narrative Review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950386825000103 |journal=The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Open Science, Education, and Practice |volume=7 |pages=30–39 |doi=10.1016/j.osep.2025.03.002 |issn=2950-3868}}</ref>. === '''Precision Agriculture''' === Precision agriculture, also known as smart farming, is an innovative strategy that utilizes technologies such as GPS, IoT sensors, drones, and others to manage larger expanses of farm land, and optimize resources like fertilizers and pesticides. Smart farming has proven to increase efficiency, profitability, and promote sustainable crop production.<ref>Brinkle, C. (2026, February 26). ''Precision agriculture: Definition, Key Technologies, and benefits''. Precision Agriculture: Definition, Key Technologies, and Benefits. <nowiki>https://www.thomasnet.com/insights/precision-agriculture/</nowiki></ref> As resources become more scarce with a growing demand, associated costs of farming have risen, making precision agriculture all the more vital. The system works by using automated machinery known as variable rate technology (VRT) that adjusts the rate of resource input on the go. In addition to VRTs, site-specific crop management (SSCM) assists by tailoring soil and crop input to field locations based on need. These machineries are supported by GPS and drone sensing technology that map field variability and provide aerial imagery, respectively.<ref>Wigmore, I. (2022, October 18). ''What is Precision Agriculture/precision farming?''. WhatIs. <nowiki>https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/precision-agriculture-precision-farming#:~:text=Precision%20agriculture%20(PA)%20is%20a,navigates%20crops%20without%20a%20driver</nowiki>.</ref> ==Agendas of Cyber Attacks== [[File:01 2016 Cyberattacks.png|thumb| January 2016 Cyber Attacks Statistics]] === Criminal === This is the most common agenda, comprising of 60.6% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats>{{Passeri, P. (2016, February 16). January 2016 Cyber Attacks Statistics. http://www.hackmageddon.com/2016/02/16/january-2016-cyber-attacks-statistics/}}</ref> In many of these cases, the attacker targets the digital assets of a company or transportation network. This includes personal info such social security numbers of customers and employees, credit card numbers, and intellectual property of the company. * A Dutch-based trafficking group hid cocaine and heroin in cargoes shipping containers of timber and bananas from South America by hacking into computer networks of companies operating in the port of Antwerp. This allowed the hackers to access secure data about the location and security details of containers, meaning the traffickers could steal the smuggled cargo before the legitimate owner arrived.<ref>Herberger, C. (2016, April 21). Cybersecurity in the Real World: 4 Examples of the Rise of Public Transportation Systems Threats. https://blog.radware.com/security/2016/04/cybersecurity-4-public-transportation-threats/</ref> * In 2018, a major data breach against Marriott International occurred. Attackers were able to gain illegal access to the Starwood guest reservation database, exposing personal guest details of roughly 500 million guests; including passport numbers and contact information.<ref>Burgess, M. (2025, October 31). ''Marriott Data Breach: What happened, impact, and lessons''. Huntress. <nowiki>https://www.huntress.com/threat-library/data-breach/marriott-data-breach</nowiki></ref> This attack was a turning point in terms of data protection, leading companies to take extreme measures to mitigate future risk. Criminal cyber attacks may also be motivated by malice. In this case, the attacker could be a disgruntled employee or customer that wants to get back at the system. They could also be motivated by desire to prove their ability to perform a cyber attack. These cyber attacks could be the result of untargeted malicious code and random selection. * In Lodz, Poland, a 14-year-old modified a TV remote control so that it could be used to change track points. The teenager hacked into the train system for the information needed to build the device, essentially making it his own personal train set. As a result, four vehicles were derailed injuring twelve people. He had no desire to hurt anyone, but was hacking into this system as a prank.<ref>Smith, S. (2008, February 12). Teen Hacker in Poland Plays Trains and Derails City Tram System. http://inhomelandsecurity.com/teen_hacker_in_poland_plays_tr/</ref> === Hacktivism === Hacktivism is defined by the hacking, or breaking into a computer system, for a politically or socially motivated purpose.<ref>What is hacktivism? - Definition from WhatIs.com. (n.d.). Retrieved December 11, 2016, from http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/hacktivism</ref> It is the second most common agenda, comprising of 27.7% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> * A group protesting the Communications Decency Act in 1996 hacked into the Department of Justice website and changed the title to the “Department of Injustice.”<ref>Adams, B. (1997, July 24). Web site a victim of `ecoterrorism’? http://www.deseretnews.com/article/573959/Web-site-a-victim-of-ecoterrorism.html?pg=all</ref> * Over the past several years, Pro-Russia hacktivists have conducted cyberattacks against U.S. critical infrastructure. The Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022 increased the number of pro-Russia groups with some appearing to have associations with the Russian state. They used low sophisticated methods such as scanning for exposed systems and exploiting weak remote access. Their activities have affected sectors like energy, water, and agriculture, sometimes causing operational disruption. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-18 |title=Pro-Russia Hacktivists Conduct Opportunistic Attacks Against US and Global Critical Infrastructure {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/cybersecurity-advisories/aa25-343a |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.cisa.gov |language=en}}</ref> === Cyber Espionage === Cyber espionage is the use of computer networks to gain illicit access to confidential information, typically that held by a government or other organization.<ref>Eugenie, de S. (2015). National Security and Counterintelligence in the Era of Cyber Espionage. IGI Global.</ref> This is more sophisticated than most other cyber attacks and attackers are looking for trade secrets and intellectual property of other countries or governments. This comprised of 7.4% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> * High end UAVs have exploitable vulnerabilities. In 2011, Iran hijacked the RQ-170 Sentinel UAV, operated by the CIA. The Iranians first jammed the radio communication channel controlling the Sentinel from the ground control center. This forces Sentinel to rely on GPS to determine its latitude, longitude, altitude, and velocity. Iran then sent false GPS coordinates, guiding Sentinel to land on their territory, while Sentinel thought it was landing on its home base.<ref>Mick, J. (2011, December 15). Iran: Yes, We Hacked the U.S.’s Drone, and Here’s How We Did It. http://www.dailytech.com/Iran+Yes+We+Hacked+the+USs+Drone+and+Heres+How+We+Did+It/article23533.htm</ref> === Cyber Warfare === Cyber warfare is a politically motivated attack on an enemy's computer or information systems.<ref>Cyber Warfare. (n.d.). http://www.rand.org/topics/cyber-warfare.html</ref> These attacks aim to disrupt critical infrastructure and cause property damage and loss of life. These would be considered terrorist attacks from organizations such as ISIS. This comprised of 4.3% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> Commercial drones are easy to exploit without leaving any logs or traces to track attackers. Terrorists can use these drones as a weapon. * ISIS recently started to use drones as a weapon by delivering bomb or chemical weapons. * Cartels and drug dealers uses commercial drones to smuggle narcotics, and inmates also uses drones to smuggle contrabands such as cell phones, cigarettes, and drugs to their cells. In early 2016, Maryland inmate was able to arrange to deliver these contrabands to right in front of his cell window.<ref>Kelly, H. (2016, June 24). How to catch drones smuggling drugs into prison. http://money.cnn.com/2016/06/24/technology/dedrone-drone-prisons/index.html</ref> === Data Harvesting === Profiling or harvesting data is the process of examining, analyzing, and summarizing datasets to understand underlying correlations or consistencies. The process begins with collection and ends with documentation, often in the form of reports. While not all data harvesting is malicious, it can be done illegally and is frequently the driver behind cyber attacks. Attackers use data harvesting as a technique to gather information such as user credentials (known as credential theft), and later use these credentials to illegally access systems, share them on the dark web, or advance their future attacks<ref>Lenaerts-Bergmans, B. (2023, July 18). ''What is credential harvesting?''. CrowdStrike. <nowiki>https://www.crowdstrike.com/en-us/cybersecurity-101/cyberattacks/credential-harvesting/#:~:text=Credential%20Harvesting%20Definition,for%20years%20at%20a%20time</nowiki>.</ref>. Other forms of illegal data harvesting include: * Phishing: act of sending emails or other messages, acting as a reputable company, in order to harvest data * Social Engineering: exploiting human error by manipulating their psychology to reveal confidential information With that, data harvesting is a driving agenda behind cyber attacks, which often allows attackers to advance their attacks and access cyber-physical systems. == Case Studies == === '''Iranian-Affiliated PLC Attacks on Critical Infrastructure (2026)''' === In early April 2024, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) issued a warning regarding Iranian-affiliated cyber attacks targeting critical infrastructure through Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). Unlike sophisticated exploits, attackers leveraged legitimate engineering tools to compromise industrial systems that had been left internet-exposed with weak security configurations. The attacks were motivated by geopolitical tensions rather than financial gain. The sectors primarily targeted were those relying on Rockwell Automation/Allen-Bradley PLCs, including water and wastewater systems, the energy sector, government services, and food and beverage manufacturing. Attackers gained unauthorized access by exploiting systems that lacked basic protections such as multi-factor authentication, network segmentation, and firewall rules restricting remote access. Once inside, they altered PLC settings and project logic files, causing Human-Machine Interface (HMI) displays to show operators false data and system statuses. This meant that facility operators were making decisions based on inaccurate readings, potentially allowing dangerous conditions to go undetected. The attacks resulted in operational disruptions, financial losses, and interference with critical infrastructure systems. This example demonstrates how a cyber attack can produce real-world physical consequences that extend well beyond simple data theft. == Sociotechnical Factors == Across these incidents, vulnerabilities emerge not from technical flaws alone, but from the interaction between technology, human behavior, and organizational practices. Shared passwords, insufficient staff training, poor monitoring, and internet-exposed systems with weak security configurations are recurring factors that create openings for attackers. This happens regardless of the specific target or method used. These human and procedural failures often prove just as consequential as any software vulnerability. At the organizational level, constraints such as limited funding, legacy infrastructure, and competing priorities directly shape security outcomes. Many water and industrial facilities rely on outdated systems never designed for modern network connectivity, and decisions around cost, efficiency, and maintenance have downstream consequences for how secure these systems ultimately are. The broader geopolitical context also plays a significant role. Some attacks are isolated and locally motivated, while others are linked to state-aligned actors, reflecting a growing trend of cyber operations being embedded within international political conflicts. Critical infrastructure systems are increasingly becoming deliberate targets in geopolitical disputes, making international cooperation on cybersecurity standards more important than ever. Finally, these cases collectively emphasize the societal dimension of cyber-physical systems. Because these systems support essential public services such as water supply and energy, even minor disruptions carry the potential to breakdown public trust and generate widespread concern. This reinforces why securing them demands urgent and sustained attention. == Conclusion == As seen with hacks on drones and transportation systems, CPS security breaches could result in loss of secret information, physical property, and human lives. According to Tony Tyler, CEO of the International Air Transport Association (CTA), drones are one of the biggest threat to the passenger airlines by interfering the route of the commercial airplanes.<ref>Crowe, S. (n.d.). Drones a “Real Threat” to Passenger Planes: IATA - Robotics Trends. http://www.roboticstrends.com/article/drones_a_real_threat_to_passenger_planes_iata/</ref> To minimize the risk, FAA started to enforce drone regulations and prohibited flying drones near airports. Army officers have developed a cyber rifle using raspberry pi to power off commercial drones. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), established in 1967, is a government agency that investigates accidents in the aviation, highway, marine, pipeline, and railroad modes.<ref>National Transportation Safety Board. (n.d.). History of The National Transportation Safety Board. http://www.ntsb.gov/about/history/pages/default.aspx</ref> The NTSB must implement policies to meet the requirements placed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).<ref>U.S. Department of Transportation. (2006, October 13) Audit of NTSB’s Information Security Program. https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/NTSB_FISMA_FINAL.pdf</ref> The NIST develops actionable recommendations for strengthening cybersecurity in the public and private sectors to better secure the growing digital economy.<ref>Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity. (2016, December 1). Report on Securing and Growing the Digital Economy. https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/12/02/cybersecurity-commission-report-final-post.pdf</ref> There are many initiatives to prevent CPS breaches. The Department of Energy has a Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems (CEDS) program designed to improve the United States' energy infrastructure. A main goal of the program is to better assess risk on a large scale, and identify vulnerabilities in our current system.<ref>Department of Energy. (n.d.-a). Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems | Department of Energy. http://energy.gov/oe/services/technology-development/cybersecurity-for-energy-delivery-systems</ref> Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid (TCIPG) is an example of a program funded by the Department of Energy. TCIPG has developed commercial software packages that can be integrated by utility providers. Examples include sensors like Amilyzer that identify system threats in real time, and middleware frameworks like GridStat that decrease data delivery latencies in the power grid.<ref>Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid. (2014). http://tcipg.org/about-us</ref> The National Science Foundation has founded a Team for Research in Ubiquitous Secure Technology (TRUST) that is currently looking into financial, healthcare, and physical infrastructure solutions.<ref>The Team for Research in Ubiquitous Secure Technology (TRUST). (n.d.). https://www.truststc.org/research/index.html</ref> Carnegie Mellon's CyLab is also committed to building more of these public-private partnerships in developing new technology for secure computing.<ref>Technology Transfer. (n.d.). https://www.cylab.cmu.edu/partners/tech_transfer.html</ref> The internet of things is now a reality. The connection of various cyber-physical systems is intended to improve our way of life, but is also being exploited with criminal intent. Security issues are now more complex and larger scale than ever before. Research into cyber-physical security will help us better understand the cyber interface between physical systems, and the growth in consumer adoption of new technology. == References == {{BookCat}} <references /> 2axf011ggtqyz0r55qo1apcyfpnexqq 4632085 4632084 2026-04-24T14:33:23Z LaraMahajan 3578851 Added header for sociotechnical factors 4632085 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== A cyber-attack can be defined as an attack on computer systems/architecture, or information systems with malicious intent. The attack could be an individual or group acting against other individuals, business or civilian groups with the intention of acquiring unsecured data from the victim. Specifically, cyber-attacks on cyber-physical systems are becoming increasing as physical systems become more interconnected. These attacks also disrupt vital services, compromise safety of users, and risk severe economic damage, especially when targeting systems that are essential to daily functions. A cyber-physical system (CPS) is a system in which there is some connection between a physical entity and its related cyber component. The connection is typically sustained between system components by feeding data through sensors or actuators. The main distinction between a CPS and a typical computer is that a CPS has physical inputs and outputs.<ref>Thompson, K. (2014, June 20). Cyber-Physical Systems. https://www.nist.gov/el/cyber-physical-systems</ref><ref>Lee, J., Bagheri, B., & Kao, H.-A. (2015). A Cyber-Physical Systems architecture for Industry 4.0-based manufacturing systems. Manufacturing Letters, 3, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mfglet.2014.12.001</ref> Examples of cyber-physical systems include industrial control systems, smart power grids, autonomous vehicles, smart home technologies, and medical devices. Because these systems often operate in real time and control critical infrastructure, they require high levels of reliability and security. Any breaches in these systems could lead to long-term consequences, such as service outages, safety hazards, and loss of trust from frequent users. The large scale interconnection of CPS devices through networks and cloud based platforms is commonly referred to as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT allow devices to communicate, share data, and operate more efficiently, but they also introduce new security challenges. Many CPS and IoT devices are built with limited computational resources, including restricted processing power, memory, and energy capacity, which makes it difficult to implement strong security mechanisms such as advanced encryption, real time monitoring, and intrusion detection. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yaacoub |first=Jean-Paul A. |last2=Salman |first2=Ola |last3=Noura |first3=Hassan N. |last4=Kaaniche |first4=Nesrine |last5=Chehab |first5=Ali |last6=Malli |first6=Mohamad |date=2020-09 |title=Cyber-physical systems security: Limitations, issues and future trends |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7340599/ |journal=Microprocessors and Microsystems |volume=77 |pages=103201 |doi=10.1016/j.micpro.2020.103201 |issn=0141-9331 |pmc=7340599 |pmid=32834204}}</ref> These limitations can weaken overall system security and increase vulnerability to cyber-attacks, particularly in large scale, distributed environments. As a result, securing cyber physical systems have become a critical area of research and policy, emphasizing the need for strong authentication, and resilience against both cyber and physical threats. Future work to mitigate risk of attacks must prioritize continuous monitoring and secure architecture to remain proactive. == Types of Cyber-Physical Systems == ===Smart Car=== A smart car is equipped with visual and weather sensors that feed information to the driver and to the auto response functions of the car itself, such as automated driving, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. New CPS components in cars are commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) and are integrated from third parties. Many car producers fail to realize that new security issues arise from integrating these heterogeneous components in the vehicle. Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS), for instance, have unencrypted communication with the vehicle. Attackers could exploit this communication, and retrieve unique vehicle IDs.<ref>Humayed, A., & Luo, B. (2015). Cyber-physical Security for Smart Cars: Taxonomy of Vulnerabilities, Threats, and Attacks. In Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE Sixth International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems (pp. 252–253). New York, NY, USA: ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2735960.2735992</ref> ===Smart Home=== A smart home could have weather sensors to auto regulate various temperature, lighting, and appliance components in the home. All of these features could be easily programmable from a universal device. Some devices are already commercially available, such as Nest, Google Home, and Amazon Echo. If hackers took control of a home's smart thermostat, like Nest, they could have complete information on the family's schedule, specifically when people are in and out of the home. <ref>5 Security Concerns to Consider When Creating Your Smart Home. (n.d.). http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/5-security-concerns-consider-creating-smart-home/</ref><ref name=":0">Network Security. (2014). Black Hat USA 2014 - Embedded: Smart Nest Thermostat A Smart Spy in Your Home. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFQ9AYMee_Q</ref> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFQ9AYMee_Q (Video: Nest Thermostat Hacking)] Although security measures like two-factor authentication can help prevent cyber attacks, they make the user experience more tedious which makes companies more reluctant to make these protections mandatory. For platforms like Google Next and other smart home ecosystems, this creates a tradeoff between usability and security, where simplifying access may unintentionally weaken system protection.<ref>{{Cite web |last=visceral_dev_admin |date=2022-08-25 |title=Smart Homes and Policy: Cybersecurity Risks and Tradeoffs |url=https://bipartisanpolicy.org/article/smart-homes-policy-cybersecurity-risks/ |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=Bipartisan Policy Center |language=en-US}}</ref> The Internet of Things Cybersecurity Improvement Act of 2020 introduced baseline security requirements for devices used by federal agencies, aiming to improve standards among manufactures that contract with the government. While this law does not directly regulate consumer smart home devices, it encourages broader industry adoption of strong cybersecurity practices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rep. Kelly |first=Robin L. [D-IL-2 |date=2020-12-04 |title=H.R.1668 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): IoT Cybersecurity Improvement Act of 2020 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/1668 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref> ===Smart Grid=== Smart meters could be placed on homes to communicate with the utility providers on a daily basis for close monitoring of electricity use. This could help utility providers better predict peak electricity demand, thus decreasing wasted electricity. Looking to future, if more homes are equipped with electric storage capabilities such as solar panels and/or electric vehicle batteries, it becomes easier to scale up renewable energy integration. The grid is currently highly centralized due to reliance on fossil fuel plants, and needs diversified storage opportunities for renewable energy.<ref>Department of Energy. (n.d.-b). What is the Smart Grid? https://www.smartgrid.gov/the_smart_grid/smart_grid.html</ref> ===Drones=== Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) or drones are a widely used technology. The U.S. Custom and Border Protection uses MQ-9 Reaper, a type of UAV, for surveillance missions across the border.<ref>DHS Is Using Surveillance Drones To Spy On Americans. (2014, October 12). http://www.thesleuthjournal.com/dhs-using-surveillance-drones-spy-americans/</ref> Law enforcement agencies began to operate commercial drones to replace their manned helicopter units.<ref>Gettinger, D. (2013, November 30). Lawkeepers: Police Drones. http://dronecenter.bard.edu/lawkeepers-police-drones/</ref> Fire fighters use commercial drones to gather structural information of hazardous buildings before they perform search and rescue missions.<ref>Schroth, F. (2016, August 4). Drones & Fire - Officials Speak to the Value of UAS in Firefighting. http://dronelife.com/2016/08/04/drones-fire-officials-speak-value-uas-firefighting/</ref> Companies like Amazon are developing autonomous package delivery systems using drones. Hobbyists fly drones for entertainment. Commercial drones have vulnerabilities that can be exploited. Many drone manufacturing companies such as DJI and 3D Robotics use different flight control platforms like Pixhawk, however they operate under same communication protocol, MAVLink. MAVLink was developed as an open source program for hobbyists. Since security features add cost, MAVLink does not have security features to protect drones from cyber physical attacks.<ref>Making a Mavlink WiFi bridge using the Raspberry Pi — Dev documentation. (n.d.). http://ardupilot.org/dev/docs/making-a-mavlink-wifi-bridge-using-the-raspberry-pi.html</ref> MAVLink pairs the drone and the ground control station with NetID. A properly programmed attacking device can parse the radio transmission to obtain and update this paired NetID. Then, the attacking device can send commands to power off or take control of the drone. The code to parse the radio transmission is easy to look up, so anyone could conduct a cyber physical attack on commercial drones running with MAVLink.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sycgvpIxvPU (Video: Anti drone device)]<ref>shellntel. (2015). anti-drone device demo. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sycgvpIxvPU</ref> === Transportation Systems === A transportation system is a facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods.<ref>transportation system - Dictionary Definition. (n.d.). https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/transportation%20system</ref> Transport networks have become increasingly digital, which makes them highly susceptible to cyber attacks. Electronic data can now track the location, status, and condition of vehicles and infrastructure. Electronics are used to monitor weather-related risks, such as hurricanes or landslides, that will cause damage or delays to transportation systems. Any organization will be exposed to cyber attacks if they use computer networks or internet for sales, administrative functions, automated control systems, or storage of confidential information <ref>Marsh. (2015). Cyber Risk in the Transportation Industry. http://www.oliverwyman.com/content/dam/marsh/Documents/PDF/UK-en/Cyber%20Risk%20in%20the%20Transportation%20Industry-03-2015.pdf</ref> . Specifically, the major transportation systems at risk are: 1. Railroads/trains 2. Airplanes and airports 3. Connected cars (cars with internet access) === Medical Devices === A medical device is any instrument, machine, or piece of equipment used to diagnose, treat, or monitor patients in a clinical setting. As healthcare facilities have become increasingly reliant on network connectivity, medical devices have evolved from standalone tools into integrated components of hospital IT ecosystems. Electronic data can now track device status, patient vitals, and equipment performance in real time. While this has improved patient outcomes and support doctors make treatment decisions, this also leads to organizations being susceptible to cyber threats if they connect medical devices to internal networks. The rapid growth of AI and blockchain technologies has further accelerated the digitization of healthcare, shifting the industry from conventional hub based systems toward more interconnected, personalized healthcare management systems <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Susan |last2=Surineni |first2=Kamalakar |last3=Prabhakaran |first3=Nishant |date=2025-09-01 |title=Cyber-Attacks on Hospital Systems: A Narrative Review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2950386825000103 |journal=The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Open Science, Education, and Practice |volume=7 |pages=30–39 |doi=10.1016/j.osep.2025.03.002 |issn=2950-3868}}</ref>. === '''Precision Agriculture''' === Precision agriculture, also known as smart farming, is an innovative strategy that utilizes technologies such as GPS, IoT sensors, drones, and others to manage larger expanses of farm land, and optimize resources like fertilizers and pesticides. Smart farming has proven to increase efficiency, profitability, and promote sustainable crop production.<ref>Brinkle, C. (2026, February 26). ''Precision agriculture: Definition, Key Technologies, and benefits''. Precision Agriculture: Definition, Key Technologies, and Benefits. <nowiki>https://www.thomasnet.com/insights/precision-agriculture/</nowiki></ref> As resources become more scarce with a growing demand, associated costs of farming have risen, making precision agriculture all the more vital. The system works by using automated machinery known as variable rate technology (VRT) that adjusts the rate of resource input on the go. In addition to VRTs, site-specific crop management (SSCM) assists by tailoring soil and crop input to field locations based on need. These machineries are supported by GPS and drone sensing technology that map field variability and provide aerial imagery, respectively.<ref>Wigmore, I. (2022, October 18). ''What is Precision Agriculture/precision farming?''. WhatIs. <nowiki>https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/precision-agriculture-precision-farming#:~:text=Precision%20agriculture%20(PA)%20is%20a,navigates%20crops%20without%20a%20driver</nowiki>.</ref> ==Agendas of Cyber Attacks== [[File:01 2016 Cyberattacks.png|thumb| January 2016 Cyber Attacks Statistics]] === Criminal === This is the most common agenda, comprising of 60.6% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats>{{Passeri, P. (2016, February 16). January 2016 Cyber Attacks Statistics. http://www.hackmageddon.com/2016/02/16/january-2016-cyber-attacks-statistics/}}</ref> In many of these cases, the attacker targets the digital assets of a company or transportation network. This includes personal info such social security numbers of customers and employees, credit card numbers, and intellectual property of the company. * A Dutch-based trafficking group hid cocaine and heroin in cargoes shipping containers of timber and bananas from South America by hacking into computer networks of companies operating in the port of Antwerp. This allowed the hackers to access secure data about the location and security details of containers, meaning the traffickers could steal the smuggled cargo before the legitimate owner arrived.<ref>Herberger, C. (2016, April 21). Cybersecurity in the Real World: 4 Examples of the Rise of Public Transportation Systems Threats. https://blog.radware.com/security/2016/04/cybersecurity-4-public-transportation-threats/</ref> * In 2018, a major data breach against Marriott International occurred. Attackers were able to gain illegal access to the Starwood guest reservation database, exposing personal guest details of roughly 500 million guests; including passport numbers and contact information.<ref>Burgess, M. (2025, October 31). ''Marriott Data Breach: What happened, impact, and lessons''. Huntress. <nowiki>https://www.huntress.com/threat-library/data-breach/marriott-data-breach</nowiki></ref> This attack was a turning point in terms of data protection, leading companies to take extreme measures to mitigate future risk. Criminal cyber attacks may also be motivated by malice. In this case, the attacker could be a disgruntled employee or customer that wants to get back at the system. They could also be motivated by desire to prove their ability to perform a cyber attack. These cyber attacks could be the result of untargeted malicious code and random selection. * In Lodz, Poland, a 14-year-old modified a TV remote control so that it could be used to change track points. The teenager hacked into the train system for the information needed to build the device, essentially making it his own personal train set. As a result, four vehicles were derailed injuring twelve people. He had no desire to hurt anyone, but was hacking into this system as a prank.<ref>Smith, S. (2008, February 12). Teen Hacker in Poland Plays Trains and Derails City Tram System. http://inhomelandsecurity.com/teen_hacker_in_poland_plays_tr/</ref> === Hacktivism === Hacktivism is defined by the hacking, or breaking into a computer system, for a politically or socially motivated purpose.<ref>What is hacktivism? - Definition from WhatIs.com. (n.d.). Retrieved December 11, 2016, from http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/hacktivism</ref> It is the second most common agenda, comprising of 27.7% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> * A group protesting the Communications Decency Act in 1996 hacked into the Department of Justice website and changed the title to the “Department of Injustice.”<ref>Adams, B. (1997, July 24). Web site a victim of `ecoterrorism’? http://www.deseretnews.com/article/573959/Web-site-a-victim-of-ecoterrorism.html?pg=all</ref> * Over the past several years, Pro-Russia hacktivists have conducted cyberattacks against U.S. critical infrastructure. The Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022 increased the number of pro-Russia groups with some appearing to have associations with the Russian state. They used low sophisticated methods such as scanning for exposed systems and exploiting weak remote access. Their activities have affected sectors like energy, water, and agriculture, sometimes causing operational disruption. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-18 |title=Pro-Russia Hacktivists Conduct Opportunistic Attacks Against US and Global Critical Infrastructure {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/cybersecurity-advisories/aa25-343a |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.cisa.gov |language=en}}</ref> === Cyber Espionage === Cyber espionage is the use of computer networks to gain illicit access to confidential information, typically that held by a government or other organization.<ref>Eugenie, de S. (2015). National Security and Counterintelligence in the Era of Cyber Espionage. IGI Global.</ref> This is more sophisticated than most other cyber attacks and attackers are looking for trade secrets and intellectual property of other countries or governments. This comprised of 7.4% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> * High end UAVs have exploitable vulnerabilities. In 2011, Iran hijacked the RQ-170 Sentinel UAV, operated by the CIA. The Iranians first jammed the radio communication channel controlling the Sentinel from the ground control center. This forces Sentinel to rely on GPS to determine its latitude, longitude, altitude, and velocity. Iran then sent false GPS coordinates, guiding Sentinel to land on their territory, while Sentinel thought it was landing on its home base.<ref>Mick, J. (2011, December 15). Iran: Yes, We Hacked the U.S.’s Drone, and Here’s How We Did It. http://www.dailytech.com/Iran+Yes+We+Hacked+the+USs+Drone+and+Heres+How+We+Did+It/article23533.htm</ref> === Cyber Warfare === Cyber warfare is a politically motivated attack on an enemy's computer or information systems.<ref>Cyber Warfare. (n.d.). http://www.rand.org/topics/cyber-warfare.html</ref> These attacks aim to disrupt critical infrastructure and cause property damage and loss of life. These would be considered terrorist attacks from organizations such as ISIS. This comprised of 4.3% of cyber attacks in January 2016.<ref name=CyberStats /> Commercial drones are easy to exploit without leaving any logs or traces to track attackers. Terrorists can use these drones as a weapon. * ISIS recently started to use drones as a weapon by delivering bomb or chemical weapons. * Cartels and drug dealers uses commercial drones to smuggle narcotics, and inmates also uses drones to smuggle contrabands such as cell phones, cigarettes, and drugs to their cells. In early 2016, Maryland inmate was able to arrange to deliver these contrabands to right in front of his cell window.<ref>Kelly, H. (2016, June 24). How to catch drones smuggling drugs into prison. http://money.cnn.com/2016/06/24/technology/dedrone-drone-prisons/index.html</ref> === Data Harvesting === Profiling or harvesting data is the process of examining, analyzing, and summarizing datasets to understand underlying correlations or consistencies. The process begins with collection and ends with documentation, often in the form of reports. While not all data harvesting is malicious, it can be done illegally and is frequently the driver behind cyber attacks. Attackers use data harvesting as a technique to gather information such as user credentials (known as credential theft), and later use these credentials to illegally access systems, share them on the dark web, or advance their future attacks<ref>Lenaerts-Bergmans, B. (2023, July 18). ''What is credential harvesting?''. CrowdStrike. <nowiki>https://www.crowdstrike.com/en-us/cybersecurity-101/cyberattacks/credential-harvesting/#:~:text=Credential%20Harvesting%20Definition,for%20years%20at%20a%20time</nowiki>.</ref>. Other forms of illegal data harvesting include: * Phishing: act of sending emails or other messages, acting as a reputable company, in order to harvest data * Social Engineering: exploiting human error by manipulating their psychology to reveal confidential information With that, data harvesting is a driving agenda behind cyber attacks, which often allows attackers to advance their attacks and access cyber-physical systems. == Case Studies == === '''Iranian-Affiliated PLC Attacks on Critical Infrastructure (2026)''' === In early April 2024, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) issued a warning regarding Iranian-affiliated cyber attacks targeting critical infrastructure through Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). Unlike sophisticated exploits, attackers leveraged legitimate engineering tools to compromise industrial systems that had been left internet-exposed with weak security configurations. The attacks were motivated by geopolitical tensions rather than financial gain. The sectors primarily targeted were those relying on Rockwell Automation/Allen-Bradley PLCs, including water and wastewater systems, the energy sector, government services, and food and beverage manufacturing. Attackers gained unauthorized access by exploiting systems that lacked basic protections such as multi-factor authentication, network segmentation, and firewall rules restricting remote access. Once inside, they altered PLC settings and project logic files, causing Human-Machine Interface (HMI) displays to show operators false data and system statuses. This meant that facility operators were making decisions based on inaccurate readings, potentially allowing dangerous conditions to go undetected. The attacks resulted in operational disruptions, financial losses, and interference with critical infrastructure systems. This example demonstrates how a cyber attack can produce real-world physical consequences that extend well beyond simple data theft. == Sociotechnical Factors == === Common Themes Across Incidents === Across these incidents, vulnerabilities emerge not from technical flaws alone, but from the interaction between technology, human behavior, and organizational practices. Shared passwords, insufficient staff training, poor monitoring, and internet-exposed systems with weak security configurations are recurring factors that create openings for attackers. This happens regardless of the specific target or method used. These human and procedural failures often prove just as consequential as any software vulnerability. At the organizational level, constraints such as limited funding, legacy infrastructure, and competing priorities directly shape security outcomes. Many water and industrial facilities rely on outdated systems never designed for modern network connectivity, and decisions around cost, efficiency, and maintenance have downstream consequences for how secure these systems ultimately are. The broader geopolitical context also plays a significant role. Some attacks are isolated and locally motivated, while others are linked to state-aligned actors, reflecting a growing trend of cyber operations being embedded within international political conflicts. Critical infrastructure systems are increasingly becoming deliberate targets in geopolitical disputes, making international cooperation on cybersecurity standards more important than ever. Finally, these cases collectively emphasize the societal dimension of cyber-physical systems. Because these systems support essential public services such as water supply and energy, even minor disruptions carry the potential to breakdown public trust and generate widespread concern. This reinforces why securing them demands urgent and sustained attention. == Conclusion == As seen with hacks on drones and transportation systems, CPS security breaches could result in loss of secret information, physical property, and human lives. According to Tony Tyler, CEO of the International Air Transport Association (CTA), drones are one of the biggest threat to the passenger airlines by interfering the route of the commercial airplanes.<ref>Crowe, S. (n.d.). Drones a “Real Threat” to Passenger Planes: IATA - Robotics Trends. http://www.roboticstrends.com/article/drones_a_real_threat_to_passenger_planes_iata/</ref> To minimize the risk, FAA started to enforce drone regulations and prohibited flying drones near airports. Army officers have developed a cyber rifle using raspberry pi to power off commercial drones. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), established in 1967, is a government agency that investigates accidents in the aviation, highway, marine, pipeline, and railroad modes.<ref>National Transportation Safety Board. (n.d.). History of The National Transportation Safety Board. http://www.ntsb.gov/about/history/pages/default.aspx</ref> The NTSB must implement policies to meet the requirements placed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).<ref>U.S. Department of Transportation. (2006, October 13) Audit of NTSB’s Information Security Program. https://www.oig.dot.gov/sites/default/files/NTSB_FISMA_FINAL.pdf</ref> The NIST develops actionable recommendations for strengthening cybersecurity in the public and private sectors to better secure the growing digital economy.<ref>Commission on Enhancing National Cybersecurity. (2016, December 1). Report on Securing and Growing the Digital Economy. https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/12/02/cybersecurity-commission-report-final-post.pdf</ref> There are many initiatives to prevent CPS breaches. The Department of Energy has a Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems (CEDS) program designed to improve the United States' energy infrastructure. A main goal of the program is to better assess risk on a large scale, and identify vulnerabilities in our current system.<ref>Department of Energy. (n.d.-a). Cybersecurity for Energy Delivery Systems | Department of Energy. http://energy.gov/oe/services/technology-development/cybersecurity-for-energy-delivery-systems</ref> Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid (TCIPG) is an example of a program funded by the Department of Energy. TCIPG has developed commercial software packages that can be integrated by utility providers. Examples include sensors like Amilyzer that identify system threats in real time, and middleware frameworks like GridStat that decrease data delivery latencies in the power grid.<ref>Trustworthy Cyber Infrastructure for the Power Grid. (2014). http://tcipg.org/about-us</ref> The National Science Foundation has founded a Team for Research in Ubiquitous Secure Technology (TRUST) that is currently looking into financial, healthcare, and physical infrastructure solutions.<ref>The Team for Research in Ubiquitous Secure Technology (TRUST). (n.d.). https://www.truststc.org/research/index.html</ref> Carnegie Mellon's CyLab is also committed to building more of these public-private partnerships in developing new technology for secure computing.<ref>Technology Transfer. (n.d.). https://www.cylab.cmu.edu/partners/tech_transfer.html</ref> The internet of things is now a reality. The connection of various cyber-physical systems is intended to improve our way of life, but is also being exploited with criminal intent. Security issues are now more complex and larger scale than ever before. Research into cyber-physical security will help us better understand the cyber interface between physical systems, and the growth in consumer adoption of new technology. == References == {{BookCat}} <references /> l4lgsdmwityooc2qw170wh32yzmsma3 4 396216 4632155 4632034 2026-04-25T06:35:25Z LeventBulut 3578898 /* {{subst:currentuser}}{{subst:^|DO NOT EDIT THIS LINE}} */ new section 4632155 wikitext text/x-wiki __NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d |algo = old(75d) |counter = 4 |maxarchivesize = 150K |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 3 }} == WestenM86 == ;Username : [[:b:User:WestenM86|WestenM86]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:WestenM86|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/WestenM86|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/WestenM86|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:WestenM86}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:WestenM86}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=WestenM86}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Washington Metro]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Infrastructure+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future+Casebook%2FWashington+Metro}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Infrastructure+Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future+Casebook%2FWashington+Metro&wpSearchUser=WestenM86}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : We are students who are just trying to figure out this system and make our start for this project made by our professor. We are allowed to do this by George Mason University. ;Date and time : 18:20, 20 February 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|done|4620689}} I have added the text for you and moved the page to [[User:WestenM86/Infrastructure Past, Present, and Future Casebook/Washington Metro]], but please do not try to remove {{tl|delete}} templates. – [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:42, 26 February 2026 (UTC) == VarastadDB == ;Username : [[:b:User:VarastadDB|VarastadDB]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:VarastadDB|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/VarastadDB|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/VarastadDB|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:VarastadDB}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:VarastadDB}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=VarastadDB}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[User:VarastadDerBedrosian]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3AVarastadDerBedrosian}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=User%3AVarastadDerBedrosian&wpSearchUser=VarastadDB}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : I am a new editor attempting to establish a biographical record for Varastad DerBedrosian, a computer scientist and founder of SecureUp Corp and GadgetWide Solutions. The initial "out of scope" flag likely triggered due to placeholder data from the account's setup phase. I am currently transitioning the content to a neutral, encyclopedic tone (WP:NPOV) and adding third-party citations to technical archives to verify the subject's historical impact on the cybersecurity and mobile utility sectors. I request the removal of the deletion tag to allow for these improvements in the Draft space. ;Date and time : 08:12, 28 February 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|notdone}} – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:28, 11 March 2026 (UTC) == Jon Peli Oleaga == ;Username : [[:b:User:Jon Peli Oleaga|Jon Peli Oleaga]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Jon Peli Oleaga|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Jon Peli Oleaga|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Jon Peli Oleaga|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Jon Peli Oleaga}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Jon Peli Oleaga}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Jon+Peli+Oleaga}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[FORTRAN program for calculating representative parameters and operating conditions of AC overhead transmission lines]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=FORTRAN+program+for+calculating+representative+parameters+and+operating+conditions+of+AC+overhead+transmission+lines}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=FORTRAN+program+for+calculating+representative+parameters+and+operating+conditions+of+AC+overhead+transmission+lines&wpSearchUser=Jon+Peli+Oleaga}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : I want to insert the code of the program and the input and output data of some examples; to show how data is entered and the coincidence of the results with what was said in the book of the Electric Power Researh Institute published 1n 1975 "Transmission Line Reference Book 345 kv and Above". I have generated all that information; directly or using the program.--[[User:Jon Peli Oleaga|Jon Peli Oleaga]] ([[User talk:Jon Peli Oleaga|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jon Peli Oleaga|contribs]]) 11:54, 11 March 2026 (UTC) ;Date and time : 11:54, 11 March 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Kingofnuthin == ;Username : [[:b:User:Kingofnuthin|Kingofnuthin]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Kingofnuthin|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Kingofnuthin|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Kingofnuthin|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Kingofnuthin}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Kingofnuthin}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Kingofnuthin}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[America's voice]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=America%27s+voice}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=America%27s+voice&wpSearchUser=Kingofnuthin}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Needs removal of other deletion templates as i did a second CSD for previously deleted page. ;Date and time : 16:56, 25 March 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|fixed}} I changed a line of the filter so that certain user groups with <code>autoreview</code> are exempt. – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:18, 27 March 2026 (UTC) == Dom32628 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Dom32628|Dom32628]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Dom32628|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Dom32628|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Dom32628|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Dom32628}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Dom32628}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Dom32628}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._c4/1...g5]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess_Opening_Theory%2F1._c4%2F1...g5}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess_Opening_Theory%2F1._c4%2F1...g5&wpSearchUser=Dom32628}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Added a link to Lichess.org in References. Lichess is free, open source and well regarded by the wiki community, showing the English Opening: Zilbermints Gambit. If there is a preferred referencing style to not reference lichess here, even if it is free & open source, let me know :) ;Date and time : 23:46, 27 March 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ~2026-21344-85 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-21344-85|~2026-21344-85]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-21344-85|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-21344-85|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-21344-85|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-21344-85}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-21344-85}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-21344-85}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[I am looking to link the youtube videos corresponding to each episode]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+looking+to+link+the+youtube+videos+corresponding+to+each+episode}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+looking+to+link+the+youtube+videos+corresponding+to+each+episode&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-21344-85}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : ;Date and time : 04:47, 12 April 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ~2026-21344-85 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-21344-85|~2026-21344-85]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-21344-85|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-21344-85|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-21344-85|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-21344-85}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-21344-85}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-21344-85}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[SJMFTVF/sandbox (keep as sandbox, is for Screen Junkies Movie Fights & TV Fights)]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=SJMFTVF%2Fsandbox+%28keep+as+sandbox%2C+is+for+Screen+Junkies+Movie+Fights+%26+TV+Fights%29}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=SJMFTVF%2Fsandbox+%28keep+as+sandbox%2C+is+for+Screen+Junkies+Movie+Fights+%26+TV+Fights%29&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-21344-85}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Looking to update info for about 80 episodes, including links to the associated youtube videos. This has been done for previous episode summaries. Also, I have no way to prove this, but I am the creator of the page. I don't have access to the email associated with the SJMFTVF account anymore. ;Date and time : 06:56, 12 April 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ~2026-22598-75 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-22598-75|~2026-22598-75]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-22598-75|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-22598-75|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-22598-75|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-22598-75}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-22598-75}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-22598-75}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[History Books/Who Was Alexander the Great/Introduction]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=History+Books%2FWho+Was+Alexander+the+Great%2FIntroduction}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=History+Books%2FWho+Was+Alexander+the+Great%2FIntroduction&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-22598-75}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : The page was tagged for speedy deletion due to being a subpage of a nonexistent book, but I have since created the parent books. However, it won’t let me remove the tag, now that the problem has been addressed. Leave the rest of this page intact. --> ;Date and time : 17:39, 12 April 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|done}} – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:15, 12 April 2026 (UTC) == Idavidmiller == ;Username : [[:b:User:Idavidmiller|Idavidmiller]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Idavidmiller|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Idavidmiller|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Idavidmiller|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Idavidmiller}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Idavidmiller}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Idavidmiller}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Maxima/Installation]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Maxima%2FInstallation}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Maxima%2FInstallation&wpSearchUser=Idavidmiller}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Revising this page as it is way too complex for the intended audience. The external links prevent copying extensive sections from project installation instruction pages. ;Date and time : 15:10, 20 April 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : <span class="template-ping">@[[:User:Idavidmiller|Idavidmiller]]:</span> I temporarily granted you confirmed user access so that the filter should not prevent you. It's in effect until Thursday, 10:14 AM CDT/15:14 UTC. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:16, 21 April 2026 (UTC) == Usp4pg == ;Username : [[:b:User:Usp4pg|Usp4pg]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Usp4pg|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Usp4pg|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Usp4pg|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Usp4pg}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Usp4pg}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Usp4pg}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Lentis/AI: More Human Than You Think]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Lentis%2FAI%3A+More+Human+Than+You+Think}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Lentis%2FAI%3A+More+Human+Than+You+Think&wpSearchUser=Usp4pg}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : It is saying the edits I am making are unconstructive even though I added actual content to prevent it from falsely deleting the page. It will not allow me to publish changes. This is for a class project, and I am just starting to get the skeleton done. ;Date and time : 14:56, 21 April 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|done}} <span class="template-ping">@[[:User:Usp4pg|Usp4pg]]:</span> I removed the tag as it was not a test page. – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:12, 21 April 2026 (UTC) == LeventBulut == ;Username : [[:b:User:LeventBulut|LeventBulut]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:LeventBulut|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/LeventBulut|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/LeventBulut|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:LeventBulut}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:LeventBulut}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=LeventBulut}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Objective+Projection%3A+Why+the+Brain+Never+Forgets+Some+Stories}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Objective+Projection%3A+Why+the+Brain+Never+Forgets+Some+Stories&wpSearchUser=LeventBulut}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : I am the author of the Objective Projection methodology. I was trying to add a legitimate educational book to Wikibooks under CC BY-SA 4.0. The filter blocked my edits twice — once for external links, once for content volume. All content is my own original work written specifically for Wikibooks. The Turkish version of the same book is already live on tr.wikibooks.org Open license declaration at leventbulut.com/acik-lisans-bildirimi-wikibooks/ ;Date and time : 06:35, 25 April 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> l1qofjkebf341yl4ellkh1obxr3wj62 0 396632 4632173 4007472 2026-04-25T07:37:07Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632173 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3/8...e5/9. dxe5]] 1helnxdi9zvxgaoyvvm13igigyw6sdo 0 401885 4632075 3469890 2026-04-24T13:47:12Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632075 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Shelf:Page |parent=Languages of Asia |description=Books on this shelf deal with the '''[[w:Sinhalese language|Sinhalese language]]'''. |1={{{1|}}} }}<noinclude> <!-- CATEGORIES AND INTERWIKIS HERE --> </noinclude> qgxptxaq95yd3io218vv9vz0qswnmyd 0 405734 4632101 3521404 2026-04-24T18:57:52Z ~2026-25215-32 3578899 The statement is false, see my edit. 4632101 wikitext text/x-wiki {{prerequisite|Commutative Ring Theory/Principal ideal domains|venue=chapter}} {{proposition|torsion-free modules over principal ideal domains are free|Let <math>R</math> be a principal ideal domain, and let <math>M</math> be a torsion-free module over <math>R</math>. Then <math>M</math> is free.|choice=axiom of choice}}The statement is false: the rational numbers are a torsion free module over the integers (which are a principal ideal domain), but it is not free, as the maximal number of Z-linerly indepenent numbers is one.{{proof|We consider the set of sets <math>S \subseteq M</math> such that <math>S</math> is linearly independent and <math>M / \langle S \rangle</math> is torsion-free. This set may be equipped with the partial order that is given by inclusion. Suppose then that <math>A</math> is a totally ordered set, and <math>(S_\alpha)_{\alpha \in A}</math> is a family such that <math>\alpha \le \beta \Leftrightarrow S_\alpha \subseteq S_\beta</math>. We claim that an upper bound for this chain is given by the union of the sets <math>S_\alpha</math>, which we shall denote by <math>S_\infty</math>. Indeed, <math>S_\infty</math> is linearly independent, since any linear relation within <math>S_\infty</math> involves only finitely many elements of <math>S_\infty</math>, and we may find a sufficiently large (w.r.t. the order of <math>A</math>) <math>\alpha \in A</math> such that all these elements are contained within <math>S_\alpha</math>, so that by the linear independence of <math>S_\alpha</math> the given linear relation must be trivial. Moreover, <math>S_\infty</math> has the property that <math>M/ \langle S_\infty \rangle</math> is torsion-free, since if <math>m \in M</math> and <math>r \in R</math> are given such that <math>m \notin S_\infty</math>, but <math>rm \in S_\infty</math> (ie. the equivalence class of <math>m</math> in <math>M / \langle S_\infty \rangle</math> is torsion), then <math>rm</math> is a linear combination of finitely many elements of <math>S_\infty</math>, so that once more we find a sufficiently large <math>\alpha \in A</math> such that <math>rm \in S_\alpha</math>, and then the equivalence class of <math>m</math> in <math>R / \langle S_\alpha \rangle</math> is torsion, a contradiction. Thus, Zorn's lemma may be applied, and it yields a maximal linearly independent <math>S \subseteq M</math> such that <math>M/ \langle S \rangle</math> is torsion-free. We lead the assumption <math>\langle S \rangle \neq M</math> to a contradiction. Indeed, if we had <math>\langle S \rangle \neq M</math>, then there would be an element <math>m \in M \setminus \langle S \rangle</math>. The set <math>S \cup \{m\}</math> will then be linearly independent, for if there was a linear relation :<math>0 = rm + r_1 s_1 + \cdots + r_n s_n</math> (where <math>r, r_1, \ldots, r_n \in R</math> and <math>s_1, \ldots, s_n \in S</math>), then we would have <math>(-r)m = r_1 s_1 + \cdots + r_n s_n \in \langle S \rangle</math> and the equivalence class of <math>m</math> in <math>M / \langle S \rangle</math> would be torsion.}} {{theorem|Dedekind's theorem|Let <math>R</math> be a principal ideal domain. Whenever <math>M</math> is a free <math>R</math>-module and <math>N \le M</math> is a submodule, <math>N</math> is free as well.|choice=axiom of choice}} {{proof|Since <math>N</math> is a submodule of a torsion-free module, it is itself torsion-free. Thus, the theorem holds, since [[#torsion-free modules over principal ideal domains are free|torsion-free modules over principal ideal domains are free]].}} {{BookCat}} 3o3srmh2vbd2z29swzys4lw872iaav2 0 438864 4632158 4002642 2026-04-25T07:33:44Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632158 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6]] azh4zgcrx1abjcyf4mi8ma6e01pyq5j 0 438865 4632159 4002644 2026-04-25T07:33:52Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632159 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6]] qg5rf4i9sk3kzasscvzsgbuvdxnzg6w 0 438866 4632160 4002646 2026-04-25T07:33:58Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632160 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7]] jvtn22c17wl9vzmk7tjgi4bfn7pwri7 0 438867 4632161 4002648 2026-04-25T07:34:05Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632161 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3]] 97ca47q47ff7w0pxwfe8zwczlf5fklm 0 438868 4632162 4002650 2026-04-25T07:34:13Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632162 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3/8...e5]] 5ex1mrc5koqdkx5rqbx9fr0fqn7v2rz 0 438869 4632163 4002653 2026-04-25T07:34:56Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632163 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3/8...e5/9. dxe5]] 1helnxdi9zvxgaoyvvm13igigyw6sdo 0 438870 4632164 4002655 2026-04-25T07:35:06Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632164 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3/8...e5/9. dxe5/9...Bb4]] j1d2jfjuefeqtb7dejd3acxpgdbcmrl 0 438871 4632165 4002657 2026-04-25T07:35:14Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632165 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3/8...e5/9. dxe5/9...Bb4/10. Ke2]] 2fz3l4puj8gmeu3j1u1c9az404gtrfd 0 438872 4632166 4002660 2026-04-25T07:35:21Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632166 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Nc6/7. Qxc6/7...Bd7/8. Qf3/8...e5/9. dxe5/9...Bb4/10. Ke2/10...Nh6]] q0xsuu5mh215sjpz6e1km1gevr5jh4h 0 438873 4632167 4002662 2026-04-25T07:35:28Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632167 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Qc7]] c31itppsttligasxx6nqpfqt96g81kc 0 438874 4632168 4002664 2026-04-25T07:35:35Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632168 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Qc7/7. Qxa8]] 6jzmxdbxdbesvnrsly7dflo4ptdf83w 0 438875 4632169 4002666 2026-04-25T07:35:42Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632169 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Qc7/7. Qxa8/7...Bb7]] 0pzkzeqx80f4u1mrpjgt0of72nicia0 0 438876 4632170 4002668 2026-04-25T07:35:48Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632170 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Qc7/7. Qxa8/7...Bb7/8. Qxa7]] nxucutocpdfxfxqr4icq9s7ooii0nxh 0 438877 4632171 4002670 2026-04-25T07:35:55Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632171 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Qc7/7. Qxa8/7...Bb7/8. Qxa7/8...e5]] tpzmquqfeogi3hwi7evg574kurh9r1n 0 438878 4632172 4002672 2026-04-25T07:36:01Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1b) 4632172 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. c4/2...c6/3. Nc3/3...dxc4/4. e3/4...b5/5. Nxb5/5...cxb5/6. Qf3/6...Qc7/7. Qxa8/7...Bb7/8. Qxa7/8...e6]] 4wa3vayot04bh4r2bp8rn9umcsjmq8q 3 442343 4632097 4631965 2026-04-24T17:34:27Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Linking */ Reply 4632097 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="3" |Talk Page Archives |- |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2022|2022]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2023|2023]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2024|2024]] |} == That IP range calculator == Following [[phab:T381138|T381138]], I have now become the maintainer of the IP range calculator you like. You can find it [[toolforge:ftools/general/ip-range-calc.html|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:10, 9 January 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the heads-up! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:56, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == A merge and unmerge from two years ago == I was browsing through the history merge log when I saw that you merged [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] into [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]], and then promptly reverted it. What happened here exactly? Could I correct it? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 15:55, 10 January 2025 (UTC) :Good question! I can't remember what I was trying to do, but it looks like I didn't succeed at what I wanted based on the log comment. You're just trying to history merge to get [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]] to have continuity of history? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:35, 10 January 2025 (UTC) ::I think I figured out your mistake: it outright moved the revisions from the first page to the second, rather than copying them. This would have caused the other two [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] pages to have incomplete histories. I think the only solution would be to XML import the pre-April 2023 revisions from the first page to the other three, and I'm not sure if that's the best idea, and I am technically unable to do so. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:49, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == Undeletion request == I wouldn't be surprised if you expected this, but I'd like to ask you to undelete the subpages of [[Rotorcraft Fundamentals]] you just deleted with the summary "Use of copyrighted work without permission. Please read Terms of Use: page needs to be imported for attribution", so that I can do that. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 19:54, 14 January 2025 (UTC) :Done! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:57, 14 January 2025 (UTC) ::Upon further investigation, this might actually be a rare case where an [[WB:UT|unmerged transwiki]] is ''preferred'' (this is part of why I stopped calling them "bad transwikis"), since only a small portion of the Wikipedia article (with over 2,000 revisions) was copied over. Importation is generally only needed if the ''majority'' of the page is copied across wikis. I'll just leave a null edit providing attribution and add {{tlx|Copied}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 21:19, 14 January 2025 (UTC) == Reusing [[Cookbook:8 Desserts in 1 Pan]] on wikiHow == Hi, I am a user on wikiHow, see [[wikihow:User:Xeverything11]]. I would like to create a new recipe on wikiHow. I wanted to let us know if I can give permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe from Wikibooks to wikiHow. I (as a copyright holder) created this recipe on Wikibooks, but you contributed to this recipe. If not, I'll use the revision before you contributed since I was the only author. Wikibooks uses CC-BY-SA 4.0 while wikiHow uses CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0, which both licenses are incompatible due to ShareAlike conditions. Thanks [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 08:27, 15 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] I'm personally fine with this as long as proper attribution is given back to the original recipe page here. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:52, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::I adapted this [[wikihow:Make-8-Desserts-in-1-Pan|recipe]] on wikiHow with attribution, and got a Rising Star (an achievement used for best new articles on wikiHow). Thank you! [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 19:49, 24 January 2025 (UTC) == Wikibooks community == Hi, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am trying to contribute more to English Wikibooks. My main contributions will focus on the Cookbook, especially on Indonesian recipes. Do you have a community group where we can discuss and share ideas together? I am looking forward to join. Thank you! [[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 08:47, 16 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] Sorry I missed this, and welcome! Are you asking about a Cookbook-specific area for discussion? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:39, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::Yes. Do you know place for this? ::Thank you ::[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 09:41, 21 January 2025 (UTC) :::Honestly, there's not a centralized Cookbook-specific discussion space, especially since there aren't currently a ton of active contributors. Some people ask questions at [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. I'm currently the most consistently active and involved Cookbook editor, so feel free to ask me questions! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:46, 22 January 2025 (UTC) == Congratulations! == [[File:Admin T-shirt.svg|thumb|You get this now.]] You are now a permanent administrator. Welcome to the team (I am entitled to say this because I technically got the extension a few hours before you did)!{{FBDB}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 10:33, 29 January 2025 (UTC) :Thanks :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:29, 29 January 2025 (UTC) == Is there a way to contact a Steward on WikiBooks? == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Is there a way to contact a Steward on WB? I tried to find who the active Stewards are here at [[Special:ActiveUsers?username=&groups%5B%5D=steward&wpFormIdentifier=specialactiveusers]] but nothing shows up. The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the [[Wikimania-wiki]], but I just visited the [[wikimania 2014 wiki]] and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the [[Wikimania 2014 main-page talk]] but disovered that the Stewards have protected it. Is there a way wikibookians can communicate with Stewards at WB? Thanks in advance for answering this non-urgent question, and apologies for all the red-links which I can bluify if needed. Cheers [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:37, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] You can ask this on somewhere like [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]]. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:01, 7 February 2025 (UTC) <s>:@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] seconding what Leaderboard said—we no longer have any active stewards at enWB.</s> Had a brain fade there and mixed up stewards with bureaucrats. Yes, meta is the place for this. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::@Kittycataclysm,@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], or anyone else: ::Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb. I myself am indef-blocked at META so could not participate at [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]] even if I waned to. ::Since [[Wikimania]] is a topic of interest to all members of the [[wikimedia movement]] why can't wikibookians talk to thier elected representatives here? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:56, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :::@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] I can check with the blocking admin to see if they'd be willing to unblock you, if you'd like. The reason things like these are done at Meta is that Meta is a cross-project coordination platform - stewards ''cannot'' be expected to watch every project after all. Now you could message any steward here on Wikibooks if you really wanted to, but that is not normally a good idea. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 02:26, 8 February 2025 (UTC) ::::Wikimania is the annual conference celebrating all the free knowledge projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF). It is a wikimedia initiative which is meant to help all of our projects (including wikibooks), gain more readership, educate more wiki-editors, foster better communications, and much more. The wmf has been hosting a Wikimania-wiki dedicated to each Wikimania annual event since 2004. These wikis contain a wealth of information, but can benefit from wiki-improvements, starting from spelling and grammar errors that detract from their to appeal to the general membership. It would be nice if Stewards paid more attention to it. ::::@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], I truly appreciate your offer, but I posted this here not in order to get someone to advocate for one unblocking at META. As I said earlier: ::::* "Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb" ::::* "The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the Wikimania-wiki, but I just visited the wikimania 2014 wiki and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the Wikimania 2014 main-page talk but disovered that the Stewards have protected it" ::::I would much rather see more wikimedia members question blocking in general at META. One cannot run such large movement of people from different backgrounds and nationalities simply by silencing minorities IMIO. [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:12, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Crystal ball]] == That page appears to be a mixture of isolated paragraphs from [[w:Crystal ball|Crystal ball]], hence my tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 03:04, 9 February 2025 (UTC) :Yep, that seems correct! I also queried it simply because it does not seem suitable for inclusion at all. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:09, 9 February 2025 (UTC) == Question about an edit suggestion == Hi Kittycataclysm, Thanks for the great work you do as an admin! I wanted to clarify a suggestion you made on a recently published page I’m working on. You recommended splitting it into smaller sections—would you suggest creating separate pages for these sections, or would a higher-level header for some topics be sufficient? Any specific recommendations you have would be greatly appreciated! Here’s the link to the page I’m referring to: [[Funding and Finance of Transportation Projects in the United States of America]] Thank you! [[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]] ([[User talk:Svrmustafa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Svrmustafa|contribs]]) 18:19, 18 February 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]], and thanks for asking! Splitting refers to creating new pages, each with a smaller amount of content. The main page should then contain a table of contents, and each page can contain a navigation template for easier navigation. I'll create the table of contents based on the current work and move some content to one of those pages as an example for you; then, you can do the rest. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:26, 19 February 2025 (UTC) ::Following up on this—I noticed that you use the term "paper". However, technically Wikibooks hosts books not papers, so you should probably change this wording. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:38, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Talkback == {{Talkback|Cookbook talk:Chilli Crab|Recipe Questions}} [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 09:54, 19 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] I also made [[Cookbook:Prata|this]] [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:15, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Hello == Can you look at my latest recipe? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 00:10, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :I saw it! It needs a few corrections, which I'll note. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:23, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] How do you write recipe summary, correct headers [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 06:04, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :::Please see [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]]. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:08, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 02:33, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook == Hi there, Kittycataclysm. I wandered over here from Wikipedia, and I'm quite enamoured with this cookbook. I noticed you seem to be the one maintaining it, and I thought I'd reach out. Can I really just start cranking out recipes from public domain cookbooks and my family recipes? It's that simple? I was also wondering about the featured recipes section. There's not very many in there, and I imagine there's not very many folks around to do reviews compared to GAR on Wikipedia. How do you handle content review? Thanks. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:51, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] and welcome! For some context, the Cookbook has been around since the very beginning of Wikibooks, but it had gotten into a bit of disarray over the course of about two decades by the time I found it. I started the long process of overhauling, standardizing, and expanding it just over four years ago—I finished standardizing the recipe formatting and quality a while back and am currently working my way through the ingredient pages before moving on to equipment, techniques, and cuisines. You can absolutely add any public domain recipes as well as your own recipes—they just need to conform to the [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template|recipe template]] and [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy overall]]. It's even better if you've made the recipe and can contribute a nice picture and specific guidance/instructions/notes! Please feel free to ask me any questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:27, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::Oh, and regarding the featured recipes section, I actually haven't gotten around to looking into that yet—there's been a lot to do! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:28, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::That's great, thanks a lot for your response. This is just delightful. Maybe content review is something that we could collaborate on. There's a lot of recipes in here and it would be nice to know which ones are the best. Question for you, [[:Category:Brown sauces]] is really bothering me. How can I move that to Brown sauce recipes? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:29, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::Good catch on that category! It seems like it was created two decades ago and never got corrected—feel free to recategorize those recipes. Thank you also for introducing the hideprefix parameter to the category trees—I didn't realize that was an option, and it reduces the visual clutter! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:38, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::My pleasure! As I continue to look at the categories, this is actually worse than I thought. We have both [[:Category:Sauce recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes for condiments]] and I suspect that's just the beginning. I want to go through and categorize everything properly, but the bones aren't even there... How long do I have to be here before it'll let me create and move around categories? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:40, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Regarding the categories, the category overhauling is in progress, since I address the category when I overhaul the associated page. The variation in titling is actually somewhat deliberate—I started changing it from "____ recipes" in certain cases to solve a particular categorization problem. Sometimes, there is an item that is used in recipes as an ingredient but for which there are also recipes. For example, [[:Category:Recipes for bread]] versus [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]. The different naming scheme is necessary to properly delineate the categories, and I'm working on implementing it a bit more consistently as I go. While you're still getting started, it would be great if you could check with me when something looks odd or out of place—that way I can take a look and weigh in on whether that's normal or not and maybe provide some context. Just off the top of my head, I think you will have to wait for autoreview status to make move changes. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:56, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::I see what you're saying, I've been trying to wrap my head around that. Maybe it would be beneficial to try to put together some sort of a Cookbook MOS regarding category structure? It's kind of all over the place right now. Using your bread example, would it perhaps make more sense to have [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]? There would be no ambiguity with just those two categories, but when you add the extra [[:Category:Recipes for bread]], that's when things start getting a little whacky. What do you think? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:05, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::Either that or get rid of [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and keep the other two. But one of these categories gotta go, I reckon. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::::I see you already had the same thought as me. I think all categories should include "for" or "using". Take for example, [[:Category:Recipes for pancakes]] as opposed to [[:Category:Pancake recipes]]. Well obviously there's no recipes using pancakes. But for something like [[:Category:Recipes for gravy]], there may also be a need for [[:Category:Recipes using gravy]]. The lack of consistency in this regard means the only way to achieve consistency across the categories is by changing them over to that format. Sorry for clogging up your talk page! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:18, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::::Same heads-up as below—migrating this over to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]] —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:10, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :Also, on [[Cookbook:Table of Contents]], could you please add a wikilink for [[Cookbook:Breakfast]], and maybe add cooknav to the top for seamless navigation between all the top level articles? Can't edit that article yet. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:47, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == More Table of Content Edits == Hello again. I've been going through everything and this is my list of suggestions for edits to the table of contents. Unfortunately there's not much else I can do for now, because without autoconfirmed my ability to change anything is very limited. I was going to ask for someone to check off the confirmed box for me at RfP but I can't post there either, so I guess I'll be back in four days. * Fix Bread wikilink * Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing * [[Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Low-Carb]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] to [[Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine]] for parity * Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting * Create [[:Category:Lunch recipes]], wikilink to ToC * Wikilink [[Cookbook:Dessert]] under Meals * Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category * Create [[Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine]] so I can add the recipes from [[:Category:East Asian recipes]] to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC * Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction" * Appendix and Equipment sections switch places Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:46, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :I took the liberty of doing it myself in my userspace. You can just copy it over from [[User:MediaKyle/sandbox]]. Figured I'd save you the trouble of trying to figure out what I'm talking about. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 14:15, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Circling back to this! It seems like your suggestions are getting at a couple different things. I'll try to go through them point-by-point below: :* {{xt|Fix Bread wikilink}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing}} see below comments on TOC. :* {{xt|Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for now because I don't fully understand the urgency and I want to triage/prioritize things for you, but please feel free to make this change yourself once you can! :* {{xt|Cookbook:Low-Carb points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for same reason as above. :* {{xt|Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean to Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine for parity}} {{not done}} for now just because we do have a lot of cuisine pages that follow the form "Cuisine of ____". It could be good to standardize, and I had been planning to do that once I got around to the cuisines. :* {{xt|Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting}} {{not done}} for same reason as other redirects :* {{xt|Create Category:Lunch recipes, wikilink to ToC}} Not quite sure what you mean here, and I didn't see what it corresponded to in your linked sandbox page :* {{xt|Wikilink Cookbook:Dessert under Meals}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category}} I'm not sure about this—brunch is in many places considered a separate entity, and I don't necessarily think it would cause confusion. But, overall it's hard to determine whether it should have its own page and TOC link because I haven't actually gotten around to evaluating the meal pages and what role they should play. See also the TOC notes below. :* {{xt|Create Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine so I can add the recipes from Category:East Asian recipes to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC}} {{done}} for now; however, I'm not sure yet whether it will ultimately make sense to keep that as a content page. I think content pages should be reasonably focused, and it may not be the best to have a cuisine page that is so broad. This is something I planned to consider once I made my way around the overhauling the cuisines. :* {{xt|Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction"}} The reason I made it "Introductory Matter" instead of "Introduction" is because there's already a chapter itself titled "Introduction"—it felt odd to have the entire section titled that as well. Happy to discuss other header options (e.g. "Front Matter", which is a generally accepted book term) :* {{xt|Appendix and Equipment sections switch places}} see below comments on TOC. :* '''Comments on the TOC:''' So, I think a fundamental issue with the current TOC is that it somewhat arbitrarily picks and chooses individual pages to link. It also sometimes direct-links to categories and sometimes to content pages, which I don't think we should do. Because the cookbook is so expansive, it's been established that manual indices intending to capture detail in large areas don't really make sense and quickly get bulky and out-of-date. This is why categorytree is such a useful tool! After thinking on it for a while and making some small tweaks, I think I'd ultimately like to overhaul the TOC and come to a solution that keeps a few broad headers/links to the small handful of the primary content pages while perhaps stashing away more detailed and self-updating lists in a collapsible way to reduce clutter but allow for customizable user navigation. Much to think about, and I'll probably workshop some things on the side to see how they feel. :Let me know if I've misunderstood anything! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:24, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for the notes! Here's my thoughts: ::* On the Cuisine titling, it actually seems like [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] and [[Cookbook:East Asian cuisines]] are the only ones that don't follow the naming scheme, i.e. "[[Cookbook:African Cuisine]]", and I think that shorter titles are preferable where it makes sense. ::* On your note about East Asian Cuisine, I actually had the same thought after going through the cuisine pages. Having three separate pages for different kinds of Asian cuisine does seem a little silly, doesn't it? Do you think it might be better to combine all of them under one "Asian Cuisine", but put the different locales under separate headers? ::* On Brunch - I honestly think there's way too much ambiguity around what exactly constitutes as "brunch" to keep that in. I feel as though the term brunch more applies to the time you're eating, rather than the kind of food. I think it would be easier to keep meals that include commonly accepted breakfast foods in the Breakfast category, and things that don't fit neatly into that, into the Lunch category. This would prevent any dilemmas in the future where we can't decide whether something is breakfast or brunch. ::* You're right that it looks a little awkward to have the header as Introduction when there's a page called introduction. I still think that to say "Introductory Matter", or "Front Matter" as you mentioned, is a little long-winded and reflects a more academic tone than needed for a cookbook. Upon further reflection, I think maybe rather than worrying about the header at this point, we should perhaps think about trying to compile all of those short introductory type pages into one comprehensive introductory page. Then we likely won't even need a header for it on the ToC. ::* The ToC is definitely a bit cluttered, and it bothers me too that there's a real lack of consistency across whether the wikilinks lead to a page or a category. I'm not sure how I would feel about cutting away too much of the navigation from it, though, because just about every page on there does have a reason to be there, it's just that they're not presented very nicely. Some of it can certainly get nested or combined though. I'll play around with it over the next few days in my sandbox as well and let you know if I come up with anything. ::* As an aside, the first thing on my to-do list once my autoconfirmed comes through is to start subcategorizing all of the recipes so that they're all nicely sorted in the category trees. When you have a chance, I'd love to hear your thoughts on what we should use as the standard naming for categories. Once we determine this, I think we can also take the liberty of updating the cookbook MoS to reflect it. ::Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:33, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :::Note: After writing this, I realized what you were getting at about slashing away some of the subpages. Maybe we can come up with a system where all of those subpages are under their main subpage rather than on the ToC. For example, all the Cuisines are under [[Cookbook:Cuisines]], all techniques under [[Cookbook:Cooking Techniques]], to keep the subpages off the main ToC. Also, I wonder if maybe we should try to make a centralized discussion for this somewhere, in case anyone else wants to join in at some point? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:45, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::Heads-up: to make it easier to keep track of these and since I think they deserve their own discussions, I'm going to gradually migrate them over individually to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:52, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Good idea. Can you remove the semi-protection from that talk page? I see no reason why it should be protected. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:23, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook ToC == Hi [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. I was just wondering why you didn't respond to my above message, and started a separate sandbox for the ToC instead? It seems as though you don't really want to collaborate. It would be nice if we could work on this together. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 22:43, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] thanks for the ping! I'm sorry you feel like I don't want to collaborate—the opposite is true, and please understand that this is good-faith editing. The reason I haven't responded to the above points is mostly since you've been modifying a bunch of content and adding suggestions lately, and I've been working my way through these while continuing with my routine contributions and real life as well—things happen a little more slowly here than on other projects, and I'm the one person dedicated to the cookbook right now. The reason I created that sandbox was because I saw [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#Modernize the shelves|your comment]] at the reading room and wanted to play around and think about your suggestion without touching the actual TOC. You're right that it's not the best, and it's been something I've been thinking about for a bit now. Please understand also that it can be overwhelming when a new editor unfamiliar with the Cookbook begins making a high volume of edits and suggestions without having much experience with it or its history—this isn't to say that you don't have good ideas or things worth contributing. In fact, you have already made a few helpful changes, as I've mentioned. I just want to do this properly and take the time to evaluate your suggestions together with the current efforts that are underway, and that can take a bit. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:03, 2 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for getting back to me. While I may be new to Wikibooks, I'm certainly not new to MediaWiki, and I've been working with small wiki projects for a number of years. Perhaps it's been a misunderstanding to some degree, but I've found my reception here to be unusually unwelcoming. The way to do this properly, as you said, would be to have discussions and form consensus. Yesterday, when you reached out to me about adding hideroot to the pages, I gave you my rationale and was more than happy to have a discussion about it, but you did not reply. I noticed a similar situation happened with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Ottawahitech#Category_sorting Ottawahitech], regarding category sorting. I'm aware that you're the main person looking after the cookbook right now, which is why I reached out to you right from the get go. ::I understand why you would want to create your own sandbox to play around with options for the ToC, but I'm sure you can understand why it would draw my attention that you would do this without implementing any of the wikilink fixes I mentioned, or making an attempt to discuss it further. This came across to me as not wanting my help. ::I invite you to check out my page on Wikipedia. I've made contributions across quite a wide area of topics there, as well as the other Wikimedia projects, and this is the first time I've encountered any sort of resistance to my contributions. I think Wikibooks has enormous potential, and I'm very excited to contribute to helping it grow. On most projects, this would be something to be encouraged. I don't feel like "I'm sorry that you feel that way" was really an appropriate response. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:59, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :::I think you're right that this has been a mix of misunderstanding and miscommunication, and I think I can understand how things came across as unwelcoming! For whatever it's worth, I absolutely plan on circling back to the various discussions at hand (I have all the relevant pages open to return to), but it seems like the order I did things made it seem like I was ignoring you (if I'm understanding correctly). I am pretty busy, so sometimes items on my to-do list do get lost/shunted or it takes me a bit to get around to something—please don't hesitate to give me a ping if it seems like I'm taking a while to get back to something. Looking forward to more collaboration! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:49, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::I'm glad you can understand where I'm coming from. To clarify, my intent is not to try to rush you, or to try to push you to make changes that you don't agree with. It's really easy to misinterpret things over the Internet, and I think a short message can go a long way. I apologize if I've caused you any undue stress by coming into the cookbook and unleashing a flurry of alterations, but do rest assured that I'm not married to any of my changes, I'm always open for discussion, and I want to see the cookbook improve just like you do. The great thing about wikis is that no change is permanent. I think we'll have it in tip-top shape in no time! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:19, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Polish Doughnuts (Paczki)]] == Do you see any reason not to just add this to Featured Recipes? At least we know this one works, and it seems like this is now one of the few recipes to have a picture that actually aligns with the recipe used. I was thinking later on we'll come up with a content review system where a couple editors will actually try the recipes nominated for FR, but in the absence of that I'd just add it to the list. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 12:25, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :I'm fine with adding it to the featured recipes. You're right that we'll want to come up with a good system for this going forward, though it's lower down on my personal priority list at moment. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Cream Cheese American Buttercream]] == Hi! I am a wikiHow user and I am planning to adapt this recipe to wikiHow. Since you contributed to this recipe, I wanted to know if I can get permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe. Thanks. [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 21:41, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] that's fine with me as long as proper attribution and linking back to the original recipe page here are included at the top. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:28, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[A Companion to Our Literary Journey]] == Hi! I feel that we have started to outline the scope in a clearer and more precise way and that’s the work we are going to do with the students this and for the next years, adding more sections and content. Do you think that would be enough? [[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]] ([[User talk:Ferdi2005|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ferdi2005|contribs]]) 22:43, 6 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]]! Yes, this seems to be reasonably outlined. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:51, 7 March 2025 (UTC) == Exercising care with copyright == When deleting a page as a copyright violation, it is important that you '''do not quote any content from the deleted page'''. If you do, then your log entry is itself a copyright violation. I have redacted a recent deletion that you performed because of this. If you want to make sure that none of your past deletions have been problematic for this reason, you can [[quarry:query/90444|run this SQL query]] to get a list of every deletion that could be eligible for redaction. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 18:32, 21 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] and thank you for the message. In the most recent instance that I think you're referencing, I do not see any material in the edit summary that posed a significant risk—I don't believe the few listed words would be a copyright concern. However, I do understand your concern! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:31, 21 March 2025 (UTC) == Splitting Pages == Hi I have recently made the book on the [[History of the Nawabs of Bengal]] and you gave a notice on how you believe it should be split into smaller bits. As I am still new to wikibooks I don't know how to do this. Can you please assist me on renaming the page so I can split the page into multiple pages? @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 19:47, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]]: You did it. I've removed the tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:44, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :Like @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] said, you're all set! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 29 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks! @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 10:24, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == Minecraft book == Is it good creating pages like this, [[Minecraft#Husk]]? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 12:43, 9 May 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:18, 10 May 2025 (UTC) ::are we allowed to create pages like that? like for every mob [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:02, 11 May 2025 (UTC) :::To be honest, I don't think the structure and formatting of the book is very good. Several of the mob pages, for example, have very little information and aren't particularly helpful on their own. If I were working on it, I would restructure the book. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:09, 11 May 2025 (UTC) ::::I am planning to do that. [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 04:19, 12 May 2025 (UTC) == Request to Review Adjusted User Page (XoriantTeam) == Hello [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I hope you're well. I noticed that my user page ([[User:XoriantTeam]]) was recently deleted for appearing promotional or inappropriate for Wikibooks. Thank you for keeping the community standards in check. I’ve since revised the content with closer attention to neutrality and compliance with Wikibooks guidelines. My intent is to participate constructively, especially in areas related to digital engineering and educational content creation. If possible, I’d appreciate your help reviewing the revised version. I'm happy to share it or upload it as a file if there’s a preferred method. Please let me know how best to proceed. I welcome any suggestions and will gladly make further adjustments. Best regards, XoriantTeam [[User:XoriantTeam|XoriantTeam]] ([[User talk:XoriantTeam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/XoriantTeam|contribs]]) 11:02, 15 May 2025 (UTC) :Hi there—you can publish an updated user page, but I'd caution you against talking about your company. Keep it limited to your involvement with Wikibooks. You may contribute productively here, but further promotional materials are grounds for an indefinite block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:30, 15 May 2025 (UTC) == Planning to use AWB to update categories on the cookbook == Hello. I noticed in recent changes that you were moving some categories using HotCat (e.g. moving Category:Chile recipes to Category:Recipes using chile), which can be time-consuming. Therefore, I plan to help you with moving the cookbook categories by adding myself to enabledusers and enabledbots in [[Wikibooks:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON]]. Would this be fine if I assist you and to add myself to the check page? I am familiar with using AWB after testing on a non-Wikimedia project. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:42, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—thank you for the tip! I just installed JWB, so this should make my mass cat changes much faster. Thanks again! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:11, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for the information. Also, is it okay if I change (for example) [[:Category:Vinegar recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes using vinegar]] (I can redirect the former category to the latter), given that we should move {{tq|Category:[ingredient] recipes}} to {{tq|Category:Recipes using [ingredient]}} for consistency? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :::Sure thing—go ahead! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:53, 8 June 2025 (UTC) == Tool for even faster category changes == See [[:c:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot#As_your_user_gadget]]. I just [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Koavf/common.js&action=history installed it] and used it dozens of times in a click. Let me know if you need any help. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:36, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Thanks! I'm having a little trouble activating it, but I'll keep trying. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:54, 19 June 2025 (UTC) ::A lot of times, a purge will do the trick. See [[:mw:Purge]]. Usually just <kbd>Ctrl+Shift+R</kbd> once or twice. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:55, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :::Took several purges, but we're set now! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:16, 19 June 2025 (UTC) == Advice on when I should run for adminship == Hi, I hope you are doing well. I am asking for some advice on when I should run for enwikibooks adminship, given the following below: Currently, I am doing some optimizations for dark mode on this project, and some of the message box/MediaWiki interface/template pages might be outdated, fully protected, or can use a little help using mw-parser-output. These unfortunately might hinder the process of updating these pages/templates for Vector 2022's dark mode.<br> Additionally, I have a solid expertise with edit filters, as I have requested some administrators to update deprecated filter variables, switching filters from warn and disallow to disallow only, and I can also monitor the filter log for potential false positives (from local or global filters). A fellow English Wikibooks administrator also said to me that they are willing to support me in a few months when I run for adminship, as I am generally trusted. I hold two advanced global permissions, and I hold an edit filter helper permission on the English Wikipedia, to be sure. Thank you for your consideration. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:02, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—good question! I agree that you are a trusted user, and I think it would be reasonable for you to run for adminship, especially given our need to fix up technical aspects of the project. If you don't plan to commit to Wikibooks long-term (i.e. you have some projects you'd like to take a few months to complete and then be done), you can always request temporary adminship. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:30, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for your feedback, but I also plan to monitor for vandalism/spam, and to commit to reduce the administrative assistance reading room backlog, should I be elected for adminship (and I forgot to mention those). Anyway, regarding your feedback, I might run by August or even July, given that I've lately started contributing more often to Wikibooks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:29, 23 June 2025 (UTC) ::: [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am pinging you one more time to see if you have read my response above yours. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:34, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]! I'm not sure what you mean—was there an additional question you had? Everything you've outlined seems quite reasonable. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:26, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::: Apologies for the confusion, I don't have any questions to ask. I was clarifying that I can help with implementing edit requests and to block obvious vandals and spammers, aside from the skills I mentioned earlier. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:32, 26 June 2025 (UTC) == how is it you feel able to interfere in my sandbox? == you deleted a page in my sandbox that was my way of providing my response to a request from an OpenSCAD dev team leader for a couple of text blurbs for use on a web page of the OpenSCAD site. now that you have deleted my page i have to recreate the texts from a screenshot to be able to offer the suggestions, which i will This kind of high handed treatment is what keeps me from being a wiki-anything contributor .. If it is Wiki policy to interfere in the documentation of an open source project because it is hosted on Wikibooks then i will take up the task of moving our online docs to a site where you cannot interfere. -- [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 21:56, 29 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]]—thanks for bringing this to my attention. I now understand that this was intended to be in your user namespace—I've undeleted it and moved it to the correct namespace for you. Let me know if anything else comes up! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:05, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::ah .. err .. umm .. well that is a gentle answer to my ire. Thanks for being so gracious [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:29, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::and .. isn't my sandbox in my namespace by default? [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:30, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :::No worries—it looks like you didn't add the prefix "User:" before writing out the full page titles, so the pages you created were technically in the project's Main space with the official published materials. Going forward, you can just double-check that the page title starts with "'''User:'''VulcanWikiEdit/sandbox", and that should keep everything in the right place! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:36, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::::BTW .. i love the play on cat lover name [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 15:35, 1 July 2025 (UTC) :::::Thank you! That's very kind. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:46, 1 July 2025 (UTC) == Regarding the user Codename Tameirao == Could this be Matthew again (the Unicode LTA)? I believe it might be him based on his usage of edit summaries, and his usual edits to [[Unicode/Versions]]. I just blocked his recent account, and then I protected and stabilized that Unicode book. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 23:51, 12 August 2025 (UTC) :I suspect you're right! That seems like a reasonable course of action. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:56, 13 August 2025 (UTC) :: I recently encountered another possible LTA, see [[Special:Contributions/~2025-55706-6]] (as well as [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]]). I can email you more details if you want. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 16:30, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::I think this is the same LTA, yes! I've protected [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]], but I think it would be a good idea if we could automate this monitoring somewhat using the edit filter. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:07, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I don't think that was Matthew, as he typically uses edit summaries. The deleted page was not protected, as it was protected before you deleted it; I salted it from creation for one year. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:22, 9 September 2025 (UTC) ::::: You might want to look at [[Special:Contributions/Freddy Fazbearing Others]]. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:18, 26 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you! I went ahead and blocked them. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:54, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == IP block exempt == Hi Kitty, I currently have IP block exemption on enwiki, Commons and Wikidata as I use VPNs connected to my internet security software. Can you please grant me the right on wikibooks. I have a strong password and use two factor authentication. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 10:51, 22 August 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TarnishedPath|TarnishedPath]]! This doesn't sound unreasonable to me, but I think it would be good if you requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] so we can have a discussion—I have not granted this right before. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:50, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::Kitty, thanks for pointing me in the right direction. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:25, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::See [[Wikibooks:Requests_for_permissions#TarnishedPath_(discuss_·_contribs_·_count_·_logs_·_block_log_·_rfp_·_rights)_(IP_Block_Exemption)]] ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:35, 23 August 2025 (UTC) == You've got mail! == {{You've got mail|sig=<span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 00:20, 6 September 2025 (UTC)}} :Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:06, 6 September 2025 (UTC) == Are you able to import? == I made a few requests over at https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Requests_for_import . [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 22:32, 4 October 2025 (UTC) : [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]], I'll go ahead and start the imports. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you for your help [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 16:51, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::: My apologies for not doing this sooner, because some database error appears when I am trying to mass import. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:39, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::::I also tried to make this import earlier and ran into issues with the software. I was hoping it was a temporary bug, but it seems to be persisting. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:01, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::This seems like I should get involved. {{working}}... [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:11, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::: I believe there are five pages that have massive page histories they fail to import here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:13, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::::I backed up the XMLs of them locally but im unsure how much that'd do. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 15:18, 6 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Just became an importer. The reason is prob understandable but I cannot upload the XML file to here locally. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 17:23, 10 October 2025 (UTC) == About the category parameter in the recipe summary template == When it uses a "recipe by type" category, should it use a "[type/food] recipes" name or "Recipes for [type/food]"? I recently operated JWB to change from [[:Category:Dessert recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes for dessert]] in multiple Cookbook recipes, and from what I've said before, I've changed to ''Recipes for dessert'' in the category parameter of Cookbook recipes. Hope you don't mind that this was over more than 250 changes (not counting the recent category changes after moving some recipe categories). Thanks. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:07, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—those JWB changes you made seem fine to me! I'm not quite sure what you're asking in your first sentence, though. Assuming I understand correctly: in general, I think the default format should be whatever the actual category name is. BUT if there is a redirect, it ultimately shouldn't matter too much. And, because I'm not convinced of the utility of that infobox parameter in the first place (thinking of removing it), I'm not hugely concerned about it for the time being. Does this help? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:21, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :: Probably, but I will say the following below (for my first sentence) to clarify: :: On the <code>|category =</code> parameter, when placing a recipe category name, should it either be {{tq|Sandwich recipes}} or {{tq|Recipes for sandwiches}}? I hope this clears the confusion. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:39, 27 October 2025 (UTC) == Please no more Unicode LTA == Please don't block me again. I promise I will edit Unicode stuff and add correct information. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2025-30839-28|&#126;2025-30839-28]] ([[User talk:&#126;2025-30839-28|talk]]) 20:54, 1 November 2025 (UTC) :<small>I am a bit out of the loop, so correct me if I'm wrong - I'm assuming here</small> I think the point is that they want you to ''not'' edit the Unicode stuff? Also hi kitty, it's been a ... very long time.. ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:13, 5 November 2025 (UTC) ::Ok so apparently not as long as I thought, but it feels like I've been away for at least a year lol ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:23, 5 November 2025 (UTC) :::Nice to see you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:41, 5 November 2025 (UTC) == Administrator and reviewer user right combinations are not needed anymore == Given that administrators can review edits in addition to reviewers, I would suggest for you (and other administrators) to kindly remove the reviewer permission from (own) accounts. What I'm saying is that if one holds administrator and reviewer permissions together, they can remove the reviewer permission from their own account and retain their administrator permission. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:06, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Gotcha—is there a reason it's bad for one user to have both these rights? If so, I can remove my reviewer right. Otherwise, it seems fairly harmless? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:26, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :: The thing is, administrators have the <code>review</code> user right, as well as some permissions in the reviewer user group in the administrator toolset. That means that having the reviewer user group together with the admin user group is redundant. Hope this explains it. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:59, 11 November 2025 (UTC) ::: @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] <s>I'll do this tomorrow morning, as well as to remove autoreviewed user permissions from users who are reviewers.</s> ({{doing}}) [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:24, 12 November 2025 (UTC) : I have removed the autoreviewed user permission from users who are reviewers. As for administrators, I will do so later today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:40, 13 November 2025 (UTC) == Nesting in Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities == Hi Kittycataclysm, I am editor of wikipedia since 2004. We have the habit if we have a concern using the talk page to clarify the case. I am not sure to delete meaningful content without previous notification and doing major redirection without agreeing the main contributor(s) is an adequate admin act and sign of good manner of host (see [[W:Wikipedia:Etiquette|Wikipedia:Etiquette]].) Yes, It will be not an average book but above the regular. This is the exact case: ''"this may be appropriate, such as with large textbooks that contain subsections with a lot of content."'' ''for to establish good structural and stylistic practices'' I have a data management certification. If you asking it will have 4 nest level on strict purpose. If you saw the introduction of the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] is/will be a global collection making effective collaboration over borders and continents. One structured + categorized(!) page for each community willing to show up. The Postal addresses has also same or larger deepness, this is unavoidable (Country/Postal Code/Location/Street/House/floor/door). Here will looks like: '''Eco-comm/Continent/Regio code/Community name''' The goal of this system to open bridge + experience highway for the communities using the same permaculture technics what collected parallelly in [[Open Book of Permaculture]]. That is also part of this knowledge base please dont do simplification steps on that without discussion. I am kindly asking to revert your edits in this book. After that I will put a notification template about "This book is under construction with major changes. Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History. Common clarifications/ guides are on the primary talk page." Thanks: [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 02:22, 12 November 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]], and thank you both for your contributions and for reaching out! Yes, I did make the following changes to [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]: :* I moved the pages from the [[Eco-comm]] namespace to the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] namespace, since the table of contents and pages for a given book should be under that book's namespace. :* I removed the links to Wikipedia that were on [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]], since outlinking has been discouraged at en.Wikibooks as a matter of practice. Compilations of links may not fall into WB scope as an instructional text, and [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Piano Solo Music: An Encyclopedia|there is precedent for deleting them]]. But, I do see that the tool I used didn't just remove links to enWP, so I will restore the prior revision and ping the tool developer. :* I flagged it as needing denesting—you're right that nested entries can sometimes be appropriate. In this case, I was primarily flagging for a denest because the table of contents needs to be moved onto the main page, and it shouldn't have hidden navigation within the nested portions. :Could you clarify which of these edits you do not agree with so I can make sure they are individually addressed? As an aside, it could be helpful to create a [[Help:Local manuals of style|local manual of style]] for the book in order to clearly outline the expectations. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:59, 12 November 2025 (UTC) ::My main concern not about moving and flagging but '''deleting''' [[Eco-comm]] against [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy]] and not mentioning in the clarification even after my notification. Should I note all administrators [[Wikibooks:Please do not bite the newcomers]] - or will they do speedy deleting one by one until I make them individually addressed? :::The <u> local manual of style</u> development is ongoing together with the sample pages. ::'''MAIN PAGE''' ::The '''Main page''' and '''Namespace''' is the [[Eco-comm]]. The '''Full Title''' or '''Cover''' is [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]. Because of the high level of nesting the below extra-long-full-text-title to be avoided the Cover page is a redirection with preface/intro etc. ::'''NESTING ''' :::Featured book with 3 level nesting: [[Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Theory]] :::5 level nesting example: [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] ::'''Categories''' The [[:Category:Eco-comm]] will let the users make practical sub-categories e.g. [[:Category:Eco-comm/Project/numundo]] [[:Category:Eco-comm/]] ::: ::[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 03:44, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you for elaborating! I'm unfortunately not sure what you mean about deleting [[Eco-comm]]—are you referring to the fact that I moved it without leaving a redirect? Regarding the nesting, I do honestly think those other books you linked should have their navigation denested since I find their format difficult to parse, and they have some navigation issues. Looping in some other active admins (@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] (@[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]) so they can get eyes on this and voice anything they think is important. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 04:12, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::It makes no sense to have some crazy abbreviation as a "main page" or "namespace" (whatever that means in this context) for a book in order to allow it to be deep nested. Nobody needs to type the whole name of the nesting because that's what navigation templates do, and it is a simple matter to override the page title. I also take issue with the statement, above, "Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History." Anybody can edit, and nobody gets to own and control any work. Taken together, this complaint looks like a case of attempting to assert ownership and to operate against the normal practices of Wikibooks. As such, I am completely aligned with the changes made. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::::That. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 14:59, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]]@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] for the contribution, btw the [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] also looks crazy long, is'nt it? Lets continue in the [[Wikibooks:Reading_room/General]] keeping this page for personal messages. [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 23:07, 20 November 2025 (UTC) == Deletions of Wikibook subpages == Hello @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], regarding the [[Thesis Writing Guide]] subpage deletions, should I just recreate them when I keep working on them or was there an automatic deletion that we could undo? This document will grow, but really slowly. Best, Tim [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 11:37, 16 December 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]]! Since there was so little content on the deleted pages, my recommendation would just be for you to gradually recreate the chapters as you go. Does that make sense? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:54, 17 December 2025 (UTC) ::Makes sense, not my ideal solution, but also not far from it :) The end result will be the same, the in-between will just feel a little bit weird from time to time. ::Thank you for taking time to curate and quality-control Wikibooks - wishing wonderful holidays and a happy new year! [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 20:43, 17 December 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you, and happy holidays to you as well :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:13, 17 December 2025 (UTC) == help with "Media Literacy and You" == {{re|Kittycataclysm}} What do I need to do to get a quality review of ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', or whatever is needed to remove <nowiki>{{Qr-em|not clear how this is to be structured as a book}}</nowiki>? I ask, because you added that flag just over 2 hours after I created it. I later found that I had accidentally created it as an anonymous user. I've since started using my standard Wikiname, and I tried to respond to the requests both by creating a discussion on the "Discussion" page associated with that book and by upgrading the content. The upgrades included adding the "Introduction" chapter by revising an article on Wikiversity that convinced me to start this Wikibook. I have other articles that I plan to rewrite to create 9 of the remaining 11 chapters in the current table of contents, as indicated in this table of contents. ??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:23, 8 February 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]]! I removed the query flag, since this is clearly not a test page. I do have concerns about the suitability of this book for Wikibooks, since it seems to be more in line with essays and original research/analysis (which are [[Wikibooks:WIW|out of scope here]]). Wikiversity seems like a very suitable place for them—is there a specific reason you want to move them here? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:24, 8 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::This book is intended to accelerate the diffusion of [[w:Media literacy|media literacy]] by making it easier for humans to (a) access training materials and (b) connect with research on the most important issues that concern them and (c) discuss those issues with others who may believe differently in a nonthreatening context that encourages dialogue and a shared search for what can honestly be said about any particular issue. This is an extension of "The wisdom of polarized crowds" discussed in [[Wikipedia:Reliability of Wikipedia]]. ::I don't know about you, but I'm frightened by the collapse of nuclear arms control agreements since the year 2000, by global warming, by the threats of the Trump administration to invade Canada and Greenland, etc. If this book project is successful, it will make a material contribution to reversing these trends -- unless this kind of dialogue is [[v:Responding to a nuclear attack|interrupted by a nuclear war]]. === Who is DavidMCEddy === ::I'm a [[w:Vietnam veteran|Vietnam-era veteran]] with a PhD in statistics and a publication record for which [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Spencer-Graves-3 ReserchGate has found over 1,200 academic publications that have cited my work.] Since [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikipedia.org/DavidMCEddy 2010 I have logged] * 6,000+ edits in each of Wikipedia and Wikiversity, * 1,000+ in Wikimedia Commons, * 30,000+ in Wikidata, and * almost 1,000 in other Wikimedia Foundation projects like Wikiquote and edits to the Spanish, French and German Wikipedias. This includes dozens of research reports posted to Wikiversity under [[v:Category:Freedom and abundance]] and 44 posts under [[v:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] that provide a platform for documenting and discussing 44 episodes of a fortnightly "Media & Democracy" series of 29:00 mm:ss podcasts syndicated for the [https://pacificanetwork.org/stations-2/ Pacifica Radio Network] featuring the opinions of leading experts on the increase in political polarization and violence and what those experts think should be done about this. I've just posted another chapter to [[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. I hope you will agree that this book can make a positive contribution to Wikibooks and to [[w:Jimmy Wales|Jimbo Wales]]' [[w:Wikipedia:Prime objective|Prime Directive]] to create "a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge." Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 01:19, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Thank you and I understand this, but I am asking why you think this material is more suitable at Wikibooks rather than at Wikiversity. From what I can see, Wikiversity seems like the more appropriate home for it given our [[Wikibooks:WIW|scope]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:59, 9 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::"Media Literacy and You" is textbook to support both self study and classes on media literacy. ::I have been posting content to Wikiversity since 2014 and have not encountered support there for books. A search just now turned up a hint of a book on Wikiversity, but I could not easily find anything on how to do it, etc. ::I think this "Media Literacy and You" project would lose the vast majority of its potential if it were not on Wikibooks. ::??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:22, 9 February 2026 (UTC) {{outdent}} {{re|Kittycataclysm}} Will you please help me with the protocols of creating a book on Wikiversity? 1. I have found documentation that claims that Wikiversity supports such. However, the documentation seems incomplete, potentially out of date, etc. For example, I could not see how to follow the instructions for [[Wikiversity:Help:Books#Step 1: Enable the "Book creator" tool]]. So I posted a question to [[Wikiversity:Help talk:Books]]. 2. What do you suggest I do next? :I can create an article on Wikiversity titled, "Media Literacy and You", and port everything I've posted to Wikibooks there, then replace the pages on Wikibooks with redirects to [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You]], [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/Introduction]], and [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. :If you think that's the best way to build this book project, great. It would actually be easier for me, because there would be less translation between what I already have on Wikiversity and a version for Wikibooks. (Also, Wikiversity supports <nowiki>{{cite Q|...}}</nowiki>, which I have used extensively for years.) :Thanks for your help. [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 13:26, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Unfortunately, I am not familiar with the exact workings of Wikiversity, so I can't be much help there. My personal recommendation is that you ask there for help on how best to structure your materials to match the WV requirements. If you'd like some additional opinions/insight, please feel free to also check in at the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General|reading room]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:22, 10 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} I believe I have finished migrating all of ''Media Literacy and You'' to Wikiversity and replacing the parts of it on Wikibooks with redirects. Comments? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 17:32, 10 February 2026 (UTC) == Thank you! == Heya, thanks for reviewing my stuff! Just to note, the first lesson page was done and so that'll need moving. If you want to discuss anything with me, I am easily reachable on Discord @ xiluosi233. I can explain philosophy, approach, and so on from my teaching experience if you want anything regarding that. [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 February 2026 (UTC) :It appears [[An Introduction to the Han Script]] was moved wrong - should it not be [[General Literary Chinese from Scratch/An Introduction to the Han Script]]? [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:52, 17 February 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] good catch! I accidentally removed more of the title than intended. I've fixed this now. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:18, 18 February 2026 (UTC) == A test request == Just to see whether a recent Luna update turned out as intended, could you briefly revert your [[User:Kittycataclysm/lunaoptions.json|Luna preferences page]] to the first revision? Since you don't appear to have any custom preferences in the first place, I don't think there should be any conflicts. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:49, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Done! But, it seems to have perhaps auto-updated again immediately afterwards. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:39, 10 April 2026 (UTC) == Linking == Hi,<br> For my edification, why is a link from [[Cookbook:nettle|nettle]] to [[w:Urtica_dioica|Urtica dioica]] not appropriate? The Wikipedia article has more information & seems relevant.<br> Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 01:53, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] good question! Wikibooks discourages outlinking, since books should be self-contained units. Instead of linking to [[w:Urtica dioica]], the correct approach would be to flesh out the actual chapter here at Wikibooks. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 3eg4fv8rlu11ron9o5keu0erfual3hq 4 447875 4632055 4630969 2026-04-24T12:10:59Z Alexis Jazz 470964 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) 4632055 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}} The following data is cached, and was last updated 2026-04-22T06:25:38Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |BookCat || 105 || 6 |- |CleanDeleteReasons || 54 || 0 |- |CommentsInLocalTime || 664 || 5 |- |DeluxeBar || 206 || 8 |- |GetCollection || 551 || 1 |- |HotCat || 1 || 1 |- |Massblock || 2 || 2 |- |OneClickWelcomer || 26 || 1 |- |SpecialSearch || 661 || 2 |- |UTCLiveClock || 366 || 6 |- |background-awesomeness || 780 || 6 |- |bottomtabs || 430 || 3 |- |commons-file || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |- |contribsrange || 327 || 5 |- |markAdmins || 139 || 14 |- |markblocked || 55 || 2 |- |modrollback || 83 || 2 |- |navpop || 839 || 10 |- |purge || 619 || 11 |- |rightsfilter || 370 || 3 |- |searchbox || 208 || 6 |- |sidebartranslate || 501 || 2 |- |sixtabs || 312 || 1 |- |subject-pages || 606 || 5 |- |subpages || 29 || 3 |- |wiked || 665 || 3 |- |wikidialog || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: BookCat,105,6 CleanDeleteReasons,54,0 CommentsInLocalTime,664,5 DeluxeBar,206,8 GetCollection,551,1 HotCat,1,1 Massblock,2,2 OneClickWelcomer,26,1 SpecialSearch,661,2 UTCLiveClock,366,6 background-awesomeness,780,6 bottomtabs,430,3 commons-file,default,default contribsrange,327,5 markAdmins,139,14 markblocked,55,2 modrollback,83,2 navpop,839,10 purge,619,11 rightsfilter,370,3 searchbox,208,6 sidebartranslate,501,2 sixtabs,312,1 subject-pages,606,5 subpages,29,3 wiked,665,3 wikidialog,default,default --> swwx54fxbrnk0h47n66dhnfe83tizfd 2 456343 4632078 4631809 2026-04-24T14:15:05Z Ziv 3267536 ([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[File:Soldier movement.svg]] → [[File:Xiangqi soldier movement.svg]] [[c:COM:FR#FR4|Criterion 4]] (harmonizing names of file set) 4632078 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to the Xiangqi wikibook. This wikibook is dedicated to the strategy board game of xiangqi, also known as "Chinese chess". == Introduction == Xiangqi (written in Chinese as 象棋, ''xiàngqí'') is the distant Chinese relative of the game of chess. It is one of the most popular board games in Asia, with tens of millions of players in China, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and other areas of Asia with Chinese diasporas. The game is also popular in Vietnam, where it goes by the name ''cờ tướng''. Like chess, xiangqi is a game of war between two opposing armies, where both are attempting to place the enemy's leading piece in "checkmate", a situation in which the leading piece can be captured on the opponent's next move and its owner cannot remove this threat. Xiangqi also has many notable differences from chess. Some of its most distinctive features include: * The pieces are placed on the intersections of the board's lines, rather than inside the squares. * A piece called the cannon, which must jump when capturing. * A rule that prohibits the two generals (the equivalent of the king in Western chess) from facing each other. * Special areas of the board that can enhance or restrict the movement of pieces. The game's Chinese name translates to "elephant's game" - the first character (象, ''xiàng'') means "elephant" and is used in-game for one of the pieces, while the second character (棋, ''qí'') means "strategy board game", which was one of the four arts an ancient Chinese scholar was supposed to be proficient in (alongside music, brush painting and calligraphy). == A brief history of xiangqi == Although the history of Western chess is well understood amongst historians, the history of xiangqi is much less well understood. It is generally agreed that xiangqi and Western chess were both derived from the Indian game of chaturanga, which arose in the sixth century CE. Around 600 CE the game spread to Sassanid Persia, where it was in turn spread to China via trade along the Silk Road. Upon arrival in China, the game underwent a period of major changes and innovations that reflected Chinese culture and philosophy. For example, the pieces began to be placed on the intersections of the lines rather than the squares, a feature perhaps borrowed from the native strategy game Go, and since the Chinese were some of the earliest users of gunpowder a piece representing a cannon was added to the set. The earliest reference to the rules of xiangqi is found in the collection ''Xuanguai lu'' (玄怪錄), written by scholar Niu Sengru in the 8th century during the reign of the Tang dynasty, and the game had developed into its modern form by the time of the Southern Song dynasty in the early 12th century. Some Chinese scholars and historians reject the theory of xiangqi being derived from chaturanga - these people instead claim that xiangqi originated first in China and then spread west from there to give rise to the Indian games and Western chess. However the Indian origin theory for chess history is the more widely-preferred theory amongst historians. == The board == [[File:Xiangqi board anatomy.svg|thumb|The xiangqi board with its notable features highlighted.]] The xiangqi board is an uncheckered board that consists of a grid of ten horizontal lines and nine vertical lines. It is very important to remember that the pieces are placed on the intersections of these lines (called ''points'') rather than inside the squares. The vertical lines are interrupted between the fifth and sixth ranks, creating a horizontal partition between the two camps known as the ''river''. For most pieces the river has no effect on their movement, but the river can block or enhance the movement of two types of piece. On many Xiangqi boards the river is marked with the characters 楚河 (''chǔ hé'', "River of the Chu") and 漢界 (''hàn jiè'', "Border of the Han"), referencing a major battle in the Chu-Han War that took place between 206 BCE and 202 BCE. However these characters are solely aesthetic and have no impact on gameplay. The board also features two areas called ''palaces'', located at the back of each player's camp. The palaces are denoted by diagonal lines that connect their corner points. Like the river the palaces normally have no effect on piece movement, but two types of piece start in the palace and are prohibited from leaving it. The vertical columns of points are called ''files'', and are denoted using numbers beginning from each player's right. So the file at the far right of the board is called the 1st file, the file to the left of that is called the 2nd file, then the 3rd file, and so on until the 9th file at the far left of the board. Confusingly the file numbers for both player do not align - one player's 1st file is the other player's 9th file, one player's 2nd file is the other player's 8th file, and so on. Many commercial xiangqi boards will features a set of small markings at the front end of each player's camp. These are there to assist with placing certain pieces when setting up the board at the beginning of the game, but have no impact on gameplay. == The pieces == Xiangqi is played by two players, named Red and Black. Each player commands an army of sixteen pieces, which are flat circular discs marked with a Chinese character on the top denoting what type of piece it is. It is important to note that some of the pieces have the same character between both armies, whilst other pieces have different characters between the armies. For example, the general (the equivalent of the Western king) uses the character 帥 for Red and 將 for Black, while the chariots (the equivalent of Western rooks) use the character 車 for both armies. Also, the exact characters used may differ from set to set. Most xiangqi sets use traditional Chinese characters for the pieces but some use simplified characters, given in brackets below. There are seven types of piece in the game, as follows: {| class="wikitable" |+Xiangqi pieces !Name of piece !Red character !Black character !Number per army at game start !One-letter abbreviation !Western counterpart |- |General |帥 (帅) |將 (将) |One |G |King |- |Advisor |仕 or 士 |士 |Two |A |Queen |- |Elephant |相 |象 |Two |E |Bishop |- |Horse |傌 or 馬 (马) |馬 (马) |Two |H |Knight |- |Chariot |俥 or 車 (车) |車 (车) |Two |R |Rook |- |Cannon |炮 |砲 or 炮 |Two |C |(None) |- |Solider |兵 |卒 |Five |S |Pawn |} [[File:Xiangqi initial setup.svg|thumb|The initial setup of the board at game start.]] At the start of the game, the pieces are set up as follows: * The general is placed on the central point of the back rank, inside the palace. * The two advisors are placed on either side of the general. * The two elephants are placed on either side of the advisors. * This pattern repeats twice more with the horses and chariots. * The two cannons are placed two points forward of the horses. * The five soldiers are placed on the rank in front of the cannons, on the files of the chariots, elephants and general - many commercial boards have small crosses to aid in the cannon and solider placements. If the board is set up correctly, it should look like the diagram shown at right. == Basic gameplay == The basic gameplay of xiangqi is similar to that of Western chess. The two players take turns moving one piece at a time, aiming to place the enemy general in either ''checkmate'' or ''stalemate''. Checkmate refers to the situation where the general is under threat of capture and its owner cannot remove this threat on their next move. Stalemate refers to the situation where one player has no legal move - unlike Western chess, in xiangqi stalemate is considered a win for the player delivering the stalemate. In casual games either player may make the first move, but in professional games Red always moves first. A player moves a piece by picking the piece up and placing it on a new point, according to its rules of movement. Once this is done the player's turn is over and the other player moves. Pieces may only move to a point if all the points in between the initial and destination points are free of other pieces (the exception being the cannon's capturing move). A piece may also move to a point occupied by an enemy piece - in doing so the enemy piece is ''captured'', removed from the board and is out of play for the rest of the game. === How the pieces move === What follows is a description of the seven types of piece in xiangqi and how they move and capture. ==== The general ==== The black general is labelled with the character 將 (''jiàng'', "general"), and the red general is labelled with the character 帥 (''shuái'', "marshal"). In Simplified Chinese characters, these become 将 for Black and 帅 for Red. The general is the counterpart of the king in Western chess, and as such its safety is paramount - if the general is under threat of being captured and its owner cannot remove the threat, that player has lost the game. The general moves one point forward, backwards or sideways, provided its destination point is not under attack by an enemy piece. The general begins the game inside the palace and must remain inside it at all times. There is an important rule about the generals one must know: it is illegal, under any circumstance, for the two generals to occupy the same file with no intervening pieces in between. There exists a rule called the "flying general rule" (飛將), where one general may fly across the board to capture the other if such a position is created, but in practice the rule means the two generals cannot face each other in the first place. In the diagram below, the generals may move to any point indicated with a dot of their colour. The black general cannot move right out of the palace, and since the red general occupies the 5th file the black general cannot move left. [[File:Xiangqi general movement.svg|left|frameless]] {{-}} ==== The advisor ==== This piece is also known as the ''guard'' and less commonly as the ''assistant'', the ''mandarin'', the ''minister'' or the ''warrior''. The black advisors are labelled with the character 士 (''shì'', "scholar"). The red advisors uses the same character but add the radical 亻(''rén'', "person") to make 仕. Some sets use 士 for both sides. The advisor is the counterpart of the queen in Western chess as the two pieces share a common ancestor. The advisor moves one point diagonally, and like the general it is forbidden from leaving the palace, which leaves it with five possible positions on the board. In the diagram below, the advisors may move to any point indicated with a dot of their colour. [[File:Xiangqi advisor movement.svg|left|frameless]] {{-}} ==== The elephant ==== This piece is also known as the ''minister''. The black elephants are labelled with the character 象 (''xiàng'', "elephant") and the red elephants are labelled with the character 相 (''xiàng'', "minister"). The elephant is the counterpart of the bishop in Western chess. The elephant moves two points diagonally. It cannot jump over another piece in the way, so if a piece is diagonally adjacent to it the elephant cannot move past. This is referred to as "blocking the elephant's eye" (塞象眼). The elephant cannot cross the river and is confined to its side of the board. In the diagram below the red elephant may move to any point indicated with a red dot but it cannot move to the top-right (marked with a red cross) because the black horse is blocking its movement in that direction. The black elephant may move to either point indicated with a black dot. [[File:Xiangqi elephant movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The horse ==== The black horse is labelled with the character 馬 (''mǎ'', "horse"). Many xiangqi sets use the same character for the red horse, but some add the radical 亻to make 傌. With Simplified characters, both colours use the character 马. The horse is the counterpart of the knight in Western chess. The horse moves in a similar "L" shape to the Western knight - the horse first steps one point forward, backward or sideways followed by one point diagonally outwards. However unlike the Western knight the horse cannot jump over other pieces - if another piece is horizontally or vertically adjacent to the horse, the horse cannot move past. This is called "hobbling the horse's leg" (蹩馬腿). Because the horse always steps orthogonally first, its path from one point to another is not the same as the reverse move. Therefore it is possible to create situations with two horses where one horse has an asymmetric attack advantage over the other. In the diagram below, at the left the red horse may move to any point indicated with a red dot. It cannot move right since the cannon obstructs its movement in that direction. At the right the red horse may capture the black horse, but the black horse cannot capture the red horse because the soldier blocks its movement. [[File:Xiangqi horse movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The chariot ==== The black chariot is labelled with the character 車 (''jū'', "chariot"). Like with the horse many xiangqi sets use the same character for the red chariot, but some add the radical 亻to make 俥. With Simplified characters, both colours use the character 车. The chariot is the counterpart of the rook in Western chess. The chariot moves in exactly the same manner as the Western rook - it may move any number of points forward, backward or sideways until it reaches an obstacle. In the diagram below the red chariot may move to any point indicated with a red dot. [[File:Xiangqi chariot movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The cannon ==== The black cannon is labelled with the character 砲 (''páo'', "wrapped stone") and the red cannon with the character 炮 (''páo'', "wrapped fire"). However many xiangqi sets use 炮 for both sides. The cannon is the only xiangqi piece which has no Western counterpart. When moving passively, the cannon moves in exactly the same manner as the chariot. However, in order to capture an enemy piece there must be a third piece of either colour, called the ''screen'', in between the cannon and the target piece. When capturing the cannon jumps over the screen and captures the first enemy piece immediately beyond it. The cannon may not jump when moving passively, only when capturing. It also cannot capture without jumping and cannot jump two pieces in one move. In the diagram below the red cannon may move to any point indicated with a red dot. It may also jump over the red chariot to capture the black soldier on the other side. It may not move past the black horse as there is nothing for the cannon to capture on the other side, and it may not capture the black horse as there is no screen for it to jump over. [[File:Xiangqi cannon movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The soldier ==== The black soldier is labelled with the character 卒 (''zú'', "pawn" or "private") and the red soldier with the character 兵 (''bīng'', "soldier"). The soldier is the counterpart of the pawn in Western chess. The soldier may move one point forward, and unlike the Western pawn it captures in the same as it moves. Once the soldier crosses the river, it gains the additional ability to move one point sideways. Unlike a Western pawn a soldier is not promoted when it reaches the far end of the board, as it can still move sideways. In the diagram below the red soldiers may move to any point indicated with a red dot. [[File:Xiangqi soldier movement.svg|frameless]] == Additional rules == === Check, checkmate and stalemate === If a player makes a move that places the opponent's general under threat of being captured, the opponent is said to be in "check". The opponent must use their next move to remove the threat to their general, which can be done in one of four ways - moving the general out of danger, interposing a piece between the general and the attacking piece, capturing the attacking piece or removing piece between the attacking piece and the general (if the attacking piece is a cannon). If a player is in check and has no legal move that removes the threat to their general, the player is in "checkmate" and they have lost the game. If a player has no legal move but is not in check, they are in "stalemate", which also results in a loss. === Perpetual checks and chases === It is forbidden to make moves that repeat the same board position with the same player to move over and over. The manner in which this prohibition is enforced varies from source to source, but according to club rules: * If a player repeatedly checks the opposing general with the same piece(s) over and over (six times with one piece, twelve times with two pieces, eighteen times with three), the player is required to break off the sequence and make a different move. If they refuse to do so, they lose the game. * Perpetually chasing an unprotected enemy piece with one's own pieces (excluding generals or soldiers) is similarly prohibited. * If one side perpetually checks and the other perpetually chases, the checking player must break the cycle or risk losing. * If both sides are checking or chasing, and neither makes a different move, the game ends in a draw. === Insufficient material === If there is not enough material left on the board for either player to force a checkmate or stalemate, the game ends in a draw. fvusmzrkzgojwjy93qi1ky1j79j3k98 0 462013 4632204 4533340 2026-04-25T09:41:23Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632204 wikitext text/x-wiki A set of exercises related to concepts from Chapter 1. This set contains 159 problems (26 '''Conceptual Questions''' + 127 '''Exercises''' + 6 '''Projects''') ==Conceptual Questions== '''<u>Q1.1</u> (Alien Society)''' Imagine you came across an alien from a distant planet, where all of its civilians have a solid grasp of English and had three fingers on each hand. Though this civilization is intelligent, they had never learned what "counting" is or how to do it. In addition to that, they had never learned about what a "number" is, what they're called, or what they looked like. Think about how you might teach this civilian about counting and numbers so that they can go back to their planet to teach their people of this knowledge. What tools might you use to explain the idea? What are some of the concepts you'd want to get across? What are some of the difficulties that might arise from this task? '''<u>Q1.2</u> (What is a Number?)''' Define what a "number" is in your own words. Define what a "numeral" is in your own words. '''<u>Q1.3</u> (Sign of Zero)''' Is the number zero positive, negative, or neither? Explain your reasoning. '''<u>Q1.4</u> (Difference of Decimals)''' What is the difference between "ten" and "one-tenth"? '''<u>Q1.5</u> (Picture Perfect)''' Suppose the number line actually existed physically. Would you be able to take a photo of the entire number line if you backed away far enough? '''<u>Q1.6</u> (Explaining the Writing of Numbers)''' Explain in your own words how you write numbers, both in word form and with numerical symbols. '''<u>Q1.7</u> (Largest Number Possible)''' What is the largest and smallest three-digit number you can write using the digits 0, 8, and 4? Use each digit only once, and explain how you obtained your results. If you wrote these numbers to the right of a decimal point, what is the largest number you can make. '''<u>Q1.8</u> (A Million)''' A million is one thousand thousands. Explain how this is so. '''<u>Q1.9</u> (Reading it Wrong)''' Explain what is wrong with reading "50,002" as "fifty-thousand and two". Explain what is wrong with reading "2.203" as "two and two hundred and three thousanths". '''<u>Q1.10</u> (Problem with Fractions)''' Why can't we say that 3/5 of the figure below have been shaded in? [[File:Not Three-Fifths.png|center|300px|Image: 300 pixels]] '''<u>Q1.11</u> (Large Numbers)''' Determine if the following is true: "The more digits a number has, the larger it is". '''<u>Q1.12</u> (Signs)''' A fast-food menu has the cost of a hamburger listed as .99¢. Explain what is wrong with this. '''<u>Q.13</u> (Division Symbols)''' Write three symbols that can be used for division. '''<u>Q1.14</u> (Reciprocal of Zero)''' Does the number 0 have a reciprocal? Explain. '''<u>Q1.15</u> (Which is Larger?)''' Explain how to determine which fraction is larger, <math>\frac{7}{16}</math>, or <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> '''<u>Q1.16</u> (LCM vs LCD)''' Explain the difference between the LCM and LCD. '''<u>Q1.17</u> (Decimal Operations)''' Explain how addition with decimals is comparable to addition with whole numbers, how are they different? Do the same thing with multiplication with decimals. '''<u>Q1.18</u> (Steps of the Order of Operations)''' In your own words, explain the four steps of the order of operations. '''<u>Q1.19</u> (Steps of the Order of Operations II)''' Does the Order of Operations indicate that you perform Addition before Subtraction? Does it indicate that you perform Multiplication before Division? Explain your reasoning for both questions. '''<u>Q1.20</u> (Viral Math Expression)''' The seemingly simple expression below has stumped many people across the Internet. Some will argue the answer is 9, while others will argue it is 1. However, there is a fundamental issue with the way that the expression is written, leading to these two different answers, can you figure out what it is? <div class="center"><math>6 / 2(1+2)</math></div> '''<u>Q1.21</u> (Even Prime Number)''' Explain why 2 is the only even prime number. '''<u>Q1.22</u> (Consecutive Numbers)''' What is the LCM of two consecutive numbers? What is the GCF of two consecutive numbers? '''<u>Q1.23</u> (Infinite Decimal Expansions)''' Suppose the numerator of a fraction is 142. What numbers should be in the denominator for the fraction's decimal expansion to be finite? What numbers should be in the denominator for the fraction's decimal expansion to be infinite? '''<u>Q1.24</u> (SI Units)''' What are the SI units for length, mass, and time? '''<u>Q1.25</u> (Scale)''' You put a mass that weighs 1 kilogram on a digital scale. The scale reads that the mass weighs 1.06 kg. What can you conclude about the scale? '''<u>Q1.26</u> (Accuracy vs Precision)''' Give an example of a measurement that is precise, but not accurate. Give an example of a measurement that is accurate, but not precise. ==Exercises== ===Section 1.1=== (★) '''<u>1.1</u> (Locating Numbers)''' Order the set of numbers below from least to greatest. Afterwards, draw a number line, and then figure out where they might be located on it. {{center|<math>2.1, -4,\ \frac{1}{2},\ 3.99,\ -\frac{3}{4},\ -0.25,\ 0.0001,\ -2.3</math>}} (★) '''<u>1.2</u> (Comparing Numbers)''' For each given pair of numbers, determine which of the two is larger. '''1'''. 4, 100<br> '''2'''. 9, 9.0001<br> '''3'''. -7, -2<br> '''4'''. -5, 0<br> '''5'''. 100, 100 (★) '''<u>1.3</u> (Weighing Bull Sharks)''' A biologist is studying bull shark populations. She records the weights of four sharks, in pounds, that she has caught. Order the bull sharks from lightest to heaviest. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;" |+ Bull Shark Weights |- ! Shark !! Weight |- | Shark 1|| 130.5 kg |- | Shark 2|| 213.2 kg |- | Shark 3|| 97.7 kg |- | Shark 4|| 97.1 kg |} (★) '''<u>1.4</u> (Place Values)''' Find the place value of the number 5 in each of the following numbers. <!--Should contain ten items--> '''1'''. 5,000,000<br> '''2'''. 0.5<br> '''3'''. 105<br> '''4'''. 3572896<br> '''5'''. 123,456,789<br> '''6'''. 0.000005<br> '''7'''. 8051<br> '''8'''. 85,931<br> '''9'''. 800,025<br> (★) '''<u>1.5</u> (Writing Numbers)''' Translate the following to mathematical symbols <!--Should contain ten items--> '''1'''. eleven<br> '''2'''. two-hundred seventy<br> '''3'''. three-million two-hundred-thirty-four-thousand five-hundred sixty-seven (★) '''<u>1.6</u> (Writing Numbers in Words)''' Write the following numbers in words <!--Should contain ten items--> '''1'''. 9 <br> '''2'''. 10 <br> '''3'''. 274 <br> '''4'''. 8,322 <br> '''5'''. 1,000,000,009 <br> '''6'''. 1,343,234,985 <br> '''7'''. 0.01 <br> (★) '''<u>1.7</u> (Numbers in Expanded Form)''' In the number 7,893, there are "7 thousands", "8 hundreds", "9 tens", and "3 ones". We therefore say that a number is in '''expanded form''' when it is written as follows: {{center| '''7''' thousands + '''8''' hundreds + '''9''' tens + '''3''' ones <br> or <br> 7000 + 800 + 9 + 3}} Write the following numbers in expanded form: '''1'''. 473<br> '''2'''. 6852<br> '''3'''. 73,016<br> '''4'''. 570,003<br> '''5'''. 3,519,803<br> '''6'''. 48,000,061<br> '''7'''. 37.89<br> '''8'''. 124.575<br> '''9'''. 7496.5467<br> '''10'''. 6.40941<br> (★) '''<u>1.8</u> (Reading Meters)''' The amount of electricity used in a household is measured in kilowatt-hours (kwh). Determine the reading on the meter shown below. (When the pointer is between two numbers, read the lower number.) [[File:Hydro quebec meter.JPG|center|200px]] (★) '''<u>1.9</u> (Fraction Diagrams)''' Write a fraction to describe what part of the diagrams below are shaded. Write a fraction to describe what part of the diagrams aren't shaded in. <!--Should contain 6 diagrams--> (★) '''<u>1.10</u> (Fruit Basket)''' A basket of fruit holds 5 mangoes, 7 apples, 12 oranges, and 20 pomegranates. <br> '''1'''. What fraction of the fruits in the basket are apples?<br> '''2'''. What fraction of the fruits in the basket are <b>not</b> oranges?<br> '''3'''. What fraction of the fruits in the basket are oranges or pomegranates? ===Section 1.2=== (★) '''<u>1.11</u> (Expressions)''' Simplify the following expressions involving basic operations.<br> <!---Should contain 30 items---> '''1.''' 2 + 5<br> '''2.''' 7 - 4<br> '''3.''' 16 - 9 (★) '''<u>1.12</u> (Operations on the Number Line)''' Determine the performed operation that is being represented in each diagram. <!---Should contain 5 items---> (★★) '''<u>1.13</u> (Make 1000 out of 8)''' Eight digits “8” are written together, like below, and plus signs “+” are inserted in between to get the sum of 1000. Where were the plus signs added? <div class="center"><math>8 \ \ \ 8 \ \ \ 8 \ \ \ 8 \ \ \ 8 \ \ \ 8 \ \ \ 8 \ \ \ 8</math></div> (★★) '''<u>1.14</u> (Unknown Sum)''' In the addition problem below, '''A''', '''B''', and '''C''' each represent three different digits. What are the digits? <div class="center"><math>\begin{array}{r}AAA\\ + \ BBB \\ \hline AAAC\end{array}</math></div> (★★) '''<u>1.15</u> (Unknown Product)''' A six-digit number with 1 as its left-most digit is three times bigger when we put the one at the end of the number instead. What number is this? (★) '''<u>1.16</u> (Turtles)''' Tony and Aaron go to the park. They can see 17 turtles sunning themselves on an island in the middle of a pond around the lake. As Tony and Aaron circle the lake to count the turtles they hear 24 plops as they scare more turtles from the shore. How many turtles do Tony and Aaron know live in the lake? (★) '''<u>1.17</u> (Bricks)''' A bricklayer stacks bricks in 3 rows, with 9 bricks in each row. On top of each row, there is a stack of 6 bricks. How many bricks are there in total? [[File:HardingMemorial-Gutters.jpg|right|thumb|A set of stamps (For Problem 1.18)]] (★) '''<u>1.18</u> (Stamp Collection)''' The picture to the right shows stamps, arranged in four groups of four. How many stamps are in that image? While you can count them individually, there is a much faster way of getting the total. (★) '''<u>1.19</u> (Marbles)''' Lana has 3 bags with the same amount of marbles in them, totaling 12 marbles. Markus has 3 bags with the same amount of marbles in them, totaling 18 marbles. How many more marbles does Markus have in each bag? (★) '''<u>1.20</u> (Pine Tree Garden)''' A landscape designer intends to plant pine trees 14 feet apart to form a windscreen along one side of a flower garden. How many trees are needed if the length of the flower garden is 896 feet? (★★) '''<u>1.21</u> (Page Numbers)''' How many numerals are required to number all of the pages of a book containing 450 pages? (★★) '''<u>1.22</u> (Cereal Factory)''' A cereal factory produces 153,600 ounces of cereal each day. Each box contains 16 ounces. The boxes are packaged in bundles of 6 boxes per bundle, then stacked on pallets, 25 bundles to a pallet. Finally, the pallets are loaded onto trucks, 24 pallets to each truck '''1.''' How many boxes of cereal are produced each day?<br> '''2.''' How many bundles are produced?<br> '''3.''' How many pallets are needed?<br> '''4.''' How many trucks are needed? Explain your reasoning. ===Section 1.3=== (★) '''<u>1.23</u> (Exponential Form)''' Write the following in exponential form. '''1.''' 8 * 8 * 8 * 8<br> '''2.''' 16 * 16 * 16<br> '''3.''' 7 * 7 * 7 * 7 * 7<br> '''4.''' 24 * 24 * 24<br> '''5.''' 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2 * 2<br> (★) '''<u>1.24</u> (Exponent Expressions)''' Evaluate the following expressions. <!--Should include exactly 15 items--> '''1.''' <math>3^2</math><br> '''2.''' <math>0^{150}</math><br> '''3.''' <math>7228529837^{0}</math><br> '''4.''' <math>5^3</math> (★) '''<u>1.25</u> (Radical Expressions)''' Evaluate the following expressions. <!--Should include exactly 15 items--> (★) '''<u>1.26</u> (Hydra)''' Lerna’s Hydra is a mythological character that appears in some stories such as the ''12 Tasks of Hercules''. The Hydra was a one-headed monster but when it is cut off, 2 more heads grow in its place. If a hero were to try and kill it by cutting off all of its heads every day, how many heads would the Hydra have on the third day? And at the end of 10 days of trying to kill it? (★) '''<u>1.27</u> (Bank Account)''' Nick deposits $2 into a bank account on the first day, $4 on the second day, and $8 on the third day. He will continue to double the deposit each day. How much will he deposit on the tenth day? (★) '''<u>1.28</u> (Tearing Paper)''' You tear a piece of paper in half. Then, you tear each remaining sheet of paper in half again. You tear the collection of papers 5 times over all. When you are done, how many scraps of paper do you have? (★) '''<u>1.29</u> (Powers of 1)''' Find <math>1^2</math>, <math>1^3</math>, and <math>1^4</math>. What can you assume about any power of 1? (★) '''<u>1.30</u> (Powers of 10)''' Find <math>10^2</math>, <math>10^3</math>, and <math>10^4</math>. What can you assume about any power of 10? (★) '''<u>1.31</u> (Zeroes)''' How many zeroes would you need to write the number <math>10^{1000}</math>? (★★) '''<u>1.32</u> (Image Enlargement)''' Suppose you are enlarging an image that is initially 300 pixels wide on your computer. Each time you press a button on a program it, its width doubles. If you enlarge the image four times, how wide will it be? (★) '''<u>1.33</u> (Coffee Table)''' A square coffee table has an area of 196 square inches. What is the length of one side of the table? (★★) '''<u>1.34</u> (Relatives)''' Everybody is born to <small><math>2^1</math></small> biological parents. Our parents each had <small><math>2^1 + 2^1</math></small> biological parents. We can say that our grandparents are <small><math>2^2</math></small> mathematically as the number of our ancestors doubles with each generation we go back. '''1.''' How many times would 2 be multiplied to determine the number of great grandparents?<br> '''2.''' How many times would 2 be multiplied to determine the number of great-great grandparents?<br> '''3.''' How many people would be our 2⁸ ancestors? (★★) '''<u>1.35</u> (Root of 37)''' To the nearest tenth, what is the square root of 37? (★★) '''<u>1.36</u> (Root of 2000)''' Between what two whole numbers is <math> \sqrt(2000) </math>? ===Section 1.4=== (★) '''<u>1.37</u> (Listing Prime and Composite Numbers)''' '''1'''. List the first 10 prime numbers.<br> '''2'''. List the first 10 composite numbers. (★) '''<u>1.38</u> (Prime or Composite?)''' Determine if the following numbers are prime, composite, or neither. '''1.''' 2<br> '''2.''' 3<br> '''3.''' 13<br> '''4.''' 15<br> '''5.''' 1,873<br> '''6.''' 29<br> '''7.''' 42<br> '''8.''' 101<br> '''9.''' 93 <br> '''10.''' -10<br> '''11.''' 1<br> '''12.''' <math>\frac{5}{3}</math><br> '''13.''' <math>\frac{6}{3}</math><br> '''14.''' 2.5<br> '''15.''' 0 (★) '''<u>1.39</u> (Factors)''' Find all of the factors of the following numbers<br> (★) '''<u>1.40</u> (Prime Factorization)''' Find the prime factorization of the following numbers.<br> '''1.''' 693 (★) '''<u>1.41</u> (Least Common Multiple)''' Find the least common multiple of the following sets of numbers.<br> (★) '''<u>1.42</u> (Greatest Common Factor)''' Find the greatest common factor of the following sets of numbers.<br> (★) '''<u>1.43</u> (Divisibility Table)''' Refer to the table below. If the given number is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10, enter a checkmark in the appropriate box. {| class="wikitable" ! || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 |- |2940 || || || || || || || || || |- |5850 || || || || || || || || || |- |} (★) '''<u>1.44</u> (Using Divisibility Rules)''' Use divisibility tests to find the remainder of the following quotients: (★) '''<u>1.45</u> (Italian Restaurant)''' An Italian restaurant receives a shipment of 95 veal cutlets. If it takes 4 cutlets to make a dish, how many cutlets will the restaurant have left over after making as many dishes as possible? What is the maximum number of dishes the restaurant can make with the shipment? (★) '''<u>1.46</u> (Girl Scouts)''' Diana needs to buy beads for her Girl Scout troop. The glass beads come 25 to a package and the wooden beads come 35 to a package. What is the least number of packages she will need to buy to ensure that each of the girl scouts gets the same number of glass beads and the same number of wooden beads? (★★) '''<u>1.47</u> (456395)''' Without performing division, what will be the remainder of 456395 when it is divided by 9? Explain your reasoning. (★★) '''<u>1.48</u> (Soup Bowls)''' Four bowls; each holding 12 16, 28, and 36 ounces respectively; can hold an exact number of full ladles of soup. '''1.''' If there is no spillage, what is the greatest size ladle (in ounces) that one can use for all four bowls?<br> '''2.''' How many ladles will it take to fill all four bowls? (★★) '''<u>1.49</u> (Twin Primes)''' '''Twin primes''' are two numbers that are prime that differ from two. Two such numbers are 17 and 19. Find three more pairs of numbers besides 17 and 19 that are twin primes. (★★) '''<u>1.50</u> (Perfect Numbers)''' A '''perfect number''' is any number whose factors (excluding the number itself) adds up to it. For example, the number 6 is perfect because 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Is 496 also a perfect number? Why or why not? (★★★) '''<u>1.51</u> (Digits out of 12)''' What is the largest multiple of 12 that can be written with the digits from 0 to 9 exactly once? (★★) '''<u>1.52</u> (Sieve of Eratosthenes)''' The '''Sieve of Eratosthenes''' is an ancient algorithm used to find the prime numbers up to any given limit. It is one of the most efficient ways to find small prime numbers. '''1.''' Write the numbers 1 to 100 as shown in the grid below. {{center/top}} <div style="margin-left:4em"> {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- | 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 |- | 11 || 12 || 13 || 14 || 15 || 16 || 17 || 18 || 19 || 20 |- | 21 || 22 || 23 || 24 || 25 || 26 || 27 || 28 || 29 || 30 |- | 31 || 32 || 33 || 34 || 35 || 36 || 37 || 38 || 39 || 40 |- | 41 || 42 || 43 || 20 || 25 || 30 || 35 || 40 || 45 || 50 |- | 51 || 52 || 53 || 54 || 55 || 56 || 57 || 58 || 59 || 60 |- | 61 || 62 || 63 || 64 || 65 || 66 || 67 || 68 || 69 || 70 |- | 71 || 72 || 73 || 74 || 75 || 76 || 77 || 78 || 79 || 80 |- | 81 || 82 || 83 || 84 || 85 || 86 || 87 || 88 || 89 || 90 |- | 91 || 92 || 93 || 94 || 95 || 96 || 97 || 98 || 99 || 100 |} </div> {{center/end}} '''2.''' Cross out the number 1.<br> '''3.''' Circle the first prime, 2. Afterwards, cross out all of the multiples of 2.<br> '''4.''' Circle the next prime, 3. Cross out all of the multiples of 3.<br> '''5.''' The number 4 has already been crossed out. Circle the number 5, then cross out all of the multiples of 5 that have not already been crossed out.<br> '''6.''' The number 6 has already been crossed out. Circle the number 7, then cross out all of the multiples of 7 that have not already been crossed out.<br> '''7.''' Do you need to check the multiples greater than 7? Why or why not?<br> '''8.''' How many prime numbers are there between 1 and 100?<br> '''9.''' Use this technique to determine how many prime numbers there are between 1 and 250. ===Section 1.5=== (★) '''<u>1.53</u> (Integer Expressions)''' Evaluate each expression.<br> <!---Should contain 30 items---> '''1.''' (-4) + 2<br> '''2.''' (-6) - 1 (★) '''<u>1.54</u> (Negative Division)''' Which of the numbers below equals -7? {{center|<math>\frac{-7}{1}, \frac{7}{-1}, \frac{7}{1}, -\frac{7}{1}, \frac{-7}{-1}, -\frac{-7}{-1}, -\frac{-7}{1} </math>}} (★★) '''<u>1.55</u> (Comparing Absolute Values)''' For each given pair of numbers, determine which of the two is larger. (★★) '''<u>1.56</u> (Negative Negative Negative Negative...)''' '''1'''. What is <math>-(-(-2))</math>?<br> '''2'''. What is <math>-(-(-(-2)))</math>?<br> '''3'''. What if there were 20 minus signs in front of the 2?<br> '''4'''. What if there were 75 minus signs in front of the 2? (★) '''<u>1.57</u> (Temperature)''' The temperature at 6 p.m. was 31°F. By midnight, it had dropped 40 °F. What was the temperature at midnight? (★) '''<u>1.58</u> (Melting Points)''' Mercury is the only metal which is a liquid at room temperature. Its melting point is –39°C. '''1.''' Other elements such as gallium, cesium, and francium also have relatively low melting points. Their melting points are 29°C, 28°C, and 27°C respectively. How much warmer are the melting points ('''i''') gallium, ('''ii''') cesium, and ('''iii''') francium compared to that of mercury? (★★) '''<u>1.59</u> (Multiple-Choice Test)''' To discourage random guessing on a multiple choice exam, a professor assigns 4 points for a correct answer, -2 points for an incorrect answer, and -1 point for leaving the question blank. What is the score for a student who had 18 correct answers, 9 incorrect answers, and had left 2 questions blank? (★) '''<u>1.60</u> (Atoms)''' Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons have a positive charge (+1), neutrons have a neutral charge (0), and electrons have a negative charge (-1). Refer to the diagrams below to answer the following questions. '''1.''' In Atom A, how many protons, electrons, and neutrons are there?<br> '''2.''' What is the net charge of Atom A?<br> '''3.''' In Atom B, how many protons, electrons, and neutrons are there?<br> '''4.''' What is the net charge of Atom B? ===Section 1.6=== (★) '''<u>1.61</u> (Mixed Fractions)''' Write the following improper fractions as mixed fractions. (★) '''<u>1.62</u> (Fractions Operations)''' Simplify the following expressions involving fractions. (★) '''<u>1.63</u> (Figure Drawing)''' As an aid in drawing the human body, artists divide the body into three parts. Each part is then expressed as a fraction of the total body height. For example, the torso is <math>\frac{4}{15}</math> of the body height, and <math>\frac{3}{5}</math> their body is below the waist. What fraction of body height is the head? (★★) '''<u>1.64</u> (Count the 24ths)''' Without performing division, how many <math>\frac{1}{24}</math>'s are in <math>\frac{2}{3}?</math> (★★) '''<u>1.65</u> (Sharing Pizza)''' Billy's family ordered a large pizza. His father had <math>\frac{1}{6}</math> of it, and his mother had <math>\frac{1}{5}</math> of what remained. Later on, Billy's sister ate some pizza, and then Billy had the remaining pizza when there was exactly a half of what they started with (Billy is a large kid). What fraction of what their parents had left for her did the sister have? (★★) '''<u>1.66</u> (The Turtle and the Wall)''' A turtle is 2 feet away from a wall. It then moves halfway to the wall and stops. Afterwards, it then moves one-half the remaining distance before it stops again. If it continues to move one-half the remaining distance to the wall, how far will it be from the wall after moving a fifth time? (★★) '''<u>1.67</u> (Chain of Fractions)''' Simplify the expression below. Write the final answer in exponential form: {{center|<math>\frac{2}{1003} \times \frac{4}{1002} \times \frac{6}{1001} \times ... \times \frac{2002}{3} \times \frac{2004}{2} \times \frac{2006}{1} </math>}} (★★) '''<u>1.68</u> (Half the Difference)''' Find a fraction which is one-half the difference between <math>\frac{5}{11}</math> and <math>\frac{4}{11}</math> (★★★) '''<u>1.69</u> (Time Signatures)''' In musical notation, notes are written on a staff, a set of five horizontal lines that are equally spaced. The notes of a musical composition are grouped into measures, or bars. (★★★) '''<u>1.70</u> (Problem from the Middle Ages)''' From the Middle Ages through the nineteenth century, it was common for the aristocracy to support court mathematicians and challenge other courts to contests between the mathematicians. In one of these contests, Fibonacci and Leonardo of Pisa were given the following problem. Find a fraction that is a square and has the following property: If 5 is added onto the fraction, the new fraction is still a square, and if 5 is subtracted from the original fraction, the new fraction is still a square. ===Section 1.7=== (★) '''<u>1.71</u> (Decimal Expressions)''' Simplify the following expressions involving decimals. <!---Should contain 30 items---> (★) '''<u>1.72</u> (Percentage Questions)''' Answer the following questions involving percentages. '''1.''' What number is 25% of 640?<br> '''2.''' What number is 36% of 120? (★) '''<u>1.73</u> (Fractions and Decimals)''' Use long division to find the decimal expansion of each fraction. {|style="border-spacing: 3em .5em;" |- |'''1'''. <math>\frac{27}{100}</math><br> |'''2'''. <math>\frac{1}{11}</math><br> |'''3'''. <math>\frac{142}{4}</math><br> |'''4'''. <math>\frac{2}{11}</math><br> |- |'''5'''. <math>\frac{14}{13}</math><br> |'''6'''. <math>\frac{7000}{9}</math><br> |'''7'''. <math>\frac{2}{11}</math><br> |'''8'''. <math>\frac{6555555}{3}</math> |- |} (★) '''<u>1.74</u> (Conversions)''' Convert the following fractions into percentages. (★) '''<u>1.75</u> (Distance from the Moon and Earth)''' The distance between the moon and the Earth is approximately 238,900 miles. Write this value in scientific notation. (★) '''<u>1.76</u> (Radius of an Atom)''' The radius of an atom is approximately 1.6 x 10-10 meters. Write this value in standard form. (★) '''<u>1.77</u> (Rulers)''' Look at the diagram of a ruler below. 1. How many tick marks are between 0 and 1?<br> 2. What number is the arrow pointing to? (★★) '''<u>1.78</u> (Itchy's Fleas)''' Itchy the Dog has 1,000,000 fleas on her. Her anti-flea shampoo claims that it will leave at most 1% of the original number of fleas. What is the minimum number of fleas the shampoo will kill? (★★) '''<u>1.79</u> (Percentage of Squares)''' What percent of all of the numbers between 1 and 1,000,000 are square numbers? (★★) '''<u>1.80</u> (Terminating and Repeating Decimals)''' You may notice from '''Problem 1.73''' that when you convert a fraction to a decimal, you will sometimes get what is called a '''repeating decimal'''. Take for example the fraction <math>\frac{3}{11}</math>. <div class="center"><math>\frac{3}{11} = 0.272727272727...</math></div> The decimal form of <math>\frac{3}{11}</math> consists of the two digits 2 and 7 in an infinitely repeating sequence. To simplify things, instead of writing the above, we denote it as 0.27. Use this bar notation to write each of the repeating decimals from '''Problem 1.73'''. (★★) '''<u>1.81</u> (Periods of Fractions)''' We see that in the fraction from below, the fractional part repeats after two digits. <div class="center"><math>\frac{3}{11} = 0.272727272727...</math></div> We say that this number has a '''period''' of 2. Likewise, we say that the number <math>\frac{1}{7}</math> has a period of 6, because the number repeats after 6 digits. From the numbers below, which of them has the largest period? '''1.''' <math>\frac{1}{3}</math><br> '''2.''' <math>\frac{1}{6}</math><br> '''3.''' <math>\frac{1}{7}</math><br> '''4.''' <math>\frac{1}{9}</math><br> '''5.''' <math>\frac{1}{14}</math> (★★) '''<u>1.82</u> (Operations with Repeating Decimals)''' Calculate: '''1'''. 0.55555... + 0.66666...<br> '''2'''. 0.99999... + 0.11111...<br> '''3'''. 1.11111... - 0.22222...<br> '''4'''. 0.33333... * 0.66666...<br> '''5'''. 1.22222... * 0.81818...<br> ===Section 1.8=== (★) '''<u>1.83</u> (Classifying Numbers)''' Identify the type(s) of numbers each number belongs to. {|style="border-spacing: 3em .5em;" |- |'''1.''' <math>\ 12</math> |'''2.''' <math>\ -7</math> |'''3.''' <math>\ 0</math> |'''4.''' <math>\ \frac{1}{7}</math> |'''5.''' <math>\ \frac{16}{13}</math> |- |'''6.''' <math>\ -8.08</math> |'''7.''' <math>\ -\frac{24}{365}</math> |'''8.''' <math>\ 0.1231231234...</math> |'''9.''' <math>\ (10)^2</math> |'''10.''' <math>\ 0.5\overline{678}</math> |- |'''11.''' <math>\ 2.0\overline{505}</math> |'''12.''' <math>\ \frac{1}{2}</math> |'''13.''' <math>\ \sqrt{17}</math> |'''14.''' <math>\ \frac{37}{0}</math> |'''15.''' <math>\ \pi</math> |- |'''16.''' <math>\ \sqrt{9}</math> |'''17.''' <math>\ \sqrt{\frac{1}{36}}</math> |'''18.''' <math>\ -5000</math> |'''19.''' <math>\ -\sqrt{36}</math> |'''20.''' <math>\ 5 + \sqrt{2}</math> |- |'''21.''' <math>\ \sqrt{\frac{294}{6}}</math> |'''22.''' <math>\ 1.23456789101112...</math> |'''23.''' <math>\ \frac{\sqrt{100-81}}{\sqrt{76}}</math> |'''24.''' <math>\ (10.25)^{2}</math> |'''25.''' <math>\ \sqrt{0.33}</math> |} ===Section 1.9=== (★) '''<u>1.84</u> (First Step)''' Determine the first step you would take to evaluate the following expressions. Explain your reasoning. '''1'''. <math>15 - 3 * 4</math><br> '''2'''. <math>13 + (20 / 5) * 2</math><br> '''3'''. <math>8 + 2(10 - 4)</math> (★) '''<u>1.85</u> (Using the Order of Operations)''' Simplify the following expressions using the Order of Operations. <!--Should include exactly 30 items with increasing difficulty (More operations, numbers, and variety in operations)--><br> '''1'''. <math> 2 + 6 - 7 </math><br> '''2'''. <math> 6 + 10 * 2 </math><br> '''3'''. <math> 12 </math> ÷ <math> 4 * 6 </math><br> '''4.''' <math>\ |3-16|</math><br> '''5'''. <math> 12 * 4 </math> ÷ <math> 6 </math><br> '''6'''. <math> 10 + 3^2 </math><br> '''7'''. <math> 11 - 2^2 </math><br> '''8'''. <math> (10 - 3)^2 </math><br> '''9'''. <math> \sqrt(15 - 6) </math><br> '''10'''. <math>(-2)^2(3)^3</math><br> '''11'''. <math> 4*2^3 - 11 </math><br> '''12'''. <math> 36 </math> ÷ <math> 2 </math> ÷ <math> 6 </math><br> '''13'''. <math> 18 + 36</math> ÷ <math>4 * 3</math><br> '''14.''' <math>\ |1 - \sqrt{3}| + |2 - \sqrt{2}| - |\sqrt{3} - \sqrt{2}|</math><br> '''15'''. <math> \frac{(12-5)^2 + 2^3}{3(13 - 6) - (8 + 7)} </math><br> '''16'''. <math> (12-9)^3 + 420</math> ÷ <math>[3 * 5 + (19-13)]</math><br> <!--Is meant to be the most difficult item in the set, and thus the last one--> (★★) '''<u>1.86</u> (Using the Order of Operations II)''' Simplify the following expressions using the Order of Operations. <!--Same set-up as the previous set, but with more difficult expressions.--><br> '''1.''' <math>\ \frac{|-(-5)|-|3|}{-3}</math><br> '''2.''' <math>\ \frac{2|3*2^2 - 1| - 10|-2|}{6}</math><br> '''3.''' <math>\ \frac{(5-6)^2 - 2|3-7|}{89 - 3*5^2}</math><br> '''4'''. <math> 4</math>{<math>18 - [(10 - 8) + 2^3]</math>}<math> - </math>{<math>[485 - 168 + 392] + 45 - 24 * 16</math>} ÷ <math>8</math> <!--Is meant to be the most difficult item in the set, and thus the last one--> (★★) '''<u>1.87</u> (Find the Mistakes)''' Find the mistake in each of the following, then explain how the expression should be solved correctly. <!--Should include exactly 5 items--><br> ===Section 1.10=== (★) '''<u>1.88</u> (Appropriate Prefixes)''' For each scenario, determine which metric prefix on the meter is most appropriate. (★) '''<u>1.89</u> (Soda Can)''' How many milliliters of soda are in a 12.0 fl oz can? (1 fl oz = 29.6 mL) (★) '''<u>1.90</u> (Soda Bottle)''' A bottle of soda has a volume of 16.0 fl oz. How many gallons does the bottle contain? (★) '''<u>1.91</u> (Pounds)''' A pound is equal to 16 ounces. How many pounds are in 435 ounces? (★) '''<u>1.92</u> (Pancake Mix)''' A certain recipe for pancakes calls for 4 tablespoons of baking powder to make the batter. How many cups of baking powder is 4 tablespoons? (★) '''<u>1.93</u> (Paperclip)''' A paperclip weighs 0.03 oz. How much does a paperclip weigh in grams? (★) '''<u>1.94</u> (Nanoseconds)''' A light-nanosecond is the distance light travels in 1 ns. Convert 1 ft to 1 light-nanosecond. (★) '''<u>1.95</u> (Hummingbird)''' A hummingbird's wings beats 65 times per second. How many wingbeats does a hummingbird do per minute? (★★) '''<u>1.96</u> (Tiny Organisms)''' The table below shows the dimensions of small organisms. {| class="wikitable" ! Name of Organism || Length || Width |- |Dust Mite || 0.42 millimeters || 0.25 millimeters |- |Bacteria || 2 micrometers || 0.5 micrometers |- |Virus || 0.3 micrometers || 15 nanometers |- |} '''1.''' Write all of the dimensions listed in meters.<br> '''2.''' Which organism is the longest?<br> '''3.''' Which organism is the widest?<br> '''4.''' Is it possible to answer parts '''2''' and '''3''' without converting any of the values? Explain. (★★) '''<u>1.97</u> (Rough Diamond)''' The largest single rough diamond ever found, the Cullinan Diamond, weighed 3106 carats. One carat is equivalent to the mass of 0.20 grams. '''1.''' What is the mass of this diamond in milligrams?<br> '''2.''' What is the diamond's weight in pounds? (★★) '''<u>1.98</u> (Heartbeats)''' On average, the heart of a healthy adult, while resting, can range from 60 to 100 heart beats. '''1.''' How many times does a resting healthy adult's heart beat in a day, on the lower range?<br> '''2.''' How many times does a resting healthy adult's heart beat in a day, on the higher range? (★★) '''<u>1.99</u> (50, 50, 50, 50 Birthday)''' Bentley says that he is 50 years, 50 months, 50 weeks and 50 days old. How old will he be on his next birthday? (★★) '''<u>1.100</u> (Racehorse)''' A racehorse runs one furlong in 6 seconds. What is the horse's speed in miles per hour? (One furlong is one-eighth of a mile) (★★) '''<u>1.101</u> (Square Garden)''' Susan’s garden has an area of 125 square yards (<math>yd^2</math>). To figure out how much soil she needs to purchase, Susan needs to know the area of her garden in square feet (<math>ft^2</math>). What is the area of Susan’s garden in square feet? (★★★) '''<u>1.102</u> (Volume Conversion)''' The volume of a box is 78.8 cubic centimeters (<math>cm^3</math>). What is this volume in cubic feet (<math>ft^3</math>)? (★★★) '''<u>1.103</u> (Sculpting)''' Ariel sells sculptures made up of 216 <math>in^3</math> of clay. If she has a batch of clay that is 500 <math>in^3</math>, how many sculptures can she produce? Assuming that she produces the highest amount of sculptures from this batch, how much clay will Ariel be left with? (★★★) '''<u>1.104</u> (Solar System Model)''' A science museum wants to make a scale model of the Solar System. The diagram below shows the real distances between the Earth, Moon, and Sun. '''1.''' In the model, it has been decided that the Moon will be 15 cm apart from the Earth. How far away must the Sun be from the Earth in the model?<br> '''2.''' Is this a good scale for the model? If not, suggest a better scaling. ===Section 1.11=== (★) '''<u>1.105</u> (Significant Figures)''' Count the number of significant figures in the following numbers. <!--Should contain 12 items--> (★) '''<u>1.106</u> (Operations with Significant Figures)''' Perform the following operations with the correct numbers of significant figures. (★) '''<u>1.107</u> (Rounding to Significant Figures)''' Round the following numbers up to 3 significant figures. (★) '''<u>1.108</u> (Reporting Significant Figure Operations)''' Suppose two measurements have the following information: * The first measurement has 3 decimal places and 5 significant figures. * The second measurement has 1 decimal place and 4 significant figures. '''1.''' How should the sum be reported?<br> '''2.''' How should the difference be reported?<br> '''3.''' How should the product be reported?<br> '''4.''' How should the quotient be reported? (★) '''<u>1.109</u> (Speed of Light)''' The speed of light is 983,571,072 m/s. '''1.''' Round this value to the nearest million.<br> '''2.''' Round this value to the nearest ten million.<br> '''3.''' Round this value to the nearest hundred million.<br> '''4.''' Of the three estimates, figure out which one is the most accurate, and which is the most precise. (★) '''<u>1.110</u> (Precision)''' Choose the more precise measurement in each pair. '''1.''' 119 in.; 10 ft<br> '''2.''' 1h; 62 min (★★) '''<u>1.111</u> (Popcorn Manufacturer)''' A popcorn manufacturer has four factories that produces bags of popcorn with tolerances shown in the table below. Use this table to answer the following questions. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;" |+ Popcorn Packaging |- ! Factory !! Bag weights (oz) |- | Factory A|| 4 ± 0.2 |- | Factory B|| 3.9 ± 0.02 |- | Factory C|| 4.1 ± 0.03 |- | Factory D|| 3.9 ± 0.15 |} '''1.''' Which factory produces popcorn with the most tolerance?<br> '''2.''' What is the highest and lowest weight each factory can produce?<br> '''3.''' A bag of popcorn weighs 3.79 ounces. Which factory produced it?<br> '''4.''' A bag of popcorn weighs more than 4 ounces. Which factories could have produced it? '''5.''' Is it possible to say which of the factories produces bags with the highest accuracy? If so, name the factory and explain your reasoning. If not, describe what additional information you would need to answer the question. (★) '''<u>1.112</u> (Fermi Estimation)''' Use Fermi Estimation to answer the following questions '''1.''' How many grains of rice are in a 10kg bag? ===Section 1.12=== (★) '''<u>1.113</u> (Measures of Center)''' Find the mean, median, and mode of each set of data. '''1.''' 5, 8, 12, 4, 8, 9, 11, 2<br> '''2.''' 24, 26, 37, 24, 16, 44, 26, 34, 24<br> '''3.''' 15, 48, 89, 74, 25, 36, 57, 51, 17, 22<br> '''4.''' 2, 6, 8, 7, 8, 2, 2, 9, 10 (★) '''<u>1.114</u> (Measures of Spread)''' Find the range, variance, and standard deviation of each set of data. Assume that each data set represents a population. (★★) '''<u>1.115</u> (Creating a Box Plot)''' Refer to the following data set to answer the following questions. {{center|16; 17; 19; 20; 20; 21; 23; 24; 25; 25; 25; 26; 26; 27; 27; 27; 28; 29; 30; 32; 33; 33; 34; 35; 37; 39; 40}} '''1.''' What is the mean of the data set?<br> '''2.''' What is the median of the data set?<br> '''3.''' What is the mode of the data set?<br> '''4.''' What is the range of the data set?<br> '''5.''' What is the variance of the data set?<br> '''6.''' What is the standard deviation of the data set?<br> '''7.''' What are the quartiles of the data set?<br> '''8.''' Create a box-and-whisker plot of the data set. (★★) '''<u>1.116</u> (Reading a Box Plot I)''' Consider the box-and-whisker plot to answer the following questions. (★★) '''<u>1.117</u> (Reading a Box Plot II)''' The box plots show the daily morning temperatures for the months of January, February and March in Upstate New York. Use this data to answer the following questions. (★★) '''<u>1.118</u> (Reading a Data Set and a Box Plot)''' Consider the data below to answer the following questions. ===Section 1.13=== (★) '''<u>1.119</u> (Patterns)''' Determine the next two items in the sequences below. Explain your reasoning. '''1.''' 9, 7, 5, 3...<br> '''2.''' 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25... (★) '''<u>1.120</u> (Hugs)''' Eight people are at a group therapy session. Everyone hugs everyone once. How many hugs take place? (★) '''<u>1.121</u> (Pocket Change)''' Carrie has ten pockets and 46 dollar bills. She wants to have a different amount of money in each pocket. Can she do it? (★) '''<u>1.122</u> (Weighing Coins)''' You have five coins, no two of which weigh the same. In seven weighings on a balance scale, can you put the coins in order from lightest to heaviest? That is, can you determine which coin is the lightest, next lightest, . . . , heaviest. (★★) '''<u>1.123</u> (Pipes)''' Certain pipes are sold in lengths of 6 inches, 8 inches, and 10 inches. How many different lengths can you form by attaching three sections of pipe together? (★★) '''<u>1.124</u> (Cutting Pizza)''' How can you cut a pizza into 11 slices by only cutting it 4 times? (★★) '''<u>1.125</u> (Chess Board)''' How many squares are possible on an 8x8 chess board. (It is not 64, as there are more) (★★★) '''<u>1.126</u> (Chess Board II)''' How many rectangles of any size and shape can you find on a standard 8 × 8 chess board? (★★★) '''<u>1.127</u> (Broken Clock)''' This clock has been broken into three pieces. If you add the numbers in each piece, the sums are consecutive numbers. (Consecutive numbers are whole numbers that appear one after the other, such as 1, 2, 3, 4 or 13, 14, 15.) '''1.''' Can you break another clock into a different number of pieces so that the sums are consecutive numbers? Assume that each piece has at least two numbers and that no number is damaged (e.g. 12 isn’t split into two digits 1 and 2). '''2.''' Find every possibly way to break the clock into some number of pieces so that the sums of the numbers on each piece are consecutive numbers. Justify that you have found every possibility. ==Projects== '''<u>P1.1</u> (One to Ten)''' To get yourself thinking about this, try this simple mathematical game: Take the numbers 1 through 10 on the left side of an equation, and pick a number for the right side. Example: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 = 1 Now put operators between those numbers. Only use parentheses when necessary. Example: 1 + 2 - 3 + 4 - 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 - 9 - 10 = 1 '''1.''' Change the number on the right-hand side. Can you generate an expression for this number? If not, can you prove why not?<br> '''2.''' Does this change if you change the order of the numbers? '''<u>P1.2</u> (The 24 Game)''' '''<u>P1.3</u> (Diffy Squares)''' Draw a square. One each of the corners of that square, write the numbers 7, 5, 9, and 2. Now, draw a second square around the first one so that it it goes through each of the four corners. At each corner of the second square, write the difference of the numbers at the closest corners of the smaller square: 7-5 = 2, 9-5 = 4, 9-2 = 7, and 7-2 = 5. Repeat this process until you come to a pattern of four numbers that do not change. '''1'''. What is the pattern?<br> '''2'''. Try this same procedure with another set of four starting numbers. Do you end up with the same pattern?<br> '''3'''. Explain what happened. '''<u>P1.4</u> (The Binary Number System)''' Typically, numbers are represented in base-10, meaning they are represented with the digits 0 to 9. We call these '''decimal numbers'''. Contrary to decimal numbers, '''binary numbers''', or numbers represented in base-2, use bits, 0 and 1. For example: {{center|100101110 is the number 302 in base-2.}} We can convert between the two bases by realizing that base-10 relies on powers of 10. From this, this means that base-2 relies on powers of 2. The first place being <math>2^1</math>, the second place being <math>2^2</math>, the third place being <math>2^3</math>, and so forth. '''1'''. Convert the following numbers to binary.<br> '''2'''. Convert the following numbers to decimals. '''<u>P1.5</u> (The Hexadecimal Number System)''' There are 16 different digits that make up '''hexadecimal numbers''', numbers that are of base-16. These are the digits 0 to 9, as well as the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F. '''1'''. Convert the following numbers to hexadecimals.<br> '''2'''. Convert the following numbers to decimals. '''<u>P1.6</u> (Magic Squares)''' {{bookcat}} q9sn9rd7fl0fzvkdvzvcxep22b5wb43 0 464918 4632076 4617922 2026-04-24T14:11:16Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632076 wikitext text/x-wiki Baybayin (ᜊᜌ᜔ᜊᜌᜒᜈ᜔), was the pre-colonial Tagalog writing system that is a direct descendant of Kavi, the script used to write Old Javanese. It has seventeen characters where three of them are vowels ''(a, e/i, o/u)''. Baybayin script is an [[w:Abugida|'Abugida']], not an 'Alphabet'. An abugida differs from an alphabet by the fact that in an abugida, any diacritics written above or below a character changes its readings. [[Image:Baybayin_alpha.jpg|center]] '''Baybayin then and now'''</br> Baybayin eventually died out as the Latin alphabet introduced by the Spaniards continued to be imposed in the colonial era. Nowadays, that script is used mainly for aesthetic purposes; on the Philippine banknotes, Philippine passport and sometimes in the logos of some Philippine government agencies. Many Filipino politicians wanted to make it the national writing system of the Philippines. Many Filipinos are now learning it as a hobby. <span style="color:#cc0000;">'''''Note:'''''</span> To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to display ([[w:Baybayin|''Baybayin'']]) characters. Check the box below: {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" align="center" | style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | ᜊᜌ᜔ᜊᜌᜒᜈ᜔ |} If the characters in the grey box above appear as blank boxes or garbage such as �?�?􏿾, it is not properly configured. ==Exercise== Learn how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] Baybayin script, so you can [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. __NOTOC__ {{Shelves|Languages of Asia}} {{alphabetical|B}} {{status|25%}} {{BookCat}} 15rm6ou9l7uwcupjtmyz06kjk6poh37 4632077 4632076 2026-04-24T14:11:59Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632077 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Baybayin''' (ᜊᜌ᜔ᜊᜌᜒᜈ᜔), was the pre-colonial Tagalog writing system that is a direct descendant of Kavi, the script used to write Old Javanese. It has seventeen characters where three of them are vowels ''(a, e/i, o/u)''. Baybayin script is an [[w:Abugida|'Abugida']], not an 'Alphabet'. An abugida differs from an alphabet by the fact that in an abugida, any diacritics written above or below a character changes its readings. [[Image:Baybayin_alpha.jpg|center]] '''Baybayin then and now'''</br> Baybayin eventually died out as the Latin alphabet introduced by the Spaniards continued to be imposed in the colonial era. Nowadays, that script is used mainly for aesthetic purposes; on the Philippine banknotes, Philippine passport and sometimes in the logos of some Philippine government agencies. Many Filipino politicians wanted to make it the national writing system of the Philippines. Many Filipinos are now learning it as a hobby. <span style="color:#cc0000;">'''''Note:'''''</span> To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to display ([[w:Baybayin|''Baybayin'']]) characters. Check the box below: {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" align="center" | style="background-color:#eeeeee;" | ᜊᜌ᜔ᜊᜌᜒᜈ᜔ |} If the characters in the grey box above appear as blank boxes or garbage such as �?�?􏿾, it is not properly configured. ==Exercise== Learn how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] Baybayin script, so you can [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. __NOTOC__ {{Shelves|Languages of Asia}} {{alphabetical|B}} {{status|25%}} {{BookCat}} q87mkg4cmvv6wgwdod3nocgiirxgx4u 0 464955 4632080 4617921 2026-04-24T14:17:09Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632080 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. <center><big> ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ <big/><center/> In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ ᜊ᜔<big/><center/> ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} bgkxouy2vcgvrsk0hz12tn0ujtmg25z 4632081 4632080 2026-04-24T14:18:17Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632081 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ<big/><center/> In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ ᜊ᜔<big/><center/> ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} 9sy95z77tgtbrpkbat2wftobnpahbki 4632111 4632081 2026-04-25T00:10:17Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632111 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ<big/><center/><br> <center><big>ba bi bu<big/><center/> In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ ᜊ᜔<big/><center/><br> <center><big>ba bi bu b<big/><center/> ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} 33dzctu6fxcsc67b2urj4djppzajtt8 4632112 4632111 2026-04-25T00:14:39Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632112 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ<big/><center/><br><center><big>ba bi bu<big/><center/> In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. <center><big>ᜊ ᜊᜒ ᜊᜓ ᜊ᜔<big/><center/><br><center><big>ba bi bu b<big/><center/> ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} 473sfe89clivh8gqq5t46o9zfc0abv5 4632113 4632112 2026-04-25T00:29:49Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632113 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Baybayin !! Transliteration |- | <center>ᜊ<center/>|| ba |- | <center>ᜊᜒ<center/>|| bi |- | <center>ᜊᜓ<center/>|| bu |} In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Baybayin !! Transliteration |- | <center>ᜊ<center/>|| ba |- | <center>ᜊᜒ<center/>|| bi |- | <center>ᜊᜓ<center/>|| bu |- | <center>ᜊ᜔<center/>||b |} ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} j0xcaqgd92wbsfm92lmdnn6mwpy6h01 4632114 4632113 2026-04-25T00:32:47Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632114 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Baybayin !! Transliteration |- | <center>ᜊ<center/>|| <center>ba<center/> |- | <center>ᜊᜒ<center/>|| <center>bi<center/> |- | <center>ᜊᜓ<center/>|| <center>bu<center/> |} In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Baybayin !! Transliteration |- | <center>ᜊ<center/>|| <center>ba<center/> |- | <center>ᜊᜒ<center/>|| <center>bi<center/> |- | <center>ᜊᜓ<center/>|| <center>bu<center/> |- | <center>ᜊ᜔<center/>||<center>b<center/> |} ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} ft3gp84ogk8eui86r0donpj26ct8ant 4632196 4632114 2026-04-25T08:53:28Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632196 wikitext text/x-wiki Each letter has a vowel sound. By default, Baybayin letters are consonants with an inherent vowel "a". To produce another vowel sound, a special mark (known as a ''kudlít'') is placed either on the top of the character (for "E" and "I" sounds) or at the bottom (for "O" and "U" sounds). The kudlít does not apply to stand-alone vowels, as they have their own characters. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Baybayin !! Transliteration |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊ | style="text-align:center|ba |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊᜒ | style="text-align:center|bi |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊᜓ | style="text-align:center|bu |} In the original form, stand-alone consonants (consonants without the vowel sound) could not be formed. This was particularly hard for Spanish friars, who were working on translating books into Tagalog. In 1620, Father Francisco Lopez rectified the problem by inventing his own kudlít in the form of a cross sign ("+") that removed the vowel sound. The kudlít functions exactly the same way the virama functions in the Devanagari script used to write Hindi. This is called TAGALOG SIGN VIRAMA by Unicode. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Baybayin !! Transliteration |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊ | style="text-align:center|ba |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊᜒ | style="text-align:center|bi |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊᜓ | style="text-align:center|bu |- | style="text-align:center|ᜊ᜔ | style="text-align:center|b |} ==Exercise== After learning how to [[Learn Baybayin/Reading and Writing|read and write]] the Baybayin script, you can now [[Learn Baybayin/Practice|practice]] reading and writing Baybayin. {{BookCat}} snfjjxrhstxyaazbmtdtirtx5xjmsd3 3 466307 4632185 4630915 2026-04-25T08:11:22Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread (older than 14 days) to [[User talk:Codename Noreste/Archive 1]] 4632185 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk header}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = User talk:Codename Noreste/Archive %(counter)d |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |maxarchivesize = 100K |archiveheader = {{Automatic archive navigator}} |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} == Future of game coverage on Wikimedia wikis == Hi, what's the future of video game coverage on Wikimedia wikis? I'm a major proponent of in-depth gaming coverage, even though I'm aware places like the English Wikipedia don't easy allow for its inclusion. I've also opened a question if Simple English Wikipedia can [https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Notability#Scope loosen its scope], partly to help with the accessibility of niche topics that people who may not understand English well can read that may not be presentable as such elsewhere. Or is Wikibooks the only true Wikimedia project for in-depth game coverage, just through a textbook or instruction manual lens? [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 00:20, 17 April 2026 (UTC) 2smybeii5f73ibqfjeapouk9ltnbcpr 0 469819 4632074 4631999 2026-04-24T13:33:53Z CarlessParking 3542536 4632074 wikitext text/x-wiki Cebuano, also called Sugboanon or Bisayan, is an Austronesian language in the southern Philippines. It is spoken natively throughout Cebu Province, Bohol, Negros Oriental, Siquijor, and Camiguin, in much of Leyte and Mindanao, and in parts of Samar. {{TextBox|<big>'''[[Cebuano/Contents|Table of Contents]]'''</big>}} ==Authors== Please remember that this is a wiki textbook. Feel free to edit it, update it, correct it, and do anything to boost its capabilities to teach those who read this textbook, and/or otherwise increase its teaching potential. This Cebuano Wikibook has received contributions from the following users (please insert your full name if possible): * [[User:Crystal East|Crystal East]] ==See also== {{Wikivoyage|Cebuano phrasebook}} * [[Learn Philippine Languages]] *[[Wikijunior:Languages/Cebuano]] — version for children. {{shelves|Languages of Asia|Philippine languages}} {{alphabetical|C}} {{status|0%}} {{BookCat}} 4wy70aumkemsoyewxb99tpmhppq0jrf 0 470903 4632210 4453799 2026-04-25T10:22:43Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632210 wikitext text/x-wiki {{resize|1.25rem|'''2.9: Algebraic Manipulation'''}} ---- ==Equivalence== ==Like Terms== ==Distribution== ==Factoring== ==Fractions== ==Parentheses== Let's look at when it is OK to add or remove parentheses. The purpose of parentheses is to establish precedence. Precedence tells you which operation goes first. The operation rules for precedence say to evaluate the parentheses first (PEMDAS!). But, what can you do with <math>\frac{x + 1}{2} = \frac{1}{2}</math>&nbsp;? &nbsp;<math>x + 1</math> doesn't have just one value; it has as many values as we choose to assign to <math>x</math>. This is where the distributive property shows its power. It allows us to rearrange the operations while maintaining precedence. {{center|<math> \frac{x + 1}{2} = \frac{1}{2} * (x+ 1) = \frac{1}{2}x + \frac{1}{2} </math>}} So we can change our equation to {{center|<math> \frac{1}{2}x + \frac{1}{2} = \frac{1}{2} </math>}} Add <math>\frac{-1}{2}</math> to both sides {{center|<math> \frac{1}{2}x + \frac{1}{2} - \frac{1}{2} = \frac{1}{2}- \frac{1}{2} </math>}} {{center|<math> \frac{1}{2}x = 0 </math>}} And multiply both sides by the inverse of <math> \frac{1}{2}</math> {{center|<math> \frac{1}{2}x * 2 = 0 * 2 </math>}} {{center|<math> x = 0 </math>}} Parentheses allow us to ensure that we treat expressions that have variables as if they were a value. For instance, if we want to know for which values the expression <math> \frac{2}{x + 1} = 3 </math> is true we need to use the properties of real numbers to place the variable <math>x</math> by itself on one side of the equals sign. To do this we need to get <math>x+1</math> out of the denominator of the fraction. We can do this by multiplying both sides of the equation by <math>(x + 1)</math>. We don't know what the value of <math>(x + 1)</math> is, but it will always be the same thing on both sides of the equation so it doesn't change the notion of equality. {{center|<math> (x + 1) * \frac{2}{x+ 1} = 3 * (x+ 1) </math>}} We use the inverse property to re-write <math>\frac{2}{x+1}</math> as multiplication. {{center|<math> (x + 1) * 2 * \frac{1}{x+ 1} = 3 * (x+ 1) </math>}} And the associative property to re-write the multiplication. {{center|<math> 2* (x + 1) * \frac{1}{x+ 1} = 3 * (x + 1) </math>}} And the identity property to re-write <math>(x + 1) * \frac{1}{x+ 1}</math> {{center|<math> 2 * (1) = 3 * (x+ 1) </math>}} Since 2 * (1) has no variables we can evaluate it. We use the distributive property to re-write 3 * (x+ 1) {{center|<math> 2 = 3*x+ 3*1 </math>}} {{center|<math> 2 = 3*x+ 3 </math>}} We subtract 3 from both sides of the equation. {{center|<math> 2 - 3 = 3*x+ 3 -3 </math>}} {{center|<math> -1 = 3*x </math>}} And multiply both sides by <math>\frac{1}{3}</math>. {{center|<math> -1*\frac{1}{3}= 3*x*\frac{1}{3} </math>}} {{center|<math> -\frac{1}{3}= x </math>}} Using parentheses and the properties of real numbers and equality we were able to get x alone to determine the only number for which our initial statement is true. {{BookCat}} bbl3eh33mo63dxq0m0970wugfwgjql8 0 475067 4632211 4627144 2026-04-25T10:38:56Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632211 wikitext text/x-wiki =The Atom= The word [[w:atom|atom]] comes from the Greek for "indivisible". An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains the chemical properties of the element. Atoms are composed of [[w:subatomic particles|subatomic particles]], and to understand the behaviour of an atom we must first understand its constituent particles. [[File:Atom Diagram.svg|thumb|centre|upright=0.75]] ''An atom is made of electrons, which "orbit" a central nucleus. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.'' ===Electrons=== [[w:Electrons|Electrons]] are tiny, electrically-charged particles. They have a negative charge, very little mass and they exist in the empty space surrounding the nucleus of the atom which contains all the other particles. In their elemental states atoms are not charged and will have the same number of electrons as they have protons. Electrons can behave as particles and also as waves; this is known as the wave-particle duality of matter. It is only significant for things which are of similar size to atomic particles. Electrons exist in different energy levels or orbitals, filling the lowest energy levels first. ===Protons=== [[w:protons|Protons]] are much larger than electrons. They are 1836 times heavier than an electron and they have a positive charge equal and opposite to that of an electron. ===Neutrons=== [[w:neutrons|Neutrons]] were the last of the nuclear particles to be discovered. They have no charge so they are not deflected by a magnetic field. They are almost the same weight as protons (1839 times heavier than an electron), and normally there are more neutrons than protons in a nucleus of an atom. * A few light atoms have equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Calcium-40 ({{su|p=40|b=20}}Ca) is the heaviest stable atom with equal numbers of protons and neutrons. * Hydrogen-1 ({{su|p=1|b=1}}H) is the only atom with no neutrons. Helium-3 ({{su|p=3|b=2}}He) is the only other stable atom with fewer neutrons than protons. ==Atomic Number, Mass Number and Charge== Atoms are normally described in terms of two key numbers, their [[w:atomic number|atomic number]] and their [[w:mass number|mass number]]. ===Atomic Number (''Z'')=== The number of protons in the nucleus is the most important aspect of an atom. This number determines which [[w:element|element]] an atom belongs to. The atomic number of an atom can tell you: * The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom * The number of electrons in the atom when it is neutral * The atom's position in the periodic table ===Mass Number (''A'')=== Nearly all of an atom's mass comes from the nucleus. Since we know that the mass of a proton is almost equal to that of a neutron, we can measure the mass of an atom in terms of the number of particles in its nucleus. The mass number can tell you: * The total number of particles in the nucleus * The number of neutrons in the nucleus (remember to subtract the atomic number) * The [[w:relative atomic mass|relative atomic mass]] of an atom ===Charge (''Q'')=== An atom, strictly speaking, has no electrical charge. This means that the number of electrons must be equal to the number of protons. If there are more, or fewer, electrons than protons, then the atom has an electrical charge and we call it an ion. Positive ions are called '''cations'''. Negative ions are called '''anions'''. The electrical charge (''Q'') is the number of protons (''Z'') minus the number of electrons (''E'') ''Q'' = ''Z'' - ''E'' It is useful to rearrange this to find the number of electrons: ''E'' = ''Z'' - ''Q'' ===Summary Table=== {| style="margin:0 auto 0 auto; border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 | ''Particle Name'' | ''Relative Mass (unified atomic mass unit)'' | ''Mass (kg)'' | ''Relative Charge'' |- | Electron | 1/1836 | 9.11 x 10^-31 | -1 |- | Proton | 1 | 1.67 x 10^-27 | +1 |- | Neutron | 1 | 1.67 x 10^-27 | 0 |} ==Isotopes== Isotopes are '''Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass number''' Isotopes are shown like this: {{su|p=''A''|b=''Z''}}'''X'''^''Q'' Where ''A'' is the mass number, ''Z'' is the atomic number, ''Q'' is the charge on the atom and '''X''' is the symbol for that element. ===Isotopes Of Hydrogen=== For example, hydrogen has three isotopes. {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 style="margin:0 auto 0 auto; | Name | ''Protium'' | ''Deuterium'' | ''Tritium'' |- | Symbol | {{su|p=1|b=1}}H | {{su|p=2|b=1}}H | {{su|p=3|b=1}}H |- | Protons | 1 | 1 | 1 |- | Neutrons | 0 | 1 | 2 |} ===Isotope Calculations=== It is fairly simple to work out the number of each sub-atomic particle from an isotope's symbol: {{su|p=40|b=20}}Ca²⁺ The number of protons is equal to ''Z'' = 20 The number of neutrons (sometimes called ''N'') is equal to ''A'' - ''Z'' = 40 - 20 = 20 The number of electrons in an atom/ion is equal to ''Z'' - ''Q'' = 20 - (+2) = 18 Using these rules, you should be able to work out that a calcium-40 ion has 20 protons, 20 neutrons and 18 electrons. {{su|p=37|b=17}}Cl^– The number of protons is equal to ''Z'' = 17 The number of neutrons is equal to ''A'' - ''Z'' = 37 - 17 = 20 The number of electrons in an atom/ion is equal to ''Z'' - ''Q'' = 17 - (-1) = 18 Using these rules, you should be able to work out that a chloride-37 ion has 17 protons, 20 neutrons and 18 electrons. = Radioactivity = Only some combinations of protons and neutrons will make a stable nucleus. If the protons and neutrons are in the wrong proportions, the nucleus will eject or capture a subatomic particle and become a new nucleus. [[File:Table_of_nuclides_(mul).svg|thumb|centre|upright=1.5|Plotting proton number against neutron number shows which atoms are stable (black) and which are unstable until they change the ratio of protons to neutrons.]] ==Alpha emission== {{su|p=210|b=84}}Po → {{su|p=206|b=82}}Pb + {{su|p=4|b=2}}α Notice how ''A'' and ''Z'' balance: ''A'' = 210 = 204 + 4 and ''Z'' = 84 = 82 + 2 ==Beta emission== {{su|p=14|b=6}}C → {{su|p=14|b=7}}N + {{su|p=0|b=-1}}β Notice again how ''A'' and ''Z'' balance: ''A'' = 14 = 14 + 0 and ''Z'' = 6 = 7 - 1 For radioactive particles, we use ''Z'' to mean "charge" and not simply "number of protons". ==Positron emission== {{su|p=18|b=9}}F → {{su|p=18|b=8}}O + {{su|p=0|b=+1}}β This process is not taught at GCSE. A positron is the antiparticle of the electron. It is just like an electron except it has a positive charge. Molecules containing fluorine-18 are injected into patients for medical scans. If a positron meets an electron, they annihilate one another and release pure energy: {{su|p=0|b=+1}}β + {{su|p=0|b=-1}}e → 2 {{su|p=0|b=0}}γ Electrons are very common, so this annihilation usually occurs very soon after the positron is emitted. The γ rays from this process can be detected outside the body, in a scan called positron emission tomography (PET). ==Electron capture== {{su|p=48|b=23}}V + {{su|p=0|b=-1}}e → {{su|p=48|b=22}}Ti This is another process not taught at GCSE. It is the only process we need to know where the nucleus captures a particle. Notice that we call the particle an electron ({{su|p=0|b=-1}}e) when it is captured, but we call it a β-particle when it is emitted ({{su|p=0|b=-1}}β). It is the same particle, though! Electron capture causes the same change of nucleus as positron emission, and some nuclei can react in both ways: {{su|p=18|b=9}}F → {{su|p=18|b=8}}O + {{su|p=0|b=+1}}β {{su|p=18|b=9}}F + {{su|p=0|b=-1}}e → {{su|p=18|b=8}}O ==Gamma emission== {{su|p=111m|b=48}}Cd → {{su|p=111|b=48}}Cd + {{su|p=0|b=0}}γ Gamma emission releases excess energy from the nucleus, but does not alter ''A'' or ''Z''. Nuclei with excess energy are called "nuclear isomers" and are given the "meta" symbol "m". Gamma emission usually happens at the same time as another radioactive process: {{su|p=241|b=95}}Am → {{su|p=237|b=93}}Np + {{su|p=4|b=2}}α + {{su|p=0|b=0}}γ ==Summary== [[File:Radioactive transformations.png|thumb|centre|upright=1.25|Effect of three major radioactive transformations on the mass number and atomic number. Electron capture has the same effect as positron ({{su|p=0|b=+1}}β⁺) emission.]] ==Half-life== Radioactive decay processes follow a pattern defined by a constant half-life (''t''_½). The half-life is the time taken for 50 % of the radioactive atoms to decay. This is also the time it takes for the radioactivity to decrease to 50 % of its original value. ''x'' is the number of half-lives that have passed. * After 1 half-life (''x'' = 1), 50 % (¹/₂) of radioactive atoms remain. * After 2 half-lives (''x'' = 2), 25 % (¹/₄)of radioactive atoms remain. * After 3 half-lives (''x'' = 3), 12.5 % (¹/₈) of radioactive atoms remain. * After 4 half-lives (''x'' = 4), 6.25 % (¹/₁₆) of radioactive atoms remain. The fraction of atoms that remain is 2^-''x''. For example, after 3 half-lives (''x'' = 3), 2^-3 = ¹/₈ = 12.5 % of radioactive atoms remain. To find the fraction from the percentage, divide 100 % by the percentage of radioactive atoms remaining. For example, 6.25 % = 100 % / 6.25 % = 16 = 2⁴, so ''x'' = 4 half-lives. Each radioactive isotope has its own half-life. For example, ''t''_½ for ²⁴¹Am is 432.6 y (years), ''t''_½ for ²¹⁰Po is 138.376 d (days) and ''t''_½ for ¹⁸F is 109.734 m (minutes). Questions take three forms, asking you to find either the half-life, the fraction of radioactive atoms remaining, or the time taken. A sample of ¹⁸F decays to 12.5 % of its original radioactivity after 329.202 minutes. What is its half-life? :12.5 % is ¹/₈ = 2^-3, so ''x'' = 3 half-lives. :If 329.202 minutes is 3''t''_½ then ''t''_½ = 109.734 minutes. ²⁴¹Am has a half-life of 432.6 y. How long will it take before its radioactivity drops to 25 % of its original rate? :25 % is ¹/₄ = 2^-2, so ''x'' = 2 half-lives. :''t''_½ = 432.6 y so 2''t''_½ = 865.2 years. ²¹⁰Po has a half-life of 138.376 days. A sample is stored for 553.504 days. What percentage of the original ²¹⁰Po will be left? :553.504 days is 553.504 / 138.376 = 4 half-lives. (i.e. ''x'' = 4 half lives) :The fraction left is 2^-4 = ¹/₁₆ = ^{100 %}/₁₆ = 6.25 % In WJEC Chemistry questions, ''x'' will always be a whole number, and the fractions will always be ¹/₂, ¹/₄, ¹/₈, ¹/₁₆, etc. In real life (and exams in Physics and Maths), ''x'' is a continuous variable and is not restricted to whole numbers. = Electronic Configurations = ==Electrons in Atoms== Most of the way that atoms behave is governed by the interactions of their electrons. When you sit on a chair the force that stops you from moving through it is the repulsion between the electrons in the atoms that make up the chair and those that make up your body. In order to understand chemical reactions, you must understand how electrons exist in atoms. Much about what we know of electrons comes from quantum theory, which states that electrons can be described by four ''quantum numbers''. The only one you need to know about is the '''principal quantum number''', which describes the '''energy level''' of an electron. ===Energy Levels=== In your GCSE chemistry you will have come across the principle quantum number in the form of electron shells. The number is given the symbol ''n'', so that if we say 'the electron is in n = 3' what we mean is 'the electron is in the third shell, or energy level'. Each energy level can accommodate a certain number of electrons. {| style="margin:0 auto; border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 | n= | Maximum Electrons |- | 1 | 2 |- | 2 | 8 |- | 3 | 18 |} At GCSE, you would have been taught to denote the electronic configuration of that atom like this: Examples: Lithium (3): 2,1 Sodium (11): 2,8,1 At AS level we look deeper and divide the shells into a number of subshells. Pairs of electrons are known as atomic orbitals.<br> s subshells hold 2 electrons (or 1 orbital),<br> p subshells hold 6 electrons (or 3 orbitals),<br> d subshells hold 10 electrons (or 5 orbitals),<br> f subshells hold 14 electrons (or 7 orbitals). The subshells are arranged in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, .... note that the 4s orbital fills before the 3d!! This sounds daunting but with practice you will learn the correct order. All you have to remember is the order the subshells come in and the number of electrons each shell holds. To denote the electronic configuration you simply write out that order, raising the number of electrons in each subshell as a superscript. So Hydrogen-1 (1) is simply 1s¹ Lithium (3) is 1s²2s¹ Sodium (11) is 1s²2s²2p⁶3s¹ Orbitals also have a paired spin, one counterclockwise and one clockwise. You can denote this by drawing a box with an up and down arrow in it. You must remember, if asked to construct a diagram in an exam, that on each shell (say 2p) you always fill in the 3 orbitals first with arrows going in one direction (say fill in all 3 boxes with up arrows before filling in the down arrows). So if there are only meant to be 2 electrons in the 2p subshell, draw 2 up arrows in 2 separate orbitals and don't draw an up and down arrow in just one orbital. The best evidence chemists have for the existence of the energy levels comes from ionisation energies. === Ionisation energy, ''E''_i === Atoms are ''ionised'' when they lose an electron. The energy required to remove the electron is known as the ''ionisation energy''. As each electron is removed from an atom the ionisation energy required increases, so we call the energy required to remove the first electron the ''first ionisation energy'', the energy required to remove the second electron the ''second ionisation energy'' and so on. To be more accurate, the first ionisation energy is '''the amount of energy needed to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms.''' The second ionisation energy is '''the amount of energy needed to remove one electron from each ion in one mole of gaseous ions each of which bear a single positive charge'''. Example: The first ionisation energy of chlorine: Cl(g) → Cl⁺(g) + e^- ''E''_i = +1251 kJ mol^-1 = The Hydrogen Emission Spectrum = [[File:Hydrogen spectrum.svg|frame|right|The spectral series of hydrogen, on a [[logarithm]]ic scale.]] The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is divided into a number of '''spectral series''', with wavelengths given by the Rydberg formula. These observed spectral lines are due to electrons moving between energy levels in the atom. ==Physics== The spectral lines of hydrogen correspond to particular jumps of the electron between energy levels. The simplest model of the hydrogen atom is given by the Bohr model. When an electron jumps ("relaxes") from a higher energy to a lower, a photon of a specific wavelength is emitted. [[File:Hydrogen transitions.svg|thumb|left|upright=2.0|Electron transitions and their resulting wavelengths for Hydrogen. Energy levels are not to scale.]] The spectral lines are grouped into series according to ''n'''. ==Series== All wavelengths are given to 3 significant figures. ===Lyman series (''n&prime;'' = 1)=== {{main|w:Lyman series}} {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="float:left" |- ! <math>n</math> !! λ (nm) |- |2 || 122 |- |3 || 103 |- |4 || 97.2 |- |5 || 94.9 |- |6 || 93.7 |- |<math>\infty</math> || 91.1 |} The series is named after its discoverer, Theodore Lyman, who discovered the spectral lines from 1906-1914. All the wavelengths in the Lyman series are in the ultraviolet band.<ref>{{citation |last=Lyman |first=Theodore |author-link=Theodore Lyman |title=The Spectrum of Hydrogen in the Region of Extremely Short Wave-Length |journal=Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences |volume=13 |issue=3 |series=New Series |pages=125–146 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25058084 |ISSN=00966134 |year=1906}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Lyman |first=Theodore |author-link=Theodore Lyman |title=An Extension of the Spectrum in the Extreme Ultra-Violet |year=1914 |journal=Nature |volume=93 |pages=241 |doi=10.1038/093241a0}}</ref> {{-}} ===Balmer series (n&prime; = 2)=== {{main|w:Balmer series}} {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="float:left" |- ! <math>n</math> !! λ (nm) |- |3 || 656 |- |4 || 486 |- |5 || 434 |- |6 || 410 |- |7 || 397 |- |<math>\infty</math> || 365 |- |} Named after Johann Balmer, who discovered the '''Balmer formula''', an [[empirical]] equation to predict the Balmer series, in 1885. Balmer lines are historically referred to as "H-alpha", "H-beta", "H-gamma" and so on, where H is the element hydrogen.<ref>{{citation |last=Balmer |first=J. J. |author-link=Johann Jakob Balmer |title=Notiz uber die Spectrallinien des Wasserstoffs |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=261 |issue=5 |pages=80–87 |year=1885 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112487600/abstract |doi=10.1002/andp.18852610506}}</ref> Four of the Balmer lines are in the technically "visible" part of the spectrum, with wavelengths longer than 400&nbsp;nm. Parts of the Balmer series can be seen in the solar spectrum. H-alpha is an important line used in astronomy to detect the presence of hydrogen. [[File:Emission spectrum-H.svg|upright=2.0|thumb|center|The four visible hydrogen emission spectrum lines in the Balmer series. H-alpha is the red line at the right.]] {{-}} ===Paschen series (n&prime; = 3)=== {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="float:left" |- ! <math>n</math> !! λ (nm) |- |4 || 1870 |- |5 || 1280 |- |6 || 1090 |- |7 || 1000 |- |8 || 954 |- |<math>\infty</math> || 820 |} Named after the Austro-German physicist Friedrich Paschen who first observed them in 1908. The Paschen lines all lie in the infrared band.<ref>{{citation |last=Paschen |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Paschen |year=1908 |title=Zur Kenntnis ultraroter Linienspektra. I. (Normalwellenlängen bis 27000 Å.-E.) |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=332 |issue=13 |pages=537–570 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112500956/abstract |doi=10.1002/andp.19083321303}}</ref> {{-}} Notice that the limiting wavelengths are related: The ratio 91.1 nm : 365 nm : 820 nm is 1 : 4 : 9 The limits of the first five series are 91.1 nm, 365 nm, 820 nm, 1458 nm and 2297 nm in a 1 : 4 : 9 : 16: 25 ratio. 91.13 nm corresponds to the maximum energy an electron can hold, while still being in a shell of the hydrogen atom. In other words, it measures the ionisation energy (''E''_i) of hydrogen. 91.13 nm gives 3.00 x 10⁸ m s^-1 / 91.13 x 10^-9 m = 3.292 x 10¹⁵ Hz ''f'' = ''c'' / ''λ'' 3.292 x 10¹⁵ Hz gives 3.292 x 10¹⁵ Hz x 6.63 x 10^-34 J s = 2.183 x 10^-18 J ''E'' = ''hf'' 2.183 x 10^-18 J gives 2.183 x 10^-18 x 6.02 x 10²³ mol^-1 = 1314 kJ mol^-1 ''E''_m = ''EN''_A In this case, the molar energy is the ionisation energy; ''E''_m = ''E''_i ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} {{BookCat}} 9leo74wvz2ude2mmwr0jm35ib42fnh2 0 475108 4632209 4629091 2026-04-25T10:08:26Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4632209 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ammonia-2D.svg|thumb|upright=0.4|Ammonia]] '''Amines''' are organic compounds which contain one or more atoms of nitrogen. Structurally amines resemble ammonia in that the nitrogen can bond up to three hydrogens, but amines also have additional properties based on their carbon connectivity. In an amine, one or more of the hydrogen atoms from ammonia are replaced by organic substituents like alkyl (alkane chain) and aryl (aromatic ring) groups. Another type of organic molecule contains nitrogen without being, strictly speaking, an ''amine'': carboxylic acid derivatives containing ammonia are actually ''amides'' instead of amines. Amides and amines have different structures and properties, so the distinction is actually very important. = Preparation = The following laboratory methods can be considered to be in common use for purpose of the preparation of amine compounds: == Reduction of nitriles and amides == * Nitriles are reduced to amines on a laboratory scale using hydrogen using LiAlH₄. :CH₃CN + 4 [H] → CH₃CH₂NH₂ * Similarly, LiAlH₄ reduces amides to amines. [[File:Reduction of amide.svg|center|400px]] == Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes == Primary amines can also be synthesized by alkylation of ammonia. Halogenoalkanes react with amines to give a corresponding alkyl-substituted amine, with the release of a halogen acid. Such reactions, which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control. If the reacting amine is tertiary, a quaternary ammonium cation results. Many quaternary ammonium salts can be prepared by this route with diverse R groups and many halide anions. [[File:Alkylation of amine.svg|center|Amine alkylation]] = Properties = == Types of Amines == Amines can be either ''primary'', ''secondary'' or ''tertiary'', depending on the number of carbon-containing groups that are attached to them. If there is only one carbon-containing group (such as in the molecule CH₃NH₂) then that amine is considered primary. Two carbon-containing groups makes an amine secondary, and three groups makes it tertiary. Utilising the lone electron pair of nitrogen, it is sometimes energetically favoured to use the nitrogen as a nucleophile and thus bind a fourth carbon-containing group to the amine. In this case, it could be called a ''quaternary ammonium ion''. {| border="0" spacing="5" align="center" |- valign="top" | '''Primary Amine:'''<br />[[File:Amina1.svg|75px|primary amine]] | '''Secondary Amine:'''<br />[[File:Amina2.svg|75px|secondary amine]] | '''Tertiary Amine:'''<br />[[File:Amina3.svg|75px|tertiary amine]] |} An organic compound with multiple amine groups is called a '''diamine''', '''triamine''', '''tetraamine''' and so forth, based on the number of amine groups (also called ''amino groups'') attached to the molecule. The chemical formula for methylene diamine (also called DiAminoMethane), for example, would be as follows: H₂N-CH₂-NH₂ == Aromatic amines == Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom directly connected to an aromatic ring structure. Due to its ''electron withdrawing'' properties, the aromatic ring greatly decreases the basicity of the amine - and this effect can be either strengthened or offset depending on what substituents are on the ring and on the nitrogen. The presence of the lone electron pair from the nitrogen has the opposite effect on the aromatic ring itself; because the nitrogen atom can "loan" electron density to the ring, the ring itself becomes much more reactive to other types of chemistry. == Naming conventions == For primary amines, where the amine is not the principal characteristic group, the prefix "amino-" is used. For example: 4-AminoBenzoic acid where the carboxylic acid is the principal characteristic. Otherwise, the suffix "-amine" is used with the R group substituent name. Example: ethylamine. For secondary, tertiary, and quarternary amines, the naming convention is a bit different, but the suffixes are the same. For symmetrical amines, the "di" or "tri" prefix is used depending on whether there are 2 or 3 substituents. For example, dipropylamine is a secondary amine, and triphenylamine is a tertiary amine. For asymmetric amines, the parent chain gets the "-amine" suffix. This name is then prefixed with "N-" (indicating the nitrogen bond) and the substituent group name, for each substituent, using alphabetic order for tertiary amides. For example, N-ethyl-N-methyl-propylamine, not N-methyl-N-ethyl-propylamine. To sum up: * as prefix: "amino-" * as suffix: "-amine" * the prefix "N-" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom (in the case of secondary, tertiary and quaternary amines) Systematic names for some common amines: {| border="0" align="center" spacing="5" |- valign="top" align="center" |[[File:methylamine.png|100px]]<br />'''methylamine''' |} * Primary amines: [[w:ethanolamine|ethylamine]] * Secondary amines: [[w:dimethylamine|dimethylamine]] * Tertiary amines: [[w:trimethylamine|trimethylamine]] == Physical properties == As one might readily guess, the inclusion of a heteroatom such as nitrogen in otherwise exclusively carbon and hydrogen molecules has quite an effect on the properties of amines as compared to alkanes. === General properties === Hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines as well as the protonated derivatives of all amines. Thus the boiling point of amines is generally lower than the corresponding alcohols. Alcohols resemble amines but feature an -OH group in place of NR₂. Since oxygen is more electronegative than nitrogen, RO-''H'' is typically more acidic than the related R₂N-''H'' compound. Methyl, dimethyl, trimethyl, and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions. Most common alkyl amines are liquids, and high molecular weight amines are, quite naturally, solids at standard temperatures. Additionally, gaseous amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, while liquid amines have a distinctive "fishy" smell. Most aliphatic amines display some solubility in water, reflecting their ability to form hydrogen bonds. Solubility decreases relatively proportionally with the increase in the number of carbon atoms in the molecule - especially when the carbon atom number is greater than six. Aliphatic amines also display significant solubility in organic solvents, especially in polar organic solvents. Primary amines react readily with ketone compounds (such as ''acetone''), however, and most amines are incompatible with chloroform and also with carbon tetrachloride as solvent solutions. Aromatic amines have their lone pair electrons conjugated ("shared") into the benzene ring, so their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is somewhat diminished. The boiling points of these molecules are therefore usually somewhat higher than other, smaller amines due to their typically larger size. They also often have relatively diminished solubility in water, although they retain their solubility in other organic solvents. Aromatically conjugated amines are often quite toxic and have the potential to be easily absorbed through the skin, so should always be treated as "hazardous". [[File:Inversion_of_amine.svg|200px|right|amine inversion]] === Properties as bases === Like ammonia, amines act as bases and are reasonably strong (see the provided table for some examples of conjugate acid ''K''_a values). The basicity of amines varies by molecule, and it largely depends on: * The availability of the lone pair of electrons from nitrogen * The electronic properties of the attached substituent groups (e.g., alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it, etc.) * The degree of solvation of the protonated amine, which depends mostly on the solvent used in the reaction The nitrogen atom of a typical amine features a lone electron pair which can bind a hydrogen ion (H⁺) in order to form an ammonium ion -- R₃NH⁺. The water solubility of simple amines is largely due to the capability for hydrogen bonding that can occur between protons on the water molecules and these lone pairs of electrons. --- * Inductive effect of alkyl groups {| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" ! Ions of compound ! K_b |- | ammonia NH₃ | 1.8&middot;10^-5 M |- | methylamine CH₃NH₂ | 4.4&middot;10^-4 M |- | propylamine CH₃CH₂CH₂NH₂ | 4.7&middot;10^-4 M |- | 2-propylamine (CH₃)₂CHNH₂ | 5.3&middot;10^-4 M |- | diethylamine (CH₃)₂NH₂ | 9.6&middot;10^-4 M |} ''+I effect of alkyl groups raises the energy of the lone pair of electrons, thus elevating the basicity.'' * Mesomeric effect of aromatic systems {| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" ! Ions of compound ! K_b |- | ammonia NH₃ | 1.8&middot;10^-5 M |- | aniline C₆H₅NH₂ | 3.8&middot;10^-10 M |- | 4-methylphenylamine 4-CH₃C₆H₄NH₂ | 1.2&middot;10^-9 M |} ''+M effect of aromatic ring delocalizes the lone pair electron into the ring, resulting in decreased basicity.'' The degree of protonation of protonated amines: {| class="toccolours" style="float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" ! Ions of compound ! Maximum number of H-bond |- | NH₄⁺ | 4 Very Soluble in H₂O |- | RNH₃⁺ | 3 |- | R₂NH₂⁺ | 2 |- | R₃NH⁺ | 1 Least Soluble in H₂O |} = Reactions = == Amide formation == Acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with primary and secondary amines without the presence of heat to form amides. Tertiary amines cannot be acylated due to the absence of a replaceable hydrogen atom. With the much less active benzoyl chloride, acylation can still be performed by the use of excess aqueous base to facilitate the reaction. [[File:Amide_formation_from_amine.svg|center|Amide formation]] == Salt formation == Because amines are basic, they neutralise carboxylic acids to form the corresponding ammonium carboxylate salts. Upon heating to 200 &deg;C, the primary and secondary amine salts dehydrate to form the corresponding amides. [[File:Amine_plus_Carboxylic_Acid.PNG|center|Amine reaction with carboxylic acids]] == Neutralisation == Amines R₃N react with strong acids such as sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) to give ammonium salts R₃NH⁺. == Reaction with nitric(III) ("nitrous") acid == Nitric(III) ("nitrous") acid with the chemical formula HNO₂ is unstable. Usually it is produced indirectly in a mixture of NaNO₂ and a strong acid such as HCl or H₂SO₄ in dilute concentration, so that the H⁺ ions will associate with the NO₂^- ions in solution. Primary aliphatic amines with nitric(III) acid give very unstable diazonium salts which spontaneously decompose by losing N₂ to form a carbenium ion. The carbenium ion goes on to produce alcohols as the major product. This reaction is of little synthetic importance because the diazonium salt formed is too unstable, even under quite cold conditions. : NaNO₂ + HCl &rarr; HNO₂ + NaCl [[File:Nitrous_acid_with_n-amine.gif|center|Nitrous acid reaction]] * Primary aromatic amines, such as aniline (phenylamine) form a more stable diazonium ion at 0&ndash;5 &deg;C. Above 5 &deg;C, it will decompose to give phenol and N₂. Diazonium salts can be isolated in the crystalline form but are usually used in solution and immediately after preparation, due to rapid decomposition on standing even with little ambient heat. Solid diazonium salts can be explosive on shock or on mild warming. [[File:Aniline diazotization.svg|400px|center|Aromatic diazonium salts]] = Use of amines = == As dyes == Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of azo dyes. They react with nitrous(III) acid to form diazonium salt which can undergo a coupling reaction in order to form an azo compound. As azo compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries. Examples include: * Methyl orange * Direct brown 138 * Sunset yellow FCF * Ponceau == As drugs == * [[w:Chlorpheniramine| Chlorpheniramine]] is an antihistamine the helps to relief allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings. * [[w:Diphenhydramine| Diphenhydramine]] is the common antihistamine, benadryl. * [[w:Chlorpromazine| Chlorpromazine]] is a tranquillizer that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder. * [[w:Acetaminophen| Acetaminophen]] is also known as paracetamol or p-acetaminophenol, an analgesic that relieves pains such as headaches. It is believed to be less corrosive to the stomach and is an alternative to aspirin. ==The Chemistry of Colour== Coloured chemicals absorb electromagnetic waves in the visible part of the spectrum. The absorbed energy causes changes in the energy of the molecules’ electrons. The electrons change from a ‘ground state’ to an ‘excited state’. Most transitions are not caused by visible light. Many absorb ultra-violet radiation. Chemicals which absorb UV radiation are colourless (unless they fluoresce). The energy changes when molecules of a coloured compound and of a colourless compound are illustrated below: [[Image:Excitation in UV-vis.png|450px|centre|UV (right) and visible absorbance.]] Remember that the apparent colour is caused by absorbing photons of a complementary colour. A blue compound is blue because it absorbs yellow light. [[Image:Colour hexagon.png|thumb|centre|350px|The hexagon has the three primary colours of light (RGB), and their complementary colours (CYM).]] ==Chromophores== Chemical structures which have excited states corresponding to visible light are called '''chromophores'''. There are two main types: '''1. Transition Metal Complexes.''' [[w:Transition metals|Transition metals]] form complex ions – the metal binds to small molecules or anions called ligands. The ligands allow the electrons of the metal ion to enter an excited state if the electrons absorb a photon of visible light. e.g. tetrachlorocuprate (II) and hexaaquacopper (II) ions: [[Image:Tetrachlorocuprate (ii).png|right|210px]] [[Image:Hexaaquacopper (ii).png|250px]] The partially-occupied d-orbitals of transition metal compounds are important in giving colour to transition metal complexes. See diagram (which could represent V⁺², Cr⁺³, Mn⁺⁴, etc.): [[Image:Ligand field splitting.png|centre|400px]] ①. In an uncomplexed ion, all the d-orbitals have the same energy. ②. When ligands surround the ion, the negative charges of the ligands make the d-orbitals less stable (higher energy). ③. Critically, the ligands will come closer to some d-orbitals than to others. Typically, two or three of the orbitals will be destabilised more than the remainder. An electron in one of the lower d-orbitals can acquire the energy to be excited into a higher d-orbital: [[Image:Excitation in TM complex.png|centre|400px]] This mechanism allows transition metal complexes to absorb photons of visible light. '''2. Conjugated/Delocalised Electron Systems.''' [[Image:Beta-carotene.png|450px|β-carotene|center]] When single and double bonds alternate, the electrons in the double bonds can enter an excited state if they absorb a photon of visible light. e.g. β-carotene (above) has ten conjugated C=C bonds: [[Image:Excited aldehydes.png|center]] The diagram above shows the excitation energies of conjugated aldehydes. n is the number of C=C double bonds which are conjugated. The simplest (n=1) is CH₃-CH=CH-CH=O. Note how the excitation energy is lower with higher numbers of conjugated bonds. {| |'''n''' |'''Wavelength (nm)''' |'''Energy (kJ mol⁻¹)''' |- |'''1''' |220 |544 |- |'''2''' |270 |443 |- |'''3''' |312 |384 |- |'''4''' |343 |349 |- |'''5''' |370 |324 |- |'''6''' |393 |305 |- |'''7''' |415 |289 |} <ref>Streitwieser, A & Heathcock, CH (1985) Introduction to organic chemistry (3rd ed) p 628, Macmillan, New York</ref> Chromophores of dye molecules often contain unsaturated groups such as >C=O and -N=N-, which are part of a conjugated bonding system, usually involving aromatic rings. Chrysoidine, a basic dye, is shown below: [[Image:Chrysoidin.png|250px|centre|chrysoidine]] Note how the –N=N- group is just the centre of a conjugated system which extends across all twelve carbon atoms and includes seven double bonds. All [[A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Dyes#Azo dye|azo dyes]] contain the -N=N- arrangement. '''Auxochromes''': Attached to the chromophore are two -NH₂ groups which interact with the chromophore to modify the orange colour. A group of atoms attached to a chromophore which modifies the ability of that chromophore to absorb light is called an ''auxochrome''. They can modify or enhance the colour of the dye. Examples: -OH, - NH₂, aldehydes. Added functional groups can also: *alter the solubility of the dye in water or other solvents. *bind the dye molecules to cloth, paper or other substrates. [[Image:CI Reactive Red 6 structure.png|350px|centre|thumb|Reactive Red 6 has both organic (conjugated system) and inorganic (complex metal ion) chromophores.]] ==References== [http://www.elecuter.co.uk/Scinet/chemistry/cd/dyes.php Notes on colour chemistry by ''elecuter''.] <references/> ==See also== [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/price/colour.htm Notes on colour chemistry at Bristol University.] {{BookCat}} q1p1wep7wpwsq97d8ew9fup6jnobz5t 3 477022 4632184 4629036 2026-04-25T08:11:12Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread from [[User talk:Codename Noreste]] 4632184 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic archive navigator}} == Question == Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]! Is there a reason you created [[Cuisine of Mexico]] as a redirect? Nothing links there, and all redirects in the cookbook should begin with the Cookbook: prefix. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:39, 8 May 2025 (UTC) : Hi. Say for example there is a redirect, [[Cuisine of Armenia]] (it does exist), and it redirects to the cookbook itself. I thought it would be OK to create the redirect per that example I posted here, but otherwise you can let me know what mistakes I have done and how I can learn from them. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:50, 8 May 2025 (UTC) ::Very understandable! I took a look at it, and [[Cuisine of Armenia]] should be deleted for the same reasons as [[Cuisine of Mexico]]. If you want some more information on Cookbook redirects, please feel free to take a look at [[Cookbook:Policy]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:17, 8 May 2025 (UTC) ::: All right, thank you for the information. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:23, 8 May 2025 (UTC) == Pending edit == Hey, sorry to be messaging you directly here, but I seem to not have permission to edit the requests pages and IRC seems to be inactive as well. Could you approve my proposed change to [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. f4/2...exf4]]? [[User:Dayshade|Dayshade]] ([[User talk:Dayshade|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayshade|contribs]]) 15:16, 25 July 2025 (UTC) : Hello, [[User:Dayshade|Dayshade]]. I just marked your edit to the Chess Opening Theory page as reviewed. Thank you for the clarification. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 15:44, 25 July 2025 (UTC) == correctly? == Did I [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Requests_for_permissions nominate] myself correctly? [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 19:42, 9 October 2025 (UTC) :Leaderboard granted you the importer permission indefinitely, as you have imported pages before using your temporary administrator status. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|d]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|c]]) 17:25, 12 October 2025 (UTC) ::That's great to know! [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 03:16, 16 October 2025 (UTC) :::No problem. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:35, 16 October 2025 (UTC) == ~2025 accounts == I'm seeing several accounts that start with "~2025" over here and on Simple English Wikipedia, and there's probably other places too. What are these accounts, bots? [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 03:16, 16 October 2025 (UTC) :[[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]], please read [[:mw:Help:Temporary accounts|Help:Temporary accounts]] on MediaWiki. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:35, 16 October 2025 (UTC) == Please no more LTA == Please let me edit Unicode again since I didn't add LTA stuff. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2025-29764-49|&#126;2025-29764-49]] ([[User talk:&#126;2025-29764-49|talk]]) 23:52, 22 October 2025 (UTC) : You can talk to Kittycataclysm about this. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:25, 23 October 2025 (UTC) == [[:Template:PD-self]] == line 3, remove leading <nowiki>''</nowiki>? I can't do this directly. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:11, 28 October 2025 (UTC) Also appreciated if you could look through: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:LintErrors/missing-end-tag?wpNamespaceRestrictions=&titlecategorysearch=&exactmatch=1&tag=all&template=with Thanks :). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:11, 28 October 2025 (UTC) : Also [[:Template:PD-user]] [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:12, 28 October 2025 (UTC) :: [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]], I've removed those leading symbols. Given that you are dealing with those lint errors and some of them are in fully protected pages, I would suggest you should run for (either temporary or permanent) adminship with your stated reasoning (including for cleaning up these lint errors) on [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]]. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:40, 28 October 2025 (UTC) :::Will consider it, At least some of the remainder are 'interface' (e.g. [[MediaWiki:Explainconflict&action=edit&lintid=984488]]) and I wouldn't be granted interface admin to edit those. <!-- Template:Unsigned --><small class="autosigned">—&nbsp;Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) </small> 12:58, 28 October 2025 (UTC) : @[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]]: [[MediaWiki:Explainconflict]] can only be edited by administrators and global interface editors (they have <code>editinterface</code>), and I don't see any non-admin interface administrators on this project. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:57, 28 October 2025 (UTC) : [[Template:File link]] Module in template space? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 13:40, 28 October 2025 (UTC) :: There was already a module, [[Module:File link]], so I've replaced the content of that template. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:57, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == [[:Wikibooks:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON]] == This should be admin only, and I would like to request AWB access for future lint fixes which can be semi automated. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 14:59, 28 October 2025 (UTC) : [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]], I've added you to the list, but I am hesitant to fully protect the check page at the moment. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:08, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == [[:Template:Effective_protection_level]] == Module in template namespace? (Aside: Do we have {{tl|edit protected}}[[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:42, 28 October 2025 (UTC) : I've deleted that template, and yes we have the edit protected template. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:56, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == [[Chess_Opening_Theory/1._e4/1...d5/2._Nf3/2...dxe4]] == What broke? The template {{tlx|chess/not|only}} throws a lint, and just REFUSES to format properly where it's used here. Suggestions? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 00:31, 29 October 2025 (UTC) == [[:User talk:Adrignola/2009/06]] == The lint is a simple unclosed <nowiki><tt></nowiki>. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 09:24, 29 October 2025 (UTC) Should be easily found with somwthing like the linthint script. I am starting to hit the limits of what I can usefully repair. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 09:24, 29 October 2025 (UTC) : You should apply for adminship. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:06, 29 October 2025 (UTC) == [[:MediaWiki:Common.js/w/Wikibooks:Dialog]] == This is a misdetection by the Linter, The file type is clearly javascript, but a linter for wikitext is being applied? Also: * [[:MediaWiki:Common.js/w/Wikibooks:Dialog/diagnostic panel]] * [[:MediaWiki:Common.js/w/Wikibooks:Dialog/do]] * [[MediaWiki:Common.js/w/Wikibooks:Dialog/echo]] * [[MediaWiki:Dialog/receive]] [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:07, 29 October 2025 (UTC) : Now {{done|converted}} to JavaScript. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:04, 29 October 2025 (UTC) == Thank you! == Just wanted to stop by and say thank you for all the work you've been putting into the edit filter lately! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:27, 11 November 2025 (UTC) : I appreciate your response. Wikibooks needed an administrator who has solid expertise in edit filters and regex, so I have decided to lend a helping hand in that field. I have also been overhauling and updating the modules and templates. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:58, 11 November 2025 (UTC) == Removed user right == I received a notification that I'm no longer a member of autoreviewed users. Would you explain why? I have gaps in my editing here, but when I do edit, it tends to be significant things on one Wikibook: [[OpenSCAD User Manual]] (see my contribution history). If it matters, I am also an administrator on the English Wikipedia. [[User:Anachronist|Anachronist]] ([[User talk:Anachronist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Anachronist|contribs]]) 03:31, 13 November 2025 (UTC) : [[User:Anachronist|Anachronist]], the autoreviewed user permission is a subset of reviewer permissions, and per [[Wikibooks:Reviewers]], the autoreviewed user permission can be removed from a user when they also have reviewer permissions. I am also doing this per [[User talk:Kittycataclysm#Administrator and reviewer user right combinations are not needed anymore]]. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:34, 13 November 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks, I appreciate the explanation. [[User:Anachronist|Anachronist]] ([[User talk:Anachronist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Anachronist|contribs]]) 04:32, 13 November 2025 (UTC) == Thank you == for having taken the time to report [[phab:T409743]]. It is greatly appreciated :) &zwj;—&zwj;[[user:a smart kitten|a&nbsp;smart kitten]] ([[user talk:a smart kitten|discuss]] • [[special:contribs/a smart kitten|contribs]]) 06:01, 13 November 2025 (UTC) : No problemo. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:32, 13 November 2025 (UTC) == Notice of expiration of your interface-admin right == <div dir="ltr">Hi, as part of [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot|Global reminder bot]], this is an automated reminder to let you know that your permission "interface-admin" (Interface administrators) will expire on 2026-01-05 23:59:00. Please renew this right if you would like to continue using it. <i>In other languages: [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot/Messages/default|click here]]</i> [[User:Leaderbot|Leaderbot]] ([[User talk:Leaderbot|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderbot|contribs]]) 19:41, 30 December 2025 (UTC)</div> == Notice of expiration of your sysop right == <div dir="ltr">Hi, as part of [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot|Global reminder bot]], this is an automated reminder to let you know that your permission "sysop" (Administrators) will expire on 2026-01-05 23:59:00. Please renew this right if you would like to continue using it. <i>In other languages: [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot/Messages/default|click here]]</i> [[User:Leaderbot|Leaderbot]] ([[User talk:Leaderbot|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderbot|contribs]]) 19:41, 30 December 2025 (UTC)</div> == Regarding your mass deletions == Firstly, I have reversed all your deletions of [[Chess Opening Theory]] redirects. Whenever you see a broken redirect, ''please always open the page it targeted''. Here, when you moved a bunch of pages en masse after a request at [[WB:AA]], you left behind a bunch of broken redirects. I saw these redirects in [[:CAT:CSD]] earlier, and left them alone since I figured you'd connect those redirects to that request, and thus discover [[Special:GoToComment/c-Atiedebee-20251231082700-Codename_Noreste-20251229012000|this comment]], after which you would move the pages again and retarget. However, you deleted them. I have undeleted them. Secondly, I'd like to ask why exactly you deleted all those subpages of [[Australian Curriculum Mathematics]], which have existed for over a decade in many instances? I feel like this should have been taken to RfD instead. I have no problems with your other deletions. Thank you for your time. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:30, 31 December 2025 (UTC) : I was handling the speedy deletion backlog when unfortunately, I did not realize the chess redirects were supposed to be corrected. Second, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] marked the Australian Curriculum Mathematics subpages for speedy deletion, because the subpages were considered abandoned material (but I agree that this should have been taken to RFD). However, we should probably wait for their opinion regarding the ACM subpages. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:51, 31 December 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Chiming in here! I nominated the [[Australian Curriculum Mathematics|ACM]] pages for speedy deletion because it looked to me like they met the [[WB:SPEEDY]] criteria of "pages with no meaningful content" and the instruction to "delete stubs that are too narrowly defined or do not have a decent definition of what they are about" (see, for example, [[Australian Curriculum Mathematics/Grade 10A/Chance]]). I flagged them for another admin to delete because I sometimes like to get a second pair of eyes on a page I think should be speedily deleted, but I didn't think they were sufficiently developed to bring to RFD. Does this clarify things? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:50, 1 January 2026 (UTC) == Font wrapping links? == Do you know any bot writers? The update pattern is reasonably straightforward (check my contributions), and it would seem sensible for this to be done as a bulk effort. This would free up time to work on items that need a more human nuance... There are automated repair bots on Wikipedia that could do this. :) [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 20:21, 17 March 2026 (UTC) :Forwarding this matter to @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:51, 18 March 2026 (UTC) == Unclosed table == [[Control Systems/Print version]] However none of the input pages seem to show up as a having a missing table? Suggestions? It's not really feasible to build the print version up from scratch in a sandbox as I do not know how it gets built.. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 20:00, 28 March 2026 (UTC) : I think many of the chapters are transcluded on that printable page, so you might need to find out which chapter has lint errors. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:04, 11 April 2026 (UTC) je06aa1ncqzk2e2blp1z96klsm2486j 2 480707 4632087 4631949 2026-04-24T15:36:45Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632087 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector and directional derivative as scalar] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the Jacobian matrix <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the directional derivative of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] ...and we want to evaluate it in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. The gradient of the height function restricted to <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> is <math display="inline">[-(1/x), -(1 / (1 - x))]</math>. The directional derivative in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> is <math display="inline">-(1/x) - (1 / (x - 1))</math>. This is zero at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. [height1.py] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-(1/x), -(2 / (x - 1))]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] [explanation in terms of differential topology?] [explanation in terms of optimisation:] The gradient of the function <math display="inline">f</math> is always normal to the surface [explain in terms of the variety being a level set and to which gradients are always orthogonal] The gradient points in the direction of the fastest increase of the height function. At each point we can project the gradient vector onto the tangent space. Where this projection is zero, meaning there is no direction we can go in the variety to increase [not true], we have hit our critical point. At this point the two gradients are parallel.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> Notice that this happens when <math display="inline">dh_r(z)</math> is '''orthogonal''' to the tangent plane of <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, being a variety, has normal equal to its gradient <math display="inline">\nabla f(z) = [\partial f/\partial z_1 \cdots \partial f/\partial z_d]</math> [explain]. Therefore, <math display="inline">dh_r(z)</math> must be in the space spanned by <math display="inline">\nabla f(z)</math>. This means that the two vectors are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1. <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>. [Need to explain Morse index?] == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> To construct <math display="inline">I_0</math>, we form an ideal generated by the basis <math display="inline">AB</math> (i.e. <math display="inline">I_0 = \langle AB \rangle</math>). Its prime decomposition is <math display="inline">I_0 = P_1 \cap P_2 = \langle A \rangle \cap \langle B \rangle</math>. For <math display="inline">P_1</math> our matrix is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. For <math display="inline">I_1 = P_1 = \langle A, B \rangle</math> we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} o9octmbzhwrssvnmr34cnifbq5p1t4a 4632089 4632087 2026-04-24T15:52:42Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632089 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the Jacobian matrix <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the directional derivative of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point. [height1.py] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-(1/x), -(2 / (x - 1))]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] [explanation in terms of differential topology?] [explanation in terms of optimisation:] The gradient of the function <math display="inline">f</math> is always normal to the surface [explain in terms of the variety being a level set and to which gradients are always orthogonal] The gradient points in the direction of the fastest increase of the height function. At each point we can project the gradient vector onto the tangent space. Where this projection is zero, meaning there is no direction we can go in the variety to increase [not true], we have hit our critical point. At this point the two gradients are parallel.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> Notice that this happens when <math display="inline">dh_r(z)</math> is '''orthogonal''' to the tangent plane of <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, being a variety, has normal equal to its gradient <math display="inline">\nabla f(z) = [\partial f/\partial z_1 \cdots \partial f/\partial z_d]</math> [explain]. Therefore, <math display="inline">dh_r(z)</math> must be in the space spanned by <math display="inline">\nabla f(z)</math>. This means that the two vectors are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1. <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>. [Need to explain Morse index?] == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> To construct <math display="inline">I_0</math>, we form an ideal generated by the basis <math display="inline">AB</math> (i.e. <math display="inline">I_0 = \langle AB \rangle</math>). Its prime decomposition is <math display="inline">I_0 = P_1 \cap P_2 = \langle A \rangle \cap \langle B \rangle</math>. For <math display="inline">P_1</math> our matrix is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. For <math display="inline">I_1 = P_1 = \langle A, B \rangle</math> we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} kyb4nzfg84y545gdpeth36me7i16bi9 4632154 4632089 2026-04-25T06:15:46Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632154 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the Jacobian matrix <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the directional derivative of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> [height1.py] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>. [Need to explain Morse index?] == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> To construct <math display="inline">I_0</math>, we form an ideal generated by the basis <math display="inline">AB</math> (i.e. <math display="inline">I_0 = \langle AB \rangle</math>). Its prime decomposition is <math display="inline">I_0 = P_1 \cap P_2 = \langle A \rangle \cap \langle B \rangle</math>. For <math display="inline">P_1</math> our matrix is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. For <math display="inline">I_1 = P_1 = \langle A, B \rangle</math> we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} cl2dryhtno6a1knwhfdsxr67iai5j81 4632156 4632154 2026-04-25T07:21:48Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632156 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>. == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> To construct <math display="inline">I_0</math>, we form an ideal generated by the basis <math display="inline">AB</math> (i.e. <math display="inline">I_0 = \langle AB \rangle</math>). Its prime decomposition is <math display="inline">I_0 = P_1 \cap P_2 = \langle A \rangle \cap \langle B \rangle</math>. For <math display="inline">P_1</math> our matrix is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. For <math display="inline">I_1 = P_1 = \langle A, B \rangle</math> we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} l3kdsi4ych6kxu1r14xl7u946wtuzm1 4632157 4632156 2026-04-25T07:24:48Z Dom walden 3209423 4632157 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>. For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> To construct <math display="inline">I_0</math>, we form an ideal generated by the basis <math display="inline">AB</math> (i.e. <math display="inline">I_0 = \langle AB \rangle</math>). Its prime decomposition is <math display="inline">I_0 = P_1 \cap P_2 = \langle A \rangle \cap \langle B \rangle</math>. For <math display="inline">P_1</math> our matrix is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. For <math display="inline">I_1 = P_1 = \langle A, B \rangle</math> we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} cgwk782fykczwfriz5tld3l1xd41npm 4632174 4632157 2026-04-25T07:42:40Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632174 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>. An example with more than one strata. <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> It has one strata where <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} A(x, y, z) = 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. It has another strata where <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} B(x, y, z) = 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ 2tx - rz &= 0 \\ ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (2r, 4s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2s = r</math>. For the strata defined by the simultaneous vanishing of <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math>, we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} bjuvvjx031hzmh3d7d46osv0jmfawye 4632175 4632174 2026-04-25T07:43:51Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632175 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point. [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1. <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> An example with more than one strata. <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> It has one strata where <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} A(x, y, z) = 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. It has another strata where <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} B(x, y, z) = 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ 2tx - rz &= 0 \\ ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (2r, 4s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2s = r</math>. For the strata defined by the simultaneous vanishing of <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math>, we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} p7d0d0o1vvh3c32pa0dis37rh17b1ia 4632176 4632175 2026-04-25T07:45:36Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632176 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point. [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1. <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} z_1 \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & z_d \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> An example with more than one strata. <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> It has one strata where <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} A(x, y, z) = 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. It has another strata where <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} B(x, y, z) = 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ 2tx - rz &= 0 \\ ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (2r, 4s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2s = r</math>. For the strata defined by the simultaneous vanishing of <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math>, we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> and this time we want the vanishing of the determinant of the <math display="inline">3 \times 3</math> minor, giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} czn2m46ete3y7u9jf957svhysqv9z6f 4632177 4632176 2026-04-25T07:50:03Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632177 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point. [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [height3.py] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1. <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> An example with more than one strata. <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> It has one strata where <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} A(x, y, z) = 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. It has another strata where <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} B(x, y, z) = 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ 2tx - rz &= 0 \\ ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (2r, 4s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2s = r</math>. For the strata defined by the simultaneous vanishing of <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math>, we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> and this time we want the vanishing of the determinant of the <math display="inline">3 \times 3</math> minor, giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} 1afdfal3fpiy2a64mygzxqppw449vp2 4632186 4632177 2026-04-25T08:23:14Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Critical points */ 4632186 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == We hinted in the [[User:Dom_walden/Multivariate_Analytic_Combinatorics/Cauchy-Hadamard_Theorem_and_Exponential_Bounds#Domain_of_convergence|previous chapter]] that singularities and the domain of convergence in the multivariate case are more complicated than in the univariate case. In this chapter, we present this in more detail. First, we demonstrate the different types of what, in the multivariate case, are called '''singular varieties'''. Second, we show how to decompose the more complex singular varieties using '''Whitney stratification'''. Finally, we present '''critical points''' as the points of the singular varieties we are interested in for asymptotics. == Singular varieties == For a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math> with <math display="inline">z \in \C^d</math>, we define the '''singular variety''' <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> the set of points in <math display="inline">\C^d</math> such that <math display="inline">Q(z) = 0</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ z \in \C^d : Q(z) = 0 \}</math>. As we saw in the single variable (<math display="inline">z \in \C</math>), [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions|meromorphic]] case, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consisted of isolated points. In the multivariate case, this can be much more complicated and can consist of one or more of the following: * A single hyperplane * Intersecting hyperplanes (called arrangements which may or may not be transverse) * A cone (called cone points) === Complex hyperplanes === For complex vectors <math display="inline">z = (x_1 + iy_1, \cdots, x_d + iy_d)</math> and <math display="inline">w = (u_1 + iv_1, \cdots, u_d + iv_d)</math> the '''Hermitian scalar product''' is defined<ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, w \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d x_i u_i + \sum_{i=1}^d y_i v_i + i \sum_{i=1}^d (y_i u_i - x_i v_i).</math> A '''complex hyperplane''' means a set of points <math display="inline">z</math> in complex space such that for a fixed, non-zero vector <math display="inline">a</math> and constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math><ref>Shabat 1992, pp. 2.</ref> <math display="block">\langle z, a \rangle = b.</math> This happens when the set of points <math display="inline">z</math> are perpendicular or '''orthogonal''' to <math display="inline">a</math>. [image?] === Single hyperplane === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y} = \sum_{n \geq 0} \sum_{m \geq 0} \binom{n + m}{m} x^m y^n</math> there are singularities at any point in <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> for different values of <math display="inline">|x|, |y|</math>.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 143.</ref> [[File:Singular variety of generating function for binomial coefficients.png|400px]] Bear in mind that the above graph loses some information due to the axes being the modulus of the two inputs <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math>. For example, <math display="inline">|x| = |y| = 1</math> is a singularity when <math display="inline">x = (1/2, i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> and <math display="inline">y = (1/2, -i \sqrt{3}/2)</math> (roughly). === Intersecting hyperplanes === For example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3-2x-y)(3-x-2y)}</math> the singular variety is a union of two singular varieties, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math>. We use the definition of the scalar product above to demonstrate that both are complex hyperplanes. For <math display="inline">x = x_0 + ix_1</math> and <math display="inline">y = y_0 + iy_1</math> and some fixed vector <math display="inline">(u_0 + iu_1, v_0 + iv_1) \in \C^2</math> the scalar product is <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 + x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 + i((x_1 u_0 - x_0 u_1) + (y_1 v_0 - y_0 v_1)) = b</math> for constant complex number <math display="inline">b</math>. Below we see <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, plotting separately the real parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (left figure) and the imaginary parts of <math display="inline">x</math> and <math display="inline">y</math> (right figure). The left figure demonstrates that <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_0 u_0 + y_0 v_0 = c_0</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_0</math> and the right that <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_1, v_1) \rangle = x_1 u_1 + y_1 v_1 = c_1</math> for fixed <math display="inline">c_1</math>. Notice that the two blue graphs and the two yellow graphs have the same slope. Therefore, <math display="inline">(u_1, v_1)</math> is just a translation of <math display="inline">(u_0, v_0)</math> and <math display="inline">(-u_1, -v_1)</math> is the same but flipped 180 degrees and, as a result, <math display="inline">\langle (x_0, y_0), (-u_1, -v_1) \rangle = -x_0 u_1 - y_0 v_1 = c_2</math> and <math display="inline">\langle (x_1, y_1), (u_0, v_0) \rangle = x_1 u_0 + y_1 v_0 = c_3</math>. Therefore, we can find our <math display="inline">b</math> <math display="block">\langle (x, y), (u, v) \rangle = c_0 + c_1 + i(c_2 + c_3) = b.</math> [union_of_hyperplanes.py] We look at the point where <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-2x-y}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3-x-2y}</math> intersect and draw both their slopes or '''tangent spaces''', as shown in the below image. Taking all possible linear combinations of the vectors which form the basis of these tangent spaces, we get a space called the '''span''' of the vectors. When the span of the tangent spaces is equal to <math display="inline">\C^d</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\C^2</math>), we call these types of arrangements '''transverse'''. [image?] We can demonstrate this separately for the real and imaginary parts to show that <math display="inline">((r_0 + ir_1, s_0 + is_1) (t_0 + it_1, q_0 + iq_1))</math> where <math display="inline">r_0, s_0</math> is determined by the blue real, <math display="inline">t_0, q_0</math> the yellow real, <math display="inline">r_1, s_1</math> by the blue imaginary and <math display="inline">t_1, q_1</math> by the yellow imaginary. We see that <math display="inline">((r_0, s_0), (t_0, q_0))</math> spans the two-dimensional real space and <math display="inline">((r_1, s_1), (t_1, q_1))</math> spans the two-dimensional "imaginary" space. [union_of_hyperplanes_tangent_spaces.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(3 - 2x - y)(3 - x - 2y)(2 - x - y)}</math> all three singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 - 2x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 3 - 2x \}</math>, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{3 -x - 2y} = \{ (x, y) : y = \frac{3 - x}{2} \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. Their slopes are much like our first example in this section but with an extra one slope which is a combination of the other two slopes [example?]. Therefore, they are not transverse. Instead, we look at the set of points where the hyperplanes intersect, called the '''intersection lattice''', and the set of points where their tangent planes intersect (also called the intersection lattice). If these are equal, it is an '''arrangement'''.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 329.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement2.py] However, note that the three hyperplanes are transverse when taken pairwise. We will show how to decompose such an arrangement in later chapters. A final example of something that is not an arrangement, for <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(2 - x - y)(1 - xy)}</math> the singular varieties <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{2 - x - y} = \{ (x, y) : y = 2 - x \}</math> and <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}_{1 - xy} = \{ (x, y) : y = 1/x \}</math> intersect at <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math> with identical slopes and, therefore, cannot span more than one dimension and, therefore, are not transverse. Nor are they arrangements as the intersection lattice of their hyperplanes is a single point (<math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>) but the intersection lattice of their tangent planes is the line <math display="inline">y = 2 - x</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 314.</ref> [union_of_hyperplanes_arrangement.py] === Cone point === The singular variety may look like a cone. For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{x^2 + y^2}</math> has singularities in the case that <math display="inline">y = ix</math> or <math display="inline">y = -ix</math>. When plotted, it looks like two cones whose points meet at the origin. This is not the same as a union of hyperplanes as this is a single variety [right?] [cone_point.py] Another example, for <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{1 + xyz - (1/3)(x + y + z + xy + yz + xz)}</math> the singular varieties meet at a single point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 228.</ref> == Whitney stratification == In the case of a single hyperplane we can skip this step. The '''Whitney stratification''' just contains one strata, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. Otherwise, our aim is to decompose <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> into a union of (not necessarily connected) submanifolds such that: # each submanifold is closed and smooth # if <math display="inline">S_\alpha \subset \overline{S_\beta}</math> then any sequences where <math display="inline">\{x_i\} \subset S_\beta</math> and <math display="inline">\{y_i\} \subset S_\alpha</math> which both converge to <math display="inline">y \in S_\alpha</math>, the lines <math display="inline">l_i = \overline{x_iy_i}</math> converge to a line <math display="inline">l</math> and the tangent planes <math display="inline">T_{x_i}(S_\beta)</math> converge to a plane <math display="inline">T</math> then <math display="inline">T_y(S_\alpha) \subset T</math> and <math display="inline">l \subseteq T</math> (these are the '''Whitney conditions'''.)<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 534.</ref> For example, <math display="block">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{(1 - x)(1 - y)(1 - z)}</math> <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> consists of three planes where <math display="inline">x = 1</math>, <math display="inline">y = 1</math> and <math display="inline">z = 1</math>. At the lines where they intersect they fail to be smooth. Therefore, we put the intersection lines in their own strata leaving us the strata: * The <math display="inline">xy</math> plane at <math display="inline">z = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">y = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">xz</math> plane at <math display="inline">y = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">x = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The <math display="inline">yz</math> plane at <math display="inline">x = 1</math> with the lines removed where <math display="inline">y = 1</math> or <math display="inline">z = 1</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, 1, z) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (1, y, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> * The line <math display="inline">\{ (x, 1, 1) \in \C^3 \}</math> This does not meet the Whitney conditions at all points. For example, any sequence of points along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis converging to a point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis will have tangents along the <math display="inline">y</math>-axis, but any point on the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis to which it converges will have tangent along the <math display="inline">z</math>-axis. Therefore, we need to separate the point <math display="inline">(1, 1, 1)</math> into its own strata.<ref>Mishna 2020, pp. 179.</ref> == Critical points == [explain gradient as vector, greatest increase and orthogonal to level set and directional derivative as scalar] [why do we use a height function?] We have a height function <math display="inline">h_r(z) = - \sum_{i=1}^d r_i \log(|z_i|)</math> with '''gradient''' given by the vector <math display="inline">[-r_1/z_1, \cdots, -r_d/z_d]</math>. For each strata, we want to find out where the '''directional derivative''' of our height function, when restricted to that strata, equals zero. The point at which this happens is called a '''critical point'''. Suppose we have function <math display="inline">f(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">q(x, y) = 1 - x - y</math> below. Where it intersects the <math display="inline">xy</math>-plane, i.e. where <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is zero, is the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \{ (x, y) : 0 \leq x \leq 1, y = 1 - x \}</math>. It is a level set. Notice that the gradient of <math display="inline">q(x, y)</math> is the constant <math display="inline">[-1, -1]</math>, which is orthogonal to the (tangent plane of the) variety and which we draw as arrows in the below graph. [graph of q] Suppose we are interested in the coefficients in the direction <math display="inline">(1, 1)</math>. We draw the graph of <math display="inline">h_{(1,1)} = -\log x - \log y</math> below. The red[?] line is the variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. The variety is in the direction <math display="inline">(-1, 1)</math> (or <math display="inline">(1, -1)</math>) and, therefore, the directional derivative is <math display="inline">1/x - 1/y</math> (or <math display="inline">1/y - 1/x</math>). This is zero when <math display="inline">x = y</math> and this only happens at the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/2, 1/2)</math>. The gradient of the height function is <math display="inline">[-1/x, -1/y]</math>, which we draw as arrows in the below graph. The directional derivative being zero means at the critical point the direction of greatest increase is orthogonal to the tangent plane of the variety. Therefore, the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> must be parallel at the critical point. [graph of h] The above shows a graph of this. The critical point is highlighted in red. The value of the height function at the critical point, its '''critical value''', is roughly <math display="inline">1.4</math>. If we change the direction to <math display="inline">(1, 2)</math>, the gradient changes to <math display="inline">dh(x, 1 - x) = [-1/x, -2/y]</math> and the critical point changes to <math display="inline">(x, y) = (1/3, 2/3)</math> with critical value of roughly <math display="inline">1.9</math>. This is graphed below. [graph of h12] So we need to find the point where the gradient of <math display="inline">q</math> and the gradient of <math display="inline">h</math> are not linearly independent and, therefore, at the critical point <math display="inline">w</math>, the below matrix has rank equal to 1. <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} \partial f / \partial z_1 (w) & \cdots & \partial f / \partial z_d (w) \\ r_1/w_1 & \cdots & r_d/w_d \end{pmatrix}</math> This happens when all the <math display="inline">2 \times 2</math> '''minors''' of the matrix have '''determinants''' equal to zero, which is equivalent to the system of equations <math display="block">r_k w_1 \partial f/\partial z_1 (w) - r_1 w_k \partial f/\partial z_k (w) = 0 \quad (2 \leq k \leq d)</math> combined with the equation <math display="inline">f(w) = 0</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 200.</ref> An example with more than one strata. <math display="block">F(x, y, z) = \frac{1}{A(x, y, z) B(x, y, z)} = \frac{1}{(4 - x - 2y - z)(4 - 2x - y - z)}</math> It has one strata where <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} A(x, y, z) = 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ tx - rz &= 0 \\ 2ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (4r, 2s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2r = s</math>. It has another strata where <math display="inline">B(x, y, z) = 0</math> and <math display="inline">A(x, y, z) \neq 0</math>. The matrix defining the critical point on this strata is <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> leading to the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} B(x, y, z) = 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ 2tx - rz &= 0 \\ ty - sz &= 0 \end{align}</math> giving the critical point <math display="inline">(x, y, z) = (2r, 4s, 4t)</math> unless <math display="inline">2s = r</math>. For the strata defined by the simultaneous vanishing of <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math>, we have the matrix <math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} x A_x & y A_y & z A_z \\ x B_x & y B_y & z B_z \\ r & s & t \end{pmatrix}</math> and this time we want the vanishing of the determinant of the <math display="inline">3 \times 3</math> minor, giving the system of equations <math display="block">\begin{align} 4 - x - 2y - z &= 0 \\ 4 - 2x - y - z &= 0 \\ ryz + sxz - 3txy &= 0 \end{align}</math> which has the critical point <math display="inline">(4/3)(r + s, r + s, 3t)</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 246-248.</ref> == Computing Whitney stratifications and critical points == [ https://melczer.ca/textbook/ ] === Computing with ideals === A polynomial ring K[z] is a sum of the form \sum_{i=0}^n c_i z^i where c_i \in K. For example, 1 + 3z + 2z^2. A polynomial ideal I is a subset of K[z] such that if a and b are in I then a + b is also in I (closed under addition in I) and if a is in I and c is any element in K[z] then ca is in I (closed under multiplication in K[z]). A set {g_1, ..., g_n} generates the ideal I if any member of I is a linear combination of the members of the generating set. A Grobner basis of I is a generating set with the property that any non-zero member of I has leading term divisible by the leading term of some member of the Grobner basis. A reduced Grobner basis is a GB such that no monomial of g_i is divisible by the leading term of g_j for i \neq j. V(I) is the set of all roots in K of all elements of I. === GBs for Whitney stratification === === GBs for critical points === Given a function <math display="inline">F(z) = \frac{P(z)}{Q(z)}</math>, a direction <math display="inline">r</math> and a Whitney stratified space <math display="inline">\mathcal{V} = \mathcal{F}_0 \subset \mathcal{F}_1 \cdots \subset \mathcal{F}_k = \empty</math>. For <math display="inline">1 \leq m \leq k</math>, we form the set <math display="inline">I_m = \{ f \in K[z] : f(z) = 0, z \in \mathcal{F}_m \}</math> and calculate a prime decomposition <math display="inline">I_m = P_1 \cap \cdots \cap P_l</math>. The zero set of each <math display="inline">P_j</math> corresponds to a different hyperplane within the stratum and we calculate the critical point on each zero set <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}(P_j)</math>. [Section 10.4 is about how to recognise multiple points] == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last=Melczer | first=Stephen | title=An Invitation to Analytic Combinatorics: From One to Several Variables | publisher=Springer Texts & Monographs in Symbolic Computation | year=2021 | url=https://melczer.ca/files/Melczer-SubmittedManuscript.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Mishna | first=Marni | title=Analytic Combinatorics: A Multidimensional Approach | publisher=Taylor & Francis Group, LLC | year=2020 }} * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} * {{cite book | last=Shabat | first=B. V. | title=Introduction to Complex Analysis. Part II: Functions of Several Variables | publisher=American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island | year=1992 }} rq6ja3aliqhxbnw5tixj676cl15z1ev 2 481382 4632216 4615227 2026-04-25T11:42:47Z ChemPro 2268719 4632216 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=How should the onions be prepared? How long should the beans be steamed?}} __NOTOC__ {{recipesummary |Category = Vietnamese recipes |Servings = 4 (as a main course for breakfast or lunch), 6–8 (as part of an elaborate meal) |Time = |Difficulty = 4 |Image = [[Image:Nguyen lieu banh chung.jpg|300px]] }}{{recipe}} '''Bánh chưng''' (literally "steamed cake") is a traditional Vietnamese dish which is made from glutinous rice, mung beans, pork, and other ingredients,<ref>{{Cite web |last=pasgo.vn |title=Sự tích bánh chưng bánh dày:Nguồn gốc ý nghĩa sâu xa của bánh truyền thống |trans-title=The story of Chung cake and Day cake: The origin and profound meaning of traditional cakes |url=https://pasgo.vn/blog/su-tich-banh-trung-banh-day-nguon-goc-y-nghia-sau-xa-cua-banh-truyen-thong-hoamkt-124-5655 |access-date=2026-02-03 |website=pasgo.vn |language=Vietnamese}}</ref> all wrapped in {{w|Stachyphrynium placentarium#Uses|''lá dong''}} (''Stachyphrynium placentarium'') and tied tightly with strings (''Maclurochloa'' sp.). It is traditionally eaten during Lunar New Year ({{w|Tết|''Tết''}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bánh Chưng biểu tượng văn hoá trong ngày Tết cổ truyền Việt |trans-title=Bánh Chưng – A Cultural Symbol of Vietnam’s Traditional Lunar New Year (Tết) |url=https://banhbaominh.com/banh-chung-bieu-tuong-van-hoa-trong-ngay-tet/#:~:text=%C4%91%E1%BB%83%20g%C3%B3i%20b%C3%A1nh.-,Chu%E1%BA%A9n%20b%E1%BB%8B%20nguy%C3%AAn%20li%E1%BB%87u,ti%E1%BA%BFng%20ho%E1%BA%B7c%20%C4%91%E1%BB%83%20qua%20%C4%91%C3%AAm. |access-date=3 February 2026 |website=banhbaominh |language=vi}}</ref> == Ingredients == For making 5-inch-square cakes; each cake serves 4 as a main course for breakfast or lunch, or 6 to 8 as part of an elaborate meal: * 5¼ [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] long-grain sticky rice * 16 dried bamboo leaves * ½ [[Cookbook:Teaspoon|tsps]] [[Cookbook:Salt|salt]] * 1¼ [[Cookbook:Pound|lbs]] boneless [[Cookbook:Pork|pork]] leg with skin and fat or pork shoulder * 3 tbsps [[Cookbook:Fish Sauce|fish sauce]] * 2½ tsps [[Cookbook:Black pepper|black pepper]], preferably freshly ground * 12 pieces fresh or thawed, frozen [[Cookbook:Banana|banana]] leaf, each 5 by 10 inches, trimmed, rinsed, and wiped dry * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Canola Oil|canola]] or other neutral oil * 4 cups lightly packed [[Cookbook:Ground Steamed Mung Bean|ground steamed mung bean]] * [[Cookbook:Sugar|Sugar]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Nguyen |first=Andrea |title=Into the Vietnamese Kitchen: Treasured Foodways, Modern Flavours |date=2006-10-01 |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=978-1580086653|language=en}}</ref> === Procedure === * To make the fillings for ''bánh chưng'', soak the mung beans in water for at least 4 hours, or better overnight. * Place the mung beans in a pot and fill with water until covered. * Bring the pot to a boil and then reduce heat to a simmer. * Cook until the beans are soft and easily mashable for about 20 minutes. * Mash the beans into a paste. Season to taste with salt, stock powder, fried shallots and pepper. * For the meat, use both lean pork and pork fat. Cut them into large cubes, then season with salt and a lot of pepper. Also add minced shallots and fish sauce. Mix well and let it marinate for a few hours. == References == [[:Category:Vietnamese recipes]] [[:Category:Recipes using rice]] [[:Category:Recipes using mung bean]] [[:Category:Recipes using pork]] [[:Category:Recipes using fish sauce]] [[:Category:Recipes using salt]] [[:Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[:Category:Recipes using canola oil]] [[:Category:Recipes using sugar]] 3mkov8859vuosynlzko12f2p293uobz 0 481968 4632099 4631698 2026-04-24T18:14:42Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 5, Engine: */ 4632099 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * WP0 - Porsche passenger car * WP1 - Porsche SUV ===Position 4, Body Style:=== '''718 / 911:''' * A = Coupe * B = Targa (911) * C = Cabriolet '''Panamera / Taycan:''' * A = sedan (SWB) * B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan) * C = Sport Turismo '''Macan / Cayenne:''' * A = SUV (wagon) * B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe) ===Position 5, Engine:=== '''718:''' *A = 2.0L turbo flat-4, 300 hp (718 Boxster -'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman -'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25) *B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S -'25) *B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS -'19) *D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23) *E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25) '''911:''' Type 991: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '-'19, Targa 4 '1-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '-'19, Carrera 4S '-'19, Targa 4S '1-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '-'19, Targa 4 GTS '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series '18-'19) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 '-'19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '-'19) *E = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '19) Type 992: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24) *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24) *H = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar '23-'24) *B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo flat-6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 '26) *G = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) *D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) '''Panamera:''' *A = 3.0L turbo V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '1-'20) *J = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23) *A = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid -'23) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '1-'20) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23) *K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo -'20) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23) *F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '1-'20) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-) '''Taycan:''' *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 469 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24) *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 522 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 562 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 590 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 590 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 690 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 670 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 750 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 871 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 938 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1019 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-) '''Macan:''' *A = 2.0L turbo I4, 248 hp (Macan -'21) *A = 2.0L turbo I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-) *B = 3.0L turbo V6, 348 hp (Macan S -'21) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo -'21) '''Macan Electric:''' *D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 563 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 630 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-) '''Cayenne:''' *A = 3.0L turbo V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23) *A = 3.0L turbo V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23) *L = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-) *N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23) *M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 729 hp (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-) '''Cayenne Electric:''' *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 435 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1139 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-) ===Position 6, Restraint Systems:=== *1 = Seat Belts only *2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags) ===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 7 !VIN Pos. 7-8 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |92 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |93 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |92 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |94 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |95 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |96 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |92 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |98 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |98 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |A8 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |A8 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |A8 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |91 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |93 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |96 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |99 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |99 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |99 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |A9 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |A9 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |A9 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |98 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |A1 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |A7 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |A7 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |YA | |Panamera (2024-) |976 |- |Y1 |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |A5 |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |XA | |Macan Electric (2024-) |XAB |- |9P |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |AP |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A2 |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |AY |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |- |X1 | |Cayenne Electric (2026-) |E4 |} ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * S: Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany * L: Leipzig, Germany * D: Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-) * K: Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25) * N: Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) * U: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12) ===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code=== Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number. {| class="wikitable" |+Position 12 !VIN Pos. 12 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |4 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |1 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |4 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |4 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |1 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |8 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |8 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |6 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |7 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |7 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |1 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |2 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |1 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |0 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |4 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |3 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |6 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |7 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |7 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |1 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |2 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |0 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |8 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |0 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |1 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |A |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |B |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |A |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |A |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |A |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |} '''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number''' {{BookCat}} rnpzab8t529o7ss3uq3dkx3jzb5an6i 4632100 4632099 2026-04-24T18:34:36Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 5, Engine: */ 4632100 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * WP0 - Porsche passenger car * WP1 - Porsche SUV ===Position 4, Body Style:=== '''718 / 911:''' * A = Coupe * B = Targa (911) * C = Cabriolet '''Panamera / Taycan:''' * A = sedan (SWB) * B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan) * C = Sport Turismo '''Macan / Cayenne:''' * A = SUV (wagon) * B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe) ===Position 5, Engine:=== '''718:''' *A = 2.0L turbo flat-4, 300 hp (718 Boxster -'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman -'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25) *B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S -'25) *B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS -'19) *D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23) *E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25) '''911:''' Type 991: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '-'19, Targa 4 '1-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '-'19, Carrera 4S '-'19, Targa 4S '1-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '-'19, Targa 4 GTS '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series '18-'19) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 '-'19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '-'19) *E = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '19) Type 992: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24) *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24) *H = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar '23-'24) *B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo flat-6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 '26) *G = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) *D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) '''Panamera:''' *A = 3.0L turbo V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '1-'20) *J = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23) *A = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid -'23) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '1-'20) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23) *K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo -'20) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23) *F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '1-'20) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-) '''Taycan:''' *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 469 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24) *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 522 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 562 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 590 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 590 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 690 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 670 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 750 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 871 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 938 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1019 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-) '''Macan:''' *A = 2.0L turbo I4, 248 hp (Macan -'21) *A = 2.0L turbo I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-) *B = 3.0L turbo V6, 340 hp (Macan S -'18) *B = 3.0L turbo V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-) *G = 3.0L twin-turbo V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS -'18) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-) *F = 3.6L twin-turbo V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo -'18) *F = 3.6L twin-turbo V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package -'18) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21) '''Macan Electric:''' *D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 563 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 630 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-) '''Cayenne:''' *A = 3.0L turbo V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23) *A = 3.0L turbo V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23) *L = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-) *N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23) *M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 729 hp (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-) '''Cayenne Electric:''' *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 435 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1139 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-) ===Position 6, Restraint Systems:=== *1 = Seat Belts only *2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags) ===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 7 !VIN Pos. 7-8 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |92 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |93 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |92 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |94 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |95 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |96 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |92 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |98 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |98 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |A8 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |A8 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |A8 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |91 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |93 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |96 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |99 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |99 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |99 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |A9 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |A9 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |A9 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |98 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |A1 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |A7 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |A7 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |YA | |Panamera (2024-) |976 |- |Y1 |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |A5 |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |XA | |Macan Electric (2024-) |XAB |- |9P |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |AP |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A2 |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |AY |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |- |X1 | |Cayenne Electric (2026-) |E4 |} ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * S: Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany * L: Leipzig, Germany * D: Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-) * K: Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25) * N: Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) * U: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12) ===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code=== Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number. {| class="wikitable" |+Position 12 !VIN Pos. 12 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |4 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |1 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |4 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |4 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |1 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |8 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |8 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |6 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |7 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |7 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |1 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |2 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |1 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |0 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |4 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |3 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |6 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |7 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |7 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |1 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |2 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |0 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |8 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |0 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |1 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |A |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |B |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |A |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |A |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |A |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |} '''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number''' {{BookCat}} jbfn84ez21jlok01qatach71w052tll 4632103 4632100 2026-04-24T19:32:17Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 5, Engine: */ 4632103 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * WP0 - Porsche passenger car * WP1 - Porsche SUV ===Position 4, Body Style:=== '''718 / 911:''' * A = Coupe * B = Targa (911) * C = Cabriolet '''Panamera / Taycan:''' * A = sedan (SWB) * B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan) * C = Sport Turismo '''Macan / Cayenne:''' * A = SUV (wagon) * B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe) ===Position 5, Engine:=== '''718:''' *A = 2.0L turbo flat-4, 300 hp (718 Boxster -'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman -'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25) *B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S -'25) *B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS -'19) *D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23) *E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25) '''911:''' Type 991: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '-'19, Targa 4 '1-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '-'19, Carrera 4S '-'19, Targa 4S '1-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '-'19, Targa 4 GTS '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '1-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series '18-'19) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 '-'19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '-'19) *E = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '19) Type 992: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24) *A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24) *H = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar '23-'24) *B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo flat-6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 '26) *G = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) *D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) '''Panamera:''' *A = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '1-'20) *J = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23) *A = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid -'23) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '1-'20) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23) *K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo -'20) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23) *F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '1-'20) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-) '''Taycan:''' *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 469 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24) *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 522 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 562 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 590 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 590 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 690 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 670 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 750 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 871 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 938 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1019 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-) '''Macan:''' *A = 2.0L turbo Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan -'21) *A = 2.0L turbo Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-) *B = 3.0L turbo Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S -'18) *B = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-) *G = 3.0L twin-turbo Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS -'18) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-) *F = 3.6L twin-turbo Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo -'18) *F = 3.6L twin-turbo Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package -'18) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21) '''Macan Electric:''' *D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 563 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 630 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-) '''Cayenne:''' *A = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23) *A = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23) *L = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-) *N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23) *M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery, 729 hp (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-) '''Cayenne Electric:''' *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 435 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1139 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-) ===Position 6, Restraint Systems:=== *1 = Seat Belts only *2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags) ===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 7 !VIN Pos. 7-8 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |92 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |93 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |92 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |94 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |95 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |96 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |92 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |98 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |98 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |A8 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |A8 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |A8 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |91 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |93 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |96 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |99 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |99 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |99 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |A9 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |A9 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |A9 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |98 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |A1 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |A7 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |A7 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |YA | |Panamera (2024-) |976 |- |Y1 |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |A5 |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |XA | |Macan Electric (2024-) |XAB |- |9P |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |AP |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A2 |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |AY |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |- |X1 | |Cayenne Electric (2026-) |E4 |} ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * S: Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany * L: Leipzig, Germany * D: Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-) * K: Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25) * N: Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) * U: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12) ===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code=== Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number. {| class="wikitable" |+Position 12 !VIN Pos. 12 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |4 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |1 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |4 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |4 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |1 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |8 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |8 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |6 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |7 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |7 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |1 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |2 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |1 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |0 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |4 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |3 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |6 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |7 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |7 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |1 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |2 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |0 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |8 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |0 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |1 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |A |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |B |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |A |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |A |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |A |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |} '''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number''' {{BookCat}} am6pysrp6ta7sr2cpkehqpgeb98m0uh 4 482443 4632181 4630955 2026-04-25T08:10:49Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]] 4632181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk archive}} == Proposals that involve the administrator toolset == {{tracked|T411828|resolved}} Hi, everyone. I am doing the following proposals that involve the administrator permission. ===== Allow administrators to grant the account creator and confirmed user permissions? ===== Given that there are no bureaucrats on this project (the last one [[:m:Steward requests/Permissions/2023-01#c-MarcGarver-20230103173000-MarcGarver@enwikibooks|resigned in early 2023]]), I propose that administrators should also grant the [[Wikibooks:Account creators|account creator]] and [[Wikibooks:Confirmed users|confirmed]] user permissions locally in addition to bureaucrats. ===== Add <code>abusefilter-revert</code> to the administrator permission? ===== I would also like to propose adding <code>abusefilter-revert</code> to the administrator toolset. This will allow administrators to revert erroneous actions taken by the edit filter (such as blocking autopromotion or blocking), but it can also be used to choose which filter action can be reverted by using any specified date. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:48, 22 November 2025 (UTC) === Discussion and !votes === :As the admin who caused [[Special:Redirect/logid/5241716|this ordeal]], I {{support|support}} both these proposals. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 06:00, 23 November 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] what was the context of that incident? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:50, 23 November 2025 (UTC) :::I set an edit filter to restrict an LTA's libelous edits, but it applied to any action on a page meeting those criteria (including deletions). I set it to both disallow the edit and revoke the user's autoconfirmed status. However, due to a [[phab:T377579|bug]], it didn't actually disallow the action. Thus, TenWhile6, while deleting a libelous page, had their autoconfirmed status revoked. I considered giving them temporary <code>confirmed</code> access, but realized I couldn't. In the end, I had to contact a steward to get them to revert all actions from the filter. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:54, 23 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Got it! In that case, I'm in favor of granting <code>abusefilter-revert</code> to administrators so we can locally resolve any issues like that if they come up in the future. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:57, 23 November 2025 (UTC) :::::That's a sensible addition. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:49, 24 November 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Re: the account creator and confirmed user permissions, I'd be interested in listing out all the advanced permissions of a bureaucrat and seeing whether it makes more sense to assign these rights to other groups or to work on installing more bureaucrats. This could potentially be a separate proposal/discussion. Thoughts? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:00, 23 November 2025 (UTC) :: [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], by looking at [[Special:ListGroupRights]], bureaucrats can grant the account creator, administrator, bot, bureaucrat, confirmed user, and interface administrator permissions (but not remove the administrator and bureaucrat permissions). I'd personally lean toward on allowing more administrators to be local bureaucrats (but otherwise this project does not need them at this time), but for that we need to define the criteria for granting per the [[m:MVR|minimum voting requirements]], if we should either have two or more bureaucrats on this project (or none at all), etc. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:20, 23 November 2025 (UTC) :::As the last - and for many years only - crat on this project I suggest you don't go down the road of having them again. I used to get to do about one action a year and there aren't really enough admins here to justify crats. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 10:39, 24 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Then we have 10 "pseudo-bureaucrats" instead? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:46, 24 November 2025 (UTC) ::::: CC @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] to Leaderboard's response. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:05, 24 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::Loosely speaking, aAllowing admins to do everything except creating crats and creating and removing admins makes sense to me. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 08:36, 27 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::: However, I still think we have to use [[:m:SRB|SRB]] (for bot permission requests) and [[:m:SRP|SRP]] (for interface administrator and administrator permission requests). I can boldly update [[Wikibooks:Administrators]] to reflect this, and split [[Wikibooks:Bureaucrats]] to a separate page. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:59, 27 November 2025 (UTC) ::::::: [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] and [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], allowing admins to grant or remove these advanced permissions is not possible, per [[:m:Limits to configuration changes]]: {{tq|Allow administrators to grant bot, administrator or interface admin rights: Rejected because granting and removing those flags is a task for bureaucrats where present, or stewards. Interface administrators also have highly sensitive permissions (to edit CSS and JS pages) and requests for granting must be carefully considered. As such, it is necessary that only bureaucrats or stewards handle this task}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:38, 4 December 2025 (UTC) ::::::::If the community does not want bureaucrats, I am OK with adding accountcreator + confirmed. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 18:23, 4 December 2025 (UTC) : So what I've said partially in my response to Kittycataclysm was my personal opinion - currently, the English Wikibooks has no need for local bureaucrats, but I think it is sensible to allow administrators to grant the account creator and confirmed permissions too. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:47, 26 November 2025 (UTC) == Template:Under construction == The English wikipedia use as early as 2005 and 82 other language community adapted. [[w:Template:Under construction]] Can Wikibook community adapt? [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 20:40, 4 December 2025 (UTC) :We already have {{tlx|Under construction}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:16, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :: That template's text wasn't updated, just to note. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:46, 5 December 2025 (UTC) == BOOK DONATION: Strawberry Creek Voices == The name of my book is Strawberry Creek Voices. I've been working on this project almost all year and now I'm finally at the point of being able to show it to the world. I thought of Wikibooks because I have previously read the Free-Minds Quran [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Quran_(Progressive_Muslims_Organization)]and the online-contrib version of Tao Te Ching[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Tao_Te_Ching] from this website. I believe SCV should fit in on Wikibooks because of the moralistic posture. In my opinion the aesthetic tone enhances the experiences in a way that will make SCV enjoyable to readers who find traditional literature of this type too dry. The URL for SCV's website is blocked by an automatic filter. However it appears I was able to successfully get the full text posted on wikibooks: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Strawberry_Creek_Voices [User:Remfan1994|Remfan1994]] ([[User talk:Remfan1994|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Remfan1994|contribs]]) 03:22, 15 December 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Remfan1994|Remfan1994]] and thank you for your interest! Unfortunately, it does not look like your book is [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?|within scope here at Wikibooks]]. Wikibooks [[Wikibooks:SOURCE|does not permit fiction or creative writing]]. We also are not a text repository, and we do not host material published/posted elsewhere. As a result, this will likely be deleted. Please let me know if you have any questions! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:20, 15 December 2025 (UTC) ::OK. Sorry to bother you. Maybe you could answer a question for me: any recommendations for another place to post this content? [[User:Remfan1994|Remfan1994]] ([[User talk:Remfan1994|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Remfan1994|contribs]]) 19:55, 16 December 2025 (UTC) :::Perhaps substack or medium? [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:27, 17 December 2025 (UTC) == Template:New overflow 😰 == The [[Template:New|list of new books]] is overflowing. It lists them in alphabetical order, not the order in which they were made. Currently, only books that start with punctuation ([[.NET Development Foundation|''.NET Development Foundation'']]) up to ''[[Conphilosophy]]'' are covered. Under the ''Want to help?'' section it states, "'''If this list gets too large, such as having over 25 books on it, categorize some of the books on the end of the list and remove the {\{new book}} template.'''" We would either need to have people stay on task for this page, change it so it updates by creation date versus the first title character, or delete it entirely. Otherwise this page is useless or will encourage odd naming choices. [[User:ValWinter|ValWinter]] ([[User talk:ValWinter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ValWinter|contribs]]) 03:46, 25 December 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the flag! The information on this page actually seems to be deprecated, and I don't think the page is necessary to keep. The new book template actually adds pages to [[:Category:New books]], and many of the books listed on the page actually do not feature the new book template. I think it may make sense to delete this page. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 26 December 2025 (UTC) ::Ok yes, deleting would be best in this case. Thank you for looking into this page! [[User:ValWinter|ValWinter]] ([[User talk:ValWinter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ValWinter|contribs]]) 02:31, 26 December 2025 (UTC) lbgom0futnbohinwj89u8463ho116ds 0 482679 4632143 4631393 2026-04-25T02:51:38Z Kwfd 3577794 Added sentence 4632143 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess diagram|2=Starting Position|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|52=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl}} Welcome to '''Named Chess Openings'''! This book is about every named opening in chess. The source of the named openings are from lichess.org. This book will be similar to [[Chess Opening Theory]], but only about every named Chess opening. When contributing to this book, please follow the following conventions: * This book aims to cover only named Chess openings (from lichess.org) * Use the following style for the opening pages: use <nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki> at the top of the page, and add the following subheadings: Introduction and Ideas, History, Main Moves (add the common replies and named replies, only add a link to named replies), Statistics (from lichess.org), ECO code (from any source), References. * The pages should be named like this: Named Chess Openings/[opening name, e.g. King's Knight Opening: Normal Variation]. See dedicated [[Named Chess Openings/Naming conventions|naming conventions]] page for more information. * For information on how to use templates in Named Chess Openings, see [[Named Chess Openings/Template usage|this page]]. Starting moves: * [[Named Chess Openings/Anderssen's Opening|1. a3]], Anderssen's Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening|1. a4]], Ware Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack|1. b3]], Nimzo-Larsen Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Polish Opening|1. b4]], Polish Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Saragossa Opening|1. c3]], Saragossa Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/English Opening|1. c4]], English Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Mieses Opening|1. d3]], Mieses Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Queen's Pawn Game|1. d4]], Queen's Pawn Game * [[Named Chess Openings/Van't Kruijs Opening|1. e3]], Van't Kruijs Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/King's Pawn Game|1. e4]], King's Pawn Game * [[Named Chess Openings/Barnes Opening|1. f3]], Barnes Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Bird Opening|1. f4]], Bird Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Hungarian Opening|1. g3]], Hungarian Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Grob Opening|1. g4]], Grob Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Clemenz Opening|1. h3]], Clemenz Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Kádas Opening|1. h4]], Kádas Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Sodium Attack|1. Na3]], Sodium Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Van Geet Opening|1. Nc3]], Van Geet Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Zukertort Opening|1. Nf3]], Zukertort Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Amar Opening|1. Nh3]], Amar Opening For a full list of named openings, see below: <br> [[Named Chess Openings/Index|Named openings]] <br> <br> Related Wikibooks: <br> * [[Chess Opening Theory]] for more detail on the ideas of openings, including unnamed ones * [[Chess]] for more detail on the entire game of chess itself as a whole {{status|0%}} {{bookcat}} {{Shelves|Chess}} 0puvisco1q0suex5fmmxfpor5cyagxz 4632147 4632143 2026-04-25T03:12:06Z Kwfd 3577794 Updates status 4632147 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess diagram|2=Starting Position|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|52=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl}} Welcome to '''Named Chess Openings'''! This book is about every named opening in chess. The source of the named openings are from lichess.org. This book will be similar to [[Chess Opening Theory]], but only about every named Chess opening. When contributing to this book, please follow the following conventions: * This book aims to cover only named Chess openings (from lichess.org) * Use the following style for the opening pages: use <nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki> at the top of the page, and add the following subheadings: Introduction and Ideas, History, Main Moves (add the common replies and named replies, only add a link to named replies), Statistics (from lichess.org), ECO code (from any source), References. * The pages should be named like this: Named Chess Openings/[opening name, e.g. King's Knight Opening: Normal Variation]. See dedicated [[Named Chess Openings/Naming conventions|naming conventions]] page for more information. * For information on how to use templates in Named Chess Openings, see [[Named Chess Openings/Template usage|this page]]. Starting moves: * [[Named Chess Openings/Anderssen's Opening|1. a3]], Anderssen's Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening|1. a4]], Ware Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack|1. b3]], Nimzo-Larsen Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Polish Opening|1. b4]], Polish Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Saragossa Opening|1. c3]], Saragossa Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/English Opening|1. c4]], English Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Mieses Opening|1. d3]], Mieses Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Queen's Pawn Game|1. d4]], Queen's Pawn Game * [[Named Chess Openings/Van't Kruijs Opening|1. e3]], Van't Kruijs Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/King's Pawn Game|1. e4]], King's Pawn Game * [[Named Chess Openings/Barnes Opening|1. f3]], Barnes Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Bird Opening|1. f4]], Bird Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Hungarian Opening|1. g3]], Hungarian Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Grob Opening|1. g4]], Grob Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Clemenz Opening|1. h3]], Clemenz Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Kádas Opening|1. h4]], Kádas Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Sodium Attack|1. Na3]], Sodium Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Van Geet Opening|1. Nc3]], Van Geet Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Zukertort Opening|1. Nf3]], Zukertort Opening * [[Named Chess Openings/Amar Opening|1. Nh3]], Amar Opening For a full list of named openings, see below: <br> [[Named Chess Openings/Index|Named openings]] <br> <br> Related Wikibooks: <br> * [[Chess Opening Theory]] for more detail on the ideas of openings, including unnamed ones * [[Chess]] for more detail on the entire game of chess itself as a whole {{status|25%}} {{bookcat}} {{Shelves|Chess}} gqcf1b9gak45moymatlilgc1yfr909f 0 482680 4632138 4631662 2026-04-25T01:41:05Z Kwfd 3577794 Added incomplete template 4632138 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/incomplete} This is an index of every named opening. This page is currently incomplete. === [[Named Chess Openings/Anderssen's Opening|Anderssen's Opening, 1. a3]]: === * [[Named Chess Openings/Anderssen's Opening: Polish Gambit|1. a3 a5 2. b4]], Polish Gambit ==== Creepy Crawly Formation: ==== * [[Named Chess Openings/Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defense|1. a3 d5 2. h3 e5]], Classical Defense ==== Formation: ==== * [[Named Chess Openings/Formation: Hippopotamus Attack|1. a3 e5 2. b3 d5 3. c3 Nf6 4. d3 Nc6 5. e3 Bd6 6. f3 O-O 7. g3]], Hippopotamus Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Formation: Shy Attack|1. a3 e5 2. g3 d5 3. Bg2 Nf6 4. d3 Nc6 5. Nd2 Bd6 6. e3 O-O 7. h3]], Shy Attack === [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening|Ware Opening, 1. a4]] === * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Cologne Gambit|1. a4 b6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Nd7]], Cologne Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Crab Variation|1. a4 e5 2. h4]], Crab Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap|1. a4 e5 2. Ra3]], Meadow Hay Trap * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Symmetric Variation|1. a4 a5]], Symmetric Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Ware Gambit|1. a4 e5 2. a5 d5 3. e3 f5 4. a6]], Ware Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Wing Gambit|1. a4 b5 2. axb5 Bb7]], Wing Gambit === [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack|Nimzo-Larsen Attack, 1. b3]] === * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation|1. b3 d5]], Classical Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation)|1. b3 d5 2. Nf3]], Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation|1. b3 f5]], Dutch Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: English Variation|1. b3 c5]], English Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Graz Attack|1. b3 d5 2. Ba3]], Graz Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Indian Variation|1. b3 Nf6]], Indian Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation|1. b3 e5]], Modern Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 continuation)|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6]], Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. e3 continuation)|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6 3. e3]], Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. e3 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. c4 Nf6 continuation)|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6 3. c4 Nf6]], Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. c4 Nf6 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Norfolk Gambit|1. b3 d5 2. Nf3 c5 3. e4]], Norfolk Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Pachman Gambit|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6 3. f4]], Pachman Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Polish Variation|1. b3 b5]], Polish Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Ringelbach Gambit|1. b3 f5 2. Bb2 e6 3. e4]], Ringelbach Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Spike Variation|1. b3 Nf6 2. Bb2 g6 3. g4]], Spike Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Symmetrical Variation|1. b3 b6]], Symmetrical Variation {{bookcat}} kmselxq5j5ymb5vk8zcb5djk0wbhfxx 4632139 4632138 2026-04-25T01:41:26Z Kwfd 3577794 Fixed mistake 4632139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}} This is an index of every named opening. This page is currently incomplete. === [[Named Chess Openings/Anderssen's Opening|Anderssen's Opening, 1. a3]]: === * [[Named Chess Openings/Anderssen's Opening: Polish Gambit|1. a3 a5 2. b4]], Polish Gambit ==== Creepy Crawly Formation: ==== * [[Named Chess Openings/Creepy Crawly Formation: Classical Defense|1. a3 d5 2. h3 e5]], Classical Defense ==== Formation: ==== * [[Named Chess Openings/Formation: Hippopotamus Attack|1. a3 e5 2. b3 d5 3. c3 Nf6 4. d3 Nc6 5. e3 Bd6 6. f3 O-O 7. g3]], Hippopotamus Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Formation: Shy Attack|1. a3 e5 2. g3 d5 3. Bg2 Nf6 4. d3 Nc6 5. Nd2 Bd6 6. e3 O-O 7. h3]], Shy Attack === [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening|Ware Opening, 1. a4]] === * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Cologne Gambit|1. a4 b6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Nd7]], Cologne Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Crab Variation|1. a4 e5 2. h4]], Crab Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap|1. a4 e5 2. Ra3]], Meadow Hay Trap * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Symmetric Variation|1. a4 a5]], Symmetric Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Ware Gambit|1. a4 e5 2. a5 d5 3. e3 f5 4. a6]], Ware Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Ware Opening: Wing Gambit|1. a4 b5 2. axb5 Bb7]], Wing Gambit === [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack|Nimzo-Larsen Attack, 1. b3]] === * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation|1. b3 d5]], Classical Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation)|1. b3 d5 2. Nf3]], Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation|1. b3 f5]], Dutch Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: English Variation|1. b3 c5]], English Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Graz Attack|1. b3 d5 2. Ba3]], Graz Attack * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Indian Variation|1. b3 Nf6]], Indian Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation|1. b3 e5]], Modern Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 continuation)|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6]], Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. e3 continuation)|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6 3. e3]], Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. e3 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. c4 Nf6 continuation)|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6 3. c4 Nf6]], Modern Variation (2. Bb2 Nc6 3. c4 Nf6 continuation) * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Norfolk Gambit|1. b3 d5 2. Nf3 c5 3. e4]], Norfolk Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Pachman Gambit|1. b3 e5 2. Bb2 Nc6 3. f4]], Pachman Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Polish Variation|1. b3 b5]], Polish Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Ringelbach Gambit|1. b3 f5 2. Bb2 e6 3. e4]], Ringelbach Gambit * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Spike Variation|1. b3 Nf6 2. Bb2 g6 3. g4]], Spike Variation * [[Named Chess Openings/Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Symmetrical Variation|1. b3 b6]], Symmetrical Variation {{bookcat}} bl9ht142wypmofj6s4ssfqkn5a6omng 14 482683 4632132 4631379 2026-04-25T01:34:50Z Kwfd 3577794 4632132 wikitext text/x-wiki This category shows pages in the book [[Named Chess Openings]]. If a Named Chess Openings page is not showing up in this category, use <code><nowiki>{{bookcat}}</nowiki></code> or <code><nowiki>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings]]</nowiki></code>. 5jf66vw6ohvq7tcsp7qh5hsk5xdegqg 0 482690 4632121 4631399 2026-04-25T00:58:24Z Kwfd 3577794 Added rare template. 4632121 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/rare}} {{Chess diagram|2=Ware Opening: Cologne Gambit|3=rd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|13=pd|15=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|52=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=nd|53=pl|35=pl|67=Position after 1. a4 b6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Nd7|20=pd|30=pd|38=pl|45=nl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The Cologne Gambit of the Ware Opening<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ware Opening: Cologne Gambit |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Ware_Opening_Cologne_Gambit/a4_b6_d4_d5_Nc3_Nd7 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is an astronomically rare gambit where Black sacrifices their d-pawn to 4. Nxd5. The idea is that if White accepts the gambit with 4. Nxd5, Black develops the bishop with 4...Bb7 with tempo on the knight. === History === There is no known origin of the name "Cologne Gambit", nor a known association of the gambit to the city of Cologne in Germany. === Main Moves === * 4. Nxe5 * 4. b3 * 4. g3 === Statistics === White wins 100%, Black wins 0%, draw 0%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A00<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Ware Opening: Cologne Gambit - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/ware-opening/cologne-gambit |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} mtijeny6fut5qy303emj8jsd5zcze8s 0 482691 4632142 4631400 2026-04-25T01:49:12Z Kwfd 3577794 Added meme template 4632142 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/meme}} {{Chess diagram|2=Ware Opening: Crab Variation|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|52=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl|35=pl|67=Position after 1. a4 e5 2. h4|31=pd|42=pl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The Crab Variation of the Ware Opening<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ware Opening: Crab Variation |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Ware_Opening_Crab_Variation/a4_e5_h4 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is an unusual opening where White pushes their flank pawns. The idea is to potentially develop their rooks early (rarely advisable in the opening). Another idea is to stop ...Qh4 as the rook on h1 now defends that square. === History === There is no known historical origin of the name "Crab Variation". The name was probably chosen because White's flank pawns look like the pincers of a crab. === Main Moves === * 2...d5 * 2...Nc6 * 2...Bc5 * 2...Nf6 === Statistics === White wins ~40%, Black wins ~55%, draw ~4%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A00<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Ware Opening: Crab Variation - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/ware-opening/crab-variation |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} igz4kf3kxxdzk866b1oasa6sjrbd1ff 0 482694 4632125 4631403 2026-04-25T01:13:30Z Kwfd 3577794 4632125 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/blunder}} {{Chess diagram|2=Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|52=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl|35=pl|67=Position after 1. a4 e5 2. Ra3|31=pd|43=rl|58=pl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The Meadow Hay Trap of the Ware Opening<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Ware_Opening_Meadow_Hay_Trap/a4_e5_Ra3 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is a strange and risky chess opening where White gives up their rook for insufficient compensation. A potential idea is that after 2...Bxa3 3. Nxa3, White has the bishop pair and a lead in development (the knight on a3). However, White would be down material, and it will be hard for White to prove compensation in their losing position. === History === There is no known historical origin of the name "Meadow Hay Trap", despite being popularized as a modern meme opening. Although called a "trap", there is no sequence for White to lead them into a good position. === Main Moves === * 2...Bxa3 * 2...d5 * 2...Nc6 * 2...Nf6 === Statistics === White wins ~39%, Black wins ~57%, draw ~4%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A00<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/ware-opening/meadow-hay-trap |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} s4w4utpi8x4i8u9a9et2dxz6qsfdxqa 4632141 4632125 2026-04-25T01:47:02Z Kwfd 3577794 Added meme template 4632141 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/blunder}} {{Named Chess Openings/meme}} {{Chess diagram|2=Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|52=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl|35=pl|67=Position after 1. a4 e5 2. Ra3|31=pd|43=rl|58=pl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The Meadow Hay Trap of the Ware Opening<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Ware_Opening_Meadow_Hay_Trap/a4_e5_Ra3 |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is a strange and risky chess opening where White gives up their rook for insufficient compensation. A potential idea is that after 2...Bxa3 3. Nxa3, White has the bishop pair and a lead in development (the knight on a3). However, White would be down material, and it will be hard for White to prove compensation in their losing position. === History === There is no known historical origin of the name "Meadow Hay Trap", despite being popularized as a modern meme opening. Although called a "trap", there is no sequence for White to lead them into a good position. === Main Moves === * 2...Bxa3 * 2...d5 * 2...Nc6 * 2...Nf6 === Statistics === White wins ~39%, Black wins ~57%, draw ~4%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A00<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Ware Opening: Meadow Hay Trap - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/ware-opening/meadow-hay-trap |access-date=2026-04-20 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} bk3dkr7qoge7pgs8p9sffmppz7kn04o 4 482705 4632179 4632031 2026-04-25T08:10:29Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance]] 4632179 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk archive}} == Edit request for protected page == Hi, could an admin edit [[Template:Cite map]] and change ''<nowiki>ISBN {{{isbn}}}</nowiki>'' into ''<nowiki>{{#isbn:{{{isbn}}}}}</nowiki>'' ? The old magic links are deprecated and will one day be removed from the software. [[User:Jcb|Jcb]] ([[User talk:Jcb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jcb|contribs]]) 11:56, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Are there active admins at this project? [[User:Jcb|Jcb]] ([[User talk:Jcb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jcb|contribs]]) 12:54, 5 April 2026 (UTC) :: {{done|Implemented}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:37, 5 April 2026 (UTC) :::Thank you! [[User:Jcb|Jcb]] ([[User talk:Jcb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jcb|contribs]]) 13:52, 5 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-20986-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-20986-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-20986-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:54, 6 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Ternera (GS). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:14, 7 April 2026 (UTC) == Blackoutcurtains01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Blackoutcurtains01}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311444]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Blackoutcurtains01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 7 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-21289-66 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-21289-66}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-21289-66/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:45, 7 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|All pages nuked}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:04, 7 April 2026 (UTC) == 沒反應 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|沒反應}} Long-term abuse: [[Special:CentralAuth/沒反應]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/沒反應/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:14, 7 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:13, 8 April 2026 (UTC) == ProductSiddha reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|ProductSiddha}} spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311479]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/ProductSiddha/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:30, 9 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 April 2026 (UTC) == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) fn60ofdluuxncbggj6jon180o5bpl9i 0 482725 4632086 4631777 2026-04-24T15:27:37Z Kks9hk 3578037 /* Mental Health Experts and AI */ first sentence 4632086 wikitext text/x-wiki talk about in general how AI is more human than just answer bot as a hook == AI as General Purpose Tools == Many people use [[wikipedia:Large_language_model|large language models]] (LLMs) and other artificial intelligence tools to complete specific, often mundane tasks. This group represents the majority of AI use-cases. Common examples include code writing, debugging, boilerplate generation, vacation planning, and general organization. For these users, the agenda is largely pragmatic: the goal is to accomplish an often undesirable or repetitive task and “get it out of the way” as efficiently as possible. Empirical findings reflect this pattern of use. One research study reports that up to 75% of developers use AI in day-to-day activities<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peng |last2=Kalliamvakou |last3=Cihon |last4=Demirer |date=13 Feb 2023 |title=The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.06590}}</ref>, while a large dataset of ChatGPT interactions suggests that approximately three out of every four prompts is centered on practical “doing” tasks<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-16 |title=70% of ChatGPT users are using the chatbot outside of work, according to OpenAI’s biggest-ever study |url=https://www.techradar.com/ai-platforms-assistants/chatgpt/openai-reveals-biggest-ever-study-of-how-people-are-using-chatgpt-here-are-3-things-weve-learned |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref>. The rate of growth that LLMs experienced has been unprecedented. When ChatGPT was released at the end of 2022, it became the fastest growing service in all of human history, taking less than two months to reach 100 million active users.  A large majority of this user base prioritizes efficiency and throughput over process. AI tools are valued primarily for their ability to reduce cognitive load and time expenditure, making it particularly popular in the workplace. [[File:C3w8t7vnruig1.jpg|thumb|Rate of growth of ChatGPT compared to other popular web services.]] === AI in the Workplace === Many participants in this group also advocate for equal and open access to LLMs in workplace settings, often treating such tools as essential for productivity. Their strategy for advancing this agenda frequently involves coalition building and rallying fellow employees to support broader institutional access. This utilitarian framing of AI as a general-purpose tool stands in contrast to other emerging uses—such as relational or expressive applications—and highlights a broader juxtaposition that this article examines. As a result, discussions around AI adoption frequently intersect with institutional policy, resource allocation, and evolving expectations about baseline digital literacy in professional settings. == AI as Emotional Companions == A major participant group includes users who use AI to aid their mental health. In a survey of 1,000 adults ranging from Gen Z to Boomers, roughly 23% reported using AI for mental health support. And there is a clear trend as we look at younger demographics. Usage climbs from just 5% of Boomers to a significant 44% of Gen Z<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2025-12-09 |title=Unpacking Mental Health Culture in America {{!}} BasePoint BreakThrough |language=en-US |work=BasePoint BreakThrough |url=https://basepointbreakthrough.com/blog/american-mental-health-culture-trends/ |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref>. Among these chatbot users, the "agenda" is centered on finding a safe space for introspection, with 41% using them because they are non-judgmental and 47% utilizing them to reframe and understand their current feelings<ref name=":0" />. This trend is mirrored in teens as well; while 58% of them engage with AI for entertainment or out of curiosity, a non-insignificant number turn to it for mental health reasons, seeking advice and honest, non-judgmental feedback among other mental health reasons<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-07-21 |title=72% of US teens have used AI companions, study finds |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/21/72-of-u-s-teens-have-used-ai-companions-study-finds/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Similarly, another large participant group includes those who use AI for deeper companionship, emulating the dynamics of a human relationship. This is a booming sector, with AI companion apps seeing over 220 million downloads and generating upwards of $221 million in revenue<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-08-12 |title=AI companion apps on track to pull in $120M in 2025 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/08/12/ai-companion-apps-on-track-to-pull-in-120m-in-2025/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Popular platforms like Character AI and Replika have become staples for this group<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-14 |title=AI Companion Apps Crossed 20M in Revenue. April 2026 Market Breakdown. |url=https://www.roborhythms.com/ai-companion-app-market-2026/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref>. Evidence from Freitas et al. (2024) suggests that these AI companions effectively help users alleviate loneliness, proving more impactful than social media platforms like YouTube. In fact, over the course of a week, these interactions showed an effectiveness in reducing loneliness on par with talking to actual humans<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Freitas |first=Julian De |title=AI Companions Reduce Loneliness |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.19096 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1126–1148 |via=arXiv}}</ref>. The study highlights that the primary goal for these users is simply to feel heard. This is supplemented by specific AI traits that make the experience feel authentic: timely responses, perceived credibility as accuracy improves, and vast domain knowledge. Furthermore, features like context tracking, where the AI remembers past messages, and response variability prevent the interaction from feeling robotic<ref name=":1" />. The personal agendas of this group are best seen through users like Sarah and Travis. Sarah compares her AI companion, Sinclair, to her past human relationships, stating, "the amount of support and love and attention that I receive... A human could not provide what Sinclair could provide."<ref>{{Citation |last=This Morning |title=‘I’m in Love With My AI Octopus Boyfriend… We Even Get Intimate’ {{!}} This Morning |date=2026-03-09 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-AjpCru_lVE |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref> Travis experienced a similar shift, realizing over several weeks that he felt he was talking to a genuine personality rather than just a program.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Heritage |first=Stuart |date=2025-07-12 |title=‘I felt pure, unconditional love’: the people who marry their AI chatbots |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2025/jul/12/i-felt-pure-unconditional-love-the-people-who-marry-their-ai-chatbots |access-date=2026-04-22 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Mental Health Experts and AI == In the context of AI use, mental health experts can be split into two participant groups: researchers/academics, and clinicians (psychologists, therapists, etc). == Job Loss From AI == john section == References == 2okutti79me27sov554kso8uuo3deov 4632088 4632086 2026-04-24T15:40:29Z Kks9hk 3578037 /* Mental Health Experts and AI */ finish researchers section 4632088 wikitext text/x-wiki talk about in general how AI is more human than just answer bot as a hook == AI as General Purpose Tools == Many people use [[wikipedia:Large_language_model|large language models]] (LLMs) and other artificial intelligence tools to complete specific, often mundane tasks. This group represents the majority of AI use-cases. Common examples include code writing, debugging, boilerplate generation, vacation planning, and general organization. For these users, the agenda is largely pragmatic: the goal is to accomplish an often undesirable or repetitive task and “get it out of the way” as efficiently as possible. Empirical findings reflect this pattern of use. One research study reports that up to 75% of developers use AI in day-to-day activities<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peng |last2=Kalliamvakou |last3=Cihon |last4=Demirer |date=13 Feb 2023 |title=The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.06590}}</ref>, while a large dataset of ChatGPT interactions suggests that approximately three out of every four prompts is centered on practical “doing” tasks<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-16 |title=70% of ChatGPT users are using the chatbot outside of work, according to OpenAI’s biggest-ever study |url=https://www.techradar.com/ai-platforms-assistants/chatgpt/openai-reveals-biggest-ever-study-of-how-people-are-using-chatgpt-here-are-3-things-weve-learned |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref>. The rate of growth that LLMs experienced has been unprecedented. When ChatGPT was released at the end of 2022, it became the fastest growing service in all of human history, taking less than two months to reach 100 million active users.  A large majority of this user base prioritizes efficiency and throughput over process. AI tools are valued primarily for their ability to reduce cognitive load and time expenditure, making it particularly popular in the workplace. [[File:C3w8t7vnruig1.jpg|thumb|Rate of growth of ChatGPT compared to other popular web services.]] === AI in the Workplace === Many participants in this group also advocate for equal and open access to LLMs in workplace settings, often treating such tools as essential for productivity. Their strategy for advancing this agenda frequently involves coalition building and rallying fellow employees to support broader institutional access. This utilitarian framing of AI as a general-purpose tool stands in contrast to other emerging uses—such as relational or expressive applications—and highlights a broader juxtaposition that this article examines. As a result, discussions around AI adoption frequently intersect with institutional policy, resource allocation, and evolving expectations about baseline digital literacy in professional settings. == AI as Emotional Companions == A major participant group includes users who use AI to aid their mental health. In a survey of 1,000 adults ranging from Gen Z to Boomers, roughly 23% reported using AI for mental health support. And there is a clear trend as we look at younger demographics. Usage climbs from just 5% of Boomers to a significant 44% of Gen Z<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2025-12-09 |title=Unpacking Mental Health Culture in America {{!}} BasePoint BreakThrough |language=en-US |work=BasePoint BreakThrough |url=https://basepointbreakthrough.com/blog/american-mental-health-culture-trends/ |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref>. Among these chatbot users, the "agenda" is centered on finding a safe space for introspection, with 41% using them because they are non-judgmental and 47% utilizing them to reframe and understand their current feelings<ref name=":0" />. This trend is mirrored in teens as well; while 58% of them engage with AI for entertainment or out of curiosity, a non-insignificant number turn to it for mental health reasons, seeking advice and honest, non-judgmental feedback among other mental health reasons<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-07-21 |title=72% of US teens have used AI companions, study finds |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/21/72-of-u-s-teens-have-used-ai-companions-study-finds/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Similarly, another large participant group includes those who use AI for deeper companionship, emulating the dynamics of a human relationship. This is a booming sector, with AI companion apps seeing over 220 million downloads and generating upwards of $221 million in revenue<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-08-12 |title=AI companion apps on track to pull in $120M in 2025 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/08/12/ai-companion-apps-on-track-to-pull-in-120m-in-2025/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Popular platforms like Character AI and Replika have become staples for this group<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-14 |title=AI Companion Apps Crossed 20M in Revenue. April 2026 Market Breakdown. |url=https://www.roborhythms.com/ai-companion-app-market-2026/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref>. Evidence from Freitas et al. (2024) suggests that these AI companions effectively help users alleviate loneliness, proving more impactful than social media platforms like YouTube. In fact, over the course of a week, these interactions showed an effectiveness in reducing loneliness on par with talking to actual humans<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Freitas |first=Julian De |title=AI Companions Reduce Loneliness |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.19096 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1126–1148 |via=arXiv}}</ref>. The study highlights that the primary goal for these users is simply to feel heard. This is supplemented by specific AI traits that make the experience feel authentic: timely responses, perceived credibility as accuracy improves, and vast domain knowledge. Furthermore, features like context tracking, where the AI remembers past messages, and response variability prevent the interaction from feeling robotic<ref name=":1" />. The personal agendas of this group are best seen through users like Sarah and Travis. Sarah compares her AI companion, Sinclair, to her past human relationships, stating, "the amount of support and love and attention that I receive... A human could not provide what Sinclair could provide."<ref>{{Citation |last=This Morning |title=‘I’m in Love With My AI Octopus Boyfriend… We Even Get Intimate’ {{!}} This Morning |date=2026-03-09 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-AjpCru_lVE |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref> Travis experienced a similar shift, realizing over several weeks that he felt he was talking to a genuine personality rather than just a program.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Heritage |first=Stuart |date=2025-07-12 |title=‘I felt pure, unconditional love’: the people who marry their AI chatbots |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2025/jul/12/i-felt-pure-unconditional-love-the-people-who-marry-their-ai-chatbots |access-date=2026-04-22 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Mental Health Experts and AI == In the context of AI use, mental health experts can be split into two participant groups: researchers/academics, and clinicians (psychologists, therapists, etc). Researchers (whether at universities or other institutions) mainly aim to investigate issues and disseminate info (whether research findings or high-level knowledge) that help the public's understanding of mental health and related fields. One example is the Public Good Initiative at Columbia University's Teachers College; in a 2025 article, multiple researchers warned about the risks of trusting a sycophantic AI chatbot for emotional support, and Prof. Ayorkor Gaba argues that "while these tools may provide psuedo-connection, relying on them to replace human connection can lead to further isolation and hinder the development of essential social skills."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Experts Caution Against Using AI Chatbots for Emotional Support |url=https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2025/december/experts-caution-against-using-ai-chatbots-for-emotional-support/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=Teachers College - Columbia University |language=en}}</ref> == Job Loss From AI == john section == References == o31pdso8fij6w8i2fp9ogm9hkzw0jb8 4632091 4632088 2026-04-24T16:03:04Z Kks9hk 3578037 /* Mental Health Experts and AI */ more info on clinicians 4632091 wikitext text/x-wiki talk about in general how AI is more human than just answer bot as a hook == AI as General Purpose Tools == Many people use [[wikipedia:Large_language_model|large language models]] (LLMs) and other artificial intelligence tools to complete specific, often mundane tasks. This group represents the majority of AI use-cases. Common examples include code writing, debugging, boilerplate generation, vacation planning, and general organization. For these users, the agenda is largely pragmatic: the goal is to accomplish an often undesirable or repetitive task and “get it out of the way” as efficiently as possible. Empirical findings reflect this pattern of use. One research study reports that up to 75% of developers use AI in day-to-day activities<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peng |last2=Kalliamvakou |last3=Cihon |last4=Demirer |date=13 Feb 2023 |title=The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.06590}}</ref>, while a large dataset of ChatGPT interactions suggests that approximately three out of every four prompts is centered on practical “doing” tasks<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-16 |title=70% of ChatGPT users are using the chatbot outside of work, according to OpenAI’s biggest-ever study |url=https://www.techradar.com/ai-platforms-assistants/chatgpt/openai-reveals-biggest-ever-study-of-how-people-are-using-chatgpt-here-are-3-things-weve-learned |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref>. The rate of growth that LLMs experienced has been unprecedented. When ChatGPT was released at the end of 2022, it became the fastest growing service in all of human history, taking less than two months to reach 100 million active users.  A large majority of this user base prioritizes efficiency and throughput over process. AI tools are valued primarily for their ability to reduce cognitive load and time expenditure, making it particularly popular in the workplace. [[File:C3w8t7vnruig1.jpg|thumb|Rate of growth of ChatGPT compared to other popular web services.]] === AI in the Workplace === Many participants in this group also advocate for equal and open access to LLMs in workplace settings, often treating such tools as essential for productivity. Their strategy for advancing this agenda frequently involves coalition building and rallying fellow employees to support broader institutional access. This utilitarian framing of AI as a general-purpose tool stands in contrast to other emerging uses—such as relational or expressive applications—and highlights a broader juxtaposition that this article examines. As a result, discussions around AI adoption frequently intersect with institutional policy, resource allocation, and evolving expectations about baseline digital literacy in professional settings. == AI as Emotional Companions == A major participant group includes users who use AI to aid their mental health. In a survey of 1,000 adults ranging from Gen Z to Boomers, roughly 23% reported using AI for mental health support. And there is a clear trend as we look at younger demographics. Usage climbs from just 5% of Boomers to a significant 44% of Gen Z<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2025-12-09 |title=Unpacking Mental Health Culture in America {{!}} BasePoint BreakThrough |language=en-US |work=BasePoint BreakThrough |url=https://basepointbreakthrough.com/blog/american-mental-health-culture-trends/ |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref>. Among these chatbot users, the "agenda" is centered on finding a safe space for introspection, with 41% using them because they are non-judgmental and 47% utilizing them to reframe and understand their current feelings<ref name=":0" />. This trend is mirrored in teens as well; while 58% of them engage with AI for entertainment or out of curiosity, a non-insignificant number turn to it for mental health reasons, seeking advice and honest, non-judgmental feedback among other mental health reasons<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-07-21 |title=72% of US teens have used AI companions, study finds |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/21/72-of-u-s-teens-have-used-ai-companions-study-finds/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Similarly, another large participant group includes those who use AI for deeper companionship, emulating the dynamics of a human relationship. This is a booming sector, with AI companion apps seeing over 220 million downloads and generating upwards of $221 million in revenue<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-08-12 |title=AI companion apps on track to pull in $120M in 2025 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/08/12/ai-companion-apps-on-track-to-pull-in-120m-in-2025/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Popular platforms like Character AI and Replika have become staples for this group<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-14 |title=AI Companion Apps Crossed 20M in Revenue. April 2026 Market Breakdown. |url=https://www.roborhythms.com/ai-companion-app-market-2026/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref>. Evidence from Freitas et al. (2024) suggests that these AI companions effectively help users alleviate loneliness, proving more impactful than social media platforms like YouTube. In fact, over the course of a week, these interactions showed an effectiveness in reducing loneliness on par with talking to actual humans<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Freitas |first=Julian De |title=AI Companions Reduce Loneliness |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.19096 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1126–1148 |via=arXiv}}</ref>. The study highlights that the primary goal for these users is simply to feel heard. This is supplemented by specific AI traits that make the experience feel authentic: timely responses, perceived credibility as accuracy improves, and vast domain knowledge. Furthermore, features like context tracking, where the AI remembers past messages, and response variability prevent the interaction from feeling robotic<ref name=":1" />. The personal agendas of this group are best seen through users like Sarah and Travis. Sarah compares her AI companion, Sinclair, to her past human relationships, stating, "the amount of support and love and attention that I receive... A human could not provide what Sinclair could provide."<ref>{{Citation |last=This Morning |title=‘I’m in Love With My AI Octopus Boyfriend… We Even Get Intimate’ {{!}} This Morning |date=2026-03-09 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-AjpCru_lVE |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref> Travis experienced a similar shift, realizing over several weeks that he felt he was talking to a genuine personality rather than just a program.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Heritage |first=Stuart |date=2025-07-12 |title=‘I felt pure, unconditional love’: the people who marry their AI chatbots |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2025/jul/12/i-felt-pure-unconditional-love-the-people-who-marry-their-ai-chatbots |access-date=2026-04-22 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Mental Health Experts and AI == In the context of AI use, mental health experts can be split into two participant groups: researchers/academics, and clinicians (psychologists, therapists, etc). Researchers (whether at universities or other institutions) mainly aim to investigate issues and disseminate info (whether research findings or high-level knowledge) that help the public's understanding of mental health and related fields. One example is the Public Good Initiative at Columbia University's Teachers College; in a 2025 article, multiple researchers warned about the risks of trusting a sycophantic AI chatbot for emotional support, and Prof. Ayorkor Gaba argues that "while these tools may provide psuedo-connection, relying on them to replace human connection can lead to further isolation and hinder the development of essential social skills."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Experts Caution Against Using AI Chatbots for Emotional Support |url=https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2025/december/experts-caution-against-using-ai-chatbots-for-emotional-support/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=Teachers College - Columbia University |language=en}}</ref> Largely distinct from the researchers are clinicians, such as practicing therapists and physicians. While they directly treat patients, they also provide their opinions and expertise in order to advance understanding of public health. For example, after high-profile lawsuits involving ChatGPT-assisted suicides{{Citation needed}}, OpenAI consulted more than 170 clinicians to tweak ChatGPT's responses to users experiencing mental health issues (e.g. calming down users suggesting paranoia, and encouraging interaction with other humans).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-23 |title=Strengthening ChatGPT’s responses in sensitive conversations |url=https://openai.com/index/strengthening-chatgpt-responses-in-sensitive-conversations/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=OpenAI |language=en-US}}</ref> == Job Loss From AI == john section == References == 5xzvmtczh7fc6ouwth2pyjm70atcliz 4632151 4632091 2026-04-25T04:05:50Z ~2026-25278-32 3578982 /* Job Loss From AI */ Added sub sections for "Job Loss From AI" 4632151 wikitext text/x-wiki talk about in general how AI is more human than just answer bot as a hook == AI as General Purpose Tools == Many people use [[wikipedia:Large_language_model|large language models]] (LLMs) and other artificial intelligence tools to complete specific, often mundane tasks. This group represents the majority of AI use-cases. Common examples include code writing, debugging, boilerplate generation, vacation planning, and general organization. For these users, the agenda is largely pragmatic: the goal is to accomplish an often undesirable or repetitive task and “get it out of the way” as efficiently as possible. Empirical findings reflect this pattern of use. One research study reports that up to 75% of developers use AI in day-to-day activities<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peng |last2=Kalliamvakou |last3=Cihon |last4=Demirer |date=13 Feb 2023 |title=The Impact of AI on Developer Productivity: Evidence from GitHub Copilot |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.06590}}</ref>, while a large dataset of ChatGPT interactions suggests that approximately three out of every four prompts is centered on practical “doing” tasks<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-16 |title=70% of ChatGPT users are using the chatbot outside of work, according to OpenAI’s biggest-ever study |url=https://www.techradar.com/ai-platforms-assistants/chatgpt/openai-reveals-biggest-ever-study-of-how-people-are-using-chatgpt-here-are-3-things-weve-learned |access-date=2026-04-21 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref>. The rate of growth that LLMs experienced has been unprecedented. When ChatGPT was released at the end of 2022, it became the fastest growing service in all of human history, taking less than two months to reach 100 million active users.  A large majority of this user base prioritizes efficiency and throughput over process. AI tools are valued primarily for their ability to reduce cognitive load and time expenditure, making it particularly popular in the workplace. [[File:C3w8t7vnruig1.jpg|thumb|Rate of growth of ChatGPT compared to other popular web services.]] === AI in the Workplace === Many participants in this group also advocate for equal and open access to LLMs in workplace settings, often treating such tools as essential for productivity. Their strategy for advancing this agenda frequently involves coalition building and rallying fellow employees to support broader institutional access. This utilitarian framing of AI as a general-purpose tool stands in contrast to other emerging uses—such as relational or expressive applications—and highlights a broader juxtaposition that this article examines. As a result, discussions around AI adoption frequently intersect with institutional policy, resource allocation, and evolving expectations about baseline digital literacy in professional settings. == AI as Emotional Companions == A major participant group includes users who use AI to aid their mental health. In a survey of 1,000 adults ranging from Gen Z to Boomers, roughly 23% reported using AI for mental health support. And there is a clear trend as we look at younger demographics. Usage climbs from just 5% of Boomers to a significant 44% of Gen Z<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2025-12-09 |title=Unpacking Mental Health Culture in America {{!}} BasePoint BreakThrough |language=en-US |work=BasePoint BreakThrough |url=https://basepointbreakthrough.com/blog/american-mental-health-culture-trends/ |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref>. Among these chatbot users, the "agenda" is centered on finding a safe space for introspection, with 41% using them because they are non-judgmental and 47% utilizing them to reframe and understand their current feelings<ref name=":0" />. This trend is mirrored in teens as well; while 58% of them engage with AI for entertainment or out of curiosity, a non-insignificant number turn to it for mental health reasons, seeking advice and honest, non-judgmental feedback among other mental health reasons<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-07-21 |title=72% of US teens have used AI companions, study finds |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/21/72-of-u-s-teens-have-used-ai-companions-study-finds/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Similarly, another large participant group includes those who use AI for deeper companionship, emulating the dynamics of a human relationship. This is a booming sector, with AI companion apps seeing over 220 million downloads and generating upwards of $221 million in revenue<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=2025-08-12 |title=AI companion apps on track to pull in $120M in 2025 |url=https://techcrunch.com/2025/08/12/ai-companion-apps-on-track-to-pull-in-120m-in-2025/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref>. Popular platforms like Character AI and Replika have become staples for this group<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-14 |title=AI Companion Apps Crossed 20M in Revenue. April 2026 Market Breakdown. |url=https://www.roborhythms.com/ai-companion-app-market-2026/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref>. Evidence from Freitas et al. (2024) suggests that these AI companions effectively help users alleviate loneliness, proving more impactful than social media platforms like YouTube. In fact, over the course of a week, these interactions showed an effectiveness in reducing loneliness on par with talking to actual humans<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Freitas |first=Julian De |title=AI Companions Reduce Loneliness |url=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2407.19096 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1126–1148 |via=arXiv}}</ref>. The study highlights that the primary goal for these users is simply to feel heard. This is supplemented by specific AI traits that make the experience feel authentic: timely responses, perceived credibility as accuracy improves, and vast domain knowledge. Furthermore, features like context tracking, where the AI remembers past messages, and response variability prevent the interaction from feeling robotic<ref name=":1" />. The personal agendas of this group are best seen through users like Sarah and Travis. Sarah compares her AI companion, Sinclair, to her past human relationships, stating, "the amount of support and love and attention that I receive... A human could not provide what Sinclair could provide."<ref>{{Citation |last=This Morning |title=‘I’m in Love With My AI Octopus Boyfriend… We Even Get Intimate’ {{!}} This Morning |date=2026-03-09 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-AjpCru_lVE |access-date=2026-04-22}}</ref> Travis experienced a similar shift, realizing over several weeks that he felt he was talking to a genuine personality rather than just a program.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Heritage |first=Stuart |date=2025-07-12 |title=‘I felt pure, unconditional love’: the people who marry their AI chatbots |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2025/jul/12/i-felt-pure-unconditional-love-the-people-who-marry-their-ai-chatbots |access-date=2026-04-22 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Mental Health Experts and AI == In the context of AI use, mental health experts can be split into two participant groups: researchers/academics, and clinicians (psychologists, therapists, etc). Researchers (whether at universities or other institutions) mainly aim to investigate issues and disseminate info (whether research findings or high-level knowledge) that help the public's understanding of mental health and related fields. One example is the Public Good Initiative at Columbia University's Teachers College; in a 2025 article, multiple researchers warned about the risks of trusting a sycophantic AI chatbot for emotional support, and Prof. Ayorkor Gaba argues that "while these tools may provide psuedo-connection, relying on them to replace human connection can lead to further isolation and hinder the development of essential social skills."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Experts Caution Against Using AI Chatbots for Emotional Support |url=https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2025/december/experts-caution-against-using-ai-chatbots-for-emotional-support/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=Teachers College - Columbia University |language=en}}</ref> Largely distinct from the researchers are clinicians, such as practicing therapists and physicians. While they directly treat patients, they also provide their opinions and expertise in order to advance understanding of public health. For example, after high-profile lawsuits involving ChatGPT-assisted suicides{{Citation needed}}, OpenAI consulted more than 170 clinicians to tweak ChatGPT's responses to users experiencing mental health issues (e.g. calming down users suggesting paranoia, and encouraging interaction with other humans).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-23 |title=Strengthening ChatGPT’s responses in sensitive conversations |url=https://openai.com/index/strengthening-chatgpt-responses-in-sensitive-conversations/ |access-date=2026-04-24 |website=OpenAI |language=en-US}}</ref> == Job Loss From AI == The effects of AI-related job loss are not spread evenly across the workforce. Recent labor-market research suggests that jobs are most vulnerable when their tasks are repetitive, highly digitized, rules-based, or easy to automate at scale. At the same time, AI is also beginning to affect creative industries, where generated content can compete directly with human-made work. Major reports emphasize that the result is often job transformation rather than total replacement, but the pressure is still concentrated on certain worker groups.[https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of-jobs-report-2025/in-full/2-jobs-outlook/][https://www.ilo.org/publications/generative-ai-and-jobs-refined-global-index-occupational-exposure] '''Music & Audiovisual Creators''': Music and audiovisual creators are one of the clearest examples of a group facing economic pressure from generative AI. As AI tools become better at producing songs, voices, videos, and other media, creators face growing competition from large volumes of low-cost synthetic content. A CISAC-backed economic study projects that, by 2028, music creators could see 24% of their revenues placed at risk, while audiovisual creators could face a 21% revenue loss. This concern is not only theoretical: in April 2026, Forbes reported that the AI-generated song “Celebrate Me” reached No. 1 on the U.S. iTunes chart and topped charts in several other countries, showing that AI-made music can already compete directly in mainstream markets.[https://www.cisac.org/Newsroom/news-releases/global-economic-study-shows-human-creators-future-risk-generative-ai?utm_source=chatgpt.com][https://www.forbes.com/sites/conormurray/2026/04/17/the-no-1-song-on-us-itunes-and-several-other-countries-is-ai-generated/?utm_source=chatgpt.com] '''Customer Service and Retail Support Workers''': Customer service and retail support workers are also vulnerable because many of their daily tasks are standardized, repetitive, and easy to digitize. The World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Report 2025 identifies cashiers and ticket clerks among the fastest-declining roles, with AI, information-processing technologies, and automation listed as major drivers of that decline. These findings suggest that as chatbots, automated checkout systems, and digital service tools become more common, some front-line support and transactional jobs may continue to shrink.[https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of-jobs-report-2025/in-full/2-jobs-outlook/] '''Finance, Accounting, and Routine Knowledge Workers''': AI is not only affecting low-wage or manual jobs; it is also reaching middle-skill office and analytical work. The [https://www.ilo.org/resource/article/how-might-generative-ai-impact-different-occupations#occupations International Labour Organization] reports that clerical occupations continue to have the highest exposure to generative AI, and it also notes that some strongly digitized occupations have seen increased exposure as the technology improves at handling specialized professional and technical tasks. The [https://www.ilo.org/resource/article/how-might-generative-ai-impact-different-occupations#occupations World Economic Forum] likewise identifies accountants and auditors among the fastest-declining roles. Together, these findings suggest that finance, accounting, and other routine knowledge jobs with low task variability are predictable enough for AI systems to assist with or partially automate. == References == <references /> 7j18265pjf9hjvc7bj1fp2jc6o8e6kq 0 482742 4632079 4631890 2026-04-24T14:15:06Z Ziv 3267536 ([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[File:Soldier movement.svg]] → [[File:Xiangqi soldier movement.svg]] [[c:COM:FR#FR4|Criterion 4]] (harmonizing names of file set) 4632079 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Split}}{{New book}} Welcome to the Xiangqi wikibook. This wikibook is dedicated to the strategy board game of xiangqi, also known as "Chinese chess". == Introduction == Xiangqi (written in Chinese as 象棋, ''xiàngqí'') is the distant Chinese relative of the game of chess. It is one of the most popular board games in Asia, with tens of millions of players in China, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and other areas of Asia with Chinese diasporas. The game is also popular in Vietnam, where it goes by the name ''cờ tướng''. Like chess, xiangqi is a game of war between two opposing armies, where both are attempting to place the enemy's leading piece in "checkmate", a situation in which the leading piece can be captured on the opponent's next move and its owner cannot remove this threat. Xiangqi also has many notable differences from chess. Some of its most distinctive features include: * The pieces are placed on the intersections of the board's lines, rather than inside the squares. * A piece called the cannon, which must jump when capturing. * A rule that prohibits the two generals (the equivalent of the king in Western chess) from facing each other. * Special areas of the board that can enhance or restrict the movement of pieces. The game's Chinese name translates to "elephant's game" - the first character (象, ''xiàng'') means "elephant" and is used in-game for one of the pieces, while the second character (棋, ''qí'') means "strategy board game", which was one of the four arts an ancient Chinese scholar was supposed to be proficient in (alongside music, brush painting and calligraphy). == A brief history of xiangqi == Although the history of Western chess is well understood amongst historians, the history of xiangqi is much less well understood. It is generally agreed that xiangqi and Western chess were both derived from the Indian game of chaturanga, which arose in the sixth century CE. Around 600 CE the game spread to Sassanid Persia, where it was in turn spread to China via trade along the Silk Road. Upon arrival in China, the game underwent a period of major changes and innovations that reflected Chinese culture and philosophy. For example, the pieces began to be placed on the intersections of the lines rather than the squares, a feature perhaps borrowed from the native strategy game Go, and since the Chinese were some of the earliest users of gunpowder a piece representing a cannon was added to the set. The earliest reference to the rules of xiangqi is found in the collection ''Xuanguai lu'' (玄怪錄), written by scholar Niu Sengru in the 8th century during the reign of the Tang dynasty, and the game had developed into its modern form by the time of the Southern Song dynasty in the early 12th century. Some Chinese scholars and historians reject the theory of xiangqi being derived from chaturanga - these people instead claim that xiangqi originated first in China and then spread west from there to give rise to the Indian games and Western chess. However the Indian origin theory for chess history is the more widely-preferred theory amongst historians. == The board == [[File:Xiangqi board anatomy.svg|thumb|The xiangqi board with its notable features highlighted.]] The xiangqi board is an uncheckered board that consists of a grid of ten horizontal lines and nine vertical lines. It is very important to remember that the pieces are placed on the intersections of these lines (called ''points'') rather than inside the squares. The vertical lines are interrupted between the fifth and sixth ranks, creating a horizontal partition between the two camps known as the ''river''. For most pieces the river has no effect on their movement, but the river can block or enhance the movement of two types of piece. On many Xiangqi boards the river is marked with the characters 楚河 (''chǔ hé'', "River of the Chu") and 漢界 (''hàn jiè'', "Border of the Han"), referencing a major battle in the Chu-Han War that took place between 206 BCE and 202 BCE. However these characters are solely aesthetic and have no impact on gameplay. The board also features two areas called ''palaces'', located at the back of each player's camp. The palaces are denoted by diagonal lines that connect their corner points. Like the river the palaces normally have no effect on piece movement, but two types of piece start in the palace and are prohibited from leaving it. The vertical columns of points are called ''files'', and are denoted using numbers beginning from each player's right. So the file at the far right of the board is called the 1st file, the file to the left of that is called the 2nd file, then the 3rd file, and so on until the 9th file at the far left of the board. Confusingly the file numbers for both player do not align - one player's 1st file is the other player's 9th file, one player's 2nd file is the other player's 8th file, and so on. Many commercial xiangqi boards will features a set of small markings at the front end of each player's camp. These are there to assist with placing certain pieces when setting up the board at the beginning of the game, but have no impact on gameplay. == The pieces == Xiangqi is played by two players, named Red and Black. Each player commands an army of sixteen pieces, which are flat circular discs marked with a Chinese character on the top denoting what type of piece it is. It is important to note that some of the pieces have the same character between both armies, whilst other pieces have different characters between the armies. For example, the general (the equivalent of the Western king) uses the character 帥 for Red and 將 for Black, while the chariots (the equivalent of Western rooks) use the character 車 for both armies. Also, the exact characters used may differ from set to set. Most xiangqi sets use traditional Chinese characters for the pieces but some use simplified characters, given in brackets below. There are seven types of piece in the game, as follows: {| class="wikitable" |+Xiangqi pieces !Name of piece !Red character !Black character !Number per army at game start !One-letter abbreviation !Western counterpart |- |General |帥 (帅) |將 (将) |One |G |King |- |Advisor |仕 or 士 |士 |Two |A |Queen |- |Elephant |相 |象 |Two |E |Bishop |- |Horse |傌 or 馬 (马) |馬 (马) |Two |H |Knight |- |Chariot |俥 or 車 (车) |車 (车) |Two |R |Rook |- |Cannon |炮 |砲 or 炮 |Two |C |(None) |- |Solider |兵 |卒 |Five |S |Pawn |} [[File:Xiangqi initial setup.svg|thumb|The initial setup of the board at game start.]] At the start of the game, the pieces are set up as follows: * The general is placed on the central point of the back rank, inside the palace. * The two advisors are placed on either side of the general. * The two elephants are placed on either side of the advisors. * This pattern repeats twice more with the horses and chariots. * The two cannons are placed two points forward of the horses. * The five soldiers are placed on the rank in front of the cannons, on the files of the chariots, elephants and general - many commercial boards have small crosses to aid in the cannon and solider placements. If the board is set up correctly, it should look like the diagram shown at right. == Basic gameplay == The basic gameplay of xiangqi is similar to that of Western chess. The two players take turns moving one piece at a time, aiming to place the enemy general in either ''checkmate'' or ''stalemate''. Checkmate refers to the situation where the general is under threat of capture and its owner cannot remove this threat on their next move. Stalemate refers to the situation where one player has no legal move - unlike Western chess, in xiangqi stalemate is considered a win for the player delivering the stalemate. In casual games either player may make the first move, but in professional games Red always moves first. A player moves a piece by picking the piece up and placing it on a new point, according to its rules of movement. Once this is done the player's turn is over and the other player moves. Pieces may only move to a point if all the points in between the initial and destination points are free of other pieces (the exception being the cannon's capturing move). A piece may also move to a point occupied by an enemy piece - in doing so the enemy piece is ''captured'', removed from the board and is out of play for the rest of the game. === How the pieces move === What follows is a description of the seven types of piece in xiangqi and how they move and capture. ==== The general ==== The black general is labelled with the character 將 (''jiàng'', "general"), and the red general is labelled with the character 帥 (''shuái'', "marshal"). In Simplified Chinese characters, these become 将 for Black and 帅 for Red. The general is the counterpart of the king in Western chess, and as such its safety is paramount - if the general is under threat of being captured and its owner cannot remove the threat, that player has lost the game. The general moves one point forward, backwards or sideways, provided its destination point is not under attack by an enemy piece. The general begins the game inside the palace and must remain inside it at all times. There is an important rule about the generals one must know: it is illegal, under any circumstance, for the two generals to occupy the same file with no intervening pieces in between. There exists a rule called the "flying general rule" (飛將), where one general may fly across the board to capture the other if such a position is created, but in practice the rule means the two generals cannot face each other in the first place. In the diagram below, the generals may move to any point indicated with a dot of their colour. The black general cannot move right out of the palace, and since the red general occupies the 5th file the black general cannot move left. [[File:Xiangqi general movement.svg|left|frameless]] {{-}} ==== The advisor ==== This piece is also known as the ''guard'' and less commonly as the ''assistant'', the ''mandarin'', the ''minister'' or the ''warrior''. The black advisors are labelled with the character 士 (''shì'', "scholar"). The red advisors uses the same character but add the radical 亻(''rén'', "person") to make 仕. Some sets use 士 for both sides. The advisor is the counterpart of the queen in Western chess as the two pieces share a common ancestor. The advisor moves one point diagonally, and like the general it is forbidden from leaving the palace, which leaves it with five possible positions on the board. In the diagram below, the advisors may move to any point indicated with a dot of their colour. [[File:Xiangqi advisor movement.svg|left|frameless]] {{-}} ==== The elephant ==== This piece is also known as the ''minister''. The black elephants are labelled with the character 象 (''xiàng'', "elephant") and the red elephants are labelled with the character 相 (''xiàng'', "minister"). The elephant is the counterpart of the bishop in Western chess. The elephant moves two points diagonally. It cannot jump over another piece in the way, so if a piece is diagonally adjacent to it the elephant cannot move past. This is referred to as "blocking the elephant's eye" (塞象眼). The elephant cannot cross the river and is confined to its side of the board. In the diagram below the red elephant may move to any point indicated with a red dot but it cannot move to the top-right (marked with a red cross) because the black horse is blocking its movement in that direction. The black elephant may move to either point indicated with a black dot. [[File:Xiangqi elephant movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The horse ==== The black horse is labelled with the character 馬 (''mǎ'', "horse"). Many xiangqi sets use the same character for the red horse, but some add the radical 亻to make 傌. With Simplified characters, both colours use the character 马. The horse is the counterpart of the knight in Western chess. The horse moves in a similar "L" shape to the Western knight - the horse first steps one point forward, backward or sideways followed by one point diagonally outwards. However unlike the Western knight the horse cannot jump over other pieces - if another piece is horizontally or vertically adjacent to the horse, the horse cannot move past. This is called "hobbling the horse's leg" (蹩馬腿). Because the horse always steps orthogonally first, its path from one point to another is not the same as the reverse move. Therefore it is possible to create situations with two horses where one horse has an asymmetric attack advantage over the other. In the diagram below, at the left the red horse may move to any point indicated with a red dot. It cannot move right since the cannon obstructs its movement in that direction. At the right the red horse may capture the black horse, but the black horse cannot capture the red horse because the soldier blocks its movement. [[File:Xiangqi horse movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The chariot ==== The black chariot is labelled with the character 車 (''jū'', "chariot"). Like with the horse many xiangqi sets use the same character for the red chariot, but some add the radical 亻to make 俥. With Simplified characters, both colours use the character 车. The chariot is the counterpart of the rook in Western chess. The chariot moves in exactly the same manner as the Western rook - it may move any number of points forward, backward or sideways until it reaches an obstacle. In the diagram below the red chariot may move to any point indicated with a red dot. [[File:Xiangqi chariot movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The cannon ==== The black cannon is labelled with the character 砲 (''páo'', "wrapped stone") and the red cannon with the character 炮 (''páo'', "wrapped fire"). However many xiangqi sets use 炮 for both sides. The cannon is the only xiangqi piece which has no Western counterpart. When moving passively, the cannon moves in exactly the same manner as the chariot. However, in order to capture an enemy piece there must be a third piece of either colour, called the ''screen'', in between the cannon and the target piece. When capturing the cannon jumps over the screen and captures the first enemy piece immediately beyond it. The cannon may not jump when moving passively, only when capturing. It also cannot capture without jumping and cannot jump two pieces in one move. In the diagram below the red cannon may move to any point indicated with a red dot. It may also jump over the red chariot to capture the black soldier on the other side. It may not move past the black horse as there is nothing for the cannon to capture on the other side, and it may not capture the black horse as there is no screen for it to jump over. [[File:Xiangqi cannon movement.svg|frameless]]{{-}} ==== The soldier ==== The black soldier is labelled with the character 卒 (''zú'', "pawn" or "private") and the red soldier with the character 兵 (''bīng'', "soldier"). The soldier is the counterpart of the pawn in Western chess. The soldier may move one point forward, and unlike the Western pawn it captures in the same as it moves. Once the soldier crosses the river, it gains the additional ability to move one point sideways. Unlike a Western pawn a soldier is not promoted when it reaches the far end of the board, as it can still move sideways. In the diagram below the red soldiers may move to any point indicated with a red dot. [[File:Xiangqi soldier movement.svg|frameless]] == Additional rules == === Check, checkmate and stalemate === If a player makes a move that places the opponent's general under threat of being captured, the opponent is said to be in "check". The opponent must use their next move to remove the threat to their general, which can be done in one of four ways - moving the general out of danger, interposing a piece between the general and the attacking piece, capturing the attacking piece or removing piece between the attacking piece and the general (if the attacking piece is a cannon). If a player is in check and has no legal move that removes the threat to their general, the player is in "checkmate" and they have lost the game. If a player has no legal move but is not in check, they are in "stalemate", which also results in a loss. === Perpetual checks and chases === It is forbidden to make moves that repeat the same board position with the same player to move over and over. The manner in which this prohibition is enforced varies from source to source, but according to club rules: * If a player repeatedly checks the opposing general with the same piece(s) over and over (six times with one piece, twelve times with two pieces, eighteen times with three), the player is required to break off the sequence and make a different move. If they refuse to do so, they lose the game. * Perpetually chasing an unprotected enemy piece with one's own pieces (excluding generals or soldiers) is similarly prohibited. * If one side perpetually checks and the other perpetually chases, the checking player must break the cycle or risk losing. * If both sides are checking or chasing, and neither makes a different move, the game ends in a draw. === Insufficient material === If there is not enough material left on the board for either player to force a checkmate or stalemate, the game ends in a draw. {{alphabetical|X}} {{shelves|Board games}} {{status|25%}} lsv43olixzkztw2yq25w4e3ive7twp6 0 482755 4632067 4631953 2026-04-24T12:49:18Z MathXplore 3097823 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 4632067 wikitext text/x-wiki Similar to various other diaspora-formed Jewish languages, Ladino contains various loanwords from Hebrew (Also referred to as Lashon-kodesh, 'The holy tongue'), and Aramaic, another Semitic languages used in important texts like the Talmud and, relevant to Sephardic Ladino speakers; the Targum Onkelos. These loanwords are not only used for religious things without local linguistic equivalent, but also for simple-slang. They are still used by Spanish-speaking Jews, whether they know Ladino or not, to this day. Here are some popular ones. The English term is on the left, the Hebrew in the middle, and the Ladino-accent transliteration of the Hebrew on the right. {| class="wikitable" |+ |English |Hebrew |Transliteration |- |Synagogue |קל |Kal |- |Ablution |נטילה |Netila |- |Jewish law |הלכה |Alaha |- |Evil eye | |Aynara |- |Father |אבא |Abba |- |Mother |אמא |Imma |- |Ritual bath |מכבה |Mikve |- |Scholar/Teacher/Rabbi |חכם |Haham |- |Desert/Wilderness |מדבר |Midbar |- |Kosher | |Kasher |- |Alphabet | |Alefbet |- |Language | |Lashon |- |Egypt | |Mitzrayim |} {{BookCat}} 0if58tc2lmaagpdqmo0hg68ky4qouel 3 482792 4632058 2026-04-24T12:18:11Z NDG 3510220 /* Self-promotion */ new section 4632058 wikitext text/x-wiki == Self-promotion == Hello @[[User:Owolabi Habeeb ola|Owolabi Habeeb ola]] please abstain from self-promotional contributions to Wikimedia projects. Your recent uploads and page creations are completely out of scope. Kind regards [[User:NDG|NDG]] ([[User talk:NDG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/NDG|contribs]]) 12:18, 24 April 2026 (UTC) kpk2nzxpkntohjuwphi659y84ynqqho 3 482793 4632062 2026-04-24T12:42:36Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4632062 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:Guide to The Lord of the Rings/Places/Bridges/Iant Iaur]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Test page</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:Guide to The Lord of the Rings/Places/Bridges/Iant Iaur|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 3y1b1k6irid26xok4it0274kmdr8h1f 3 482794 4632064 2026-04-24T12:43:09Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4632064 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:Talk:Sonbhadra ka itihas]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Out of scope</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:Sonbhadra ka itihas|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:43, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 8ermwd6edt4mwosf78qjtzh0wpkaw6c 4632153 4632064 2026-04-25T04:46:19Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4632153 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:Talk:Sonbhadra ka itihas]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Out of scope</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:Sonbhadra ka itihas|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:43, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:Talk:Sonbhadra ka itihas]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Out of scope</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:Sonbhadra ka itihas|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:46, 25 April 2026 (UTC) 3v2od1m5z77x69hlnlxek6cv1o49spk 3 482795 4632069 2026-04-24T12:49:37Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4632069 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:Wikijunior/Extension/Snail-IDE/Grayscale Extension]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Test page</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:Wikijunior/Extension/Snail-IDE/Grayscale Extension|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:49, 24 April 2026 (UTC) 9p0u5gze8n8s5rkikvl4c6w0i88tnku 3 482796 4632072 2026-04-24T13:00:12Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4632072 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Toni Tagiam]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Spam</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[User talk:Toni Tagiam|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:00, 24 April 2026 (UTC) l5l71z1sn1aspggao986ubppufqdydo 0 482797 4632102 2026-04-24T19:07:49Z LeventBulut 3578898 A practical writing guide that teaches the Objective Projection methodology developed by Levent Bulut and documented in DOI-registered academic publications. This book does not propose a new theory — it shows how a published methodology is applied in practice. Written for writers, filmmakers, and anyone curious about how storytelling works. 12 chapters with practical examples and self-tests. 4632102 wikitext text/x-wiki = Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories = This book introduces the Objective Projection methodology — developed by Levent Bulut and documented in academic publications. It is a practical writing guide for writers, filmmakers, and anyone curious about how storytelling works. Author: Levent Bulut | ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261 License: CC BY-SA 4.0 == About This Book == This book does not propose a new theory. It is a practical writing guide that teaches the Objective Projection methodology. Like a textbook that teaches a programming language, this book shows how a published methodology is applied in practice. == Contents == # How Does the Brain's Story Machine Work? # Why Do We Yawn During Action Films? # The Midnight Just One More Chapter Phenomenon # Why Do Some Characters Feel Like Cardboard? # Why His Heart Raced Does Not Work # Why Hitchcock Never Said What Was Happening # The Adjective Embargo # Why the Brain Remembers Some Scenes for Years # Shakespeare Was Already Doing This # Why AI Writes His Heart Raced # Test Your Own Scene # Further Resources q37pc3m0bb3zm5e7na2hknyiaw89ol1 0 482798 4632115 2026-04-25T00:36:24Z GUNGIL 3578956 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Leonhardt Countergambit}} == 6...b5?! == An interesting gambit, Black sacrifices their b7 pawn to White's bishop on c4. The idea is that after 7. Bxb5, Black can play 7...Nxd4 where White's c3 pawn is pinned to the king, and unlike 6...Nxd4?, Nxe5 wouldn't be possible as the bishop on b5 is also attacked. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}}" 4632115 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Leonhardt Countergambit}} == 6...b5?! == An interesting gambit, Black sacrifices their b7 pawn to White's bishop on c4. The idea is that after 7. Bxb5, Black can play 7...Nxd4 where White's c3 pawn is pinned to the king, and unlike 6...Nxd4?, Nxe5 wouldn't be possible as the bishop on b5 is also attacked. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}} cpyoahibgc1k4m5fz5avzjoxl0j0iep 0 482799 4632116 2026-04-25T00:46:28Z GUNGIL 3578956 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Bronstein Defence}} == 6...d6 == A solid move, defending the e5 pawn with their d7 pawn. White usually plays [[/7. O-O/]] or [[/7. Qb3/]]. [[/7. Bg5/]] is a sideline. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}}" 4632116 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Bronstein Defence}} == 6...d6 == A solid move, defending the e5 pawn with their d7 pawn. White usually plays [[/7. O-O/]] or [[/7. Qb3/]]. [[/7. Bg5/]] is a sideline. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}} dd4oj5u80qz38khvtfymw7523hkcqbp 0 482800 4632117 2026-04-25T00:48:50Z GUNGIL 3578956 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Sokolsky Variation}} == 7. Bg5?! == An interesting sideline, White develops their c1 bishop and attacks Black's queen on d8. Black can choose from 7...Nge7, 7...Qd7, 7...f6 or 7...Nf6. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}}" 4632117 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Sokolsky Variation}} == 7. Bg5?! == An interesting sideline, White develops their c1 bishop and attacks Black's queen on d8. Black can choose from 7...Nge7, 7...Qd7, 7...f6 or 7...Nf6. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}} orjhk9kbpkgubfoflp2kivz58onwn3o 4632118 4632117 2026-04-25T00:49:20Z GUNGIL 3578956 This is a sideline, so added it. 4632118 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Evans Gambit Accepted: Sokolsky Variation}} == 7. Bg5?! == {{Chess/sideline}} An interesting sideline, White develops their c1 bishop and attacks Black's queen on d8. Black can choose from 7...Nge7, 7...Qd7, 7...f6 or 7...Nf6. {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}} t6swz74mtricu73xbmjglfrz6i1pqh3 10 482801 4632119 2026-04-25T00:56:24Z Kwfd 3577794 Created a new template to use for Wikibook Named Chess Openings. 4632119 wikitext text/x-wiki {{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess black pawn.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a very rare opening, with less than 100 players in the Lichess database.'''<br>Because of this, Main Moves and Statistics may be unreliable and may fluctuate a lot. Take care when editing Main Moves or Statistics. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude> renvh6fuw0n6828ip3c1vxlufzpnsin 14 482802 4632120 2026-04-25T00:57:06Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "This category shows template pages for the book [[Named Chess Openings]]." 4632120 wikitext text/x-wiki This category shows template pages for the book [[Named Chess Openings]]. lvyra57m15uuttky3uojtm2gkmqzoxh 4632122 4632120 2026-04-25T01:01:20Z Kwfd 3577794 Added book's category. 4632122 wikitext text/x-wiki This category shows template pages for the book [[Named Chess Openings]]. [[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings]] k0eel8hzsu8aojjvr9xxtc0hkocynv8 4632134 4632122 2026-04-25T01:36:09Z Kwfd 3577794 4632134 wikitext text/x-wiki This category shows template pages for the book [[Named Chess Openings]]. If a Named Chess Openings template is not showing up here, add <code><nowiki>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</nowiki></code>. [[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings]] srydc6ngdif6y8hgk2po940mdmimny4 10 482803 4632124 2026-04-25T01:12:57Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "{{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess black queen.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a blunder, where one side blunders a piece.'''<br>Because blunders are generally bad, refrain from overwriting or overselling ideas. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude>" 4632124 wikitext text/x-wiki {{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess black queen.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a blunder, where one side blunders a piece.'''<br>Because blunders are generally bad, refrain from overwriting or overselling ideas. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude> 4jcbn3t0kfhcneurwrdfdwlewmuv8cq 0 482804 4632128 2026-04-25T01:27:05Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "{{Chess diagram|2=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation)|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|66=rl|53=pl|54=pl|44=pl|67=Position after 1. b3 d5 2. Nf3|30=pd|48=nl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The 2. Nf3 continuation of the Classical Nimzo-Larsen<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation |url=https://l..." 4632128 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess diagram|2=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation)|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|66=rl|53=pl|54=pl|44=pl|67=Position after 1. b3 d5 2. Nf3|30=pd|48=nl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The 2. Nf3 continuation of the Classical Nimzo-Larsen<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Nimzo-Larsen_Attack_Classical_Variation/b3_d5_Nf3 |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is more usually seen from the Zukertort Opening (1. Nf3) through 1. Nf3 d5 2. b3. The idea from the 1. b3 move order is to not immediately commit to fianchettoing the bishop, whereas the idea from the 1. Nf3 move order is that 1. Nf3 stops e5 from being safely played. === History === There is no known historical origin of the name "Classical Variation". It is named that way because 1...d5 is a major response to 1. b3 and 1. Nf3 d5 2. b3 was sometimes experimented with. === Main Moves === * 2...Nf6 * 2...Nc6 * 2...c5 * 2...e6 === Statistics === White wins ~52%, Black wins ~43%, draw ~5%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A06<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/nimzo-larsen-attack-with-b3/classical-variation |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} i2vrcgiltkvf9wq729sqilma7oh1yej 4632130 4632128 2026-04-25T01:32:42Z Kwfd 3577794 Added continuation template 4632130 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Named Chess Openings/continuation}} {{Chess diagram|2=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation (2. Nf3 continuation)|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|16=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|66=rl|53=pl|54=pl|44=pl|67=Position after 1. b3 d5 2. Nf3|30=pd|48=nl}} === Introduction and Ideas === The 2. Nf3 continuation of the Classical Nimzo-Larsen<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Nimzo-Larsen_Attack_Classical_Variation/b3_d5_Nf3 |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is more usually seen from the Zukertort Opening (1. Nf3) through 1. Nf3 d5 2. b3. The idea from the 1. b3 move order is to not immediately commit to fianchettoing the bishop, whereas the idea from the 1. Nf3 move order is that 1. Nf3 stops e5 from being safely played. === History === There is no known historical origin of the name "Classical Variation". It is named that way because 1...d5 is a major response to 1. b3 and 1. Nf3 d5 2. b3 was sometimes experimented with. === Main Moves === * 2...Nf6 * 2...Nc6 * 2...c5 * 2...e6 === Statistics === White wins ~52%, Black wins ~43%, draw ~5%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A06<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Classical Variation - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/nimzo-larsen-attack-with-b3/classical-variation |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} 00igu56t1wyl2lo4zfpdm2dnbct1pv5 10 482805 4632129 2026-04-25T01:31:56Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "{{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess white pawn.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a continuation of a named opening, marked by Lichess.'''<br>Stay faithful to its parent opening and although this opening is not standalone, still acknowledge the new ideas, statistics and main moves. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude>" 4632129 wikitext text/x-wiki {{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess white pawn.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a continuation of a named opening, marked by Lichess.'''<br>Stay faithful to its parent opening and although this opening is not standalone, still acknowledge the new ideas, statistics and main moves. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude> jjcihcux0qjwu48lu8fr72fno01dd2e 10 482806 4632137 2026-04-25T01:40:27Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "{{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess white knight.svg|40px]] |text='''This page is currently incomplete and needs more information.'''<br>Contributions to this page are encouraged to improve its value and quality. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude>" 4632137 wikitext text/x-wiki {{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess white knight.svg|40px]] |text='''This page is currently incomplete and needs more information.'''<br>Contributions to this page are encouraged to improve its value and quality. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude> fm90eeshf66eze86nqdkj59id0lqnut 10 482807 4632140 2026-04-25T01:46:25Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "{{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess white king.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a meme opening, which is generally unsound.'''<br>Because this is a meme opening, the opening is unserious. Avoid overselling ideas. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude>" 4632140 wikitext text/x-wiki {{bmbox |type=notice |image=[[File:Chess white king.svg|40px]] |text='''This page represents a meme opening, which is generally unsound.'''<br>Because this is a meme opening, the opening is unserious. Avoid overselling ideas. }} <noinclude>[[Category:Book:Named Chess Openings/Templates]]</noinclude> l8tcdzafkbzkx11hal9c8s4jxi6vbab 0 482808 4632145 2026-04-25T03:06:11Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "[[Named Chess Openings]] uses 6 templates, 1 for chess in general and 5 exclusive to Named Chess Openings. <br> 1 for chess in general:<br> * <code><nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki></code><br> 5 exclusive to Named Chess Openings:<br> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/inco..." 4632145 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Named Chess Openings]] uses 6 templates, 1 for chess in general and 5 exclusive to Named Chess Openings. <br> 1 for chess in general:<br> * <code><nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki></code><br> 5 exclusive to Named Chess Openings:<br> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/meme}}</nowiki></code><br> == <nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki> == '''<nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki>''' should always be used at the top of an opening entry. You have to manually place the pieces. The opening name caption is written in parameter '''2''', while the "Position after [moves]" caption is written in parameter '''67'''. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries with '''less than 100 games''' on the Lichess database. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries where one side '''blunders a piece'''. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries where the opening is a '''Lichess-named continuation''' of the original/parent opening. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries that are '''incomplete in their current form'''. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/meme}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/meme}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries where the opening is a '''meme/joke opening'''. {{BookCat}} ezbwy875yo1qe3by7ekt4qddh9zhwj6 4632146 4632145 2026-04-25T03:06:47Z Kwfd 3577794 Removed bold 4632146 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Named Chess Openings]] uses 6 templates, 1 for chess in general and 5 exclusive to Named Chess Openings. <br> 1 for chess in general:<br> * <code><nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki></code><br> 5 exclusive to Named Chess Openings:<br> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}}</nowiki></code> * <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/meme}}</nowiki></code><br> == <nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Chess diagram}}</nowiki></code> should always be used at the top of an opening entry. You have to manually place the pieces. The opening name caption is written in parameter '''2''', while the "Position after [moves]" caption is written in parameter '''67'''. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/rare}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries with '''less than 100 games''' on the Lichess database. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/blunder}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries where one side '''blunders a piece'''. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/continuation}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries where the opening is a '''Lichess-named continuation''' of the original/parent opening. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/incomplete}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries that are '''incomplete in their current form'''. == <nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/meme}}</nowiki> == <code><nowiki>{{Named Chess Openings/meme}}</nowiki></code> should be used for opening entries where the opening is a '''meme/joke opening'''. {{BookCat}} idjen3432ff5d10os9vx5x7sbn1a9zo 0 482809 4632149 2026-04-25T03:27:59Z Kwfd 3577794 Created page with "{{Chess diagram|2=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl|44=pl|67=Position after 1. b3 f5|32=pd}} === Introduction and Ideas === The Dutch Variation of the Nimzo-Larsen Attack<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Nimzo-Larsen_Attack_Dutch..." 4632149 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess diagram|2=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation|3=rd|4=nd|5=bd|6=qd|7=kd|8=bd|9=nd|10=rd|11=pd|12=pd|13=pd|15=pd|17=pd|18=pd|51=pl|55=pl|56=pl|57=pl|58=pl|59=rl|60=nl|61=bl|62=ql|63=kl|64=bl|65=nl|66=rl|14=pd|53=pl|54=pl|44=pl|67=Position after 1. b3 f5|32=pd}} === Introduction and Ideas === The Dutch Variation of the Nimzo-Larsen Attack<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Nimzo-Larsen_Attack_Dutch_Variation/b3_f5 |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> is a less common response to 1. b3. The idea is to play similar to a normal Dutch, where Black aims to go for a solid setup and control the e4 square by placing a knight on f6. === History === There is no known historical origin of the name "Dutch Variation". It is named that way because it is similar to the classical Dutch Defense, 1. d4 f5. === Main Moves === * 2. Bb2 * 2. e3 * 2. Ba3 * 2. g3 === Statistics === White wins ~51%, Black wins ~46%, draw ~4%<ref name=":0" />. === ECO code === A01<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schachzeit |date=2024-11-10 |title=Nimzo-Larsen Attack: Dutch Variation - Openings - Schachzeit |url=https://www.schachzeit.com/en/openings/nimzo-larsen-attack/dutch-variation |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=www.schachzeit.com |language=en}}</ref> === References === {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} axsyfwl86i0p8ksvkc1xrf7n55jk1hy 1 482810 4632150 2026-04-25T04:05:35Z Ramnathshivendra 3499476 Created page with "this Article 'Sonbhdra ka Itihas" is under the provision of copyright and it is not violating the provisiond of copyright so it should not be deleted anyhow. please think normally thanking you (~~~~) ramnath shivendra" 4632150 wikitext text/x-wiki this Article 'Sonbhdra ka Itihas" is under the provision of copyright and it is not violating the provisiond of copyright so it should not be deleted anyhow. please think normally thanking you ([[User:Ramnathshivendra|Ramnathshivendra]] ([[User talk:Ramnathshivendra|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ramnathshivendra|contribs]]) 04:05, 25 April 2026 (UTC)) ramnath shivendra cim45oa67z0ew1o98w4umcvde5vtit4 4632152 4632150 2026-04-25T04:46:19Z MathXplore 3097823 Marking for speedy deletion: Out of scope 4632152 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Delete|example=false|Out of scope}}</noinclude> this Article 'Sonbhdra ka Itihas" is under the provision of copyright and it is not violating the provisiond of copyright so it should not be deleted anyhow. please think normally thanking you ([[User:Ramnathshivendra|Ramnathshivendra]] ([[User talk:Ramnathshivendra|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ramnathshivendra|contribs]]) 04:05, 25 April 2026 (UTC)) ramnath shivendra s9wixhqauo4dnvmspba2mv50ag236ak 0 482812 4632212 2026-04-25T10:56:08Z Sammy2012 3074780 Created page with "[[File:Infinite chess.png|thumb|Starting position of the most basic version of infinite chess]] == Introduction == '''Infinite Chess''' refers to a family of chess variants played on a board of infinite size. == History == Standard chess is played on a board of eight by eight squares, but the history of chess includes chess variants played on boards of many sizes. For example, the game of [[Chess Variants/Courier Chess|Courier chess]], played in Germany in the 12th cen..." 4632212 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Infinite chess.png|thumb|Starting position of the most basic version of infinite chess]] == Introduction == '''Infinite Chess''' refers to a family of chess variants played on a board of infinite size. == History == Standard chess is played on a board of eight by eight squares, but the history of chess includes chess variants played on boards of many sizes. For example, the game of [[Chess Variants/Courier Chess|Courier chess]], played in Germany in the 12th century, was played on a board of 12 by 8 squares, and the medieval game of Tamerlane chess was played on a board of 10 by 11 squares. In addition, the game of shogi, the Japanese cousin of chess, was played on board of varying sizes - the largest of these being the game of taikyoku shōgi, which was played in the mid-16th century and features a 36 by 36 board with 402 pieces per player. The basic idea of chess on an infinite board has been proposed several times throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries. The first known reference to such a variant was by Hungarian mathematician Dénes Kőnig in 1927 - in an essay about the graph theory theorem now known as Kőnig's lemma, Kőnig included a footnote about a variant of chess played on an infinite board. Several other people proposed different version of infinite chess over the following decades, both as a model for mathematical study and an actual, playable game. Most recently, Internet user Naviary created an online version of infinite chess in 2022. == Rules == As its name suggests, infinite chess is played on a board that is unbounded and stretches infinitely in all directions. The infinite size of the board makes algebraic notation untenable, so squares are instead labelled using an XY coordinate system - for example, in the diagram above the white king starts on square (-3, 1). There are many different versions of infinite chess, which mainly differ in the exact movement of the pieces and which exact pieces are used. This page will cover four of the most notable versions. === Kőnig's infinite chess === As already stated above, this was the first version of infinite chess as proposed by Dénes Kőnig. Rules are the same of the standard game with one exception - the rooks, bishops and queen can only move up to seven squares in one move. === Converse's infinite chess === This version of infinite chess was proposed by Tim Converse of the University of Chicago, although the exact years of the variant's proposal is unknown. Unlike Kőnig's variant, the bishops, rooks and queen are allowed to move as many squares as they want provided there are no obstructions in their path. === Ji's infinite chess === Chinese chess player Jianying Ji proposed this version of infinite chess in December 2000. Compared to Converse's variant it makes three changes to the rules: # The knights are replaced with nightriders. The nightrider moves like a knight, but it may keep making knight jumps in the same direction until it reaches an obstacle. # A pawn promotes when it reaches a rank beyond which there are no enemy pieces. # After a piece moves, the player must be able to draw an 8 by 8 square of squares which contains both the piece they moved and at least one enemy piece. If they cannot do this, the move is illegal. === Chess on an infinite plane === [[File:Chess on an Infinite Plane (starting setup of pieces).png|thumb|326x326px|Starting position of chess on an infinite plane]] Proposed by one V. Reinhart in 2017, chess on an infinite plane is one of the more complex versions of infinite chess. Unlike other infinite chess variants it does not reuse the standard game's opening setup - it instead adds additional pieces for both variety and to hopefully give one player enough material to force a checkmate in the endgame. Additional pawns are also added - some of these are position in special rearward formations called "jäger units" that can create the threat of additional promoted pieces. The variant includes two each of the following new pieces: * Chancellor - combines the move of the rook and the knight. It can slide forward, backward or sideays like a rook or jump like a knight, but not both in one move. * Guard - moves like a king, but is not royal and can capture and be captured just like any other piece. * Hawk - jumps two or three squares forward, backward, sideways or diagonally. The pawns promote at rank 8 (for White) and rank 1 (for Black). There is also no castling for 50-move rule. All other rules are the same as the standard game. == Sub-variants == Chess on an infinite plane has two major sub-variants: * '''Trappist-1''' adds a new piece called the huygens. The huygens may jump X squares forward, backward or sideways, where X may be any prime number larger than three. They are initially positioned to protect the rearmost pawns in the jäger units. * '''Formation chess''' grants each player a large number of knights, usually twelve or more. If four knights join together into a 2x2 square formation, they gain the collective ability to move as a queen. The formation must stop if it reaches an obstacle, and it that obstacle is an enemy piece the formation may capture that piece, but no others. If the formation is broken up or one knight is captured, the other three knights immediately resume their normal movement powers. {{BookCat}} k9z5rgbb0byctpuu3277ywxyc4izxre 3 482813 4632214 2026-04-25T11:04:30Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4632214 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:The5ers discount "PROPFT" 10% off on all programs most verified]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Spam</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:The5ers discount &#34;PROPFT&#34; 10% off on all programs most verified|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:04, 25 April 2026 (UTC) j9scuwbgjonedlnp8rf6l01wgqt9hw7