Linear Algebra/Vectors

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    <title>Linear Algebra/Vectors</title>
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      <text bytes="10401" sha1="8nskucfupifwuxqxhv4c95ksq76jlht" xml:space="preserve">'''Vectors''' are mathematical objects used to represent quantities that possess both magnitude and direction. They arise naturally in physics and geometry whenever a single real number (a scalar) is insufficient to describe a situation.

A '''scalar''' is an element of ℝ, representing magnitude only, with no directional component. Standard examples include mass, time, and distance traveled. For instance, stating that a particle has moved 5 kilometers encodes only a length and therefore corresponds to scalar data.

However, many geometric and physical situations require additional structure. For example, specifying a displacement of 5 kilometers is incomplete unless a direction is provided. A statement such as “5 kilometers due east” determines both magnitude and orientation. Given a fixed origin, this information uniquely determines a point in space.

Formally, this motivates the introduction of vectors as objects that encode both magnitude and direction, allowing a consistent algebraic framework for describing displacement, velocity, force, and related physical quantities.

== Definitions ==

Vectors can be described mathematically by using [[Algebra/Trigonometry|trigonometry]]. 
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;[[image:Vector_example.PNG|Sample Vector]]&lt;/div&gt;
We can define a vector to be an ordered pair consisting of a '''magnitude''' and a '''direction'''. In this diagram, ''r'' is the magnitude of this vector and &amp;theta; is the direction. Notice, now, that we have moved horizontally ''r'' cos(&amp;theta;) and vertically ''r'' sin(&amp;theta;). These are called the ''x-component'' and the ''y-component'', respectively. 

We can also write a vector conveniently in terms of the x and y component. We write &lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} x \\ y\end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; for vectors. In some texts, you may see the vector written sideways, like (''x'', ''y''), but when you write it will help ''greatly'' to write them downwards in columns. In print we commonly use bold vectors, but since you probably don't have a pen that writes in bold print, underline your vectors, i.e. write &lt;u&gt;v&lt;/u&gt;, or put a tilde underneath your vectors. Occasionally in Physics, you may see vectors written with an arrow pointing right.

Notice that vectors need not have two components. We can have 2 or 3 or ''n'' or an infinite number of components.

We write the set of all vectors with 2 real number components as '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;; likewise for 3, ''n'', or infinite number of components. For components with complex numbers, we write '''C'''. Polynomials are &quot;vectors&quot; too - we'll look at notation for the set of polynomials later. For a reason why we do this, see [[Discrete mathematics/Set theory|Set theory]] for an explanation.

== Stretching and shrinking ==
We can define some actions on vectors. What will happen if we extend the vector? Or what will happen if we shrink the vector? The vector's ''direction'' doesn't change, only its length -- its magnitude. The action we perform to stretch or shrink a vector is that we multiply its magnitude by some amount. We refer to doing this as ''scalar multiplication'': we multiply the ''vector'' by a ''scalar'' real number.

=== Scalar multiplication ===
For scalar multiplication, we simply multiply each component by the scalar. We commonly use Greek letters for scalars, and English letters for vectors.


So for a scalar value of &amp;lambda; and a vector '''v''' defined by ''r'' and &amp;theta;, the new vector is now &amp;lambda;''r'' and &amp;theta;. Notice how the direction does not change.

==== Example ====
Say we have &lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} 2 \\ 3 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; and we wish to double the magnitude. So, &lt;math&gt;2 \begin{pmatrix} 2 \\ 3 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 4 \\ 6 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;.

== Addition of vectors ==

Simply, to add two vectors, you must add the respective x-components together to obtain the new x-component, and likewise add the two y-components together to obtain the new y-component.

=== Example ===
Say we have &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v_1}=\begin{pmatrix} 2 \\ 3 \end{pmatrix}, \mathbf{v_2}=\begin{pmatrix} 4 \\ 6 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; and we wish to add these. So, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v_1}+\mathbf{v_2}=\begin{pmatrix} 6 \\ 9 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;.

== Subtraction of vectors ==

The operation of subtraction on two vectors, '''a''' and '''b''', '''a'''-'''b''', can also be written as '''a'''+(-1)'''b'''. Therefore, we can use scalar multiplication to find the value of (-1)'''b''', then use vector addition to find our solution.

== Complex numbers as vectors ==
^
[[../Complex numbers/]] can be represented in the form &lt;math&gt;r(cos(\theta) + isin(\theta))&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently &lt;math&gt;re^{i\theta}&lt;/math&gt; , or in other words, a vector with magnitude &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; and direction &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;. On the complex plane, this vector has a ''real'' x-component and an ''imaginary'' y-component. See [[../Complex numbers/]] for more information.

== Lines and planes ==
We can form the equations of lines and planes using vectors. Let's see how we can do this.

=== Vector equation of the line ===
Consider a vector &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}=\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 2 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;. Let's consider the following:
: &lt;math&gt;2\mathbf{v}=\begin{pmatrix} 2 \\ 4 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;-\mathbf{v}=\begin{pmatrix} -1 \\ -2 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;3\mathbf{v}=\begin{pmatrix} 3 \\ 6 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

If we have the equation &amp;lambda;'''v''', it is clear that for each choice of &amp;lambda; we choose, we get a different point on the line ''y''=2''x''. 

We can now generalize this idea into the ''vector equation of the line'' (and it is not restricted to 2 dimensions either).

The vector equation of a line is given by
: '''x'''=&amp;lambda;'''v''' (for a scalar &amp;lambda;)
where '''v''' is a vector parallel (which then, could lie) on the line. &amp;lambda; then, is the unknown in the equation. '''x''' is then the dependent vector variable.

=== Vector equation of the plane ===
Now consider a plane. If we have two nonparallel vectors lying on the plane and we add them, we can add a linear combination (that is, add the two vectors, which are multiplied only by scalars) to choose some other vector. The set of all vectors under linear combinations of these two vectors form a plane.
&lt;!-- a picture speaks a thousand words --&gt;

More simply, if we have two nonparallel vectors '''a''' and '''b''' we can form any other vector parallel to '''a''' and '''b''' by:
: &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'''a'''+&amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''b'''='''x'''
where &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are both scalars.

== Further algebra and geometry of vectors ==
There are other operations on vectors which we can perform. These operations we will consider have very real and significant geometric meanings.

=== Magnitude ===
The ''magnitude'' of a vector is its length in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

=== The dot product===
The ''dot product'' of two vectors is defined as the sum of the products of the components. Symbolically we write
: &lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \\ \vdots \\ a_n \end{pmatrix}\cdot\begin{pmatrix}b_1 \\ b_2 \\ \vdots \\b_n \end{pmatrix} = a_1b_1 + a_2b_2 + \ldots + a_nb_n&lt;/math&gt;

For example,
: &lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} 3 \\ 5 \end{pmatrix}\cdot\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ -2 \end{pmatrix}=3-10=-7&lt;/math&gt;

==== Properties of the dot product ====
If we have '''a''' and '''b''' as vectors,
: '''a''' &amp;middot; '''b''' = '''b''' &amp;middot; '''a'''
: ''c''('''a''' &amp;middot; '''b''') = '''ca'''&amp;middot;'''b''' = '''a'''&amp;middot;'''cb'''
where ''c'' is a scalar.

==== Geometry of the dot product ====
&lt;!-- Need a nice pictorial proof of the equivalence of the forms --&gt;
The dot product of two vectors has an alternate form:
: &lt;math&gt; \mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}=|\mathbf{a}||\mathbf{b}|\cos{\theta}&lt;/math&gt;
If we pick a vector '''c'''='''a'''-'''b''' to form a triangle, we can show that these two forms are indeed equivalent by trigonometry.

The angle &amp;theta; then is important, as it shows that the dot product of two vectors is related to the angle between them. More specifically, we can calculate the dot product of two vectors - if the dot product is zero we can then say that the two vectors are perpendicular.

For example, consider simply
: &lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}\cdot\begin{pmatrix}1 \\ -1\end{pmatrix}=1-1=0&lt;/math&gt;
Plot these vectors on the plane and verify for yourself that these vectors are perpendicular.

=== Cross product ===
The ''cross product'' is a more complicated product to define, but has a nice geometric property. We will only look at the cross product in three dimensions, since it is the most commonly used in three dimensions and it is difficult to define in greater dimensions.

For a vector with three components, the cross product is defined as
: &lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \\ a_3 \end{pmatrix}\times\begin{pmatrix}b_1 \\ b_2 \\ b_3 \end{pmatrix} = 
\begin{vmatrix} 
\mathbf{i} &amp; \mathbf{j} &amp; \mathbf{k} \\
a_1 &amp; a_2 &amp; a_3 \\
b_1 &amp; b_2 &amp; b_3 \\ \end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

where
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{i}=\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \mathbf{j}=\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \mathbf{k}=\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

If you have not done Matricies before, here is a formula to work out from above...

=  '''i''' &lt;math&gt;(a_2 b_3 - a_3 b_2)&lt;/math&gt;  - '''j'''&lt;math&gt; (a_1 b_3 - a_3 b_1)&lt;/math&gt;+ '''k''' &lt;math&gt;(a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1)&lt;/math&gt;

==== Properties of the cross product ====
The cross product has some properties
: '''a'''&amp;times;'''b''' = -'''b'''&amp;times;'''a'''
which is easily verified from the above definition, and
: '''c'''&amp;times;('''a'''+'''b''') = '''c'''&amp;times;'''a'''+'''c'''&amp;times;'''b'''
 

==== Geometric properties of the cross product ====
The cross product has some interesting geometric properties. 

If '''a''' and '''b''' are two vectors, '''a'''&amp;times;'''b''' is the vector perpendicular to both. Now if we have two vectors, we have ''two'' choices of vector perpendicular to '''a''' and '''b''' - if we switch the order of the cross product we obtain the other vector.

The magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is the area of the parallelogram formed by these two vectors.

The ''scalar triple product'', '''a'''&amp;middot;('''b'''&amp;times;'''c''') is the volume of the paralleliped formed by these three vectors. &lt;!-- needs a pic --&gt;

== See also==
* [[w:Vector (spatial)|Vectors at Wikipedia]]

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      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-26284-09|~2026-26284-09]] ([[User talk:~2026-26284-09|talk]]) to last version by Quinlan83</comment>
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== Technologically ignorant... ==

Could someone explain to me how to use IRC? Every time I attempt to follow a link, I am met with some sort of error. Thanks, [[User:Neoptolemus|Νεοπτόλεμος]] 02:01, 25 December 2007 (UTC)
: OK, 4 years too late but it may help others.  In most cases you will need a program like [http://www.mirc.com miRC] to use the IRC.  If you use the [http://www.opera.com Opera] web browser then you can simply click on the link because IRC is included within the web browser.--[[User:Xania|ЗAНИA]] [[Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg|15px]][[User talk:Xania|&lt;sup&gt;talk&lt;/sup&gt;]] 13:09, 18 December 2011 (UTC)

== http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level_Physics_(Advancing_Physics)/The_Standard_Model/Worked_Solutions ==

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level_Physics_(Advancing_Physics)/The_Standard_Model/Worked_Solutions
5. The antiparticle of the electron (e-) is the positron. What is the charge and rest mass of a positron?

Charge: +1.6 x 10-19C

Mass: 0.511 MeV = 8.176 x 10-14 kg
==================================
Is the rest mass actually the same of that of the electron?:
9.10938215(45)×10−31 kg
=======================
as per:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron
{{unsigned|86.17.231.68}}
:This isn't the best place for such a question because nobody will ever read it, certainly not anybody familiar with the A-Level Physics book.  It would be better to post this question on the Talk page of [[A-level_Physics_(Advancing_Physics)]].  I have now copied your question to [[Talk:A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)]] where somebody might be able to help.--[[User:Xania|ЗAНИA]] [[Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg|15px]][[User talk:Xania|&lt;sup&gt;talk&lt;/sup&gt;]] 13:14, 18 December 2011 (UTC)

== Help for English version: Youth Guide ==

Hi [[User:QuiteUnusual]]! I’m writing you because we want to translate into English a cooperative book that we put in Viquillibres, the Catalan version of Wikibooks. 
The Youth Guide is a toolbox for professionals who work with youths to promote participation through motivating young people. It consists of a set of sections to facilitate possible lines of work in keeping with the needs or challenges in question. The content of the Guide includes themes related to young people’s participation, planning socio-educational projects and the use of the intervention area, such as centres or public spaces.
Currently, we are working for translate this Guide, but we need some help to move the content into Wikibooks, mainly for the codes and templates. In Catalunya we had [[Usuari:Xavier Dengra|Xavi Dengra]] like our referent. Nowadays, we are working with [[Usuario:Morza|Morza]] in a Spanish version of the Guide. Could you help us for the English version?
Thanks, 
--[[User:Mlopezpa|Mlopezpa]] ([[User talk:Mlopezpa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mlopezpa|contribs]]) 12:11, 28 December 2017 (UTC)
:If you provide a link to the book on the Catalan Wikibooks, I will import it here. That enables you to translate in place and also avoids the copyright issue of lack of attribution. [[User:QuiteUnusual|QuiteUnusual]] ([[User talk:QuiteUnusual|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/QuiteUnusual|contribs]]) 17:35, 10 January 2018 (UTC)

== IRC ==

Most of our movement seems to have moved on from Freenode. Can you confirm this is still a relevant contact channel? If not, you may want to update this page :) [[User:Effeietsanders|Effeietsanders]] ([[User talk:Effeietsanders|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Effeietsanders|contribs]]) 15:57, 5 October 2021 (UTC)

:Came to report this as well. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Minorax|Minorax]], is Wikibooks still using freenode? If not, can the page be updated? Thanks, -- [[User:MarcoAurelio|MarcoAurelio]] ([[User talk:MarcoAurelio|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcoAurelio|contribs]]) 16:55, 5 April 2023 (UTC)

::I think i entered wikibooks freenode a while ago. Found nobody there. How about discord? Doknt we have a discord? If so how have I never found it? {{User:L10nM4st3r/sig.css}} 19:16, 5 April 2023 (UTC)
::#wikibooks-en isn't set up on Liberia as for as i know. --[[User:Minorax|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: monospace, monospace; color:#69C;&quot;&gt;Minorax&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;&amp;laquo;&amp;brvbar;[[User talk:Minorax|'''talk''']]&amp;brvbar;&amp;raquo;&lt;/sup&gt; 01:15, 6 April 2023 (UTC)</text>
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==A technical overview of AROS==

Google translation [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=de&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs German], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=fr&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs French], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=it&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Italian], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=es&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Spanish], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=hi&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Hindi], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=zh-CN&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Chinese], 
[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=ru&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Russian], 
[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=pl&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Polish],
[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=auto&amp;tl=pt&amp;u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FDeveloper%2FDocs Portuguese]

{{Uncited}}

AROS,&lt;ref&gt;[http://aros.sourceforge.net/download.php References and sources]&lt;/ref&gt; like AmigaOS (TM), is a [[w:Message passing|message-passing]], [[w:Preemption (computing)|preemptive]] [[w:Multitasking|multitasking]] [[w:Operating system|OS]].

It uses [[w:Reentrant (subroutine)|re-entrant]] shared libraries to save memory space.

AROS is based around an executive library kernel (Exec) and two other libraries:

* Exec (the &quot;kernel&quot;, which is not a kernel in the modern sense), 
* Intuition (graphics and GUI, integrated into the system) and 
* AmigaDOS (Disk Operating System, the Metacomco's Tripos modified to work with Exec).

The design philosophies of AmigaDOS and Intuition are rather different, the former adopting a C-like API and the latter creating an [http://www.basden.demon.co.uk/amiga/amiga.oo.html object-oriented], message passing aware environment for the programmer. The system base is the only absolute address in AmigaOS (located at 0x00000004) this does differ with AROS as AROS SysBase is automatically provided (no $4) but everything else is dynamically loaded. The OS is well known for delivering high performance due to its close connections with the hardware, while simultaneously having the flexibility to support re-targetable graphics (Cybergraphics) and retargetable audio subsystems (AHI).

: Diagram showing relationships of libraries to system needed


Remember, AROS is a [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/ABIv1 research] operating system, and while all contributions to the base AROS code are welcome, please contact the dev list first for any core changes. Writing applications for AROS does not have this requirement. 

While AROS appears and feels almost feature complete, it is still [[Aros/Developer/IncompleteAPIs|missing a small number of functions]] from the Amiga API - as well as a few implementations of [[Aros/MissingFunctionaility|core functionality]]. There are also a number of user applications that, while not strictly part of the AmigaOS 3.1 environment, need to be written.


[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1201 This thread provides] information for setup, [http://www.aros.org/documentation/developers/index.php documentation] and whether you are interested in core OS changes and/or writing/porting software apps 

*you compile directly under AROS, which can be running on either real hardware, virtual hardware
*in hosted mode under linux/window, cross-compile from that host OS (save your files as ISO-8859-15 encoding instead of UTF-8) 

The repository for the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS current development version ABIv1], the  [https://github.com/deadw00d/AROS/tree/alt-abiv0 repository for current stable PC version ABIv0 with backported ABIv1 features is located which is used on AROS One and Icaros x86 based distros] 

Any [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues bugs / issues can be added] 

We have a [https://arosdevteam.slack.com/archives/CUFV48U3H slack here], discord on [https://discord.gg/UKp9qdEBuQ Discord@AmigaDev], 


==Software Development for AROS==

===Programming languages===

Apart from 'The Developer Environment', which primarily supports C/C++ code, there are other programming languages available for AROS:

'''Scripting''' 
:[[Aros/User/DOS|DOS]], included in all
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/LUA|LUA]], included in all or [http://www.airsoftsoftwair.de/en/prod_hollywood.html Hollywood]
:REXX [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Rexx|Regina (AROS' ARexx)]], included in all
:Python [ Info], included in Icaros 
:Ruby [http://www.ruby-lang.org/en Info]/[http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&amp;cat=development/language download]

'''Basic'''

:[http://amos.pspuae.com/AmosProManual/contents/c1.html '''Amos Pro'''] [http://amos.pspuae.com/index.php?action=forum#1 compatible] [http://www.amigacoding.com/index.php/Main_Page commands] (all incomplete) 
::[http://sourceforge.net/projects/xamos/ X-Amos] 
::[http://sdlbasic.sourceforge.net/ SDLBasic] ([http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&amp;cat=development/language download])
::[http://alvyn.sourceforge.net/ Alvyn] ([http://www.dusabledanslherbe.eu/AROSPage/MISC.14.html download]) 
::[[Aros/Developer/Basic/Basic4SDL|Basic4SDL]] ([http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&amp;cat=development/language download])
::[http://www.ultimateamiga.co.uk/index.php?topic=9425.0 Project Deimos], 

:'''Blitz Basic''' [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=46537#forumpost46537 none on AROS] 
:: [http://www.amiforce.de/main.php Amiblitz] on JanusUAE amiga(TM) emulator

:'''Amiga Basic'''
:: [ ACEBasic]

'''Misc''' 
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/E|AmigaE Portable E]]
:[https://ae.arosworld.org/index.php?board=11.0 FreePascal FPC Aros-Exec thread], [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&amp;cat=development/language Download], FreePascal for AROS has its own [http://fpcaroswiki.alb42.de/ Wikibook], 
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/LLVM|LLVM]], 


===Where to get the C/C++ Environment===

If you want to develop for AROS, its generally easier to be running linux hosted AROS development environment especially for C++, cross compiling the code. That's how most developers now are doing it. g++ is used to compile owb web browser as well as some other AROS software. If you were hoping for a rich set of C++ libraries or classes defined for the OS feature set, you might be disappointed.

AROS Native compiling is possible, but you're much more likely to run into the odd bug(s) in the dev environment since it gets little testing and fixing by other developers.

Is there a sftp software or scp over ssh available?
Nope. There isn't. Would be easier if at least the security part would be handled on porting [https://github.com/jens-maus/amissl amissl]

[https://arosdevteam.slack.com/join/shared_invite/enQtOTc4Mzg0NDIzNzQ0LWQ2NWZmNmMwNGIwNGEyNTgxNzU3MGFjMTk3ZThmOTQ1MTVjMzhmNTllYWQ0ZTUxMjBjMGE0Y2VjMDJmNTc5MzI#/shared-invite/email Slack Dev Forum] 


====Cross compilers from Windows or Linux====

*Windows WSL2 walkthrough can be [https://arosnews.github.io/how-to-cross-compile-aros-hosted-wsl/ found here] 


you want to build AROS. No problem.

Here are instructions for 64-bit:
https://github.com/deadw00d/AROS/blob/master/INSTALL.md

Here are instructions for 32-bit:
https://github.com/deadw00d/AROS/blob/alt-abiv0/INSTALL.md

And as always has been the case you can use the contrib archive to 'obtain' the development directory which contains the /native/ AROS gcc compiler and tools. That compiler is used to build AROS itself but can be used outside the AROS build process by providing --sysroot with indicated directory to cross compile for AROS.


=====Older guides for Linux hosted compiler=====

Please install these packages before moving to next step. Below is a reference list for Debian-based distributions. Reference build system was Ubuntu 18.04/20.04 amd64.

subversion git-core gcc g++ make gawk bison flex bzip2 netpbm autoconf automake libx11-dev libxext-dev libc6-dev liblzo2-dev libxxf86vm-dev libpng-dev gcc-multilib libsdl1.2-dev byacc python-mako libxcursor-dev cmake zsh mingw64

Do all of these operations under home directory of your user or another directory where your user has write permissions.

Specifically, in a section &quot;Linux-i386&quot;, be sure first to build the cross-compiler (toolchain-alt-abiv0-i386) and only then AROS itself (alt-abiv0-linux-i386).


Clone &amp; build
&lt;pre&gt;
$ mkdir myrepo
$ cd myrepo
$ git clone https://github.com/deadw00d/AROS.git AROS
$ cd AROS
$ git checkout alt-abiv0
$ cd ..
$ cp ./AROS/scripts/rebuild.sh .
$ ./rebuild.sh
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now to the build selection below - Linux-i386 

Select toolchain-alt-abiv0-i386 - Select alt-abiv0-linux-i386 (DEBUG) 

Start AROS by:
&lt;pre&gt;
$ cd alt-abiv0-linux-i386/bin/linux-i386/AROS
$ ./Arch/linux/AROSBootstrap
&lt;/pre&gt;


Pc-i386 Select toolchain-alt-abiv0-i386 (if not built yet) - Select alt-abiv0-pc-i386

ISO image available in alt-abiv0-pc-i386/distfiles


Now that we have linux-hosted build, we can resume native (option 2).
Run ./rebuild.sh and selection option 2. Wait until it finished, then:
&lt;pre&gt;
$ cd alt-abiv0-pc-i386
$ make
&lt;/pre&gt;

Now
&lt;pre&gt;
$ make bootiso
&lt;/pre&gt;


Now, your compiler is located in toolchain-alt-abiv0-i386 directory and named i386-aros-gcc. Includes are in alt-abiv0-linux-i386-d/bin/linux-i386/AROS/Development/include and libraries are in alt-abiv0-linux-i386-d/bin/linux-i386/AROS/Development.lib.

This is how then can be passed to the compiler:

/home/xxx/toolchain-alt-abiv0-i386/i386-aros-gcc --sysroot /home/xxx/alt-abiv0-linux-i386-d/bin/linux-i386/AROS/Development -L/home/xxx/alt-abiv0-linux-i386-d/bin/linux-i386/AROS/Development/lib 

../toolchain-alt-abiv0-i386/i386-aros-gcc --sysroot bin/linux-i386/AROS/Development local/helloworld/helloworld.c -o local/helloworld/helloworld


Another method was using Debian like distros and download the gimmearos.sh script (on [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&amp;cat=development/cross aros-archives]) to setup the developer environment by downloading necessary packages ...
The gimmearos script is a good start in that direction, building the cross compilers and hosted AROS environment, but gimmearos.sh might be out of date or not be completely compatible with any given linux distro. 

In order to do that, you have to compile AROS yourself. Download AROS source archive not contrib. Compile AROS by entering the main directory

 ./configure
 make

([http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/compiling.php More on compiling AROS]). The result will be a basic AROS system without development tools.

To compile C++ on Linux, type 'make gnu-contrib-crosstools', creating the cross-compilers in ./bin/linux-i386/tools/, named i386-aros-gcc, etc.

'''Note''': Currently, to make the cross compilers usable copy 'collect-aros' from tools/ to tools/i386-aros/bin/. At the moment the cross compilers if used from the Linux command line will only find it when it's there.

If you want to compile native compilers (the Developer Environment), type 'make contrib-gnu-gcc', creating native compilers in AROS' System:Development/bin directory.

When the output needs to be stripped &lt;code&gt;--strip-unneeded --remove-section .comment&lt;/code&gt;

The Obj-C backend should build out of the box.

Open contrib/gnu/gcc/mmakefile.src and search for the line which contains &quot;--enable-languages&quot; and add &quot;objc&quot; to the list of languages that follows it.

    --enable-languages=c,c++,objc

Better make it—enable-languages=c,c++,objc,obj-c++

ObjC++ is broken as soon as you try to use exceptions, but that might change in future GCC versions and it does not hurt having it there already.


Do you need a cross-compiler or a real compiler? In the first case you can get away with just downloading the proper gcc archive, apply the patch and proceed with the normal gcc build. In the case of a real cross-compiler then when downloading the contrib sources, also need to download the normal sources, place the contrib sources into a directory called contrib, need to install autoconf+automake+perl+python, call ./configure, cd into the subdirectory and type make.

to rebuild GCC with host == build == target == i386-pc-aros. So just get the vanilla sources and apply the patches without bothering about the build system?


[https://vmwaros.blogspot.com/2019/10/a-pre-configured-development-machine.html pre-configured VM environment vmware virtual machine to develop AROS and AROS software]


'''64 bit'''


'''32 bit'''

A good option for multiple OS is [https://axrt.org/index.php?tab=download-aros AxRuntime lets developers compile their Amiga API-based applications as Linux binaries being able to utilize modern development tools available on Linux, like IDEs, debuggers, profilers, etc] 


====Native compilers for AROS====

Namely gcc for C or g++ for C++ are supplied with the [[Aros/Developer/Docs#The Developer Environment|Developer Environment]], which is already '''setup''' and part of any current AROS distribution like AROS One or the nightlies 

* Current GCC 6.5 (32bit) though moving to 10.5 and 15.1 (64bit) 
* Older software components. GNU GCC 4.x GNU BinUtils, GNU Fileutils 4.x, GNU Textutils and others.

On single partition systems and the Boot ISO, the AROS Developer environment is installed under &quot;SYS:Development/&quot;. Systems with multiple partitions - such as a Work: partition - tend to install it to there instead, however it can be installed manually to any location. Please remember, if moving, that you will need to correct the Development packages 'install location' env variable to point to the new locations root - look in SYS:S/startup-sequence.

&lt;pre&gt;
Assign Development: SYS:Development 
Assign C: Development:bin ADD 
&lt;/pre&gt;


In the aros build instructions. you need to check out contrib and/or ports into your AROS source directory, as subdirs. then, assuming you are building in an external build dir, as you should, you simply configure and &quot;make contrib&quot; for instance or whatever submodule you might want to build.


===Beginners Tutorials in C C++===

As AROS is [http://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=29856 C based] API compatible to AmigaOS 3.x, so most of the information on programming C on the Amiga applies to AROS as well. Please note that there is a lot of AmigaOS 1.3 (1985-1989) and [https://www.markround.com/amigaguide AmigaOS AOS 2.x (1990-1992)] information around but OS3.1 is recommended but limited in amount. 

Brief overview of what is required to write AROS Applications

# Using [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Intuition|Intuition]] for basic screens/windows 
# Using graphics within windows via 8bit [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Graphics|graphics]] and so onto  15-16-24bit [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/CGFX|cybergraphx]]
# Load and save work to [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/DOS|dos]] disk drives
# Using the [[Aros/Developer/Zune|ZUNE GUI Environment]]


Writing native games require this extra information

# Using [[Aros/Developer/AHIDrivers|AHI audio hardware independent API]]
# Using USB joystick/joypad with the Poseidon USB stack through [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/LowLevel|LowLevel]] library


Additional features that could be added later

# Adding additional [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Locale|Locale]] language translations to your program 
# Adding a [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Rexx|AREXX/Regina]] port to your application 
# Executing Amiga(TM) [[Aros/User/DOS|DOS]] commands from your application
# Using [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Icon|icons]] (.info files) and icon tooltypes (stack, version, and program startup options)
# Local couch or IP based SANA2 networking co-op multi player gaming support 


Most AmigaOS programming books are nowadays very much out of date as most are from the late 1980s and do not cover later amigaOS releases like 3.1 for example, Rob Peck's book &quot;Programmer's Guide to the Amiga&quot;. The Amiga ROM Kernel manuals aka RKMs like Libraries (3rd edition), Devices (), the AmigaDOS manual (3rd edition) and the Style Guide may have their uses. There are some reference examples from AmigaMail and Devcon notes (available again on an Amiga developers CD 2.1). 

For Arexx then &quot;The Amiga Programmer's Guide to ARexx&quot; by Eric Giguere, which was published by Commodore is useful as well as an &quot;Arexx Cookbook&quot;.

Curly brackets missing - try SHIFT + ALT + 7 or 0.


* Beginners C Guide [http://www.iu.hio.no/~mark/CTutorial/CTutorial.html C Tutorial], 
* [http://thecguru.com/ C for beginners],
* [http://fresh2refresh.com/c/c-basic-program/ C programming basics] for students, 
* [https://www.edx.org/courses Free Online course] from American Universities 
* Reference Amiga [http://amigadev.elowar.com/ API reference].


* AROS based c source can be found [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Examples|here]] and lots of example code can be found inside [https://github.com/aros-development-team AROS sources] themselves and from the contrib section of the archives from [https://github.com/aros-development-team/contrib Aros site], and study the AROS applications source code, e.g. the test programs from the Tests drawer (folder/directory). Take a look at the code of some smaller AROS programs might be a better and more up to date guide. Some old Os3 [http://www.blackfiveservices.co.uk/amiga-c/ here]

When you upload your builds, please write the architecture (like i386-aros, x86_64-aros, etc.) in the archive name 
and it is also advisable to write in the field &quot;Requirements&quot; what ABI (ABIv11, ABIv0 or ABIv1) 


===Compiling C/C++ Code===

Native, although we have a IDE Integrated Development Environment (Murks), it does lack a debugger. Whilst others use a combination of a text editor and shell to edit code. Most though use an AROS hosted on Linux to take advantage of the better GCC tools like GDB and various IDEs.

Open shell - its a menu option at the top left of Wanderer (desktop). Or by using the right Win key and w (or F12 and w) within the directory with the source code. Type in
 sh 
to change the amiga shell into a unix shell. You can then type in ls (unix equivalent to amiga dir). Take a look [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linux_commands here] for more commands.

For a single file program-name.c or program-name.cpp
 gcc -o program-name program-name.c  
or 
 g++ -o program-name program-name.cpp
or
 g++ -o test -Wall -g main.cc texturelib.cpp xmodelib.cc -lsdl -lgl

To close the shell, click on the top left-hand corner to close (twice). Once to get back the aros shell and then again to close finally. Use [http://freshmeat.net/projects/cksfv/ cksfv] as a test.

Some source code requires the addition of Amiga API libraries, like dos, which you can flag at the compile time as 
 gcc -o julia.exe julia.c -ldos

For DOS use -ldos as example and if you are compiling mui codes it will be -lmui or intuition -lintuition. Other missing symbols are due to linker libraries being necessary for linking in functions that aren't in the standard C libraries. For example some source code would need added

 -lz or -lm or -lpng or -larosc etc.

use this in unix line command mode to search for 'search-item' in many .c files (*.cpp for c++, etc.)
 grep -l 'search-item' *.c

If the program is not executable, try using parameter fno-common 

&quot;Delete #?.o&quot;? Or if you are using abcshell then &quot;rm *.o&quot;


:''More information: [[Aros/Developer/Porting software]]''


=== How to make Apps have AROS 64-bit specific support code ===

[http://www.aros.org/cs/documentation/developers/app-dev/portable.php Portable code] 

AROS64 already uses 64bit addressing, it just doesn't setup the MMU for more than 4GB physical memory currently.
When porting software to AROS64 it is &quot;mostly&quot; a case of converting ULONG's that are used to store pointers, into IPTR's instead, etc. Another quirk, is making sure items on the stack are the correct size by using the STACKED attribute for them. 

* Use texteditor or some tool to replace all &quot;ULONG&quot; with &quot;IPTR&quot; and &quot;LONG&quot; with &quot;SIPTR&quot; in the sources.

compiling mui stuff for aros setting -std=gnu99 is necessary, had -std=c99 usually 
A MUI application most likely needs only the HOOKPROTOxxx SDI macros. They are compatible with AROS, only the attributes (hook, object attribute) must be given in the right order.

crash which suggest memory corruption. From my experience porting from 32-bit to 64-bit these kinds of errors can happen if a pointer is passed somewhere via ULONG variable. Then half of the pointer is cut.

To generate this error, please run AROSBootstrap with -m 1024. This will allocate heap to 64-bit address space which will make these errors immediatelly visible. These types of crashes are hard to debug. Disabled as little code as possible to stop corruption from occurring and then try to read from the code where it can be broken

Crashing in tslf_freevec is another symptom of memory corruption and these memory corruptions will manifest differently on different setups.


==Coding conventions==

As the AROS core source is a shared developer experience, there are rules regarding structure and style. When it comes to your creating your own app and coding, the structure and style should be your own, i.e. you should enjoy what you do and do it so that you can understand what is going on.

===Layout===

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;
static void 1st_function()
{
    program
    exit(0);    
}

int main(void)
{
    1st_function();
    2nd_function();
    3rd_function();
    return 0;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;

struct Screen * openscreen(void);
struct Window *openwindow(struct Screen *screen, const char *title, LONG x, LONG y, LONG w, LONG h);

VOID 1st_function();
VOID 2nd_function();

int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
    program
    return 0;
} /* main */

VOID 1st_function()
{

}

VOID 2nd_function()
{

}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===General style===

This code is used by many people and therefore you should keep some things in mind when you submit source code:

* Keep things simple 
* Keep the source clean 
* Always know what you are doing, if not flag it and describe what needs to be done... 
* Explain clearly/simply what you are doing 
* Remember that you write code once but that it is read many times by many people

===Comments===

AROS uses some of the comments in the source to generate the documentation. Therefore it's necessary to keep a certain format so the tools can find their information. Other comments are ignored but they should explain what you thought when you wrote the code. If you really can't think of an explanation, then don't write the code a second time like this:

&lt;pre&gt;
/* This adds 1 to t */
t ++;
&lt;/pre&gt;

What we think of is this:

&lt;pre&gt;
/* Go on with next element */
t ++;
&lt;/pre&gt;

===Formatting===

This is only '''IMPORTANT''' if you are going to work on the core AROS code or contrib but not applications which may reside outside like on AROS Archives or other websites.

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;
{
    /* a */
    struct RastPort * rp;
    int               a;

    /* b */
    rp = NULL;
    a  = 1;

    /* c */
    if (a == 1)
        printf (&quot;Init worked\n&quot;);

    /* d */
    if
    (
        !(rp = Get_a_pointer_to_the_RastPort
            (
                some
                , long
                , arguments
            )
        )
    ||
        a &lt;= 0
    )
    {
        printf (&quot;Something failed\n&quot;);
        return FAIL;
    }

    /* e */
    a = printf (&quot;My RastPort is %p, a=%d\n&quot;
        , rp
        , a
    );

    return OK;
}
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

Looks ugly, eh ? :-) Ok, here are the rules:

&lt;pre&gt;
If several lines contain similar code, put similar things below each other (see a and b);
Put spaces between operands and operators
Put braces {}, brackets [] and parentheses () below each other (d) if there is much code between. 
Brackets and parentheses may be in one line if the code between is small (c)
Indent by 4 Spaces. Two indent levels may be abbreviated by one tab.
&lt;/pre&gt;

'''Before committing please normalize the indentation - if you have a mixture of tabs and spaced - please always use spaces, 1 tab = 4 spaces.'''

The reasons for this are:

# While some editors can use an arbitrary sizes for tabs, it's a bit complicated to tell another editor which tab size was used by the one used to write the code. 
# Most code in AROS was written this way and your code should look like the rest. 
# You can print this code on any printer without special tools to &quot;fix&quot; the tabs. 
# Most editors have smart tabs which do exactly this. If your editor doesn't, write a bug report.

If you have a function with many arguments (d, e) you should put the parentheses in lines of their own and each argument in one line (d) or put the first argument behind the opening parentheses (e) and each following argument in a line of its own with the comma in front. The closing parentheses is in a line of its own and aligned with the beginning of the expression (i.e. the a and not the opening parentheses or the printf()).

Use a single blank line to separate logical blocks. Large comments should have a blank line before and after them, small comments should be put before the code they explain with only one blank line before them.

If you see any TABS in AROS core sources then the suggestion is to &quot;detab the file and commit that separately&quot; either before or afterwards from making functionality changes. Make two commits instead of one. This makes it easier for others to see the real changes instead of having to dig through multiple lines of irrelevant diffs.

===Eliminating Global Variables===

i.e. pass variables to functions (local scope) or classes making it easier to track and debug your code.

Any time you find that you need a particular thing in 'a lot of different places', chances are that all those places are conceptually related, and so you can create a class, a namespace, a function, or some other higher-level organizational unit to represent that relationship. This makes the program easier to understand.

Bad Designs

* All variables are global. 
* There are no standalone functions, only sub-procedures which act on the global variables. 
* Every sub-procedure is at least 500 lines to several thousand 
* Every sub-procedure has more than one task to perform 
* Copy-paste is preferred to writing methods, AND subtle changes are made in the middle of the code

Good Designs

* structure program into functions (C or basic) - top-down procedural approach 
* put in class(es) (freepascal or C++) - the object is fixed and you use methods to access the object

&lt;pre&gt;
 class String_List
 {
 private:
 list&lt;string&gt; m_List;  // member
 public:
 void read_strings() { /* read strings into m_List */ }
 void print_strings() { /* write contents of m_List to stdout */ }
 void sort_strings() { /* sort contents of m_List */ }
 void sort_strings_reverse() { /* reverse-sort contents of m_List */ }
 void unique_strings() { /* remove duplicate strings */ }
 };

 int main()
 {
 String_List myList;  // local
 myList.read_strings();
 myList.sort_strings();
 myList.print_strings();
 myList.sort_strings_reverse();
 myList.print_strings();
 myList.unique_strings();
 myList.print_strings();
 return 0;
 }
&lt;/pre&gt;

This way it is very easy to replace the list with new list for debugging purposes, or replacing the methods without replacing the list, when you want different results. You only have to replace the content of the local variables.

 So create the structure that matches your data (linked lists, trees, arrays, etc.) and what to do with them (sorting, searching, etc.)

&lt;pre&gt;
.h usually contain #define #include typedef enum struct extern screen and window definitions (data structures)
.c should contains functions and algorithms
&lt;/pre&gt;

One way to look at it is that menu headings act as the .c file and sub-menu headings as functions.

When you start a project, you place a couple of declarations in the include file. As the project continues, you place more and more declarations in the include file, some of which refer to or contain previous declarations. Before you know it, you have a real mess on your hands. The majority of your source files have knowledge of the data structures and directly reference elements from the structures.
Making changes in an environment where many data structures directly refer to other data structures becomes, at best, a headache. Consider what happens when you change a data structure.

Use good variables names to help clarify code and only comment when you need to explain why a certain programming approach was made.

You're Refactoring Legacy Code, you see a global, you want to get rid of it. How do you do this?

Exactly what to do depends on how the global is used. The first step is to find all uses of the global throughout the code, and get a feel for what the significance of the variable is and how it relates to the rest of the program. Pay particular attention to the &quot;lifetime&quot; of the variable (when it gets initialized, when it is first used, when it is last used, how it gets cleaned up). Then, you will probably make the global a data member of a class (for OO languages), or you will write some get/set functions. Converting to the Singleton Pattern is common, but you may discover that it makes more sense for the data element to be a member of an existing singleton, or maybe even an instance variable.

# Create a basic read method, either as a class or a global function. Replace all reads with the access method, but leave the variable defined as a global.
# Review each of the writes to the method and extract action functions one at a time. Unless two operations are coded identically in the original code, extract each write access separately.
# Change the variable scope from global to local.
# Analyze similar action functions to determine if any can be merged, i.e., there are no functional differences in the results of the function, just differences in the implementation details.
# Review the calls to the read method and see if a more complex functionality should be applied. Follow the approach for writes and unless implementations are identical, create separate access functions. 
# Analyze the access functions for duplication.

As returning variables by &quot;passing by value&quot; are forgotten, so &quot;passing by reference&quot; is often used instead. The reference is a pointer to the variable so the value is remembered when returned.

Alternatives

* Hidden Globals
* Singleton Pattern
* Database or TupleSpace
* Context Object 
* Dependency Injection 
* Stateful Procedures


==AROS/AmigaOS APIs and Docs==

&lt;pre&gt;
Library:
   - Private data structure
   - Many public access methods

Device:
   - Private data structure
   - Two (BeginIO/AbortIO) access methods

Resource:
   - Public data structure
   - *NO* access methods
&lt;/pre&gt;

And, being Amiga OS-compatible, there are exceptions to all of these.


===System Libraries===

The [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/app-dev/index.php AROS Guide To Libraries] can be used as a guide to individual commands and Old Dev Docs are used in application programming.

The generated [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/autodocs/ Aros AutoDocs HTML Read] or download [http://aros.sourceforge.net/download.php docs-html.bz2 from here].

Amiga/Aros styles libraries are very different from windows and linux libs. Typical .so/dll libraries are foreign to most Amiga-like OS 


*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/AROSC|arosc.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/AmigaGuide|amigaguide.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/ASL|asl.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Bullet|bullet.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/BSDsocket|bsdsocket.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/CAMD|camd.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Codesets|codesets.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/CGFX|cybergraphics.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/CGXVIDEO|cgxvideo.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Commodities|commodities.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/DataTypes|datatypes.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/DiskFont|diskfont.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/DOS|dos.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Exec|exec.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Expansion|expansion.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/FreeType2|freetype.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/GadTools|gadtools.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Graphics|graphics.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Icon|icon.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Identify|identify.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/IFFParse|iffparse.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Intuition|intuition.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Keymap|keymap.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Layers|layers.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Locale|locale.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/LowLevel|lowlevel.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/MathIEEESingBas|mathieeesingbas.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/MathIEEEDoubBas|mathieeedoubbas.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/MathIEEESingTrans|mathieeesingtrans.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/MathIEEEDoubTrans|mathieeedoubtrans.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Mathtrans|mathtrans.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/MUIMaster|muimaster.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Partition|partition.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/PopUpMenu|popupmenu.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/OOP|oop.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Regina|regina.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Reqtools|reqtools.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/RexxSysLib|rexxsyslib.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/ScreenNotify|screennotify.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/TTEngine|ttengine.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Thread|thread.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Utility|utility.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Xadmaster|xadmaster.library]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Libraries/Workbench|workbench.library]]
*[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c82e86b8480277998014cc327b56c7664023a52f ClassAct Reaction boopsi class]


===AROS Subsystems===

# [[Aros/Developer/Zune|Zune MUI compatible GUI]]
# [[Aros/Developer/AROSAppPackages|AROS Application Packages]]
# AHI Audio Drivers - [[Aros/Developer/AHIDrivers|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/AHIDriversDev|Development]]
# AROSTCP Sana2 Network Interface Drivers - [[Aros/Developer/NICDrivers|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/NICDriversDev|Development]]
# gfx.hidd/cybergraphics Video Drivers - [[Aros/Developer/GfxDrivers|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/GfxDriversDev|Development]]
# IO Device Drivers - [[Aros/Developer/IODeviceDrivers|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/IODeviceDriversDev|Development]]
# USB Device Drivers - [[Aros/Developer/USBDrivers|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/USBDriversDev|Development]]
# PCI Device Drivers - [[Aros/Developer/PCIDrivers|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/PCIDriversDev|Development]]
# [http://www.libsdl.org/ SDL] 
# [[w:Gallium3D|Gallium 3D]] [http://www.mesa3d.org/ openGL aka Mesa] - [[Aros/Developer/OpenGL|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/OpenGLDev|Development]] [http://www.swiftless.com/opengltuts.html Swfitless]
# A small subset of GTK2 through [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gtk-mui/ MUI-GTK] 
# Cairo 2D Engine - [[Aros/Developer/Cairo|Usage]]/[[Aros/Developer/Cairo|Development]]
# [[Aros/Developer/Scalos|Scalos desktop API and plugin modules]]
# [[Aros/Developer/VHI|VHI video driver]]


====HIDDs====

*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/HIDDClass|hiddclass.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/Graphics|graphics.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/VesaGfx|vesagfx.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/ATI|radeon.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/NVidia|nvidia.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/Nouveau|nouveau.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/Kbd|kbd.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/Mouse|mouse.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/i2c|i2c.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/IRQ|irq.hidd (deprecated)]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/PCI|pci.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/PCIPC|pcipc.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/Serial|serial.hidd]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/HIDD/Thunderbolt|thunderbolt.hidd]]
https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4f02ea691799aff3a01f60cfa5f9182c82fc57a8

HIDD are used for device/peripheral low level hardware support drivers. The HIDD system is split up into a collection of classes with a strict inheritance hierarchy. A HIDD class implements a device driver for a single device or in rare cases a group of devices and provides an interface for other programs and devices to access.
      
In order to maintain portability of interfaces across a wide range of hardware this interface will in general not present the raw interface to the underlying hardware. Instead it will present a generic interface that describes many different hardware implementations. This allows for the best reuse of both interfaces and code.

HIDD API is heavyweight though. You need to open a HIDD library, open oop.library, instantiate an object (even if there's no object); and object calls are more costly compared to plain library calls.


Basically your task is to implement a subclass of hidd.ata.bus for your hardware. just implementing the XXXATA__Hidd_ATABus__xxxxxx methods for the Amiga chipset - and appropriate versions of the interface_xxx.c file(s). pretty much everything in probe.c could be ignored - just write a replacement scan for relevant amiga devices and store whatever info you need in the bus data? only the &quot;SUPPORT_LEGACY&quot; blocks might be related.

You do not need to depend on PCI API. PCI is just a way to discover the hardware on PCs, etc. 
&lt;hidd/pci.h&gt; includes (at some depth) &lt;interface/HW.h&gt;, which defines IID_HW. This comes from the 'generic' HIDD class in: 
 rom/hidds/hidd/hiddclass.conf
did not split up HIDD and HW because they are always used in pair. It's the same as hidd/pci.h bringing definition for: PCI, PCIDriver and PCIDevice. PCI is actually PCIHW, just the name was not changed for backwards compatibility reasons. HW is a 'hub' where HIDD instances plug in.

ATA HIDD aoHidd_ATABus_Use32Bit value is completely ignored unless ata.device first detects correct command line parameter.
Yes. Unfortunately I was unable to find any comment in code or svn history with explanations. Looked  at Linux source, there 32-bit PIO is also controller driver's property. Some of them enable it, some don't.

Actually, switching the default to ON should be safe. ata.device is fail-safe at this because during IDENTIFY command it validates upper 16  bits,  and  if they appear to be zeroes in all 128 longwords, then 32-bit mode is switched off. But, nevertheless, I know how tricky hardware can be, so I decided not to change original behavior. If  you think it's wrong in some cases, then it's possible to add one more  attribute  like  aHidd_ATABus_Default32Bit. If set to YES, then  this means that 32-bit PIO is safe to use by default.


====Devices====

*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/ATA|ata.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/Console|console.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/Narrator|narrator.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/Printer|printer.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/Trackdisk|trackdisk.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/AmberRAM|amberram.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/Timer|timer.device]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices/|.device]]

The Amiga used [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices|Devices]] to communicate with [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&amp;topic_id=3475&amp;viewmode=flat&amp;order=ASC additional hardware]. AROS has replaced these hardware devices with hidd equivalents but some are still retained for backwards compatibility.

Local libraries/devices/handlers,etc. are supposed to override the ones in ROM if their version is higher than the one in ROM.

Here is the list of commands exec default: 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| CMD_CLEAR
|  Purge the buffer of the device
|----
| CMD_READ
|  Playback Control
|----
| CMD_STOP
|  Stopped the activity of the device
|----
| CMD_FLUSH
|  Empty the queue of commands
|----
| CMD_RESET
|  Reset a device
|----
| CMD_WRITE
|  Playback Control
|----
| CMD_INVALID
|  Create an error
|----
| CMD_UPDATE
|  Gets updated device
|----
| CMD_START
|  Will restart the device
|----
|}

While most other &quot;stuff you communicate with&quot; in AmigaOS are devices &lt;ref&gt;AMIGA ROM Kernel Reference Manual: Devices, 3rd Edition. Commodore-Amiga, Inc. Addison-Wesley, 1991. {{ISBN|0-201-56775-X}}&lt;/ref&gt; that share a [http://gega.homelinux.net/AmigaDevDocs/ common base interface]. [[Aros/Developer/Docs/Devices1.3|OS 1.3 Device Drivers]].


====Handlers====

:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/Pipe|pipe.handler]]
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/Port|port.handler]]
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/SFS|sfs.handler]]
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/FAT|fat.handler]]
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/PFS|pfs.handler]]
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/NTFS|fuse.handler]]
:[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Handlers/FFS|ffs.handler]]

filesystem handlers have their own separate system consisting of completely differently structured messages that dos.library use to pass requests (for things like reading, writing, getting directory contents etc.) to them. AROS originally went with implementing filesystem handlers as devices, which might arguably be more consistent with the rest of the AmigaOS API but which is quite incompatible with AmigaOS itself. However, it made it far harder to port filesystems and the gains were comparatively small, and so there's been a long standing goal of fixing this incompatibility. It has now, June 2011, been reintroduced to all AROS flavors.

are argstr and argsize valid for the handler startup environment?
DOS/RunHandler() calls DOS/CreateNewProcTags(), and then CallEntry() (in rom/dos/exit.c) to start the handler, so yes, argstr and argsize are *present* in the call signature of the handler.

Granted, argstr will be NULL and argsize 0, but those values *are* passed to the handler function using:

&lt;pre&gt;
AROS_UFC3(ULONG, entry,
                         AROS_UFCA(STRPTR, argptr, A0),
                         AROS_UFCA(ULONG, argsize, D0),
                         AROS_UFCA(struct ExecBase *, SysBase, A6));
&lt;/pre&gt;

Creating your own [without the whole build tree http://pagesperso-orange.fr/franck.charlet/temp/radeon.zip] and then  
&lt;pre&gt;
make stub
make
make install
&lt;/pre&gt;

SFS has two Root blocks, one at the start and one at the end of the disk. The Root blocks both contain the same information.  They hold various information about the disk structure and have the locations of some important blocks used by the filesystem.  

The Root ObjectContainer contains the Root directory Object. The name of this Object is the name of the volume. It is identical to a normal directory Object.

The Bitmap is used to keep track of free space. Each bit in a bitmap represents a single block. A set bit indicates a free block and a cleared bit a used block.

AdminSpaceContainers are used to keep track of space which has been reserved for storing administration blocks. Only the Bitmap, the Root blocks and the actual data stored in files aren't stored in administration space. Administration space is allocated in chunks of 32 blocks at a time. A single AdminSpaceContainer can hold information about a large number of such areas each of which has its own little bitmap of 32 bits.

Extents are stored in a B-Tree. The Root block holds a pointer to the root of the Extent B-Tree. Extents keep track of space in use by a specific file. Each fragment a file consists of has its own Extent. Extents are in a double linked list. The list can be used to locate the next or previous fragment of a file.

Below is the standard block header. This header is found before EVERY type of block used in the filesystem, except data blocks.  The id field is used to check if the block is of the correct type when it is being referred to using a BLCK pointer.  The checksum field is the SUM of all LONGs in a block plus one, and then negated. When applying a checksum the checksum field itself should be set to zero. The checking a checksum the checksum is okay if the result of the checksum equals zero. The ownblock BLCK pointer points to the block itself. This field is an extra safety check to ensure we are using a valid block.

Field	Type	Description
id	ULONG	The id field is used to identify the type of block we are dealing with. It is used to make sure that when referencing a block we got a block of the correct type. The id consist of 4 bytes and each blocktype has its own unique foure letter code.
checksum	ULONG	This field contains the sum of all longs in this block, plus one and then negated. The checksum can be used to check if the block hasn't been corrupted in any way.
ownblock	BLCK	Points to itself, or in other words, this field contains the block number of this block. This is yet another way to check whether or not a block is valid.

&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsBlockHeader {
    ULONG id;
    ULONG checksum;
    BLCK ownblock;
};
&lt;/pre&gt;
The algorithm to calculate the checksum of a block:
&lt;pre&gt;
ULONG calcchecksum(struct fsBlockHeader *block, LONG blocksize} {
    ULONG *data=(ULONG *)block;
    ULONG checksum=1;

    block-&gt;checksum=0;

    while(blocksize&gt;0) {
        checksum+=*data++;
        blocksize-=4;
    }

    return(-checksum);
} 
&lt;/pre&gt;

A Root block contains very important information about the structure of a SFS disk. It has information on the location and size of the disk, the blocksize used, locations of various important blocks, version information and some filesystem specific settings.

A SFS disk has two Root blocks; one located at the start of the partition and one at the end. On startup the filesystem will check both Roots to see if it is a valid SFS disk. If either one is missing SFS can still continue (although at the moment it won't).

A Root block could be missing on purpose. For example, if you extend the partition at the end (adding a few MB's) then SFS can detect this with the information stored in the Root block located at the beginning (since only the end-offset has changed).   Same goes for the other way around, as long as you don't change start and end point at the same time.

When a Root block is missing because the partition has been made a bit larger, then SFS will in the future be able to resize itself without re-formatting the disk.

Field	Type	Description
bheader	struct fsBlockHeader	Standard block header.
version	UWORD	The version of the filesystem block structure. You can check this field to identify what version of the filesystem your dealing with it and to see if you can handle this structure correctly. Don't try to interpret the disk's structure when this field contains an unknown version number!

sequencenumber	UWORD	Used to identify which Root block was written last in case the sequencenumber on both Root blocks don't match.
datecreated	ULONG	Creation date of this volume. This is the date when the disk was last formatted and will never be changed.

bits	UBYTE	Various settings, see below.
&lt;pre&gt;
pad1	UBYTE	Reserved, leave zero.
pad2	UWORD	Reserved, leave zero.
reserved1	ULONG[2]	Reserved, leave zero.
firstbyteh	ULONG	High 32-bits of a 64-bit number. This is the first byte of our partition relative to the start of the disk.
firstbyte	ULONG	Low 32-bits of a 64-bit number.
lastbyteh	ULONG	High 32-bits of a 64-bit number. This is the last byte (exclusive) of our partition relative to the start of the disk.
lastbyte	ULONG	Low 32-bits of a 64-bit number.
totalblocks	ULONG	The total number of blocks this partition consists of.
blocksize	ULONG	The size of a block of this partition.
reserved2	ULONG[2]	Reserved, leave zero.
reserved3	ULONG[8]	Reserved, leave zero.
bitmapbase	BLCK	Block number of the start of the Bitmap.
adminspacecontainer	BLCK	Block number of the first AdminSpaceContainer.
rootobjectcontainer	BLCK	Block number of the ObjectContainer which contains the root of the disk (this is where the volume name is stored).
extentbnoderoot	BLCK	Block number of the root of the Extent B-Tree.
reserved4	ULONG[4]	Reserved, leave zero.
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsRootBlock {
  struct fsBlockHeader bheader;
  UWORD version;
  UWORD sequencenumber;
  ULONG datecreated;
  UBYTE bits;
  UBYTE pad1;
  UWORD pad2;
  ULONG reserved1[2];
  ULONG firstbyteh;
  ULONG firstbyte;
  ULONG lastbyteh;
  ULONG lastbyte;
  BLCK  totalblocks;
  ULONG blocksize;
  ULONG reserved2[2];
  ULONG reserved3[8];
  BLCK  bitmapbase;
  BLCK  adminspacecontainer;
  BLCK  rootobjectcontainer;
  BLCK  extentbnoderoot;
  ULONG reserved4[4];
};
&lt;/pre&gt;

AdminSpaceContainers are used to store the location and bitmap of each administration space. The AdminSpaceContainers are located in a double linked list and they contain an array of fsAdminSpace structures.  There is one fsAdminSpace structure for every administration space on disk.

Field	Type	Description
bheader	struct fsBlockHeader	Standard block header.
next	BLCK	The next AdminSpaceContainer, or zero if it is the last in the chain.
previous	BLCK	The previous AdminSpaceContainer, or zero if it is the first AdminSpaceContainer.
bits	UBYTE	The number of bits in each in the bits ULONG in the fsAdminSpace structure.
pad1	UBYTE	Reserved, leave zero.
pad2	UWORD	Reserved, leave zero.
adminspace	struct fsAdminSpace	An array of fsAdminSpace structures. The size of the array is determined by the current blocksize.
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsAdminSpaceContainer {
  struct fsBlockHeader bheader;
  BLCK next;
  BLCK previous;
  UBYTE bits;
  UBYTE pad1;
  UWORD pad2;
  struct fsAdminSpace adminspace[0];
};
&lt;/pre&gt;
Field	Type	Description
space	BLCK	The first block of an administration space.
bits	ULONG	A small bitmap which is used to determine which blocks in an administration space are already in use. The number of bits in this bitmap is determined by the bits field in the AdminSpaceContainer.
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsAdminSpace {
  BLCK  space;
  ULONG bits;
};
&lt;/pre&gt;

The fsBitmap structure is used for Bitmap blocks. A bitmap block is used to keep track of which space is in use and which isn't for a particular area of a disk.  All bitmap blocks together keep track of the free space for an entire disk. The location of the first bitmap block is known and all other bitmap blocks are stored in order after the first one.

Field	Type	Description
bheader	struct fsBlockHeader	Standard block header.
bitmap	ULONG	An array of ULONG's.  These hold the actual information on which blocks are in use and which aren't.
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsBitmap {
    struct fsBlockHeader bheader;
    ULONG bitmap[0];
};
&lt;/pre&gt;
Each bit in a bitmap block (except for the block header) represents a single block. If the bit is set than the block is free, and if the bit is clear then it is full. The first ULONG in the bitmap area of the first bitmap block represents blocks 0 through 31 on the disk. Bit 31 of this ULONG is block 0, 30 is block 1, and so on. Bit 0 of the first ULONG represents block 31.

Below is a table to clarify how bitmaps work even further. The first column is the bitmap block number, the second column is the number of the ULONG in the bitmap array. The third column is the bit number in this ULONG, and the last column is the block which this specific bit, in this specific bitmap block represents.

We'll assume here that a bitmap block has room for 120 ULONG's (meaning there is room for storing 32 * 120 bits).

&lt;pre&gt;
Bitmap block	ULONG number	Bit number	Block represented
1 (first)	0	31	0
1	0	30	1
...	...	...	...
1	0	1	30
1	0	0	31
1	1	31	32
...	...	...	...
1	2	31	64
1	2	30	65
...	...	...	...
1	119	0	3839
2	0	31	3840
2	0	30	3841
...	...	...	...
&lt;/pre&gt;
The last bitmap block doesn't need to be completely used. The unused bits (which belong to blocks which do not exist) all have to be clear, to indicate that these blocks are in use.

The fsObjectContainer structure is used to hold a variable number of fsObjects structures (Objects) which have the same parent directory. Each ObjectContainer must contain at least one Object. If there is space in the ObjectContainer not used by the variable number of Objects then that space is zero filled. Objects always start at 2-byte boundaries, which means sometimes a padding byte is inserted between two Objects.

Field	Type	Description
bheader	struct fsBlockHeader	Standard block header.
parent	NODE	The node number of the parent Object, or 0 if this object has no parent (which is only the case for the Root directory).
next	BLCK	The next ObjectContainer belonging to this directory, or zero if it is the last in the chain.
previous	BLCK	The previous ObjectContainer belonging to this directory, or zero if it is the first ObjectContainer in this directory.
object	struct fsObject	A variable number of fsObject structures. The number of structures depends on the individual sizes of each fsObject structure and the blocksize. These structures are located directly after each other with at most 1 byte of padding between them to get the structures aligned on a 2 byte boundary.
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsObjectContainer {
    struct fsBlockHeader bheader;
    NODE parent;
    BLCK next;
    BLCK previous;
    struct fsObject object[0];
}; 
&lt;/pre&gt;

fsHashTable is the structure of a HashTable block. It functions much like the hash table found in FFS user directory blocks, except that it is stored in a separate block. This block contains a number of hash-chains (about 120 for a 512 byte block). Each hash-chain is a chain of Nodes. Each Node has a pointer to an Object and a pointer to the next entry in the hash-chain.  Using such a hash-chain you can locate an object quickly by only knowing its name.

Field	Type	Description
bheader	struct fsBlockHeader	Standard block header.
parent	NODE	The node number of the directory Object this HashTable block belongs to.
hashentry	NODE	An array of Nodes. Each Node represents the start of a hash-chain (singly linked). A hash-value is calculated using the name of a file or directory, and this value determines in which chain the Object is linked. If there are no entries in a hash-chain then the hashentry value is zero.
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsHashTable {
    struct fsBlockHeader bheader;
    NODE parent;
    NODE hashentry[0];
};
&lt;/pre&gt;
To calculate the hash-value using a name of an Object as input use these routines:
&lt;pre&gt;
UWORD calchash(UBYTE *name) {
    UWORD hash=0;
    /* Calculates a hash value over the passed in string.
       The end of the string can be either a NUL byte or a
       slash. The hash function is the same as the one
       used in FastFileSystem set to international mode. */
    while(name[hash]!=0 &amp;&amp; name[hash]!='/') {
        hash++;
    }
    while(*name!=0 &amp;&amp; *name!='/') {
        hash=hash*13+upperchar(*name++);
    }

    return((UWORD)(hash % (UWORD)((blocksize-sizeof(struct fsHashTable))&gt;&gt;2)));
}
UBYTE upperchar(UBYTE c) {
    if((c&gt;=224 &amp;&amp; c&lt;=254 &amp;&amp; c!=247) || (c&gt;='a' &amp;&amp; c&lt;='z')) {
        c-=32;
    }
    return(c);
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

The BNodeContainer is used to store B-Trees. Currently only one B-Tree is in use by this filesystem and it is used to store the location of file data. The fsBNodeContainer structure contains two other structures. The fsBlockHeader structure and the BTreeContainer structure.

Field	Type	Description
bheader	struct fsBlockHeader	Standard block header.
btc	struct BTreeContainer	Contains information about the B-Tree and its nodes contained in this block.
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsBNodeContainer {
    struct fsBlockHeader bheader;
    struct BTreeContainer btc;
}; 
&lt;/pre&gt;


First try and locate the Root block. It should start with &quot;ROOT&quot;.  SFS has two of these, one at the start of the partition and one at the end.  One of the fields contains the block size, which will be the size of all important SFS blocks.

The root block has the root object container, which contains information about files and directories in the root directory.  The object 
containers basically hold one or more smaller structures that represent files and directories.  Scanning them all should give you a list of 
files and directories.

The root block also has the root of the Extent B-Tree.  This is a standard B-Tree structure (not a binary tree) that is used commonly in 
all kinds of system, you can read about how they work on Wikipedia if needed.  The B-Tree holds the information about *where* all the data is 
located for your files.

To recover your files, I'd do this:

* Find one of the root blocks, if not present, then figure out the block size your disk was using, and scan every block in turn to see if it 
looks like an ObjectContainer (check the fsBlockHeader's ID, check if the ownblock number is equal to the block you are currently scanning, 
and check its checksum).  So if you currently have block 12, and you see a block with the correct id, and ownblock = 12 and its checksum is good, 
then that's probably a valid ObjectContainer.

* With all the ObjectContainers found, you can extract filenames and directory names from these, but also the number of their first data 
block (in the field data) and the file size.  For small files (less than blocksize) this data block will be enough to recover the data.
For larger files, you might be lucky and all the remaining blocks are found after the first one (if the file was defragmented).  You can't be
sure of that though so...

* For larger files, you need to find all the BNodeContainers.  You could scan these in the same way you found all the ObjectContainers (look for 
blocks with the correct id, ownblock number and checksum). 

* With all the BNodeContainers found, you can try looking up the first data block of a file in the B-Tree structure.  This is a bit complicated 
-- the B-Tree consists of non-leaf nodes (blocks that only contain pointers to other B-Tree blocks), the isLeaf flag indicates this.  Or it 
can be a B-Tree leaf block.  The leaf blocks contain extra information per entry (see https://hjohn.home.xs4all.nl/SFS/extents.htm)
&lt;pre&gt;
struct fsExtentBNode {
     ULONG key;
     ULONG next;
     ULONG prev;
     UWORD blocks;
};
&lt;/pre&gt;

The key should be a block of a file (the first of a range), that is 1 to 65535 block long (depending the &quot;blocks&quot; field).  If the file is split 
up into more parts, then &quot;next&quot; will contain block number of the next range of blocks.  You need to look this up again in the B-Tree 
structure to find out how large it is. 

You can for the most part ignore the other structures (bitmap, admin containers).  The fsObjects and B-tree containers is what you'll need to 
recover the data. 


====Resources====

&lt;pre&gt;
rom/storage/mmakefile.src 
rom/storage/storage.conf 
rom/storage/storage_device.c 
rom/storage/storage_ids.c 
rom/storage/storage_init.c 
rom/storage/storage_intern.h 
rom/storage/storage_mount.c 
rom/storage/storage_unit.c
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
rom/storage/includes/device.h 
rom/storage/includes/unit.h 
rom/storage/includes/volume.h 
rom/storage/storage_intern.h 
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;

&lt;/pre&gt;

*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/ACPI|acpi.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Battclock|battclock.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Bootloader|bootloader.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Cia|cia.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Filesystem|FileSystem.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Hostlib|hostlib.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Kernel|kernel.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Misc|misc.resource]]
*[[Aros/Developer/Docs/Resources/Processor|processor.resource]]


==Debugging Code==

Please use the [http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?group_id=43586&amp;atid=439463 AROS Bug Tracker] if any issues are found.


GRUB Command line list

&lt;pre&gt;
sysdebug  
usbdebug - allows to see Poseidon's log in debug output
&lt;/pre&gt;


How do I get debugging out of InitResident ? If running i386 hosted on linux sysdebug=initresident on command line.
This  way  you can enable any of listed flags. sysdebug=all stands for &quot;everything&quot;


Have an executable (crosscompiled C++ code) which has 6 MB size on disk, but after loading it in memory, 250 MB RAM is taken. Any software that would split AROS executable into ELF part which would show actual size values?

 readelf -S executable

it will show you all sections in elf file, including sizes and requested alignment.

 objdump -h filename

That's will give you a quick overview of the sections and sizes. Ignore all the .debug.* sections. 
Would hazard a guess that you have a large .bss section. That's pretty common in C++.

Next step:

 nm—size-sort filename | grep ' [bB] '

The last few will be your biggest consumers. Would suggest -C to demangle the symbols... ;)


Suggest profiling the program (just use some printf's in the main loop for time spent in each part), it usually is quite easy to spot slow parts in games or apps.

If someone has '#define IPTR ULONG' somewhere. To see where that define is, redefine IPTR in the source code that fails, just above the line that fails, and the preprocessor will tell you where it was defined first.

===How to setup gdb with AROS/hosted===

Download AROS sources (AROS-xxxxxxxx-source.tar.bz2, where xxxxxxxx is the current date) and AROS contrib sources (AROS-xxxxxxxx-contrib-source) from 

Untar-bzip2 and cd to the unpacked archive directory.

 &gt; tar -xvjf AROS-xxxxxxxx-source.tar.bz2
 &gt; cd AROS-xxxxxxxx-source

Check the link to &quot;contrib&quot; (contrib-source) inside directory, e.g. correct like this:

 &gt; rm contrib
 &gt; ln -s ../AROS-xxxxxxxx-contrib-source.tar.bz2 contrib

Make sure you have the correct locale setting, otherwise compilation will fail at some point. See [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/compiling.php#setting-the-locale-to-iso8859 here] (or link below) for more on that. You might have to enter this:

 &gt; export LANG=&quot;en_US.ISO-8859-1&quot;

Now configure for a debug build - see &quot;./configure --help&quot; for more - here are two examples:

 &gt; ./configure—enable-debug=stack,modules,symbols
 
 &gt; ./configure—enable-debug=all

You may &quot;make&quot; now, or choose a separate directory for your build (e.g. for easy removal), for example if compiling for i386 architecture you could create a directory like this:

 &gt; mkdir linux-i386
 &gt; cd linux-i386
 &gt; ../AROS/configure—enable-debug=stack,symbols,modules

When done configuring you're ready to go:

 &gt; make

Building AROS takes some time - minutes on fast machines (e.g. 2.5&amp;nbsp;GHz quadcore), up to hours on slower machines.
The result will be AROS Linux hosted with gdb debugging enabled.

See aros.org documentation for more on compiling AROS, including more [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/compiling.php --enable-debug] options.


When finished, enter bin/linux-i386/AROS directory (replace &quot;linux-i386&quot; with your compilation target platform, e.g. linux-x86_64, etc.) inside the unpacked archive directory. This directory contains the required .gdbinit file for properly running AROS inside gdb.

 &gt; cd bin/linux-i386/AROS

Run AROS (here: with 128MB of memory) from gdb:

 &gt; gdb—args boot/aros-unix -m 128
or
 &gt; gdb—args boot/arosboot -m 128

 (gdb) r

Watch the shell output - in case AROS complains about &quot;LoadKeyCode2RawKeyTable: Loading &quot;DEVS:Keymaps/X11/keycode2rawkey.table&quot; failed!&quot; you should also see some instructions on how to create a keymap table. (see link above &quot;more on compiling&quot;, too.)
Quit gdb, and try default keymap table:

 (gdb) q
 The program is running.  Quit anyway (and kill it)? (y or n) y
 &gt; cd ../../..
 &gt; make default-x11keymaptable

Re-run AROS, as described above. Try e.g. RAros (= right windows key) + W to open a shell. If this doesn't work you have to create a keymap table yourself, quit gdb again, and make a new keytable:

 &gt; make change-x11keymaptable

A window will open. Watch the window's title bar, and follow the instructions.

When done, re-run AROS. RAros + W should now open a shell.

Next, compile your program with gdb support.


When you start GDB is there a warning which says

   warning: File &quot;&lt;whatever&gt;/.gdbinit&quot; auto-loading has been declined by your `auto-load safe-path' set to ...

If so start gdb with &quot;-ix .gdbinit&quot;


&lt;pre&gt;
Summary - In short:

* build AROS with debugging support (i.e. ./configure --enable-debug=all)
* build your application with debugging support (i.e. option -g)
* run AROS in the GNU debugger (you may use the GUI frontend &quot;ddd&quot; which simplifies usage a bit)
* start your application
* use the commands &quot;findaddr&quot; and &quot;add-symbol-file&quot; as written in the debugging manual
* if the debugger doesn't find the source code of your application use the &quot;dir&quot; command of the debugger. 
&lt;/pre&gt;

===How to use gdb===

In AROS open a shell, then (in host shell) use CTRL-Z to go into gdb. Use &quot;b Exec_CreatePool&quot; (one of the functions used early on by startup code in programs) to add a breakpoint, then &quot;cont&quot; and gdb will interrupt somewhere early during startup of &quot;program&quot;. Use &quot;bt&quot; to show backtrace and &quot;loadseg&quot; for &quot;??&quot; entries. One of them will be for &quot;program&quot;. After that you can use &quot;disassemble program&quot;.

One thing you need to make sure is that .gdbinit you have in your build directory is the same as in source tree. It has been modified some time ago, but the build system does not refresh it - you need to copy it manually

To recap, please read our debugging [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/debugging.php manual]:


To detect segfaulting when loading, try...

 ./configure—enable-debug—with-optimization=&quot;-O2&quot;

Because crash or no crash may depend on optimization. For newer compilers maybe this helps...

 --with-optimization=-&quot;-O2 -fno-strict-aliasing&quot;

One way to make crashes less random (more easily reproducible) is to activate the munging of free memory in rom/exec/freemem.c which is normally commented out:

&lt;pre&gt;
Index: freemem.c
===================================================================
--- freemem.c   (revision 34289)
+++ freemem.c   (working copy)
@@ -154,11 +154,12 @@
         * created with their TCB placed in the tc_MemEntry list. The workaround
         * is to avoid munging when FreeMem() is called with task switching disabled.
         */
+
        /* DOH! it doesn't work even this way. What's wrong???
-        *
-        * if ((SysBase-&gt;TDNestCnt &lt; 0) &amp;&amp; (SysBase-&gt;IDNestCnt &lt; 0))
-        *      MUNGE_BLOCK(memoryBlock, MEMFILL_FREE, byteSize);
         */
+
+       if ((SysBase-&gt;TDNestCnt &lt; 0) &amp;&amp; (SysBase-&gt;IDNestCnt &lt; 0))
+           MUNGE_BLOCK(memoryBlock, MEMFILL_FREE, byteSize);

     }
&lt;/pre&gt;

Mungwall can be turned on at runtime. Currently this works in all hosted versions. Just specify &quot;mungwall&quot; on kernel command line and it works. It can work on native too. In order to enable it you need to parse kernel command line, and if &quot;mungwall&quot; is present, set EXECF_MungWall bit in IntExecBase.IntFlags.

This needs to be done before the first AllocMem() for obvious reasons. And never reset back this flag! If you change it on a working system, you are doomed.

Hosted ports do the processing in rom/exec/prepareexecbase.c --enable-debug=mungwall option in configure still works but is going obsolete.  A kludge in rom/exec/allocmem.c is responsible for this and it needs to be removed when the transition is done.

BTW,  on  i386-pc  port it can be activated by &quot;mungwall&quot; argument on command line, you don't need to rebuild AROS.
New mungwall affects not only AllocMem()/FreeMem(), but also pools. I also tested it with AllocAbs(), seems to work correctly.

Runtime mungwall works on:

* pc-i386
* pc-x86_64
* linux-i386
* linux-x86_64
* darwin-x86
* linux-ppc

Works on all hosted ports, if the port itself is working.

* amiga-m68k
* Not on sam440-ppc and efika-chrp-ppc, even if they would be able to be built at moment. Does not work on (for now, need NVRAM support)

When starting my freshly rebuilt i386-linux-aros which was compiled with full debugging support I get sometimes the error &quot;Program exited with code 0377&quot;. Add the following to your .gdbinit: 
 set follow-fork-mode child

Here are some of the custom AROS gdb functions (defined in &quot;.gdbinit&quot; file) to resolve &quot;in ?? ()&quot; entries in backtrace: 
&lt;pre&gt;
#0 0xb7ffd424 in __kernel_vsyscall ()
#1 0xb7e2a657 in sigsuspend () from /lib/libc.so.6
#2 0xb7c63900 in ?? ()
#3 0xb7c640e3 in ?? ()
#4 0xb7c641e0 in ?? ()
&lt;/pre&gt;

You can use

 loadseg 0xb7c63900
 loadframe 2
or
 loadbt
and some others. Use &quot;help &quot; for a little help text. If the commands do not work try &quot;loadkick&quot; first.


Use &quot;thistask&quot;, &quot;taskready&quot;, &quot;taskwait&quot; to get list of AROS tasks. &quot;bttask &quot; shows backtrace of a task which is in ready or in wait queue and &quot;loadseg&quot; to resolve &quot;??&quot; entries in it's backtrace (&quot;loadframe&quot; would not work as it assume current running task).

===Native debugging tools for AROS===

 to enable debugging at boot time entering the GRUB menu editing line (E key) and adding &quot;debug=memory&quot; to your boot line, then press Ctrl+X to complete booting.


SYS:Tools/Debug/'''Bifteck'''

Open a shell and enter the line below to run Biftek and grab the debug messages collected in RAM into a text file.

 tools/debug/bifteck &gt; ram:debug.txt

and certainly does not open a window. It is a shell tool and only dumps data located from the debug location.
It is therefore important to 'catch' that debug data as soon as possible (before it gets overridden). You should invoke bifteck at the first opportunity before doing anything else.  You can use the TO option to store bifteck output to a file or you can pipe it manually to a file.  


SYS:Tools/Debug/'''Sashimi''' - displays error messages

One suggestion is to do a bug() debugging. Each time bug() is executed it will be output on sashimi. 
You include &lt;aros/debug.h&gt; and place bug(&quot;something\n&quot;); in your source code at location though which control passes.

To get the output - open an aros shell

 SYS:Tools/Debug/sashimi &gt; RAM:out.txt

'''Ctrl C''' to end the output to the RAM Disk.

# open shell, and type
# ram: (to switch to ram drive)
# System:Tools/Debug/Sashimi &gt; mylogfile.txt
# open AHI prefs using wanderer (or use another opened shell)
# play test sound
# close AHI prefs
# shell still open with Sashimi running: press ctrl-c to break Sashimi and return to prompt.
# in shell: copy mylogfile.txt System: (or to your required location)


SYS:Utilities/'''Snoopy''' - monitors OS function calls, run &quot;Sashimi&quot; to see Snoopy's output


SYS:Tools/'''WiMP'''    - the Window (and Screens) Manipulation Program

You can use the -E option of gcc to find out how preprocessor macros are expanded.

===Errors===

crash in strcasecmp usually means that one of its arguments is NULL.

empty space between these two names, prossibly some invisible character 

Old Amiga [http://www.amigacoding.com/index.php?title=Guru_codes&amp;redirect=no Guru Codes]

If the crash is in intuition. Sometimes, if it relates to text, a null pointer sets it off. 
an uninitialised pointer can have any address (this is a common fault).


Compiling on 64bit, Many old code would not properly typecast when doing pointer-integer conversions and thus at least throw a warning. This can easily be located and fixed.

[http://www.aros.org/cs/documentation/developers/app-dev/portable.php Portable code] 

* Use texteditor or some tool to replace all &quot;ULONG&quot; with &quot;IPTR&quot; and &quot;LONG&quot; with &quot;SIPTR&quot; in the sources.
* Fix (change IPTR/SIPTR back to ULONG/LONG) the few places which really rely on ULONG/LONG being exactly 32 bit. That's for things like pixel (ARGB) buffers, structs written/read to disk, colormaps, but probably not much else.

Then again, many current compilers also throw a warning when you try to assign a pointer value to an integer and the integer is possibly too small. This happens under .NET for example when a 64 bit pointer is assigned to something like an ULONG - so exactly the case which you described.

=== AI ===


#Training learning using 1 or more high end GPUs at least 16GB VRAM per GPU card or 64Gb or more of unified, 16Core CPU with at least 64Gb of RAM system memory, though training can take weeks or more 
#Inference with custom asics or GPUs 


Alibaba Cloud's [https://huggingface.co/ Qwen] team series of large language models 
*[https://huggingface.co/models?other=qwen3 Qwen 3], [], 
*[https://huggingface.co/models?other=qwen2 Qwen 2], [https://huggingface.co/Qwen/Qwen2.5-Coder-32B qwen 2.5 Coder],  

[https://github.com/sipeed/picoclaw picoclaw] 

[https://ollama.com/download Ollama single gpu]
[https://lmstudio.ai/download LMstudio single gpu],
[https://github.com/ggml-org/llama.cpp/releases llama.CPP multi gpus],
[ VLM multiple gpus],


=== Linux ===

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;c&quot;&gt;
/* 1. Header for your name,date,purpose of program.
2. Pre-processor directives. This will include the #includes for files you want to add. 
3. Includes for function prototypes if necessary.
4. Main()
Create Pointers for Libraries and any Window you want to open.
5. Open necessary libraries.
6. Check if open exit program if fail.
7. Open a window exit program if fail.
8. Add your program
9. Close Window
10 Close Libraries.
11 End Program. */

/* standard os included headers &lt;.h&gt; */
#include &lt;dos/dos.h&gt;
#include &lt;dos/dosasl.h&gt;
#include &lt;dos/dosextens.h&gt;
#include &lt;dos/exall.h&gt;
#include &lt;dos/rdargs.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/memory.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/types.h&gt;
#include &lt;utility/utility.h&gt;
#include &lt;intuition/intuition.h&gt;

/* define as unresolved external references (proto/xxx.h) and compiler will link to auto(matically) open library */ 
#include &lt;proto/arossupport.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/dos.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/exec.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/intuition.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/graphics.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/cybergraphics.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/datatypes.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/icon.h&gt;

#include &lt;workbench/workbench.h&gt;
#include &lt;workbench/icon.h&gt;

#include &lt;datatypes/pictureclass.h&gt;

#include &lt;proto/muimaster.h&gt;
#include &lt;libraries/mui.h&gt;

#include proto/bsdsocket.h

#include &lt;ctype.h&gt;
#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
#include &lt;stdlib.h&gt;
#include &lt;string.h&gt;

/* my own headers &quot;.h&quot; */

#define CTRL_C      (SetSignal(0L,0L) &amp; SIGBREAKF_CTRL_C)
#define  isDir(fib) ((fib)-&gt;fib_DirEntryType &gt;= 0)

#define ARG_TEMPLATE    &quot;FILE/A,ALL/S,QUIET/S,W=WIDTH/N,H=HEIGHT/N,M=METHOD,DEFTOOL&quot;

int main(void)
{


	return retval;
} /* main */
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

If you used c++, there is not yet c++ support in our shared library system. 
The easiest way to create / compile a shared library would be to use the AROS build system but the libraries can be created manually. You have to create a ROMTAG structure and some header files.  

A shared library is built with the %build_module macro with a line like this:

 %build_module mmake=MetaTarget modname=mylib modtype=library files=SourceFiles 

This macro can build different AROS module types, like devices, Zune classes, HIDDs, etc.

&lt;pre&gt;
##begin config
version 1.0
##end config

##begin functionlist
void func1(LONG a, LONG b)
int func2(char *s, ULONG a)
##end functionlist
&lt;/pre&gt;

There is more [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/sys-dev/libraries.php here]

Alternatively,  

&lt;pre&gt;
#ifndef LIB_H
#define LIB_H

#define __NOLIBBASE__

#include &lt;exec/libraries.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/semaphores.h&gt;
#include &lt;dos/dos.h&gt;

#ifdef __AROS__
//#include &lt;aros/debug.h&gt;
#define reg(x)
#define __saveds
#endif

#define USESYSBASE struct ExecBase *SysBase = Base-&gt;My_SysBase;

struct MyTestBase
{
  struct Library   My_Test_Lib;
	struct ExecBase *My_SysBase;
	APTR             My_SegList;
  int              testint;
};

#endif
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* Resident header written for mytest.library */
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------------*/

#define __NOLIBBASE__

#define VERSION         1
#define REVISION        0

#define LIBHEADNAME     mytest
#define LIBHEADNAMESTR &quot;mytest&quot;
#define COMPDATE        &quot;04.10.2015&quot;
#define VERS            &quot;1.0&quot;

#define LIBBASETYPE 	struct MyTestBase
#define LIBBASETYPEPTR  LIBBASETYPE *

#include &lt;aros/debug.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/exec.h&gt;
#include &lt;proto/exec.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/resident.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/nodes.h&gt;
#include &lt;exec/libraries.h&gt;
#include &lt;aros/symbolsets.h&gt;
#include &quot;lib.h&quot;

const UBYTE lib_name[] = LIBHEADNAMESTR &quot;.library&quot;;

const UBYTE lib_id[] = &quot;$VER: &quot; LIBHEADNAMESTR &quot;.library &quot; VERS &quot; (&quot; COMPDATE &quot;) by ALB42\n&quot;;

extern const APTR FuncTable[];

AROS_UFP3 (LIBBASETYPEPTR, InitLib,
    AROS_UFPA(LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, D0),
    AROS_UFPA(BPTR, seglist, A0),
    AROS_UFPA(struct ExecBase *, sysbase, A6)
);

static struct LibInitStruct
{
    IPTR                   LibSize;
    const APTR             *FuncTable;
    const struct DataTable *DataTable;
    APTR                    InitFunc;
}
const LibInitStruct =
{
    sizeof(LIBBASETYPE),
    FuncTable,
    NULL,
    (APTR)InitLib
};

const struct Resident romtag =
{
  RTC_MATCHWORD,              /* match word */
  (APTR)&amp;romtag,              /* back pointer */
  (APTR)(&amp;romtag + 1),        /* skip pointer */
  RTF_AUTOINIT | RTF_EXTENDED,/* flags */
  VERSION,                    /* version */
  NT_LIBRARY,                 /* type of module */
  0,                          /* init priority */
  (STRPTR)lib_name,           /* module name */
  (STRPTR)lib_id + 6,
  (APTR)&amp;LibInitStruct,
  REVISION, NULL
};

AROS_UFH3 (LIBBASETYPEPTR, InitLib,
    AROS_UFHA(LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, D0),
    AROS_UFHA(BPTR, seglist, A0),
    AROS_UFHA(struct ExecBase *, sysbase, A6)
    )
{
    AROS_USERFUNC_INIT
    
    Base-&gt;My_SegList = seglist;
    Base-&gt;My_SysBase = (APTR)sysbase;
    Base-&gt;testint = 0;
    
    USESYSBASE
    bug(&quot;InitLib\n&quot;);
    
    if (!set_open_libraries())
    {
      set_close_libraries();
      return NULL;
    }
    
    return Base;
    
    AROS_USERFUNC_EXIT
}

AROS_LH1(LIBBASETYPEPTR, LibOpen,
    AROS_LHA (ULONG, version, D0),
    LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, 1, LIBHEADNAME
    )
{
    AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT
    
    USESYSBASE
    bug(&quot;LibOpen\n&quot;);

    (void)version;
    
    Base-&gt;My_Test_Lib.lib_OpenCnt++;
    return Base;

    AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT
    
}

__saveds APTR LibExpungeInternal(LIBBASETYPE *Base reg(a6))
{
  USESYSBASE
  APTR seglist;
  bug(&quot;LibExpungeInternal\n&quot;);

  if (Base-&gt;My_Test_Lib.lib_OpenCnt)
  {
    return 0;
  }

  seglist = Base-&gt;My_SegList;

  Forbid();
  Remove((struct Node*)Base);
  Permit();
  FreeMem((APTR)Base - Base-&gt;My_Test_Lib.lib_NegSize, (LONG)Base-&gt;My_Test_Lib.lib_PosSize +
    (LONG)Base-&gt;My_Test_Lib.lib_NegSize);
  
  set_close_libraries();
  return seglist;
}

AROS_LH0(BPTR, LibClose,
    LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, 2, LIBHEADNAME
    )
{
    AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT
    USESYSBASE
    bug(&quot;LibClose\n&quot;);

    if (!(--Base-&gt;My_Test_Lib.lib_OpenCnt))
    {
      return LibExpungeInternal(Base);          
    }
    return 0;
	
    AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT
}

AROS_LH1(BPTR, LibExpunge,
    AROS_LHA(LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, D0),
    struct ExecBase *, sysBase, 3, LIBHEADNAME
    )
{
    AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT

    (void)sysBase;
    
    USESYSBASE
    bug(&quot;LibExpunge\n&quot;);

    return LibExpungeInternal(Base);
	
    AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT
}

AROS_LH0(LIBBASETYPEPTR, LibReserved,
    LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, 4, LIBHEADNAME
    )
{
    AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT
    USESYSBASE
    bug(&quot;LibReserved\n&quot;);

    return 0;
    //return (APTR)LibReserved();
    
    AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT
}


// Space for your own functions
// do not forget to update the FuncTable as well

AROS_LH1(int, TestFunction,
    AROS_LHA(int, TestValue, D0),
    LIBBASETYPEPTR, Base, 5, LIBHEADNAME
    )
{
    AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT
    USESYSBASE
    bug(&quot;TestFunction\n&quot;);

    Base-&gt;testint = TestValue + Base-&gt;testint;
    
    return Base-&gt;testint;
    
    AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT
}

// Functable -&gt; Table of all functions in the Library, in right order - important!

const APTR FuncTable[] = 
{
    &amp;AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(LibOpen,LIBHEADNAME,1),
    &amp;AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(LibClose,LIBHEADNAME,2),
    &amp;AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(LibExpunge,LIBHEADNAME,3),
    &amp;AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(LibReserved,LIBHEADNAME,4),
    &amp;AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(TestFunction,LIBHEADNAME,5),
    (void *)-1
};

// AutoInit stuff
void *__PROGRAM_ENTRIES__symbol_set_handler_missing;
void *__LIBS__symbol_set_handler_missing;
// end of AutoInitStuff
&lt;/pre&gt;

Makefile
&lt;pre&gt;
VPATH = 
CFLAGS = -O2 -g -fomit-frame-pointer -W -Wall -Wno-parentheses
CC = i386-aros-gcc
LD = i386-aros-gcc
LDFLAGS = -nostartfiles -Wl,-Map -Xlinker linkermap
LIBS = -lautoinit -llibinit
STRIP = i386-aros-strip --strip-unneeded --remove-section .comment

OBJS = lib_header.o 

all: mytest.library

mytest.library: $(OBJS)
	$(LD) $(LDFLAGS) $^ $(LIBS) -o $@

lib_header.o: lib_header.c lib.h

clean:
	rm -f *.o *.library *.ppu testlibrary linkermap
&lt;/pre&gt;


Porting UNIX library to AROS - dealing with static variables which would make it easy to port such libraries to AROS, keeping the benefits of sharing them on disk, but losing the benefit of actually sharing them in memory.

Our problem arises by the fact we want to share the actual code (the .text section of the library) and constant data, but we need to have per-task .bss and .data sections. If we get rid of our intention to share the .text and .rodata sections, things get quite easy: just load and relocate the library whenever it's open, by whoever it's open. It's like statically linking the library into the executable, except that the final linking is done at runtime.

In the V0 branch, in workbench/hidds/hidd.nouveau was committed pcimock.hidd. This is a pci driver that allows mocking real PCI devices under linux-hosted. The main idea is to be able to run the real hardware driver under linux-hosted with as little changes as possible (some changes will always be needed though unless someone wants to write complete device simulator) so that driver's code paths can be executed and debugged using gdb. This was a very helpful capability when porting nouveau. Now it is externalized from nouveau.hidd and can be used by other people porting drivers. The pcimock.hidd can currently mock 4 different nvidia cards, 1 AGP bridge and also mock irq.hidd.

What's the difference between this driver and the pcilinux.hidd? I used that one to develop many different HW drivers for aros. As far as I understood the intention of pcilinux.hidd it is supposed to get access to real hardware that is running under linux. The pcimock.hidd goal is to mock the hardware. For example my dev box is a PCIE system, but I still would like to run the AGP codes paths in nouveau under linux-hosted to check if they don't seg fault. The other case would be to run codes paths for hardware that the developer does not have (Fermi cards in my case). In the case of pcimock.hidd, the AROS driver's code paths will execute as long as you add proper mocking (for example fill in PCI config area or values for registers in BARs). This is an advantage for ported drivers - the code should already work (since it worked on another system) but there might have been mistakes made during porting which can be detected easily with gdb.

In case you are writing your driver from scratch, pcilinux.hidd hidd will give you more advantage, since you can actually access the real hardware from linux-hosted.


== Misc ==

===APL, MPL, BSD, GPL and LGPL Licences===

The majority of AROS sources in licensed under AROS Public License ([http://aros.sourceforge.net/license.html APL]) which (to a degree) protects us from someone taking AROS sources and not contributing improvements back (for example MorphOS took some AROS source and then contributed changes back)

It is written to allow the use of AROS code in other open source or commercial projects without exception whilst providing a mechanism so that improvements/additions can find their way back to the original source in one form or another.

There are &quot;3rd&quot; party applications used by AROS that do not fall under this license, which are an extra &quot;Contrib&quot; download for convenience.

Anyone can port GPL-ed network and sound drivers as AROSTCP and AHI are GPLed. Direct using (porting) [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-faq.html#GPLIncompatibleLibs GPL]-ed code in other parts of AROS (gfx, sata, usb) is not possible because AROS license is not compatible with GPL. You need to utilize permissive licensed code like BSD or MIT/X11.


BSD and MPL license are the closest to APL.

APL however is not so compatible with LGPL/GPL.

LGPL case - you cannot statically combine APL code with LGPL. You can, however thank to LGPL being &quot;lesser&quot; restrictive, use LGPL dynamically loaded libraries in APL codes.

GPL case - you cannot combine APL code with GPL in any way if there is no explicit clause by GPLed code authors allowing that. If you do combine APL with GPL in &quot;bad&quot; ways described above - you have a problem (you violate GPL). This problem might result in everything in AROS becoming GPL or everything running or AROS becoming GPL (here I'm not sure really). The other scenario is that you are not allowed to legally distribute such code at all. To be honest I have grasped how to violate GPL, but I'm still no exactly sure what happens when you violate it (but I'm sure it's not anything nice)

GPL software can run on top of non-GPL &quot;system components&quot; (see system components exception of GPL), but the other way around (non-GPL using GPL) leads to problems. This means applications like scout, or Quake III are ok (in the majority of cases).

Theres no reason GPL drivers cannot be ported - but they cant be in AROS's ROM (requires linking APL code with GPL), nor can AROS depend on them (e.g. they must use existing apis).
If they are launched (dynamically linked) by a user action that is allowed. It is also allowed to distribute such binaries together for convenience.

GPL is not about statical or dynamic linking but is about executing process and function calls.


These components - SFS, isapnp, Zune texteditor, AHi, network drivers, freetype, openuirl, BHFormat, Edit and (&quot; dynamically loaded libraries&quot;) are LGPL, not GPL. Mesa/Nouveau stuff is MIT. Some user tools are GPL though.

'''AROS (system)'''
* system components (libraries/classes/devices/etc) cannot be GPL as they would propagate GPL to complete system as well as GPL is not compatible with MPL from which APL is based 
* system components can be LGPL v2 or a permissive license (MIT/BSD)
* system applications can be anything you like (but still I would prefer APL or permissive so the code can be reused if needed)

'''Contrib:'''
* no rules - contrib does not impact AROS system since nothing in AROS system depends on contrib.

About stealing code: The chances of this happening is exactly the same whether we are APL or GPL. If any closed-source option wanted to do it, there is no one that can validate otherwise. MorphOS has used some AROS codes, but contributed changes back.

The rationale behind APL is that while it guarantees that the original developer will get the improvements back (to a certain degree - file based), the person who uses the codes does not have to open his original codes. BSD does not guarantee that the original developer gets improvements. GPL requires the person using the codes to open his codes as well.

The copyright holders needs to stay - we just need information from them that the codes are available under APL (for example a checked-in file like in case of Poseidon). We don't do transfer of copyrights.

; Ultimately what can and cannot be done is up to the author(s) - not the licence.

===AROS source code tree===

* http://www.evillabs.net/AROS/Audit-2012-03-14/AROS-trunk.txt
* http://www.evillabs.net/AROS/Audit-2012-03-14/AROS-contrib.txt


Found this interesting (non-GPL) licensing 'anomaly' - to keep in mind for distributors.

Programs that lose their license if sold (&quot;non-profit only&quot; licensed):
  contrib/aminet/comm/term/TinyTerminal
  contrib/aminet/dev/basic/bwBASIC
  contrib/aminet/text/edit/xdme
  contrib/fish/aroach
  contrib/fish/lotto
  contrib/fish/shuffle
  contrib/fish/touch
  + cdvdfs.


Here is a list of all the GPL/GPLv2/GPLv3 licenses fossology found, what have explicit licenses in their comments.


 excluded LGPL, BSD/GPL dual licensed and programs (such as Prefs/Edit and BHFormat)

&lt;pre&gt;
AROS/rom/dbus/include/  AFL_v2.1 ,GPL_v2+  (supposedly AFL &lt; 3 is GPL incompatible) 
AROS/workbench/classes/zune/betterstring/include/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/classes/zune/texteditor/include/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/classes/datatypes/gemimage/ GPL_v2+ GPL
AROS/workbench/classes/datatypes/degas/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/libs/openurl/README: GPL
AROS/workbench/network/smbfs/documentation/  GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/smbfs/source_code/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/bsdsocket/kern/  GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/bsdsocket/mmakefile.src conf.h  GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/bsdsocket/sys/  CMU ,GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/bsdsocket/net/  GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/bsdsocket/api/  GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/bsdsocket/conf/conf.h: GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/network/stacks/AROSTCP/netinclude/net/radix.h: CMU ,GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/AHI/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/AddAudioModes/ GPL_v2+  AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/AddAudioModes/COPYING: GPL 
AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/Docs/texinfo.tex: GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/COPYING: GPL
AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/Drivers/EMU10kx/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/AHI/AHI-Handler/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/rtl8029/  GPL   GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/pcnet32/  GPL   GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/ppp/LEGAL: GPL
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/atheros5000/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/rhine/  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/nForce/  GPL_v2+  GPL
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/prism2/  GPL  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/fec/LEGAL: GPL
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/rtl8139/  GPL  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/etherlink3/  GPL  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/intelpro100/  GPL  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/rtl8169/  GPL   GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/emac/   GPL   GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/rtl8168/  GPL  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/realtek8180/   GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/via-rhine/via-rhine.c: GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/via-rhine/   GPL  GPL_v2+
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/e1000/  GPL_v2
AROS/workbench/devs/networks/sis900/  GPL   GPL_v2+
&lt;/pre&gt;

AHI: it has special provisions (COPYING.DRIVERS). The library is LGPL, preferences software is GPL and drivers can be anything without breaking GPL/LGPL.

Network stack: well, we are long overdue for a new, IPv6 enabled network stack anyway, anyone interested? ;) Seriously though it seems like the glue code is GPL and as all the drivers. However some of the drivers are our own code, so they could be relicensed to LGPL.

 Same filter as the AROS trunk list. These should all be libraries or plugins - no programs.

&lt;pre&gt;
contrib/regina/utsname.h: GPL_v2+

contrib/mui/classes/nlist/include/default-align.h: GPL_v2+
contrib/mui/classes/nlist/include/amiga-align.h: GPL_v2+

contrib/mui/classes/BWins/include/MUI/BWin_mcc.h: GPL
contrib/mui/classes/BWins/include/BWin_private_mcc.h: GPL
contrib/mui/classes/BWins/COPYING: GPL_v2
contrib/mui/classes/BWins/MCC_BWins.readme: GPL_v2

contrib/mui/classes/thebar/include/default-align.h: GPL_v2+
contrib/mui/classes/thebar/include/amiga-align.h: GPL_v2+

contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/LEGAL: GPL
contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/Wazp3D.readme: GPL
contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/Wazp3D-src/soft3d.c: GPL
contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/Wazp3D-src/soft3d_opengl.h: GPL
contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/Wazp3D-src/soft3d_opengl.c: GPL
contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/Wazp3D-src/Wazp3D.h: GPL
contrib/gfx/libs/wazp3d/Wazp3D-src/Wazp3D.c: GPL

contrib/libs/mpega/  GPL_v2+
&lt;/pre&gt;

http://www.evillabs.net/AROS/Audit-2012-03-14/AROS-contrib.txt

===Types===

On AROS following rules apply:
&lt;pre&gt; 
1. BYTE/UBYTE is 8bit, WORD/UWORD is 16bit, LONG/ULONG is 32bit, QUAD/UQUAD is 64bit, the types are comparable with stdint types (int8_t, int16_t, int32_t, int64_t)
2. IPTR/SIPTR are integer types large enough to fit pointer, that is sizeof(IPTR) = sizeof(APTR) = 4 on 32bit system, and = 8 on 64bit system
3. ti_Data in TagList is large enough to hold a IPTR/APTR type.
4. never store a pointer in integer of type LONG. It may work (if the pointer has upper 32bits clear), but does not have to. Compiler should warn you about that.
5. If you are unsure about point 4, allocate your memory with MEMF_31BIT flag set. But don't expect that AROS internals will do the same.
&lt;/pre&gt; 
point 4 is actually important.


* UBYTE/BYTE for 8bit
* UWORD/WORD for 16bit
* ULONG/LONG for 32bit
* UQUAD/QUAD for 64bit

&lt;pre&gt;
UBYTE    Unsigned 8 bit integer variable (byte).
BYTE     Signed 8 bit integer variable (byte).
UWORD    Unsigned 16 bit integer variable (word).
WORD     Signed 16 bit integer variable (word).
ULONG    Unsigned 32 bit integer variable (longword).
LONG     Signed 32 bit integer variable (longword).
FLOAT    32 bit IEEE floating point variable.
UQUAD    Unsigned 64 bit integer variable.
QUAD     Signed 64 bit integer variable.
DOUBLE   64bit IEEE floating point variable.
BOOL     Boolean variable, TRUE and FALSE are also defined in exec/types.h.
VOID     Void.

APTR     A generic pointer for multiple purposes - Arrays.
STRPTR   A pointer to a null-terminated string.
IPTR     Really important in AROS, the only way to declare a field that can contain both: an integer or a pointer.
&lt;/pre&gt;

if you want to write really portable app, you may be interested in standard datatypes defined in C99: int8_t, uint8_t, int16_t, uint16_t, int32_t, uint32_t, int64_t, uint64_t, intptr_t, uintptr_t. They are all defined in inttypes.h include file.

In exec/types.h the following short-cuts are typedef'd. They are used often in AROS, so you should nearly always include exec/types.h and soon only they will be removed from sys/_types.h include, all types are now defined in include files named aros/types/xxx.h.

(Preparation for C library split; sys/xxx.h include will only be available there when compiling with POSIX C library)


Compiler specific types, like int and long might change their size. In case of AROS, similar to linux, int remains 32 bit whereas long grows to 64 bits in size.

If you use Amiga-like data types, i.e. BYTE/UBYTE, WORD/UWORD, LONG/ULONG and QUAD/UQUAD or the C99 standard types (uint8_t and so on, see stdint.h include) then you should have less issues to solve than by using types without size guarantee.

Of course, all pointers grow to 64 bytes using 64bit cpu. Most of the code can be just recompiled and will work. In rare cases, where e.g. pointers are casted to integers, a special care must be taken. Especially in the cases, where pointer is casted to LONG/ULONG (this code will break on 64 bit AROS) e.g.  '#define IPTR ULONG'.

With compiler delint patches which the majority of them are simple casting issues to make the compiler happy. Notice some of the changes involve introducing double casts. In very recent versions of GCC. Yes, the bulk of the double casts are for converting 32 bit addresses (ie from a 32 bit PCI DMA address register) to a 64 bit pointer. First cast is to IPTR (to expand to 64 bits, and prevent sign extension if the address is above 0x7FFFFFFF), and then to APTR.

ULONG != IPTR except on 32bit .. so if you need to store pointers make sure and use IPTR and not ULONG (which some old code does). For this reason things like Taglist elements are 64bit (since the tag data can be a pointer). 
If your passing items on the stack you should use the STACKED attribute to make sure they are correctly aligned (on 64bit all items on the stack are 64bit..)

There is more issues like using &quot;== 0L&quot; causes problems.

===Endian===

*BE 
*LE

Use the macros from &lt;endian.h&gt; instead making a guess based upon architecture defines
 
&lt;pre&gt;
#if _BYTE_ORDER == _BIG_ENDIAN

#elif _BYTE_ORDER == _LITTLE_ENDIAN

#else
+
#error &lt;whatever.h&gt; - Byte order for this architecture is unsupported! 
&lt;/pre&gt;


===SVN and GIT===

If you want to help develop AROS OS itself, you can 

* view current GIT/SVN entries [http://aros.sourceforge.net/ Aros Org website] or [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS Github], [https://github.com/ezrec older ezrec mirror], [https://github.com/michalsc/AROS/ older mirror], [https://trac.aros.org/trac/timeline TRAC], [], 
* awaiting update [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git git repo], [http://www.ohloh.net/p/aros/commits ohloh] or [https://svn.aros.org/svn/aros/trunk/ svn repo] and access [Git version git://repo.or.cz/AROS.git here], 
* deprecated [https://www.gitorious.org/aros/aros/commit/a7fda9e ARIX commits] or [https://gitorious.org/aros/aros GIT old]

If you have SVN access (early 2015 introduced a new SVN server, create a new account at trac aros org) and/or have obtained the source [http://aros.sourceforge.net/download.php AROS site] - you can compile the current build tools/environment using: 

 &gt; make development

and follow this [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/compiling.php#building procedure] or [https://github.com/apiraino/aros_guide Guide] 


https://trac.aros.org/trac#Developing

If you plan on contributing back changes, please post information about such changes first on this [http://mail.aros.org/mailman/listinfo/aros-dev/ mailing list] for more experience developers can validate whether they are correct.


Then there are the nightly build machines. They svn update before the build and run configure as one of the next steps. autoconf might be added to the nightly build scripts.

Our build relies on packages downloaded from Internet (SDL for example) - it always worked this way. The minimal requirement (when just building core AROS) is binutils and gcc. If you build contrib as well, you need many more packages to be downloaded.

https://gitorious.org/aros/aros/commits/crosstools-II

git://gitorious.org/aros/aros.git

Branch crosstools-II there is only one commit on top of ABI_V1 
&lt;pre&gt;
../../aros-src/AROS/configure --enable-ccache
--with-portssources=~/aros/Sources --target=pc-x86_64
--with-aros-toolchain-install=/home/weissms/media/data/aros/test/crosstools/pc-x86_64
&lt;/pre&gt;
and
&lt;pre&gt;
../../aros-src/AROS/configure --enable-ccache
--with-portssources=~/aros/Sources --target=pc-i386
--with-aros-toolchain-install=/home/weissms/media/data/aros/test/crosstools/pc-i386
&lt;/pre&gt;
build OK.


:''More information: [[Aros/Developer/Maintainer|AROS Maintainer Docs]]''

===SDI Calls===

Integrate the 'SDI'-headers to allow easier porting to all amiga-like platforms.

&lt;pre&gt;
PUTCHARPROTO( PutTheChar, char c, struct SPrintfStream *s  )
{
 // REAL CODE
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

have &quot;SDI_compiler.h&quot; and &quot;SDI_hook.h&quot; included

its more organized like

 #include SDI/SDI_hook.h

than

 #include SDI_hook.h

option 1 --- i also use when back porting from amiga's..

&lt;pre&gt;
#ifdef __AROS__
#include SDI/SDI_hook.h
#else
#include SDI_hook.h
#endif
&lt;/pre&gt;

also

you can add the -i include/sdi/ location if you do not want to add or edit any files.


Defining HOOKPROTO to IPTR name(struct IClass * cl, Object * obj, Msg msg); solved the problem

A MUI application most likely needs only the HOOKPROTOxxx SDI macros. They are compatible with AROS, only the attributes (hook, object attribute) must be given in the right order. examine compiler/include/aros/symbolsets.h (AROS_LIBREQ)

compiling mui stuff for aros setting -std=gnu99 is necessary (i have had -std=c99 most of the time).

===Locale with Flexcat===

Most languages have a locale, but not every app is localized, the only thing needed is to translate the &quot;catalog&quot; files. It is a case of locating the correct catalog and saving the translated version.

For every app that lacks of your language catalog and is localized anyway, you should find (in the sources) files related to locale:

* file.cd = catalog descriptor, contains base msg, with internal language (usually english)
* language.ct = catalog translation, contains every translated msg, indexed as in the file.cd.

Compare with other localized apps... Then, &quot;make my_app-catalogs&quot; should create and install your translated catalogs. ex : for, saying, sys:prefs/wanderer:

on root of AROS sources, type:
 &quot;make workbench-prefs-wanderer-catalogs&quot;
then (if you changed the .cd file):
 &quot;make workbench-prefs-wanderer&quot;

For apps not localized, you have to adapt their code to support it, if it is possible...

noticed the original .cd file has many (//) strings at the end of any voice, so added them also to the .ct file. 
That (//) is only for cd files. I'm highly recommending to use FlexCat for updating ct files, e.g. like this:

 flexcat app.cd deutsch.ct newctfile deutsch.ct

You'll get error checking and new entries are marked in the resulting ct file.

When editing .ct files, only change those lines containing translation and perhaps version string, nothing else.
The rest is up to the relevant tool, flexcat. In order to update your translation, type in the following in your shell:

 flexcat xyz.cd xyz.ct NEWCTFILE xyz_upd.ct COPYMSGNEW

This way you will not only make sure you have correct translation file but flexcat also pre-fills newly added strings with &quot;*** NEW *** text. Even better tool for checking cd/ct/catalog files is catcheck, but this one is sadly only available for AmigaOS/68k...

Some languages have variations, like portugues from portugal and portugues from brasil differs...

This is the way to go. I will have a look at language files, but basically if those two languages differ you have to do two separated set of translation files, yes.
(you could create a brazilian slang language localization too)

* At system level localization for one language is a dot language file.
(ex: locale:languages/klingon.language)

* At app level localization is a dot catalog file
(ex: locale:catalogs/klingon/system/libs/dos.catalog)

* At sources level, the dot ct file, and &quot;$language&quot; dot cd files and some building framework.
(ex: catalogs/my_app.ct catalogs/klingon.cd catalogs/mmakefile.src support.c support.h)

Please, use Flexcat to generate CT files: 
 FlexCat wanderer.cd NEWCTFILE=deutsch.ct

Then fill the first 2 lines with something useful:
&lt;pre&gt;
## version $VER: wanderer.catalog 1.1 (9.2.2006)
## language deutsch
&lt;/pre&gt;

You can even update the CT-File: (This adds the new strings)
 FlexCat wanderer.cd deutsch.ct NEWCTFILE=deutsch.ct


To compile a catalog you only need the .cd file and your translation (.ct file):
 FlexCat multiview.cd deutsch.ct CATALOG=MultiView.catalog


[http://murks-ide.svn.sourceforge.net/viewvc/murks-ide/trunk/src/Catalogs/flexcat_linux?revision=100 Linux version of FlexCat]

: [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/app-dev/localization.php#localization-for-non-developers More information]


A script which compares the required version (i.e. the version which an application/module etc. tries to open) with the version of the existing CT files. The result is in this table:

https://github.com/aros-translation-team/translations/wiki/Progress

The following cases are highlighted:

    n/a i.e. CT misses at all
    version in existing CT file is lower than the required version


It might be a bit difficult to participate if you haven't worked with Git before but alternatively you can send your CT files to our Slack channel.

When the ct file has been generated via flexcat (flexcat keyshow.cd NEWCTFILE=spanish.ct) it has the following header:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
## version $VER: &lt;name&gt;.catalog &lt;ver&gt;.&lt;rev&gt; (04.01.2021)
## language nolanguage
## codeset 0
;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Those values &lt;ver&gt;.&lt;rev&gt; are the version and revision of the CT file for the languaje or are the values of the application being localized?

The &lt;ver&gt; part must match with version which the application tries to open. You can find the value either in the column &quot;Required Version&quot; in the table which I've linked above, our you can look in the git repository. For keyshow it would be https://github.com/aros-translation-team/keyshow. You can find in the file &quot;catalog_version.h&quot; the right version number.
The &lt;rev&gt; part starts for new CT files with 0 and should be increased every time the CT file is updated.

Updated several files and created a few more that were missing on the spanish catalog.

The catalogs are in Git repositories at https://github.com/aros-translation-team

a) You tell me your Github user name. I'll invite you. You can work directly with the Git repositories.

b) You create Github forks of the catalog repositories and create pull requests.

c) You send the CT files to mrustler  gmx de


===C Utils Misc===

The AROS source uses at several places the __DATE__ macro to fill the date entry of a $VER tag. Problem is that c:version doesn't understand that date format (e.g. &quot;May 21, 2011&quot;). As a result the output of e.g.
&gt; &quot;version c:shell full&quot; contains &quot;(null)&quot;. Is extending the version command to understand the format of __DATE__  the right solution for that problem?

AmigaOs compilers should use __AMIGADATE__ macro or similar form, if it isn't implemented it could be emulated in makefile: -D__AMIGADATE__=\&quot;$(shell date &quot;+%d.%m.%Y&quot;)\&quot;

BTW. I think DD.MM.YYYY is better format than &quot;Month DD YYY&quot; because &quot;Month DD YYY&quot; is not localized in any way.

&quot;strnicmp&quot; shouldn't work with NULL pointers

The Situation:

compiled a linklib using c++ object files (using the c++ cross compiler).
compiled a C stub that uses the linklib (using the c++ cross compiler).

Try to link them together (using the c++ cross compiler) with C object
files (using the normal target c compiler) that need to use -nostartup
= cant do because using the c++ files pulls in arosc (for stdio etc.) -
so wants to have the autoinit stuff present.

What can I do about this??

If it is possible to manually open it then what do I need to do exactly?

=== ENV ===

The philosophy behind ENV: is that keeping configuration files there allows you to  'Use'  preferences  by  keeping  a copy in ENVARC: intact. However in some cases (like this one) it is not required.

99% of the time that statement is true (not required) for pretty much every file in ENV: or do people change their default icons - and prefs settings - every boot?

There seem to be a bad habit of late with developers changing things to reflect their own personal preference when the change isn't actually necessary - It would be nice if people could refrain from doing that in the tree without at least discussing it on the dev-list first (and with good reasoning unless they committed said work in the first place..)

We're not keen on the pollution of the &quot;S:&quot; dir: it's meant to be for scripts. What's wrong with &quot;ENV:&quot;?
Only the fact that it takes up RAM. I  understand  that  for  PCs  with  several gigabytes of RAM this is
irrelevant. But let's remember about other machines. The philosophy behind ENV: is that keeping configuration files there allows you to  'Use'  preferences  by  keeping  a copy in ENVARC: intact.

However in some cases (like this one) it is not required.

How about implementing in the style of HappyENV then? RAM-disk handler that falls through to reading from ENVARC: if there is no such file stored in it already. Removes RAM usage for unchanged files, removes the need to copy ENVARC to ENV in startup-sequence. 
Shouldn't be too hard to make from AmberRAM, or even just extend AmberRAM to provide this service.

Is it feasable to build a special version of AmberRAM handling ENV: that will try and copy the requested file from ENVARC: if it isnt found in ENV: ? 
Additionaly it could mark closed &quot;files&quot; as untouched - and expunge them from ENV: after a period of time to free up additional RAM:, or when the system is running low on free memory?

Silenty disappearing files may not be a good plan. Would be nice if the following would work:

ASSIGN :ENV SYS:Prefs/Env-Arc ADD
ASSIGN :ENV RAM:ENV  ADD

Where new files put in ENV: end up in RAM:ENV, and opening files looks in RAM:ENV first, then SYS:Prefs/Env-Arc

Well - that's essentially what im proposing but without the assigns - or need for a RAM:ENV directory. 
Adding it as a feature of AmberRAM sounds like the most memory efficient way (one handler to load in RAM) but that's only if it is possible to make it handle ENV: additionally to RAM:, and if it is even possible to add the proposed functionality (...and how to make it enable it when accessing ENV:).

===(AS)MP support===

If one has to recompile software for SMP multi core, is there any thing special one has to do to get software to run?   
Use task.resource if you need to query information about what tasks are running, and clear msgports completely when they are allocated.

Most code should not need Forbid. Use Semaphores, Messages etc. to sync your own code. 

Accessing system structures is a different thing. Use the proper API whenever possible.

How single structures will be protected in the future is still a moving target, at least it is not documented. And you should never  use undocumented stuff  


Ideas on for SMP multi-core

Another suggestion is ... Forbid/Permit function calls are meant to halt multitasking so as no other task could intervene with what ever the calling task is doing, e.g. setting semaphores. Disable/Enable calls are meant to halt interrupts and as a side effect they also halt task switching.

One option is to make it compulsory to protect shared resources with semaphores and forbid the use of simple Forbid() calls as to protect something. Setting semaphore should be done if possible with atomic instructions (check and alter in one instruction). Or make the second concurrent ObtainSemaphore call halt the second calling task and force if possible a task switch which ever gives better results. 

Semaphores could store the owning tasks task pointer instead of boolean to make things easier.

As long as the CPU initiates the DMA transfers through the OS, and the OS ensures that the transferred memory is within the region accessible to the user initiating the transfer, everything is fine. The CPU is the conductor, and the CPU by that has the control of which DMA transfer is initiated and which is not.
All you need to do is to write device drivers reasonable. Hint: CachePreDMA and CachePostDMA exist.
All the Os has to do is to verify that the memory regions to be transferred are valid, and prohibit direct access to the DMA control registers from user space. None of these algorithms imply huge costs.
The current OS design doesn't really allow virtual memory in first place, Forbid() is again the problem.

[http://www.tbs-software.com/guide/index.php?guide=autodocs.doc%2Fmemory.doc&amp;node=1 memory.library API] seem to low level. IMHO the programs should not know how the swapping is implemented. I would just go for one new memory flag
MEMF_SWAPPABLE that indicates that a certain memory region or a whole memory pool won't be accessed during Forbid()/Permit() etc. It only solves part of the problem, it only implements virtual memory and not memory protection. For the latter you need to be able make certain memory inaccessible by other programs, some memory read-only for one task and read-write for other tasks, etc. And I think this should be done in the same Address Space in order to avoid you constantly need to swap between different address spaces. 
So to summarize, if there are programs using this API we may provide a wrapper layer to get them working but I am not convinced this API should be the reference API with whom to provide VM to AROS programs.

=== Variadic ===

variadic functions (i.e. functions with an arbitrary amount of arguments).

&lt;pre&gt;
    #include &lt;stdarg.h&gt;
    [...]

    char * STDARGS GetKeyWord(int value, char *def, ...)
    {
        [...]
        va_list va;
        [...]
        va_start(va, def);
        [...]
        va_end (args);

&lt;/pre&gt;

Please keep with using stdarg rather than having va casted to a LONG * type and varargs handled manually. Doing so, prevents tons of casting, where a simple va_arg can be used. So, string = *((char **) args) instead of string=va_arg(va, char *).

&lt;pre&gt;
#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
#include &lt;stdarg.h&gt;

int printf (const char * format, ...)

{
    int     retval;
    va_list args;

    va_start (args, format);

    retval = vfprintf (stdout, format, args);

    va_end (args);

    fflush (stdout);

    return retval;
} /* printf */
&lt;/pre&gt;

Couldn't find varargs.h or stdarg.h. and have no use for AROS_SLOWSTACKHOOKS or AROS_SLOWSTACKTAGS.

GCC looks for stdarg.h in a different place: 
 /bin/linux-i386/tools/lib/gcc/i386-aros/4.2.2/include/stdarg.h

Here is a path for a &quot;normal&quot; header:
 bin/linux-i386/tools/lib/gcc/i386-aros/4.2.2/../../../../i386-aros/sys-include/aros/system.h


The use of vararg.h isn't supported by newer gcc versions. If you want your code to run on architectures that pass part of variadic arguments in a number of registers you need to use AROS_SLOWSTACK macros. Otherwise your program will not work on powerpc and x86_64 ports.

Of course the SLOWSTACK stuff is not needed in a function that can use va_list, va_start, va_arg and va_end. It's only needed if you want to write functions like DoMethod or similar.

 #include &lt;stdarg.h&gt;

should be enough no matter if you do cross or native compiling. If it does not work, something is wrong and should be corrected.

Stdarg.h is here, Development:lib/gcc/i386-aros/4.2.2/include/

...which is part of the compiler's default include paths. In other words, #include &lt;stdarg.h&gt; works out of the box, indeed. (sorry, I should have just tried it before invoking &quot;search&quot; or &quot;find&quot;...)

furthermore, myprintf() as shown above won't work, because...

 printf(format, args);

...is wrong - the second argument does not match printf() prototype, it expects a argument list, but args is of type va_list (obviously) - so one has to use...

 vfprintf(stdout, format, args);

...instead, just like in the original printf(), and add fflush(stdout).

additionally, one could use...

 int myarg = va_arg(args, int);

...between va_start() and va_end() to access individual arguments, where each call to va_arg() returns an argument casted to the desired type (here: &quot;int&quot;) from the list given (here: &quot;args&quot;) and advances to the next one.

wrapping up vfprintf() and modifying the format string now is a major speedup! no more backslash-n typing! this has been haunting me for years!

On MOS and AmigaOS, the NewObject variadic function is kept in the static library. It takes most of the parameters on the stack - thanks to that the implementation of NewObject calls the NewObjectA function. Everything works perfect, and the typical MUI macros may be easily used.

This, however, is not the case when you compile for AROS. Here, NewObject is a variadic macro, not a function. Thanks such approach we do not need any custom compiler in case of systems, where the arguments of variadic functions are passed partially through registers and partially through the stack (This is the case of PPC and x86_64, this is also the reason why both OS4 and MOS require specially patched compilers).

Since NewObject is a macro, the gcc's preprocessor expects the list of macros arguments enclosed within parentheses. In MUI macros it is not the case. Imagine the following test code:

&lt;pre&gt;
#define foo(a,b) ((a)+(b))

int loosy_function(int a, int b)
{
    return foo(a,b);
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

This will compile and work, but the following piece of code:

&lt;pre&gt;
#define foo(a,b) ((a)+(b))
#define END )

int loosy_function(int a, int b)
{
    return foo(a,b END;
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

will fail with the error: unterminated argument list invoking macro &quot;foo&quot;

There are two ways of fixing your issue. Either create your new objects outside this huge MUI constructions, and in there use just a pointer, or get rid of the &quot;End&quot; macro and exchange it with &quot;TAG_DONE)&quot;.


Badly written software is, for example, casting va_list to an APTR or even doing so as if va_list were a plain table of function arguments. Such code needs to be fixed because it has very few chances to work anywhere but on author's machine ;)

The problem is nOt that they assume sizeof(APTR) == 4, its that they often do not use APTR, and use ULONG to store pointers exclusively. If the code used APTR/IPTR as it should - most of the &quot;problems&quot; wouldn't exist.

It would also help if people would start using variadic arguments properly. Many coders do assumptions which shall never be made. Instead, they should consider using stdarg.h file and all the va_* functions :)

===ABI===

In the head of our SVN repository there are now only 3 directories:

&lt;pre&gt;
admin/
branches/
trunk/
&lt;/pre&gt;

We have added two extra dirs there: tags and imports

As discussed when we branch ABI V0 and [[Aros/Developer/ABIv1|ABI V1]] it would also be good to introduce tags. Normally this is done in a directory in the repository called tags. Currently we don't have this directory there. (We do have branches/tags that is a hack I have done because one doesn't have write access in the top directory. I think this directory is not clean and should be removed).

The second directory I would introduce is an imports directory for implementing vendor branches as discussed in the svn [http://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.5/svn.advanced.vendorbr.html book]. Currently we use code from several different projects and that code is stored inside the AROS tree; we seem to have problems with keeping this code up to date and merge our changes upstream. Maintainers of up stream projects like the MUI classes etc. have complained about this (to put it lightly).

Introducing these vendor branches would make it easier to see what changes we have made and make patches to be sent upstream and make it easier to import newer upstream versions of their code. Although can't &quot;copy&quot; the vendor branch into the main branch because it's already there, so start with a &quot;merge&quot;.

Yes, the first step to make the code already in the repository compatible with the vendor branches will be the most difficult. The best way to do it the following way:

* first import the version on which the current AROS code is based into the vendor branch
* then import the new version over it in the vendor branch
* finally merge the difference between these two version in the AROS code present in the repository.

For example, place NList directly under vendor and not in a subdirectory like &quot;contrib/zune/classes&quot;.

Actually after we have a stable [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/developers/specifications/drafts/abiv1.php ABIv1 (2012 or later)]. We need to move away as much as possible from the contrib directory to some other repositories. The reasons are ...

* The AROS repository should be for the core AROS code.
* other contrib projects should be tried to be compiled for all Amiga-like OSes.
* The release scheme for AROS and the other programs should not have to be aligned.
* Binary versions should be provided on aros-archives and on aminet and/or OS4Depot to install them. (Some clever programs should maybe be provided to make the life of distribution developers easier). 
* avoid parallel forks of programs for AROS and the other amiga OSes.

If there is really a need for a place for hosting AROS projects we may investigate setting up such a server but then including bug tracking, governance, maillist, etc. for each project separately. I personally think there are already enough places like sourceforge, google code, savannah, etc. where people can go for hosting such projects.

==Links==

* http://amigadocs.hokstad.com
* http://amigadocs.hokstad.com/doku.php?id=dev-links
* http://www.liquido2.com/tutorial/index.html
* Amiga(TM) OS4 has a [http://www.ast-workshops.co.uk/os4pg/ workshop] page and hope to produce a [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=31117&amp;forum=42#549091 book] soon. [http://www.solie.ca/articles/map/map.html Brief Guide].

 In the future...?
*AROS 64bit - SMP, Vulkan with OpenGL compability layer
*AROS 32bit - keep for historic reasons 

What would you like to see implemented in AROS?
ABIv1 completed, SMP (x86_64),  SendMsg()/GetMsg() to support memory protection between target and destination, in that order.   Michal Schulz and Jason McMullan have been toying with the question &quot;What are the minimal changes needed to the AmigaOS 3.1 API to support SMP&quot;?  The answer so far seems to be &quot;few, but subtle&quot;.  For example, SysBase-&gt;ThisTask is no longer meaningful on SMP, but FindTask(NULL) is.  Disable() and Forbid() are shockingly bad on performance, but adding a spinlock semaphore mode to SignalSemaphore will help new code on SMP.  

Leveraging a 'common' OS with a lot of machine support (Linux, MacOS, Windows, QNX, etc.) is something that AROS has been doing for quite a long time, and it is the biggest strength of AROS. This AROS experience and programming model, in the same way the Google's Android layers on top of Linux, or MacOS X layers on top of the Darwin/BSD kernel, as a first step 

* The graphics + layers subsystem could be implemented as a shim on top of a OpenGL ES implementation (ie on any modern Linux system, or the RaspberryPI's hardware, MacOS X, etc). 
  - This also allows every window to be on its own 3D surface with backing store, allowing Wanderer (or a Commodity)
rearrange/zoom/animate app windows without having to send a pile or refreshes to them

* Use OpenAL as the sound backend
* AROSTCP would be a thin layer over the native OS's TCP/IP stack
* dos.library, poseidon.library, and input.device would be slim shims over the native APIs
* If we move to loading all libraries' into the application's task space, instead of a single global instance of the library, this will allow SMP and MMU more easily. 
  - Yes, it will require a lot of work in the libraries to make this transition
  - Yes, I do think it will be worth it in the end.

* A 'fat binary' install format (or, maybe LLVM bytecode) that can be 'flattend' to the target architecture on installation.

So, what would this 'AROS of the future' look like?

* AmigaOS 3.x style API, with certain 'fundamental changes' to message passing
* Uses the underlying OS' device drivers, so more AROS developer effort can go to user-visible features and bugfixes 
* Allows AROS applications to run side-by-side with the OS's native apps


And why would anyone want to program on such a system?

* AROS applications would run on any system that has the AROS Framework installed
* AROS applications are pixel-for-pixel the same on all platforms. 
* Develop with the knowledge that you are guaranteed OpenGL and OpenAL, and the rest of the AROS Framework

an option for mmake to dump its dependency of metatarget in a graphviz[*] input file. This should make it possible to visualize the dependencies and hopefully be inspiration for cleaning up some mess, circular or unneeded dependencies and so on.


AmigaOS gcc 9 [https://franke.ms/amiga/gcc.wiki Old versions] able to create binaries for AmigaOS and [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=93813 Upgrading gcc versions] 


==References==
{{reflist}}
{{status|50%}}

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  <page>
    <title>Cantonese</title>
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[[Image:Hongkong_victoria_peak.jpg|thumb|right|200px|&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;香港&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br/&gt;Victoria Harbour as seen from Victoria Peak 由山頂望向維多利亞港]]

Welcome to the wikibook course on '''Cantonese'''. To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to [[Chinese/Displaying Chinese Characters|display Chinese characters]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 24, 2005}}. If the characters in the box below appear as blank boxes or garbage such as �?�?, your browser is not properly configured.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
 | style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; |如果你識廣東話嘅話，唔該幫下手！
 |}

== Introduction / 序 ==
*[[Cantonese/About Cantonese|About Cantonese&lt;br/&gt; 廣東話係乜]] {{stage short|100%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/How To Use This Textbook|How To Use This Textbook&lt;br/&gt;點用呢本教科書]] {{stage short|100%|May 24, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/How To Study Cantonese|How To Study Cantonese&lt;br/&gt;點學廣東話]] {{stage short|100%|May 24, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Pronunciation|Pronunciation&lt;br/&gt; 廣東話發音]] {{stage short|75%|May 21, 2005}}

== Lessons / 課程 ==
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 1|Lesson 1: Hello!&lt;br/&gt; 第一課：你好！]] {{stage short|75%|May 22, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 2|Lesson 2: Introductions II&lt;br/&gt; 第二課：介紹 2]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
**[[Cantonese/Lesson 2/Conversation|Conversation&lt;br/&gt; 傾偈]]
**[[Cantonese/Lesson 2/Notes|Grammar Notes&lt;br/&gt; 文法]]
**[[Cantonese/Lesson 2/Drills|Practice Drills&lt;br/&gt; 練習]]
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 3|Lesson 3: An introduction to particles&lt;br/&gt; 第三課：助語詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 4|Lesson 4: Word order and Verbs&lt;br/&gt; 第四課：詞序同動詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 5|Lesson 5: Measure words&lt;br/&gt; 第五課：量詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 6|Lesson 6: More on interrogatives&lt;br/&gt; 第六課：疑問助詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 7|Lesson 7: What's this?&lt;br/&gt; 第七課：呢啲係咩黎架？]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 8|Lesson 8: Introduce yourself to strangers&lt;br/&gt; 第八課：向陌生人介紹自己]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 9|Lesson 9: It's Monday today.&lt;br/&gt; 第九課：今日係(星期/禮拜)一。]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 10|Lesson 10: Ancient Origins of Cantonese Words.&lt;br/&gt; 第十課：粵語嘅本字。]]

== Appendices / 附錄 ==
*[[Cantonese/Cantonese-English Glossary|Cantonese-English Glossary&lt;br/&gt;粤英詞彙]]{{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Solutions to Exercises|Solutions to Exercises&lt;br/&gt;題解]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/English-Cantonese Glossary|English-Cantonese Glossary&lt;br/&gt;英粤詞彙]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
&lt;!--*[[Cantonese/Greetings|Greetings&lt;br/&gt;問候]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}--&gt;
*[[Cantonese/Numbers|Numbers&lt;br/&gt;數字/數目/數目字]] {{stage short|25%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Romanization Systems|Cantonese Romanization Schemes&lt;br/&gt;粤語注音]] {{stage short|75%|May 21, 2005}}
&lt;!--*[[Cantonese/Slang|Slang&lt;br/&gt;俚語]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}--&gt;
*[[Cantonese/Web Resources|Web Resources&lt;br/&gt;網上資源]] {{stage short|50%|May 22, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Common phrases|Common phrases]]
&lt;!-- Some appendicies are commented out for now, because they may be  a reduplication of the work on cantonese.sheik.co.uk or www.cantonese.ca.  Would it be better to just link to these sites? --&gt;

== References / 參考 ==
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ Cantonese Syllabary] - Look up the Cantonese pronunciations of a character or look for all the characters of a particular pronunciation.  Includes sound files, simple definitions, variant pronunciations, and more.  Can switch to virtually any Cantonese romanization system.

== Related Books / 相關維基教科書 ==
*[[Chinese|Standard Mandarin&lt;br/&gt; 普通话]]
*[[East Asian Calligraphy|How to write Chinese in the right way &lt;br/&gt; 如何正確書寫中文]]

== Contributors / 編者 ==
*[[Cantonese/Contributor's Guide|Contributor's Guide]] {{stage short|100%|Dec 21, 2006}}
*[[Cantonese/Planning|Textbook Planning&lt;br/&gt;課文安排]] {{stage short|25%|May 21, 2005}}
*Contributors: [[User:xingmu|xingmu]]

== See also / 睇埋 ==
*[[w:Cangjie input method|Cangjie input method]]
*[[w:Simplified Cangjie|Simplified Cangjie/Quick]] - Simplified version of Cangjie input method
*[[w:Jyutping|Jyutping]]

{{shelves|chinese language}}
{{alphabetical|C}}
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[[Image:Hongkong_victoria_peak.jpg|thumb|right|200px|&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;香港&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br/&gt;Victoria Harbour as seen from Victoria Peak 由山頂望向維多利亞港]]

Welcome to the wikibook course on '''Cantonese'''. To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to [[Chinese/Displaying Chinese Characters|display Chinese characters]] {{stage short|50%|Jan 24, 2005}}. If the characters in the box below appear as blank boxes or garbage such as �?�?, your browser is not properly configured.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
 | style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot; |如果你識廣東話嘅話，唔該幫下手！
 |}

== Introduction / 序 ==
*[[Cantonese/About Cantonese|About Cantonese&lt;br/&gt; 廣東話係乜]] {{stage short|100%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/How To Use This Textbook|How To Use This Textbook&lt;br/&gt;點用呢本教科書]] {{stage short|100%|May 24, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/How To Study Cantonese|How To Study Cantonese&lt;br/&gt;點學廣東話]] {{stage short|100%|May 24, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Pronunciation|Pronunciation&lt;br/&gt; 廣東話發音]] {{stage short|75%|May 21, 2005}}

== Lessons / 課程 ==
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 1|Lesson 1: Hello!&lt;br/&gt; 第一課：你好！]] {{stage short|75%|May 22, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 2|Lesson 2: Introductions II&lt;br/&gt; 第二課：介紹 2]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
**[[Cantonese/Lesson 2/Conversation|Conversation&lt;br/&gt; 傾偈]]
**[[Cantonese/Lesson 2/Notes|Grammar Notes&lt;br/&gt; 文法]]
**[[Cantonese/Lesson 2/Drills|Practice Drills&lt;br/&gt; 練習]]
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 3|Lesson 3: An introduction to particles&lt;br/&gt; 第三課：助語詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 4|Lesson 4: Word order and Verbs&lt;br/&gt; 第四課：詞序同動詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 5|Lesson 5: Measure words&lt;br/&gt; 第五課：量詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 6|Lesson 6: More on interrogatives&lt;br/&gt; 第六課：疑問助詞]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 7|Lesson 7: What's this?&lt;br/&gt; 第七課：呢啲係咩黎架？]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 8|Lesson 8: Introduce yourself to strangers&lt;br/&gt; 第八課：向陌生人介紹自己]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 9|Lesson 9: It's Monday today.&lt;br/&gt; 第九課：今日係(星期/禮拜)一。]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Lesson 10|Lesson 10: Ancient Origins of Cantonese Words.&lt;br/&gt; 第十課：粵語嘅本字。]]

== Appendices / 附錄 ==
*[[Cantonese/Cantonese-English Glossary|Cantonese-English Glossary&lt;br/&gt;粤英詞彙]]{{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Solutions to Exercises|Solutions to Exercises&lt;br/&gt;題解]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/English-Cantonese Glossary|English-Cantonese Glossary&lt;br/&gt;英粤詞彙]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}
&lt;!--*[[Cantonese/Greetings|Greetings&lt;br/&gt;問候]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}--&gt;
*[[Cantonese/Numbers|Numbers&lt;br/&gt;數字/數目/數目字]] {{stage short|25%|May 21, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Romanization Systems|Cantonese Romanization Schemes&lt;br/&gt;粤語注音]] {{stage short|75%|May 21, 2005}}
&lt;!--*[[Cantonese/Slang|Slang&lt;br/&gt;俚語]] {{stage short|00%|May 21, 2005}}--&gt;
*[[Cantonese/Web Resources|Web Resources&lt;br/&gt;網上資源]] {{stage short|50%|May 22, 2005}}
*[[Cantonese/Common phrases|Common phrases]]
&lt;!-- Some appendicies are commented out for now, because they may be  a reduplication of the work on cantonese.sheik.co.uk or www.cantonese.ca.  Would it be better to just link to these sites? --&gt;

== References / 參考 ==
*[http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ Cantonese Syllabary] - Look up the Cantonese pronunciations of a character or look for all the characters of a particular pronunciation.  Includes sound files, simple definitions, variant pronunciations, and more.  Can switch to virtually any Cantonese romanization system.

== Related Books / 相關維基教科書 ==
*[[Chinese|Standard Mandarin&lt;br/&gt; 普通话]]
*[[East Asian Calligraphy|How to write Chinese in the right way &lt;br/&gt; 如何正確書寫中文]]

== Contributors / 編者 ==
*[[Cantonese/Contributor's Guide|Contributor's Guide]] {{stage short|100%|Dec 21, 2006}}
*[[Cantonese/Planning|Textbook Planning&lt;br/&gt;課文安排]] {{stage short|25%|May 21, 2005}}
*Contributors: [[User:xingmu|xingmu]]

== See also / 睇埋 ==
*[[w:Cangjie input method|Cangjie input method]]
*[[w:Simplified Cangjie|Quick]] - Simplified version of Cangjie input method
*[[w:Jyutping|Jyutping]]

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== Notation ==

There are several notations; please refer to this
[http://www.vanderblonk.com/tutorial/before-you-start#notation notation guide].

Briefly:

* There are six sides to the cube, presented as Front, Back, Left, Right, Up and Down. They are usually referred to by their one-letter abbreviations.
* In the isometric diagrams below, where a corner points out at you, you see the F, R and U sides. The F faces to the left.
* Movements are presented as one quarter rotation (90 degrees) of an external face per movement. This means that the center tile colors are not changed. In our diagrams, F is blue, R is red and U is yellow. The other three colors are typically orange opposite red, green opposite blue and white opposite yellow
* Quarter-rotations of that face's layer default to clockwise. Counter-clockwise rotations are often referred to as &quot;inverted&quot; and indicated by &amp;prime;, for instance, R&amp;prime;. (The &amp;prime; is commonly read as &quot;prime&quot;, &quot;apostrophe&quot;, &quot;tick mark&quot;, &quot;anti-clockwise&quot;, &quot;anti&quot; or &quot;i&quot; for inverted). Half-rotations (180 degrees) are indicated by the digit &quot;2&quot;, for instance, R2 (meaning 2 quarter-rotations following the one-letter abbreviation).
* To see what is happening on the sides of the other three colors, rotate the cube as a whole, described as rotating along the ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' space axis, all pointing out of the page. ''x'' is R, ''y'' is U and ''z'' is F, but since this sort of move also changes the colors of the center-tiles, it is used sparingly.

== Example solve ==

As an example, let's consider a complete solve. 25 move scrambles are used to mix up the cube. Our sample scramble is:

: U B&amp;prime; R2 D&amp;prime; U&amp;prime; R U2 B R&amp;prime; B2 L2 R F2 R2 U2 R B U2 F2 L2 F2 D R B2 R2

The solve is:

: R&amp;prime; B R D2 F2 L U&amp;prime; F U R&amp;prime; D R F D F&amp;prime; F&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; F U2 R&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; R U2 U&amp;prime; F&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; F U U B&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; B U&amp;prime; ''y''2 F D2 F2 R F R&amp;prime; B&amp;prime; D F D&amp;prime; B D F&amp;prime; F2 D M D2 M&amp;prime; D F2 (54 moves)

== Methods ==

There are a large variety of methods to solve the Rubik's Cube. Here we list methods that are described in some detail in this Wikibook, before briefly reviewing other methods in the following sections.
*[[/Beginner|Beginner]]
*[[/Beginner (alternative)|Beginner (alternative)]]
*[[/CFOP|Fridrich Method]]
&lt;!-- 10/2014: These entries are very short or unfinished, probably should not be listed here. Some fit into the material below, so I moved them there:
*[[/Petrus|Petrus]]
*[[/ZZ|ZZ]]
*[[/ZB|ZB]]
*[[/Beginner2|Beginner CFOP]]
--&gt;

== Classical Methods ==

The first widely publicized solutions to the Rubik's Cube appeared in the early 1980s, when quite a number of solutions where published in books and articles. For example, see 
[http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/page_1.htm Philip Marshall's comparison] of various classical methods. Here we mention two solutions from around 1981 by
David Singmaster&lt;ref name = &quot;Singmaster&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Singmaster|first=David|title=Notes on Rubik's Magic Cube|year=1981|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0-907395-00-7|location=Harmondsworth, Eng}}&lt;/ref&gt;,
and James Nourse&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title= [[The Simple Solution to Rubik's Cube]]|last= Nourse|first= James G.|year=1981 |publisher= Bantam|location= New York|isbn= 0-553-14017-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

One of the key observations was that the solution can be broken down into several steps. Most of the &quot;standard&quot; classical approaches solve the cube layer by layer. For example, solve
1. all edges in the top layer, 2. the corners in the top layer, 3. the edges in the middle or horizontal layer, 4. the edges in the bottom layer, and 5. the corners in the bottom layer,
which completes the solution. There are a number of relevant variations, for example step 2 and 3 can be combined (see the Fridrich method below), or step 5 is often split into first putting the pieces in the right place and then fixing their orientation. The bottom line is that such steps simplify the solution process because there exist algorithms (sequences of face turns) that can handle the individual steps efficiently. Solution methods differ not only in the steps, but also in the set of algorithms suggested for the individual steps. 

As [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/page_1.htm Marshall discusses], many of the more recent methods have their roots in these early solutions. This is also apparent in several of the methods that are listed below, which however include a number of improvements. The solution steps have been modified, and the sets of algorithms have been improved and optimized for different solutions steps. Furthermore, some of the early methods were not fully explained (or had gaps), and many improvements in presentation were made.

In the following, we comment on beginner methods, where the goal is simplicity (usually at the cost of efficiency), and on advanced methods, which give faster and/or shorter solutions (usually at the cost of increased complexity).

== Beginner Methods ==

The term ''beginner method'' is used differently by different authors. A beginner method should be simple, but what is considered simple depends on the person, and changes quickly as experience is gained. 
As [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/page_1.htm Marshall] discusses, some of the early simple methods required 10 to 20 algorithms and needed 100 to 150 moves to solve the cube. For example, he reports an average of 110 moves for Nourse's method with 12 algorithms, which comes down to 100 moves adding shortcuts involving 20 algorithms in total.

A modern method could be called simple if it only needs 5 algorithms or less. If you are used to advanced methods with 50 plus algorithms, then 10 or less is also simple. Also, the algorithms should not be too long and complicated themselves. Some of the recent beginner methods with 5 or less algorithms are surprisingly efficient, requiring less than 100 and in some cases only about 70 moves. This is quite nice compared to some advanced speedcubing methods that require 40 to 60 moves or so on average but use 50 plus algorithms.

=== Recent beginner methods ===

'''Solution guide at Rubiks.com''': The guide at the official Rubik's site seems to be one of the classic layer-by-layer methods. It lists 14 algorithms. [https://www.rubiks.com/en-eu/how-to-solve-rubiks-cube/]

'''Heise's Beginner Method''': This is a representative example of an optimized, classical layer-by-layer method. The original strategy is credited to David Singmaster. It requires four algorithms. 
(Some of the easy steps are labeled intuitive and not counted as algorithms, but this is common practice.) The solution is presented with the help of animations. [http://www.ryanheise.com/cube/beginner.html]

'''Wikibook Beginner Method''': Presented on [[/Beginner|these wikibook pages]], this layer-by-layer method uses 5 to 8 algorithms, depending on how you count them. Although perhaps not optimal in the number of algorithms, it demonstrates a rather successful idea. Only 3 of 4 corner pieces and 3 of 4 edge pieces are solved in the first two layers. Leaving those pieces as free workspace can simplify some of the later steps. See the Petrus method below for the classical example of a block building method that avoids solving certain pieces too early.

'''8355 Method''': Another layer-by-layer method using two pieces as workspace. Requires 3 algorithms. In this case the workspace allows a simplification compared to, say, Heise's beginner method.[https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/8355_Method]

'''Philip Marshall's Method''': An edges-first method that relies on only 2 algorithms. Reported to require only 65 moves on average by Marshall. Notice that the above layer-by-layer with workspace methods can be turned into edges-first methods if solving the three corners of the first layers is delayed until all edges have been solved. The Marshall method achieves its simplicity by using one particular 4-turn algorithm to do all the edges, and one 8-turn algorithm for the corners. Some elementary setup turns are needed as well. [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp]

'''Single Algorithm Methods''': The 8355 method and Marshall method can be reduced to single algorithm methods, see the [http://cube.crider.co.uk/beginner.php Single Alg Cube Solution] and the [https://bbprojx.net/cube/summary.html Y-move method]. Basically, there are two elementary 4-turn commutators, the [https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Sexy_move &quot;S-move&quot;] and the [https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Y-Move_Method &quot;Y-move&quot;], which are used in these and other methods to solve the edges. It turns out that these commutators can also be applied repeatedly to replace the corner algorithms in the 8355 and Marshall method. There is a small loss of efficiency, but in this way single algorithm methods are possible. Another single algorithm method was originally developed by Camilo Vladimir de Lima Amaral[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IBkka-fhgg4&amp;list=UU--QBHLCtx7kgiukctIjSUQ], who called it &quot;Less is more method&quot; or &quot;Amaral Method&quot; [https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Less_is_More].

Are there zero algorithm methods? The answer is yes since single face turns are not counted as algorithms, and the cube can certainly be solved with those. However, the idea of algorithms is to group single face turns into something manageable by humans. Relying only on &quot;intuition&quot; and single face turns has not led to a beginners method yet.

In conclusion, there are several recent beginner methods that improve on the classical layer-by-layer beginner's methods, although simple can mean different things. Simple methods with just 1 to 4 algorithms are possible, where the main point is that this is less than 10 or 20. Still, a beginner may prefer a printed list of 5 or 10 algorithms over a less explicit method using only a 1 or 2 algorithms. On the other hand, a method with fewer algorithms is easier to memorize and easier to understand than a more complex method.

&quot;Algorithms of last layer&quot;:Some algorithms of fixing last layer- 

1. Making cross-(F R U R' U' F' if you have a horizontal bar &amp; F U R U' R' F' if you have a back-left hook)

2. Matching edge colours-(R U R' U R U2 R')

3. Fixing corners-(U R U' L' U R' U' L)

4. Matching corners-(D R' D' R)

== Faster methods ==

While the above methods may be good for a beginner, they are too slow to be used in [[w:speedcubing|speedcubing]]. The most popular method for speedcubers is very similar to the Wikibook Beginner method above, except steps 2 and 3 are combined, and the last layer is solved in two steps instead of three. The inventor of this common method is [[w:Jessica Fridrich|Jessica Fridrich]]. With this method, speedcubers with good dexterity and memory can average under 20 seconds after a few months of hard practice. However, to learn the method you must learn 78 algorithms. There are methods just as fast that require far fewer algorithms to be memorized. Here is a brief synopsis of several popular [[w:speedcubing|speedcubing]] methods:

=== Layer by Layer methods ===

'''Fridrich Method:''' A very fast First 2 Layers (or F2L) method, start by solving a cross on one face, then proceeding to solve the First 2 Layers pairing up edge and corner combinations and putting them into their ''slot''. This is followed by solving the Last Layer in two steps, first orienting all pieces (one color on the last layer), then permuting them (solving the ring around the last layer). The basic method has 78 algorithms (without the inverse of them), and is recognized as one of the fastest methods currently in use. [http://www.ws.binghamton.edu/fridrich/cube.html]

'''F2L Alternatives:''' Methods that follow the same principle as Fridrich's method, but using different algorithms. Many of the algorithms are shared but there are a few differences, so there should be one to suit your fingers:
* Bob Burton: [http://www.cubewhiz.com/]
* Shotaro 'Macky' Makisumi: [http://cubefreak.hp.infoseek.co.jp/]
* Speedcubing.com Collection: speedcubinglovers.com

'''ZB method:''' [[/ZB|This method]] was developed independently by [[w:Ron van Bruchem|Ron van Bruchem]] and [[w:Zbigniew Zborowski|Zbigniew Zborowski]] in 2003. After solving the cross and three c/e pairs, the final F2L pair is solved while orienting LL edges. This is known as ZBF2L or ZBLS. The last layer can then be solved in one algorithm, known as ZBLL. The ultimate method requires several hundred algorithms. [[w:Lars Vandenbergh|Lars Vandenbergh]]'s site has ZBF2L algorithms, used in his VH system. [http://www.cubezone.be/zbf2l.html] There is also a more recent Google spreadsheet at [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1s8Q2VM2c1eV3oLIxFfM4exvABO0AcCeMCUdMiYKnzC0]. ZBLL algorithms can be found on Doug Li's web page. [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~dlli/Hardwick/zbll.html]

'''ZZ method:''' [[/ZZ|This method]] was created in 2006 by Zbigniew Zborowski, the co-creator of the ZB method. It has three basic steps: EOLine, F2L, and LL. [http://cube.crider.co.uk] [http://www.emsee.110mb.com/Speedcubing/ZZ%20speedcubing%20system.html] EOLine stands for Edge Orientation Line. The orientation of edges is defined as either good or bad. Good meaning the edge can be placed into the correct position with a combination of R, L, U, D, F2, or B2, moves. Bad meaning it would require an F, F&amp;prime;, B, or B&amp;prime; move to be moved into its correct position. Any F, F&amp;prime;, B, or B&amp;prime; move will cause the four edges on that slice to change from its current state, good or bad, to the opposite state. The Line portion of EOLine is forming a line on the bottom of the cube that consists of the DB edge and the DF edge in their correct positions. The next step is F2L, First 2 Layers. It uses block building techniques to solve the two remaining 1x2x3 blocks of the F2L using only R, U, and L moves. This allows for very quick solving of F2L as it does not require cube rotation. The final step of the ZZ method is LL, Last Layer, and it can be broken into multiple steps or maintained as one depending on the algorithms used. There are two main approaches to this method OLL [http://cubefreak.net/speed/fourlook.html] and PLL [http://jmbaum.110mb.com/pll.htm], Orientation of LL and Permutation of LL, and COLL [http://jmbaum.110mb.com/coll.htm] and EPLL [http://cubefreak.net/speed/fourlook.html], Corner OLL and Edge PLL. The first, OLL and PLL, is to use one of 7 algorithms to solve the top layer (OLL) and then permute the edge and corners into their correct positions (PLL), this requires 21 algorithms. The total algorithms required for the first approach of solving LL is 28. The second approach to solving LL is to solve the top and the corners in one algorithm (COLL) and then solve the edges (EPLL). COLL requires 40 algorithms and EPLL requires 4, making the total 44 algorithms. The second approach is faster due to the ease of recognition and speed of execution of EPLL.

'''VH method:''' Created by [[w:Lars Vandenbergh|Lars Vandenbergh]] and [[w:Dan Harris|Dan Harris]], as a stepping stone from Fridrich to ZB. First, F2L without one c/e-pair is solved with Fridrich or some other method. Then the last pair is paired up, but not inserted. Then it's inserted to F2L and LL edges are oriented in one go. Then, using COLL, corners of LL are solved while preserving edge orientation. Then edges are permuted. [http://www.cubestation.co.uk/cs2/]

=== Block methods ===

'''Petrus System:''' Created by [[w:Lars Petrus|Lars Petrus]]. One of the shortest methods in terms of face turns per solve, the [[/Petrus|Petrus method]] is often used in fewest moves contests. Petrus reasoned that as you construct layers, further organization of the cube's remaining pieces is restricted by what you have already done. For a layer-based solution to continue after constructing the first layer, the solved portion of the cube would have to be temporarily disassembled while the desired moves were made, then reassembled afterwards. Petrus sought to get around this [[w:quagmire|quagmire]] by solving the cube outwards from one corner, leaving him with unrestricted movement on several sides of the cube as he progressed. There are not as many algorithms to learn compared to the other F2L methods, but it takes a lot of dedication to master. The basis of the method is to create a 2 × 2 × 3 block on the cube, then proceed to solve a 3 × 3 × 2 block, but also flipping the edges on the Last Layer. Then the Last Layer is solved in two steps, first corners and then edges. [http://lar5.com/cube/]

'''Heise Method:''' Created by [[w:Ryan Heise|Ryan Heise]]. First, one inner square and three outer squares are built intuitively. Then they are placed correctly while orienting remaining edges. After that you create two c/e-pairs, and solve the remaining edges. The last 3 corners are solved using a [[w:commutator|commutator]]. [http://www.ryanheise.com/cube/]

'''Gilles Roux Method:''' Another unique method, but works in blocks like the Petrus method. You start by solving a 1 × 2 × 3 block and then solve another 1 × 2 × 3 block on the other side of the cube. Next you solve the last 4 corners and finally the edges and centers. Has only 24 algorithms to learn. [http://grrroux.free.fr/method/Intro.html]

=== Corners first methods ===

'''Waterman Method:''' Created by Mark Waterman. Advanced corners first method, with about 90 algorithms to learn. Solve a face on L, do the corners on R and then solve the edges. An extremely fast method. [http://www.rubikscube.info]

'''Jelinek Method:''' Created by Josef Jelinek. This method is very similar to Waterman's. [http://rubikscube.info/]

Create a solved 2 × 2 × 2 cube on one corner and rotate the remaining blocks (it may take a while but you will eventually solve it).

=== Catta Method ===
From its creator the Italian Giuseppe Catta, unique and different from all, based on structural pieces (in the case of the 3x3x3 cube of only 2 types, edges and medians), from the edges towards the center and hinged on the two opposite faces . Very important note as these 3 principles with the Catta method subsequently guide the resolution of Rubik's Cubes of any size NxNxN, except for implementing additional algorithms consistent respectively with two additional structural pieces with the 4x4x4 (4 &quot;centres&quot; instead of 1 &quot;diagonal internal crowns&quot;, not piece, of the 3x3x3; and 2 lateral medians instead of 1 of the 3x3x3) and a further structural piece with the 6x6x6 (&quot;symmetrical median internal crowns&quot;).

This method - discovered and codified not by chance by an architect - is extremely didactic, simpler, more orderly, understandable and easier to memorize than the others, and its approach is paradigmatic of a way of dealing with things as a whole and as a whole , to system, from general to particular. It teaches us to see the whole whole at once, as a system of parts rather than as a sum or juxtaposition of parts.

== Three &quot;Levels of Difficulty&quot; ==

A procedure has been developed whereby a complete beginner can learn and master the Cube by moving up through three self-contained &quot;Levels of Difficulty&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=McNaughton, D.|title=The Rubik Cube: A three-stage approach to mastering it|journal=Junior News|date=November 1989 - February 1990|publisher=Al-Nisr, Dubai, UAE|url=http://dlmcn.com/rubik2.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lowest level deliberately maintains configurations in which every face exhibits horizontal and vertical symmetry, so it also enables a number of &quot;pretty patterns&quot; to be constructed - such as Chequers, Crosses, Stripes and Central 'Dots'. Level Two involves solving cubes which have been scrambled using only 180-degree turns. Techniques acquired in those earlier stages, remain useful when continuing up to the next level.

==How to solve the 2x2x2 (Mini/Pocket Cube)==

If you know how to solve the 3x3x3 cube and 4x4x4 (see above), solving the 2x2x2 can be achieved by treating the cube as a 3x3x3 in which the centre and edge cubes are in a permanent solved state regardless of what moves you make. In other words, the solution consists of only the corner-solving steps of the 3x3x3 solution. The important thing is simply to remember which side is which (since you can't see the middle layers, because they aren't actually there), although this shouldn't be too difficult.

== Other solution pages ==

Here are some of the more popular solution pages listed. All are different, although they mostly use a similar layer by layer method. Usually you will need Java to see the animations used.

Using animations:
* [http://www.rubiksplace.com Rubik's Cube solution for Beginners] (rubiksplace.com)
* [http://www.vanderblonk.com/tutorial/ Beginners Solution] By Michiel van der Blonk
* [http://cubeland.free.fr/ Beginners solution] By Christophe Goudey.

Using pictures:
* [http://www.rubiksplace.com Rubik's Cube solution with animations] (rubiksplace.com)
* [http://rubiks-cube-solution.com Simple solution] by Rick Rayner
* [http://www.learn2cube.com Beginners' solution] by Alan Chang
* [http://www.puzzlesolver.com/puzzle.php?id=29 Beginner's Guide] (unknown author)
* [http://ozcubegirl.com/rubikscubesolution.html Beginners' solution (translated into multiple languages)] by Jasmine Lee
* [http://www.rubikssolver.com Beginners' solution] (unknown author, requires purchase for the later steps)
* [http://how-to-solve-rubix-cube.com Simplest method / Beginners' solution] (How to Solve Rubix Cube)

Using video:
* [http://www.rubiks.com/lvl3/index_lvl3.cfm?lan=eng&amp;lvl1=commun&amp;lvl2=cbegam&amp;lvl3=compet Video tutorial] by [[Tyson Mao]].
* [http://howtosolvearubixcube.blogspot.com/2009/07/how-to-solve-rubiks-cube-part-one.html Blogspot Site]
* [http://www.rubiks.com/solving-center How to solve a Rubik's Cube] at the official Rubik's Cube website

Text only:
* [http://jeays.net/rubiks.htm Beginners Solution (text)] by Mark Jeays

=== Alternative methods ===

* [http://lar5.com/cube/ Solving the Rubik's Cube for Speed], a block method by Lars Petrus
* [https://rubikcubesolution.com Solving the Rubik's Cube] A corners first method by Matthew Monroe
* [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/ Ultimate solution to the Rubik's Cube] An edges-first method by Philip Marshall, requiring the memorization of only 2 algorithms and requiring an average of only 65 moves to solve.
* The [http://cube.crider.co.uk/beginner.php Single Alg Cube Solution] and the [https://bbprojx.net/cube/summary.html Y-Move Method] are beginner methods that each rely on only a single, four-turn algorithm.

=== Solving Programs ===

* [https://rubikcubesolver.com Rubik's Cube Solver App]
* [http://wrongway.org/cube/solve.html Automatic cube solver]
* [http://kociemba.org/cube.htm Cube Explorer 4.10] &amp;ndash; a fast program for finding optimal or near optimal solutions to the cube (less than 20 moves total!).

=== Background on the mathematics ===

* [[Wikipedia:Optimal_solutions_for_Rubik%27s_Cube|Wikipedia article: Optimal solutions for Rubik's Cube]]

== Related puzzles ==

* [[Rubik Puzzles]] describes other puzzles designed by Erno Rubik

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Shelves|Games}}
{{Alphabetical|H}}
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[[es:Resolver el cubo de Rubik]]
[[fr:Résolution de casse-têtes/Résolution du cube de Rubik]]
[[it:Risolvere il cubo di Rubik]]
[[he:פתירת קובייה הונגרית]]
[[nl:Hoe een Rubiks kubus op te lossen]]
[[ja:ルービックキューブ]]
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        <id>3566511</id>
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      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-26524-77|~2026-26524-77]] ([[User talk:~2026-26524-77|talk]]) to last version by Kittycataclysm</comment>
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      <text bytes="23960" sha1="5rw0yei502qf3dfwdv1bp433fr3h7jm" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Rubiks cube scrambled.svg|center|200px|Scrambled Rubik's Cube.|alt=Scrambled Rubik's Cube. Si ]]
{{Book title|{{BOOKNAME}}}}
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== Notation ==

There are several notations; please refer to this
[http://www.vanderblonk.com/tutorial/before-you-start#notation notation guide].

Briefly:

* There are six sides to the cube, presented as Front, Back, Left, Right, Up and Down. They are usually referred to by their one-letter abbreviations.
* In the isometric diagrams below, where a corner points out at you, you see the F, R and U sides. The F faces to the left.
* Movements are presented as one quarter rotation (90 degrees) of an external face per movement. This means that the center tile colors are not changed. In our diagrams, F is blue, R is red and U is yellow. The other three colors are typically orange opposite red, green opposite blue and white opposite yellow
* Quarter-rotations of that face's layer default to clockwise. Counter-clockwise rotations are often referred to as &quot;inverted&quot; and indicated by &amp;prime;, for instance, R&amp;prime;. (The &amp;prime; is commonly read as &quot;prime&quot;, &quot;apostrophe&quot;, &quot;tick mark&quot;, &quot;anti-clockwise&quot;, &quot;anti&quot; or &quot;i&quot; for inverted). Half-rotations (180 degrees) are indicated by the digit &quot;2&quot;, for instance, R2 (meaning 2 quarter-rotations following the one-letter abbreviation).
* To see what is happening on the sides of the other three colors, rotate the cube as a whole, described as rotating along the ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' space axis, all pointing out of the page. ''x'' is R, ''y'' is U and ''z'' is F, but since this sort of move also changes the colors of the center-tiles, it is used sparingly.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''B''' [[Image:Rubiks B.svg|64px]]
|'''D''' [[Image:Rubiks D1.svg|64px]]
|'''F''' [[Image:Rubiks F 1.svg|64px]]
|'''L''' [[Image:Rubiks L.svg|64px]]
|'''R''' [[Image:Rubiks R.svg|64px]]
|'''U''' [[Image:Rubiks U.svg|64px]]
|}

== Example solve ==

As an example, let's consider a complete solve. 25 move scrambles are used to mix up the cube. Our sample scramble is:

: U B&amp;prime; R2 D&amp;prime; U&amp;prime; R U2 B R&amp;prime; B2 L2 R F2 R2 U2 R B U2 F2 L2 F2 D R B2 R2

The solve is:

: R&amp;prime; B R D2 F2 L U&amp;prime; F U R&amp;prime; D R F D F&amp;prime; F&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; F U2 R&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; R U2 U&amp;prime; F&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; F U U B&amp;prime; D&amp;prime; B U&amp;prime; ''y''2 F D2 F2 R F R&amp;prime; B&amp;prime; D F D&amp;prime; B D F&amp;prime; F2 D M D2 M&amp;prime; D F2 (54 moves)

== Methods ==

There are a large variety of methods to solve the Rubik's Cube. Here we list methods that are described in some detail in this Wikibook, before briefly reviewing other methods in the following sections.
*[[/Beginner|Beginner]]
*[[/Beginner (alternative)|Beginner (alternative)]]
*[[/CFOP|Fridrich Method]]
&lt;!-- 10/2014: These entries are very short or unfinished, probably should not be listed here. Some fit into the material below, so I moved them there:
*[[/Petrus|Petrus]]
*[[/ZZ|ZZ]]
*[[/ZB|ZB]]
*[[/Beginner2|Beginner CFOP]]
--&gt;

== Classical Methods ==

The first widely publicized solutions to the Rubik's Cube appeared in the early 1980s, when quite a number of solutions where published in books and articles. For example, see 
[http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/page_1.htm Philip Marshall's comparison] of various classical methods. Here we mention two solutions from around 1981 by
David Singmaster&lt;ref name = &quot;Singmaster&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Singmaster|first=David|title=Notes on Rubik's Magic Cube|year=1981|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0-907395-00-7|location=Harmondsworth, Eng}}&lt;/ref&gt;,
and James Nourse&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title= [[The Simple Solution to Rubik's Cube]]|last= Nourse|first= James G.|year=1981 |publisher= Bantam|location= New York|isbn= 0-553-14017-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

One of the key observations was that the solution can be broken down into several steps. Most of the &quot;standard&quot; classical approaches solve the cube layer by layer. For example, solve
1. all edges in the top layer, 2. the corners in the top layer, 3. the edges in the middle or horizontal layer, 4. the edges in the bottom layer, and 5. the corners in the bottom layer,
which completes the solution. There are a number of relevant variations, for example step 2 and 3 can be combined (see the Fridrich method below), or step 5 is often split into first putting the pieces in the right place and then fixing their orientation. The bottom line is that such steps simplify the solution process because there exist algorithms (sequences of face turns) that can handle the individual steps efficiently. Solution methods differ not only in the steps, but also in the set of algorithms suggested for the individual steps. 

As [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/page_1.htm Marshall discusses], many of the more recent methods have their roots in these early solutions. This is also apparent in several of the methods that are listed below, which however include a number of improvements. The solution steps have been modified, and the sets of algorithms have been improved and optimized for different solutions steps. Furthermore, some of the early methods were not fully explained (or had gaps), and many improvements in presentation were made.

In the following, we comment on beginner methods, where the goal is simplicity (usually at the cost of efficiency), and on advanced methods, which give faster and/or shorter solutions (usually at the cost of increased complexity).

== Beginner Methods ==

The term ''beginner method'' is used differently by different authors. A beginner method should be simple, but what is considered simple depends on the person, and changes quickly as experience is gained. 
As [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/page_1.htm Marshall] discusses, some of the early simple methods required 10 to 20 algorithms and needed 100 to 150 moves to solve the cube. For example, he reports an average of 110 moves for Nourse's method with 12 algorithms, which comes down to 100 moves adding shortcuts involving 20 algorithms in total.

A modern method could be called simple if it only needs 5 algorithms or less. If you are used to advanced methods with 50 plus algorithms, then 10 or less is also simple. Also, the algorithms should not be too long and complicated themselves. Some of the recent beginner methods with 5 or less algorithms are surprisingly efficient, requiring less than 100 and in some cases only about 70 moves. This is quite nice compared to some advanced speedcubing methods that require 40 to 60 moves or so on average but use 50 plus algorithms.

=== Recent beginner methods ===

'''Solution guide at Rubiks.com''': The guide at the official Rubik's site seems to be one of the classic layer-by-layer methods. It lists 14 algorithms. [https://www.rubiks.com/en-eu/how-to-solve-rubiks-cube/]

'''Heise's Beginner Method''': This is a representative example of an optimized, classical layer-by-layer method. The original strategy is credited to David Singmaster. It requires four algorithms. 
(Some of the easy steps are labeled intuitive and not counted as algorithms, but this is common practice.) The solution is presented with the help of animations. [http://www.ryanheise.com/cube/beginner.html]

'''Wikibook Beginner Method''': Presented on [[/Beginner|these wikibook pages]], this layer-by-layer method uses 5 to 8 algorithms, depending on how you count them. Although perhaps not optimal in the number of algorithms, it demonstrates a rather successful idea. Only 3 of 4 corner pieces and 3 of 4 edge pieces are solved in the first two layers. Leaving those pieces as free workspace can simplify some of the later steps. See the Petrus method below for the classical example of a block building method that avoids solving certain pieces too early.

'''8355 Method''': Another layer-by-layer method using two pieces as workspace. Requires 3 algorithms. In this case the workspace allows a simplification compared to, say, Heise's beginner method.[https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/8355_Method]

'''Philip Marshall's Method''': An edges-first method that relies on only 2 algorithms. Reported to require only 65 moves on average by Marshall. Notice that the above layer-by-layer with workspace methods can be turned into edges-first methods if solving the three corners of the first layers is delayed until all edges have been solved. The Marshall method achieves its simplicity by using one particular 4-turn algorithm to do all the edges, and one 8-turn algorithm for the corners. Some elementary setup turns are needed as well. [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp]

'''Single Algorithm Methods''': The 8355 method and Marshall method can be reduced to single algorithm methods, see the [http://cube.crider.co.uk/beginner.php Single Alg Cube Solution] and the [https://bbprojx.net/cube/summary.html Y-move method]. Basically, there are two elementary 4-turn commutators, the [https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Sexy_move &quot;S-move&quot;] and the [https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Y-Move_Method &quot;Y-move&quot;], which are used in these and other methods to solve the edges. It turns out that these commutators can also be applied repeatedly to replace the corner algorithms in the 8355 and Marshall method. There is a small loss of efficiency, but in this way single algorithm methods are possible. Another single algorithm method was originally developed by Camilo Vladimir de Lima Amaral[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IBkka-fhgg4&amp;list=UU--QBHLCtx7kgiukctIjSUQ], who called it &quot;Less is more method&quot; or &quot;Amaral Method&quot; [https://www.speedsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Less_is_More].

Are there zero algorithm methods? The answer is yes since single face turns are not counted as algorithms, and the cube can certainly be solved with those. However, the idea of algorithms is to group single face turns into something manageable by humans. Relying only on &quot;intuition&quot; and single face turns has not led to a beginners method yet.

In conclusion, there are several recent beginner methods that improve on the classical layer-by-layer beginner's methods, although simple can mean different things. Simple methods with just 1 to 4 algorithms are possible, where the main point is that this is less than 10 or 20. Still, a beginner may prefer a printed list of 5 or 10 algorithms over a less explicit method using only a 1 or 2 algorithms. On the other hand, a method with fewer algorithms is easier to memorize and easier to understand than a more complex method.

&quot;Algorithms of last layer&quot;:Some algorithms of fixing last layer- 

1. Making cross-(F R U R' U' F' if you have a horizontal bar &amp; F U R U' R' F' if you have a back-left hook)

2. Matching edge colours-(R U R' U R U2 R')

3. Fixing corners-(U R U' L' U R' U' L)

4. Matching corners-(D R' D' R)

== Faster methods ==

While the above methods may be good for a beginner, they are too slow to be used in [[w:speedcubing|speedcubing]]. The most popular method for speedcubers is very similar to the Wikibook Beginner method above, except steps 2 and 3 are combined, and the last layer is solved in two steps instead of three. The inventor of this common method is [[w:Jessica Fridrich|Jessica Fridrich]]. With this method, speedcubers with good dexterity and memory can average under 20 seconds after a few months of hard practice. However, to learn the method you must learn 78 algorithms. There are methods just as fast that require far fewer algorithms to be memorized. Here is a brief synopsis of several popular [[w:speedcubing|speedcubing]] methods:

=== Layer by Layer methods ===

'''Fridrich Method:''' A very fast First 2 Layers (or F2L) method, start by solving a cross on one face, then proceeding to solve the First 2 Layers pairing up edge and corner combinations and putting them into their ''slot''. This is followed by solving the Last Layer in two steps, first orienting all pieces (one color on the last layer), then permuting them (solving the ring around the last layer). The basic method has 78 algorithms (without the inverse of them), and is recognized as one of the fastest methods currently in use. [http://www.ws.binghamton.edu/fridrich/cube.html]

'''F2L Alternatives:''' Methods that follow the same principle as Fridrich's method, but using different algorithms. Many of the algorithms are shared but there are a few differences, so there should be one to suit your fingers:
* Bob Burton: [http://www.cubewhiz.com/]
* Shotaro 'Macky' Makisumi: [http://cubefreak.hp.infoseek.co.jp/]
* Speedcubing.com Collection: speedcubinglovers.com

'''ZB method:''' [[/ZB|This method]] was developed independently by [[w:Ron van Bruchem|Ron van Bruchem]] and [[w:Zbigniew Zborowski|Zbigniew Zborowski]] in 2003. After solving the cross and three c/e pairs, the final F2L pair is solved while orienting LL edges. This is known as ZBF2L or ZBLS. The last layer can then be solved in one algorithm, known as ZBLL. The ultimate method requires several hundred algorithms. [[w:Lars Vandenbergh|Lars Vandenbergh]]'s site has ZBF2L algorithms, used in his VH system. [http://www.cubezone.be/zbf2l.html] There is also a more recent Google spreadsheet at [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1s8Q2VM2c1eV3oLIxFfM4exvABO0AcCeMCUdMiYKnzC0]. ZBLL algorithms can be found on Doug Li's web page. [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~dlli/Hardwick/zbll.html]

'''ZZ method:''' [[/ZZ|This method]] was created in 2006 by Zbigniew Zborowski, the co-creator of the ZB method. It has three basic steps: EOLine, F2L, and LL. [http://cube.crider.co.uk] [http://www.emsee.110mb.com/Speedcubing/ZZ%20speedcubing%20system.html] EOLine stands for Edge Orientation Line. The orientation of edges is defined as either good or bad. Good meaning the edge can be placed into the correct position with a combination of R, L, U, D, F2, or B2, moves. Bad meaning it would require an F, F&amp;prime;, B, or B&amp;prime; move to be moved into its correct position. Any F, F&amp;prime;, B, or B&amp;prime; move will cause the four edges on that slice to change from its current state, good or bad, to the opposite state. The Line portion of EOLine is forming a line on the bottom of the cube that consists of the DB edge and the DF edge in their correct positions. The next step is F2L, First 2 Layers. It uses block building techniques to solve the two remaining 1x2x3 blocks of the F2L using only R, U, and L moves. This allows for very quick solving of F2L as it does not require cube rotation. The final step of the ZZ method is LL, Last Layer, and it can be broken into multiple steps or maintained as one depending on the algorithms used. There are two main approaches to this method OLL [http://cubefreak.net/speed/fourlook.html] and PLL [http://jmbaum.110mb.com/pll.htm], Orientation of LL and Permutation of LL, and COLL [http://jmbaum.110mb.com/coll.htm] and EPLL [http://cubefreak.net/speed/fourlook.html], Corner OLL and Edge PLL. The first, OLL and PLL, is to use one of 7 algorithms to solve the top layer (OLL) and then permute the edge and corners into their correct positions (PLL), this requires 21 algorithms. The total algorithms required for the first approach of solving LL is 28. The second approach to solving LL is to solve the top and the corners in one algorithm (COLL) and then solve the edges (EPLL). COLL requires 40 algorithms and EPLL requires 4, making the total 44 algorithms. The second approach is faster due to the ease of recognition and speed of execution of EPLL.

'''VH method:''' Created by [[w:Lars Vandenbergh|Lars Vandenbergh]] and [[w:Dan Harris|Dan Harris]], as a stepping stone from Fridrich to ZB. First, F2L without one c/e-pair is solved with Fridrich or some other method. Then the last pair is paired up, but not inserted. Then it's inserted to F2L and LL edges are oriented in one go. Then, using COLL, corners of LL are solved while preserving edge orientation. Then edges are permuted. [http://www.cubestation.co.uk/cs2/]

=== Block methods ===

'''Petrus System:''' Created by [[w:Lars Petrus|Lars Petrus]]. One of the shortest methods in terms of face turns per solve, the [[/Petrus|Petrus method]] is often used in fewest moves contests. Petrus reasoned that as you construct layers, further organization of the cube's remaining pieces is restricted by what you have already done. For a layer-based solution to continue after constructing the first layer, the solved portion of the cube would have to be temporarily disassembled while the desired moves were made, then reassembled afterwards. Petrus sought to get around this [[w:quagmire|quagmire]] by solving the cube outwards from one corner, leaving him with unrestricted movement on several sides of the cube as he progressed. There are not as many algorithms to learn compared to the other F2L methods, but it takes a lot of dedication to master. The basis of the method is to create a 2 × 2 × 3 block on the cube, then proceed to solve a 3 × 3 × 2 block, but also flipping the edges on the Last Layer. Then the Last Layer is solved in two steps, first corners and then edges. [http://lar5.com/cube/]

'''Heise Method:''' Created by [[w:Ryan Heise|Ryan Heise]]. First, one inner square and three outer squares are built intuitively. Then they are placed correctly while orienting remaining edges. After that you create two c/e-pairs, and solve the remaining edges. The last 3 corners are solved using a [[w:commutator|commutator]]. [http://www.ryanheise.com/cube/]

'''Gilles Roux Method:''' Another unique method, but works in blocks like the Petrus method. You start by solving a 1 × 2 × 3 block and then solve another 1 × 2 × 3 block on the other side of the cube. Next you solve the last 4 corners and finally the edges and centers. Has only 24 algorithms to learn. [http://grrroux.free.fr/method/Intro.html]

=== Corners first methods ===

'''Waterman Method:''' Created by Mark Waterman. Advanced corners first method, with about 90 algorithms to learn. Solve a face on L, do the corners on R and then solve the edges. An extremely fast method. [http://www.rubikscube.info]

'''Jelinek Method:''' Created by Josef Jelinek. This method is very similar to Waterman's. [http://rubikscube.info/]

Create a solved 2 × 2 × 2 cube on one corner and rotate the remaining blocks (it may take a while but you will eventually solve it).

=== Catta Method ===
From its creator the Italian Giuseppe Catta, unique and different from all, based on structural pieces (in the case of the 3x3x3 cube of only 2 types, edges and medians), from the edges towards the center and hinged on the two opposite faces . Very important note as these 3 principles with the Catta method subsequently guide the resolution of Rubik's Cubes of any size NxNxN, except for implementing additional algorithms consistent respectively with two additional structural pieces with the 4x4x4 (4 &quot;centres&quot; instead of 1 &quot;diagonal internal crowns&quot;, not piece, of the 3x3x3; and 2 lateral medians instead of 1 of the 3x3x3) and a further structural piece with the 6x6x6 (&quot;symmetrical median internal crowns&quot;).

This method - discovered and codified not by chance by an architect - is extremely didactic, simpler, more orderly, understandable and easier to memorize than the others, and its approach is paradigmatic of a way of dealing with things as a whole and as a whole , to system, from general to particular. It teaches us to see the whole whole at once, as a system of parts rather than as a sum or juxtaposition of parts.

== Three &quot;Levels of Difficulty&quot; ==

A procedure has been developed whereby a complete beginner can learn and master the Cube by moving up through three self-contained &quot;Levels of Difficulty&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|author=McNaughton, D.|title=The Rubik Cube: A three-stage approach to mastering it|journal=Junior News|date=November 1989 - February 1990|publisher=Al-Nisr, Dubai, UAE|url=http://dlmcn.com/rubik2.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lowest level deliberately maintains configurations in which every face exhibits horizontal and vertical symmetry, so it also enables a number of &quot;pretty patterns&quot; to be constructed - such as Chequers, Crosses, Stripes and Central 'Dots'. Level Two involves solving cubes which have been scrambled using only 180-degree turns. Techniques acquired in those earlier stages, remain useful when continuing up to the next level.

==How to solve the 2x2x2 (Mini/Pocket Cube)==

If you know how to solve the 3x3x3 cube and 4x4x4 (see above), solving the 2x2x2 can be achieved by treating the cube as a 3x3x3 in which the centre and edge cubes are in a permanent solved state regardless of what moves you make. In other words, the solution consists of only the corner-solving steps of the 3x3x3 solution. The important thing is simply to remember which side is which (since you can't see the middle layers, because they aren't actually there), although this shouldn't be too difficult.

== Other solution pages ==

Here are some of the more popular solution pages listed. All are different, although they mostly use a similar layer by layer method. Usually you will need Java to see the animations used.

Using animations:
* [http://www.rubiksplace.com Rubik's Cube solution for Beginners] (rubiksplace.com)
* [http://www.vanderblonk.com/tutorial/ Beginners Solution] By Michiel van der Blonk
* [http://cubeland.free.fr/ Beginners solution] By Christophe Goudey.

Using pictures:
* [http://www.rubiksplace.com Rubik's Cube solution with animations] (rubiksplace.com)
* [http://rubiks-cube-solution.com Simple solution] by Rick Rayner
* [http://www.learn2cube.com Beginners' solution] by Alan Chang
* [http://www.puzzlesolver.com/puzzle.php?id=29 Beginner's Guide] (unknown author)
* [http://ozcubegirl.com/rubikscubesolution.html Beginners' solution (translated into multiple languages)] by Jasmine Lee
* [http://www.rubikssolver.com Beginners' solution] (unknown author, requires purchase for the later steps)
* [http://how-to-solve-rubix-cube.com Simplest method / Beginners' solution] (How to Solve Rubix Cube)

Using video:
* [http://www.rubiks.com/lvl3/index_lvl3.cfm?lan=eng&amp;lvl1=commun&amp;lvl2=cbegam&amp;lvl3=compet Video tutorial] by [[Tyson Mao]].
* [http://howtosolvearubixcube.blogspot.com/2009/07/how-to-solve-rubiks-cube-part-one.html Blogspot Site]
* [http://www.rubiks.com/solving-center How to solve a Rubik's Cube] at the official Rubik's Cube website

Text only:
* [http://jeays.net/rubiks.htm Beginners Solution (text)] by Mark Jeays

=== Alternative methods ===

* [http://lar5.com/cube/ Solving the Rubik's Cube for Speed], a block method by Lars Petrus
* [https://rubikcubesolution.com Solving the Rubik's Cube] A corners first method by Matthew Monroe
* [http://helm.lu/cube/MarshallPhilipp/ Ultimate solution to the Rubik's Cube] An edges-first method by Philip Marshall, requiring the memorization of only 2 algorithms and requiring an average of only 65 moves to solve.
* The [http://cube.crider.co.uk/beginner.php Single Alg Cube Solution] and the [https://bbprojx.net/cube/summary.html Y-Move Method] are beginner methods that each rely on only a single, four-turn algorithm.

=== Solving Programs ===

* [https://rubikcubesolver.com Rubik's Cube Solver App]
* [http://wrongway.org/cube/solve.html Automatic cube solver]
* [http://kociemba.org/cube.htm Cube Explorer 4.10] &amp;ndash; a fast program for finding optimal or near optimal solutions to the cube (less than 20 moves total!).

=== Background on the mathematics ===

* [[Wikipedia:Optimal_solutions_for_Rubik%27s_Cube|Wikipedia article: Optimal solutions for Rubik's Cube]]

== Related puzzles ==

* [[Rubik Puzzles]] describes other puzzles designed by Erno Rubik

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Shelves|Games}}
{{Alphabetical|H}}
{{status|25%}}

[[es:Resolver el cubo de Rubik]]
[[fr:Résolution de casse-têtes/Résolution du cube de Rubik]]
[[it:Risolvere il cubo di Rubik]]
[[he:פתירת קובייה הונגרית]]
[[nl:Hoe een Rubiks kubus op te lossen]]
[[ja:ルービックキューブ]]
[[ru:Сборка кубика Рубика]]</text>
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==Later years==

Prior to the First World War, Tesla looked overseas for investors to fund his research.  When the war started, Tesla lost funding he was receiving from his European patents.  Wardenclyffe Tower was also demolished towards the end of WWI.  Tesla had predicted the relevant issues of the post-World War I environment (a war which theoretically ended) in a printed article (December 20, 1914).  Tesla believed that the League of Nations was not a remedy for the times and issues.  In 1915, Tesla filed a lawsuit against Marconi attempting, unsuccessfully, to obtain a court injunction against the claims of Marconi. Around 1916, Tesla filed for bankruptcy because he owed so much in back taxes.  He was living in poverty. 

Tesla started to exhibit pronounced symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the years following.  He became obsessed with the number three.  He often felt compelled to walk around a block three times before entering a building, demanded a stack of three folded cloth napkins beside his plate at every meal, etc.  The e of OCD was little understood at the time and no treatments were available, so his symptoms were considered by some to be evidence of partial insanity and this probably hurt what was left of his reputation.  This obsessive-compulsive behavior may have originated from the observations over repeated polyphase systems in nature that Tesla researched.

At this time, he was staying at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, renting in an arrangement for deferred payments.  Eventually, the Wardenclyffe deed was turned over to George Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria to pay a $20,000 debt. In 1917, around the time that the Wardenclyffe Tower was demolished by Boldt to make the land a more viable real estate asset, Tesla received AIEE's highest honor, the Edison Medal. The irony of this honor was probably not lost on Tesla.

==Radar development==

Tesla, in August 1917, first established principles regarding frequency and power level for the first primitive radar units in 1934. Emile Girardeau, working with the first French radar systems, stated he was building radar systems &quot;''conceived according to the principles stated by Tesla''&quot;. By the twenties, Tesla was reportedly negotiating with the United Kingdom government under Prime Minister Chamberlain about a ray system. Tesla had also stated that efforts had been made to steal the &quot;death ray&quot; (though they had failed).  The Chamberlain government was removed, though, before any final negotiations occurred. The incoming Baldwin government found no use for Tesla's suggestions and ended negotiations.

==1930s==

On Tesla's seventy-fifth birthday in 1931, Time magazine put him on its cover. [http://www.teslasociety.com/time.jpg] The cover caption noted his contribution to electrical power generation.  In 1935, many of Marconi's patents relating to the radio were declared invalid by the United States Court of Claims.  The Court of Claims decided that the prior work of Tesla (specifically US645576 and US649621) had anticipated Marconi's later works.  Tesla got his last patent in 1928 on January 3, an apparatus for aerial transportation which was the first instance of VTOL aircraft. In 1934, Tesla wrote to consul Jankovi&amp;#263; of his homeland. The letter contained the message of gratitude to Mihajlo Pupin who initiated a donation scheme by which American companies could support Tesla. Tesla refused the assistance, and chose to live by a modest pension received from Kingdom of Yugoslavia and to continue researching.

==Field theories==

When he was eighty-one, Tesla stated he had completed a Dynamic Theory of Gravity. He stated that it was &quot;''worked out in all details''&quot; and hoped to give to the world the theory soon. &lt;small&gt;&lt;sub&gt;[http://www.tesla.hu/tesla/articles/19370710.doc]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/small&gt; The theory was never published. At the time of his announcement, it was considered by the scientific establishment to exceed the bounds of reason. Some believe that Tesla never fully developed the Unified Field Theory, nor that any physicist in the years since it was first postulated. 

While Tesla had &quot;worked out a dynamic theory of gravity&quot; that he soon hoped to give to the world, he died before he publicized any details. Few details were revealed by Tesla about his theory in the announcement. Tesla's critique in the announcement was the opening clash between him and modern experimental physics. Tesla may have viewed his principles in such a manner as to not be in conflict with other modern theories (besides Einstein's). Tesla's theory is ignored by some researchers (and mainly disregarded by physicists).

The bulk of the theory was developed between 1892 and 1894, during the period that he was conducting experiments for with high frequency and high potential electromagnetism and patenting devices for their utilization. It was completed, according to Tesla, by the end of the 1930s. Tesla's theory explained gravity using electrodynamics consisting of transverse waves (to a lesser extent) and longitudinal waves (for the majority). Reminiscent of Mach's principle, Tesla stated in 1925 that,  

: ''There is no thing endowed with life - from man, who is enslaving the elements, to the nimblest creature - in all this world that does not sway in its turn. Whenever action is born from force, though it be infinitesimal, the cosmic balance is upset and the universal motion results.''

Tesla, concerning Albert Einstein's relativity theory, stated that '...the relativity theory, by the way, is much older than its present proponents.  It was advanced over 200 years ago by my illustrious countryman Boskovic, the great philosopher, who, not withstanding other and multifold obligations, wrote a thousand volumes of excellent literature on a vast variety of subjects.  Boskovic dealt with relativity, including the so-called time-space continuum...', (1936 unpublished interview, quoted in Anderson, L, ed. Nikola Tesla: Lecture Before the New York Academy of Sciences: The Streams of Lenard and Roentgen and Novel Apparatus for Their Production, 6 April 1897, reconstructed 1994).

Tesla was critical of Einstein's relativity work, '...[a] magnificent mathematical garb which fascinates, dazzles and makes people blind to the underlying errors. The theory is like a beggar clothed in purple whom ignorant people take for a king...., its exponents are brilliant men but they are metaphysicists rather than scientists...', (New York Times, 11 July 1935, p23, c.8). 

Tesla also stated that 'I hold that space cannot be curved, for the simple reason that it can have no properties. It might as well be said that God has properties. He has not, but only attributes and these are of our own making. Of properties we can only speak when dealing with matter filling the space. To say that in the presence of large bodies space becomes curved is equivalent to stating that something can act upon nothing.  I, for one, refuse to subscribe to such a view.', (New York Herald Tribune, 11 September 1932)

==Death and afterwards==

Tesla died alone in the hotel New Yorker of heart failure, some time between the evening of January 5 and the morning of January 8, 1943.  Despite selling his AC electricity patents, he was essentially destitute and died with significant debts. 

At the time of his death, Tesla had been working on some form of ''teleforce'' weapon, or ''death ray'', the secrets of which he had offered to the United States War Department on the morning of 5 January. It appears that his proposed death ray was related to his research into ball lightning and plasma. He was found dead three days later and, after the FBI was contacted by the War Department, his papers were declared to be top secret. 

Immediately after Tesla's death became known, the FBI instructed the Office of Alien Property to take possession of his papers and property, despite his US citizenship.  All of his personal effects were seized on the advice of presidential advisors. J. Edgar Hoover declared the case &quot;most secret&quot;, because of the nature of Tesla's inventions and patents.  Tesla's Serbian-Orthodox family and the Yugoslav embassy struggled with American authorities to gain these items after his death due to the potential significance of some of his research.  Eventually, his nephew, Sava Kosanovich, got possession of some of his personal effects (which are now housed in the  in Belgrade, Yugoslavia).  Tesla's funeral took place on January 12, 1943 at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in Manhattan, .

In 1976, a large bronze statue of Tesla was erected at Niagara Falls State Park. A similar statue was also erected in the Tesla's hometown of Gospic in the 1981. The statue in Gospic was dynamited by the Croatian forces in 1991.

Perhaps because of Tesla's personal eccentricity and the dramatic nature of his demonstrations, conspiracy theories about applications of his work persist. The common Hollywood stereotype of the &quot;mad scientist&quot; mirrors Tesla's real-life persona, or at least a caricature of it&amp;mdash;which may be no accident considering that many of the earliest such movies (including the first movie version of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein) were produced by Tesla's old rival, Thomas Edison. There are at least two films describing Tesla's life. In the first, arranged for TV, Tesla was portrayed by Rade &amp;#352;erbed&amp;#382;ija. In 1980, Orson Welles produced a Yugoslavian film named ''Tajna Nikole Tesle'' (The Secret of Nikola Tesla), in which Welles himself played the part of Tesla's patron, George Westinghouse.

==Seized records==

According to FBI [http://web.archive.org/20040810031405/foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/tesla.htm documents] acquired via FOIA request, the sum of Tesla's possessions (&quot;consisting of about two truckloads of material... [and] approximately thirty barrels and bundles&quot;) were seized, upon his death in 1943, by agents of the (now defunct) Office of Alien Property Custodian. One document states that &quot;[he] is reported to have some 80 trunks in different places containing transcripts and plans having to do with his experiments...&quot;

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  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5/2. e4</title>
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      <text bytes="2053" sha1="jfdowub826r9w03i0bpvay8g3j2cpdo" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|Blackmar-Diemer gambit
|eco=[[Chess/ECOD|D00]]
|parent=[[../|Closed game]]
}}
== 2. e4 · Blackmar-Diemer gambit ==
White offers their e4 pawn in exchange for quick development and open lines. At the professional level this move is considered somewhat suspect, but Black must be careful if they choose to take the pawn as there are many traps in this opening. 

[[/2...dxe4|'''2...dxe4''']] accepts the gambit. 

Black has three ways to decline the gambit.
*[[/2...e6|'''2...e6''']] transposes to the French Defence
*[[/2...c5|'''2...c6''']] transposes to the Caro-Kann Defence
*[[/2...Nc6|'''2...Nc6''']] transposes to the Nimzowitsch Defence
*[[/2...c5|'''2...c5''']] is a largely unexplored countergambit.

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}

'''1. d4 d5 2. e4'''
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;2&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;3&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/2...dxe4|dxe4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;e5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Chess/French Defence|French Defence&lt;br&gt; (by transposition)]]&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[../../../1. e4/1...e6/2. d4/2...d5|e6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defence|Caro-Kann Defence&lt;br&gt; (by transposition)]]&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[../../../1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5|c6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Chess/Nimzowitsch Defence|Nimzowitsch Defence&lt;br&gt; (by transposition)]]&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[../../../1. e4/1...Nc6/2. d4/2...d5|Nc6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/2...c5|c5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;/table&gt;
{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
===See also===
{{Wikipedia|Blackmar-Diemer Gambit}}
* Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. {{ISBN|1-8574-4221-0}}.
* Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. {{ISBN|0-8129-3084-3}}.
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}

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    <title>Football (Soccer)/The Trophies And Cups</title>
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      <comment>These are the most popular and mostly watched competitions of football.</comment>
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==International Competitions==
In football there are many competitions and championships. Here is a collection of the major international competitions in the world of football.

===The World===

====FIFA World Cup====

This is the '''biggest achievement''' (competition) in football internationally. It takes place every four years and thirty-two teams play this major event. The qualifying rounds take place for each confederation three years before the World Cup. The 2022 World Cup was held in Qatar, Argentina defeated France by 4 penalties to 2 to lift the trophy. The bidding for the next World Cup is held before the nearest World Cup, (usually, three years before). For example, the bid for 2014 World Cup was held just after the 2010 World Cup. Brazil is the only team to win five World Cups, creating the record for winning the most World Cups in history. There have been twenty-two world cups, and the most recent was Argentina's win in the 2022 World Cup, hosted in Qatar. It was established in 1930 where it took place in Uruguay. The coming 2026 FIFA world is going to be held by three countries The United States, Mexico and Canada. With 48 teams playing this time it is going to be the biggest world cup till now.

====FIFA Confederations Cup(Abolished 2019)====

This is the collection of the teams where the winners of the confederation tournaments, the hosts and the world cup winners qualify for a single tournament. It also takes place every four years like the World Cup. Brazil and France are the only countries that have won the cup twice. The most recent Confederations Cup was held in June 2017 in Russia, where Germany beat Chile 1-0 to win the cup.

===Club Continental cup===

====UEFA European Football Championship====

Also known as Euro, this championship is most watched in Europe (internationally). It is held every four years (two years before the next World Cup to happen). The qualification of this championship consists of nine groups with top two teams from each group, the best third place, and the winners of a play-off between the other third place going to the next main group phase and so on. Germany and Spain have won the most titles, 3. The most recent championship was won by Italy in 2021, with a score of 4-3 in a penalty shootout over England.

'''UEFA''' '''Nations League'''

The '''UEFA Nations League''' is a new biennial international association football competition contested by the senior men's national teams of the member associations of UEFA, the sport's European governing body. The first tournament began in September 2018, following the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The four group winners from League A will qualify for the finals, to be played at a yet to be decided European city in June 2019. Four nations, one from each League, will also qualify for the UEFA Euro 2020 finals .According to the approved format (prior to Kosovo becoming UEFA member), the now 55 UEFA national teams (including Kosovo) will be divided into four divisions (called &quot;Leagues&quot;): 12 teams in League A, 12 teams in League B, 15 teams in League C, and 16 teams in League D. In each league, four groups are formed (three or four teams in each group) and play each other both home and away.

==== AFC Asian Cup ====

This is the main competition for Asian countries, although, Australia are also permitted and won the championship one time.The AFC Asian Cup is an international association football tournament run by the Asian Football Confederation. It is the second oldest continental football championship in the world after Copa América. The winning team becomes the champion of Asia.

====CAF Africa Cup of Nations====

This is the main competition for the CAF (African) countries. It is held every two years in January/February in the same year as UEFA European Championship Finals and Summer Olympics between 16 teams of Africa. It is the biggest international African teams' achievement. The latest cup, held during February 2022 in Cameroon, was won by Senegal for the first time.

====CONMEBOL Copa América====

This is the main competition for the CONMEBOL internationally. It consists of all the teams in the CONMEBOL. There is no fixed interval, so it changes frequently as to when it is going to take place. The most recent champion is Argentina (16th times) defeating Coulumbia after a 1-0 victory in 2021. Argentina  holds the record for the most wins (16 time winners), with Uruguay at second place(15 times winners). Uruguay's most recent Copa America win was in 2011.

====CONCACAF Gold Cup====

This is the main competition in the CONCACAF region. Mexico currently holds the record for most wins with 8 titles. They are followed by the United States, the most recent champions, with 6 titles and Canada with 1. There is no fixed interval for this, also.

====OFC Nations Cup====

The OFC Nations Cup is an international association football tournament held among the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) member nations. It was held every two years from 1996 to 2004; before 1996 there were two other tournaments held at irregular intervals, under the name Oceania Nations Cup. No competition was held in 2006, but in the 2008 edition, which also acted as a qualification tournament for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup and for a play-off for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the New Zealand national football team emerged as winners.

==Club competitions==
A football club or a soccer league of a certain country consists for small leagues as shown in The Leagues and Teams. These teams are known as football clubs. Here is a list of major '''club competitions'''.

===The World===

====FIFA Club World Cup====

Known as Intercontinental Cup before 2000, this is the only title which consists of the best top clubs from all six confederational titles (only four described below). The latest title was won by Chelsea in 2025. The record for then most FIFA Club world Cup titles goes to Real Madrid(5 times winners)

====UEFA Champions League and Europa league====

The biggest clash of the European league winners, the Champions League. 32 teams qualify for a round robin, then 16 qualify from each group, then quarter-finals, the semi-finals and then the finals.

Another major trophy, the Europa League, comprises 48 teams just like the Europa League, alas, third-place champion league teams join the tie for the progression of the round of 16, quarter, semis and finals. 

Paris Saint German are the current Champions League title holders, whilst Tottenham Hotspur are the current Europa League title holders (2025). 

Real Madrid CF currently holds the most Champions League titles: 15.&lt;br /&gt;
====AFC Champions League====

The AFC Champions League, commonly known as the Asian Champions League, is an annual continental club football competition organized by the Asian Football Confederation. Introduced in 2002, the competition is a continuation of the Asian Club Championship which had started in 1967.

====CAF Champions League====

The CAF Champions League is not as prestigious as the UEFA's. It is also played like the UEFA's but instead 8 teams are in a group phase after a lot of qualifying leg rounds. The latest champions were Mamelodi Sundowns of South Africa in 2016, with this being their first trophy and their second appearance in the final since 2001. The winner of the competition qualifies for the FIFA World  Club  Cup. The most dominant side in the competition are Al-Ahly with 7 titles, closely followed by local Egyptian rivals Al-Zamalek with 5 titles.

====CONMEBOL Copa Libertadores====

The most watched national clubs' league other than UEFA as it is also prestigious like the UEFA's. As of 2018-2019 the current champions are River Plate from Argentina.

====CONCACAF Champions League====

The CONCACAF Champions League is an annual continental club football competition organized by CONCACAF for the top football clubs in North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. The winner of the CONCACAF Champions League qualifies for the FIFA Club World Cup. The tournament is officially known as the Scotiabank CONCACAF Champions League, since February 2015, due to sponsorship by Scotiabank.

====OFC Champions League====

The OFC Champions League, also known as the O-League, is the premier men's club football competition in Oceania. It is organized by the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC), Oceania's football governing body. It has been organized since 2007 under the current format, following its predecessor, the Oceania Club Championship. Twelve OFC Champions League titles have been won by teams from New Zealand, with Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia being the only Pacific nations to have won the competition.


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    <title>Greek Mythology/Gods/Poseidon</title>
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      <text bytes="1451" sha1="m8neto37qbh1qs7pvaeh40ohjdl1mvr" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Poseidon (PSF).png|thumb|upright|Drawing depicting Poseidon holding a trident]]Poseidon (In Greek: Ποσειδῶν, known as Neptune to the Romans) was considered as the god of theBorn of Chronos and Rhea, he had Zeus and Pluto (Hades) for brothers. Poseidon also had three sisters: Hestia, Hera, and Demeter. When Zeus overthrew their father, and the three brothers divided the earth among them, Poseidon became the god of the sea and earthquakes and thunder.  
===Origin of the Horse===
When Poseidon desired Hestia, she asked Poseidon to create the world's most beautiful animal in an attempt to cool off his advances. As a result, Poseidon created the first horse and also became the God of horses. In some versions of this story, several other types of animals were created before the horse as a result of Poseidon's several unsuccessful attempts. By the time the horse was created, Poseidon's passion for Hestia had longed.
===Symbolism===
The symbol Poseidon is associated with is the trident, a weapon which can shake the Earth and shatter any object. Poseidon is often depicted sitting next to his wife, Amphitrite, in his sea chariot pulled by sea creatures.
===Depiction===
{{Clear}}
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
File:Poseidon Dionysos Zeus neck-amphora Nationalmuseet n2.jpg| Hi 
File:Affreschi romani - nettuno anfitrine - pompei.JPG|Roman mural of Neptune recovered from Pompeii.
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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      <text bytes="1493" sha1="22qrm5h6ec6whdicg16j1q4eg8rvp5k" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Poseidon (PSF).png|thumb|upright|Drawing depicting Poseidon holding a trident]]Poseidon (In Greek: Ποσειδῶν, known as Neptune to the Romans) was considered as the god of the ocean. Born of Chronos and Rhea, he had Zeus and Pluto (Hades) for brothers. Poseidon also had three sisters: Hestia, Hera, and Demeter. When Zeus overthrew their father, and the three brothers divided the earth among them, Poseidon became the god of the sea and earthquakes and thunder.  
===Origin of the Horse===
When Poseidon desired Hestia, she asked Poseidon to create the world's most beautiful animal in an attempt to cool off his advances. As a result, Poseidon created the first horse and also became the God of horses. In some versions of this story, several other types of animals were created before the horse as a result of Poseidon's several unsuccessful attempts. By the time the horse was created, Poseidon's passion for Hestia had longed.
===Symbolism===
The symbol Poseidon is associated with is the trident, a weapon which can shake the Earth and shatter any object. Poseidon is often depicted sitting next to his wife, Amphitrite, in his sea chariot pulled by sea creatures.
===Depiction===
{{Clear}}
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
File:Poseidon Dionysos Zeus neck-amphora Nationalmuseet n2.jpg|Poseidon as depicted on Greek pottery.
File:Affreschi romani - nettuno anfitrine - pompei.JPG|Roman mural of Neptune recovered from Pompeii.
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    <title>Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Cognitive Psychology and the Brain</title>
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      <text bytes="19474" sha1="2wgidlngva8ipedjzainvhtep3vxcqi" xml:space="preserve">Imagine the following situation: A young man, let’s call him Kairo, is sitting at his desk, reading some sheets which he needs to complete a [[psychology]] assignment. In his right hand he holds a cup of coffee. With his left one he reaches for a bag of sweets without removing the focus of his eyes from the paper. Suddenly he stares up to the ceiling of his room and asks himself:
“What is happening here?”

Probably everybody had experiences like the one described above. Even though at first sight there is nothing exciting happening in this everyday situation, a lot of what is going on here is very interesting particularly for researchers and students in the field of Cognitive Psychology. They are involved in the study of lots of incredibly fascinating processes which we are not aware of in the situation above. Roughly speaking, an analysis of Kairo's  situation by Cognitive Psychologists would look like this:

Kairo has a problem; he really needs to do his assignment. To solve this problem, he has to perform loads of cognition. The light reaching his eyes is transduced into electrical signals traveling through several stations to his visual cortex. Meanwhile, complex nets of neurons filter the information flow and compute contrast, color, patterns, positions in space, motion of the objects in Kairo's environment. Stains and lines on the screen become words; words get meaning; the meaning is put into context; analyzed on its relevance for Kairo's problem and finally maybe stored in some part of his memory. At the same time an appetite for sweets is creeping from Kairo's [[w:Hypothalamus|hypothalamus]], a part of the brain responsible for controlling the needs of an organism. This appetite finally causes Kairo to reach out for the sweets .

Now, let us take a look into the past to see how Cognitive Psychology developed it's terminology and methods to interpret ourselves on the basis of brain, behavior and theory.

==History of Cognitive Psychology==

Early thinkers claimed that knowledge was stored in the brain.

===Renaissance and Beyond===

Renaissance philosophers of the 17th Century generally agreed with Nativists and even tried to show the structure and functions of the brain graphically. But empiricist philosophers also had very important ideas. According to [[w:David Hume|David Hume]], the internal representations of knowledge are formed obeying particular rules. These creations and transformations take effort and time. Actually, this is the basis of much current research in Cognitive Psychology. In the 19th Century [[w:Wilhelm Wundt|Wilhelm Wundt]] and [[w:Donders|Franciscus Cornelis Donders]] did some experiments measuring the reaction time required for a response, of which further interpretation gave rise to Cognitive Psychology 55 years later.

===20th Century and the Cognitive Revolution===

During the first half of the 20th Century, a radical turn in the investigation of cognition took place. Behaviourists like [[w:B. F. Skinner|Burrhus Frederic Skinner]] claimed that mental internal operations - such as attention, memory, and thinking - are only hypothetical constructs that cannot be observed or proven.  Therefore, behaviourists asserted, mental constructs are not as important or relevant as the study and experimental analysis of behaviour (directly observable data) in response to some stimulus. According to Watson and Skinner, man could be objectively studied only in this way. The popularity of Behaviourist theory in the psychological world led to the investigation of mental events and processes being abandoned for about 50 years.

In the 1950s scientific interest returned again to attention, memory, images, language processing, thinking and consciousness. The “failure” of Behaviourism heralded a new period in the investigation of cognition, called the [[w:Cognitive revolution|Cognitive Revolution]]. This was characterized by a revival of already existing theories and the rise of new ideas such as various communication theories. These theories emerged mainly from the previously created Information Theory, giving rise to experiments in signal detection and attention in order to form a theoretical and practical understanding of communication.

Modern linguists suggested new theories on language and grammar structure, which were correlated with cognitive processes. [[w:Chomsky|Chomsky’s]] Generative Grammar and Universal Grammar theory, proposed language hierarchy, and his critique of Skinner’s “Verbal Behaviour” are all milestones in the history of Cognitive Science. Theories of Memory and models of its organization gave rise to models of other cognitive processes. Computer science, especially artificial intelligence, re-examined basic theories of problem solving, the processing and storage of memory, and language processing and acquisition.

'''For clarification: Further discussion on the &quot;Behaviourist&quot; history.'''

Although the above account reflects the most common version of the rise and fall of Behaviourism, it is a misrepresentation. In order to better understand the founding of cognitive psychology it must be understood in an accurate historical context. Theoretical disagreements exist in every science. However, these disagreements should be based on an honest interpretation of the opposing view. There is a general tendency to draw a false equivalence between Skinner and Watson. It is true that Watson rejected the role that mental or conscious events played in the behaviour of humans. In hindsight this was an error. However, if we examine the historical context of Watson's position we can better understand why he went to such extremes. He, like many young psychologists of the time, was growing frustrated with the lack of practical progress in psychological science. The focus on consciousness was yielding inconsistent, unreliable and conflicting data. Excited by the progress coming from Pavlov's work with elicited responses and looking to the natural sciences for inspiration, Watson rejected the study of observable mental events and also pushed psychology to study stimulus-response relations as a means to better understand human behaviour. This new school of psychology, &quot;Behaviourism&quot; became very popular. Skinner's school of thought, although inspired by Watson, takes a very different approach to the study of unobservable mental events. Skinner proposed that the distinction between &quot;mind&quot; and &quot;body&quot; brought with it irreconcilable philosophical baggage. He proposed that the events going on &quot;within the skin&quot;, previously referred to as mental events, be called private events. This would bring the private experiences of thinking, reasoning, feeling and such, back into the scientific fold of psychology. However, Skinner proposed that these were things we are doing rather than events going on in a theoretical mental place. For Skinner, the question was not whether a mental world existed or not, it was whether or not we need to appeal to the existence of a mental world in order to explain the things going on inside our heads. Similarly, the natural sciences ask whether we need to assume the existence of a creator in order to account for phenomena in the natural world. For Skinner, it was an error for psychologists to point to these private (mental) events as causes of behaviour. Instead, he suggested that these too had to be explained through the study of how one evolves as a matter of experience. For example, we could say that a student studies because she &quot;expects&quot; to do better on an exam if she does. To &quot;expect&quot; might sound like an acceptable explanation for the behaviour of studying, however, Skinner would ask WHY she &quot;expects&quot;. The answer to this question would yield the true explanation of why the student is studying. To &quot;expect&quot; is to do something, to behave &quot;in our head&quot;, and thus must also be explained.

The cognitive psychologist Henry Roediger pointed out that many psychologists erroneously subscribe to the version of psychology presented in the first paragraph. He also pointed to the successful rebuttal against Chomsky's review of Verbal Behaviour. The evidence for the utility in Skinner's book can be seen in the abundance of actionable data it has generated, therapies unmatched by any modern linguistic account of language. Roediger reminded his readers that in fact, we all measure behaviour, some simply choose to make more assumptions about it's origins than others. He recalls how, even as a cognitive psychologist, he has been the focus of criticism for not making more assumptions about his data. The Law of Parsimony tells us that when choosing an explanation for a set of data about observable behavior (the data all psychologists collect), we must be careful not to make assumptions beyond those necessary to explain the data. This is where the main division lies between modern day behaviour analysts and cognitive psychologists. It is not in the rejection of our private experiences, it is in how these experiences are studied. Behaviour analysts study them in relation to our learning history and the brain correlations of that history. They use this information to design environments that change our private experience by changing our interaction with the world. After all, it is through our interaction with our relative world that our private experiences evolve. It is a far cry from the mechanical stimulus-response psychology of John Watson. Academic honesty requires that we make a good faith effort to understand that which we wish to criticize. Henry Roediger pointed out that many psychologists understand a very stereotyped, erroneous version of psychology's history. In doing so they miss the many successful real world applications that Skinner's analysis has generated.

Neuroinformatics, which is based on the natural structure of the human nervous system, tries to build neuronal structures by the idea of artificial neurons. In addition to that, Neuroinformatics is used as a field of evidence for psychological models, for example models for memory. The artificial neuron network “learns” words and behaves like real neurons in the brain. If the results of the artificial neuron network are quite similar to the results of real memory experiments, it would support the model. In this way psychological models can be tested. Furthermore it would help to build artificial neuron networks which posses similar skills to humans, such as face recognition.

If more about the ways humans process information was understood, it would be much simpler to build artificial structures which have the same or similar abilities. This area of cognitive development investigation tried to describe how children develop their cognitive abilities from infancy to adolescence. The theories of knowledge representation were first strongly concerned with sensory inputs. Current scientists claim to have evidence that our internal representation of reality is not a one-to-one reproduction of the physical world. It is rather stored in some abstract or neurochemical code. Tolman, Bartlett, Norman and Rumelhart made some experiments on cognitive mapping. Here, the inner knowledge seemed not only to be related to sensory input, but also to be modified by some kind of knowledge network modeled by past experience.

Newer methods, like [[w:Electroencephalography|Electroencephalography (EEG)]] and [[w:fmri|functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)]] have given researchers the ability to measure brain activity and possibly correlate it to mental states and processes. All these new approaches in the study of human cognition and psychology have defined the field of Cognitive Psychology, a fascinating field which tries to answer what is quite possibly the most interesting question posed since the dawn of reason. There is still a lot to discover, and to answer and to ask again, but first we want to make you more familiar with the concept of Cognitive Psychology.

==What is Cognitive Psychology?==

The easiest answer to this question is: “Cognitive Psychology is the study of thinking and the processes underlying mental events.” Of course this creates the new problem of what a mental event actually is. There are many possible answers for this:

Let us look at Knut again to give you some more examples and make the things clearer. He needs to focus on reading his paper. So all his attention is directed at the words and sentences which he perceives through his visual pathways. Other stimuli and information that enter his cognitive apparatus - maybe some street noise or the fly crawling along a window - are not that relevant in this moment and are therefore attended much less. Many higher cognitive abilities are also subject to investigation. Knut’s situation could be explained as a classical example of problem solving: He needs to get from his present state – an unfinished assignment – to a goal state - a completed assignment - and has certain operators to achieve that goal. Both Knut’s short and long term memory are active. He needs his short term memory to integrate what he is reading with the information from earlier passages of the paper. His long term memory helps him remember what he learned in the lectures he took and what he read in other books. And of course Knut’s ability to comprehend language enables him to make sense of the letters printed on the paper and to relate the sentences in a proper way.

This situation can be considered to reflect mental events like perception, comprehension and memory storage. Some scientists think that our emotions cannot be considered separate from cognition, so that hate, love, fear or joy are also sometimes looked at as part
of our individual minds. Cognitive psychologists study questions like: How do we receive information about the outside world? How do we store it and process it? How do we solve problems? How is language represented? 

Cognitive Psychology is a field of psychology that learns and researches about mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment. The mainstay of cognitive psychology is the idea where sensation and perception are both different issues.

==Relations to Neuroscience==

===Cognitive Neuropsychology===

Of course it would be very convenient if we could understand the nature of cognition without the nature of the brain itself. But unfortunately it is very difficult if not impossible to build and prove theories about our thinking in absence of neurobiological constraints. Neuroscience comprises the study of neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, brain functions and related psychological and computer based models. For years, investigations on a neuronal level were completely separated from those on a cognitive or psychological level. The thinking process is so vast and complex that there are too many conceivable solutions to the problem of how cognitive operation could be accomplished.

Neurobiological data provide physical evidence for a theoretical approach to the investigation of cognition. Therefore it narrows the research area and makes it much more exact. The correlation between brain pathology and behaviour supports scientists in their research. It has been known for a long time that different types of brain damage, traumas, lesions, and tumours affect behaviour and cause changes in some mental functions. The rise of new technologies allows us to see and investigate brain structures and processes never seen before. This provides us with a lot of information and material to build simulation models which help us to understand processes in our mind. As neuroscience is not always able to explain all the observations made in laboratories, neurobiologists turn towards Cognitive Psychology in order to find models of brain and behaviour on an interdisciplinary level – Cognitive Neuropsychology. This “inter-science” as a bridge connects and integrates the two most important domains and their methods of research of the human
mind. Research at one level provides constraints, correlations and inspirations for research at another level.

===Neuroanatomy Basics===

The basic building blocks of the brain are a special sort of cells called [[w:Neuron|neurons]]. There are approximately 100 billion neurons involved in information processing in the brain. When we look at the brain superficially, we can't see these neurons, but rather look at two halves called the [[w:Cerebral hemisphere|hemispheres]]. The hemispheres themselves may differ in size and function, as we will see later
in the book, but principally each of them can be subdivided into four parts called the lobes: the [[w:Temporal lobe|temporal]], [[w:Parietal lobe|parietal]], [[w:Occipital lobe|occipital]] and [[w:Frontal lobe|frontal lobe]]. This division of modern neuroscience is supported by the up- and down-bulging structure of the brain's surface. The bulges are called gyri (singular gyrus), the creases sulci (singular sulcus). They are also involved in information processing. The different tasks performed by different subdivisions of the brain as attention,
memory and language cannot be viewed as separated from each other, nevertheless some parts play a key role in a specific task. For example the parietal lobe has been shown to be responsible for orientation in space and the relation you have to it, the occipital lobe is mainly responsible for visual perception and imagination etc. Summed up, brain anatomy poses some basic constraints to what is possible for us and a better understanding will help us to find better therapies for cognitive deficits as well as guide research for cognitive psychologists. It is one goal of our book to present the complex interactions between the different levels on which the brain that can be described, and their implications for Cognitive Neuropsychology.

===Methods===

Newer methods, like EEG and fMRI etc. allow researchers to correlate the behaviour of a participant in an experiment with the brain activity which is measured simultaneously. It is possible to record neurophysiological responses to certain stimuli or to find out which brain areas are involved in the execution of certain mental tasks. EEG measures the electric potentials along the skull through electrodes that are attached to a cap. While its spatial resolution is not very precise, the temporal
resolution lies within the range of milliseconds. The use of fMRI benefits from the fact the increased brain activity goes along with increased blood flow in the active region. The [[w:Haemoglobin|haemoglobin]] in the blood has magnetic properties that are registered by the fMRI scanner. The spatial resolution of fMRI is very precise in comparison to EEG. On the other hand, the temporal resolution is in the range of just 1–2 seconds.

==Conclusion==

Remember the scenario described at the beginning of the chapter. Knut was asking himself “What is happening here?” It should have become clear that this question cannot be simply answered with one or two sentences. We have seen that the field of Cognitive Psychology comprises a lot of processes and phenomena of which every single one is subject to extensive research to understand how cognitive abilities are produced by our brain. In the following chapters of this WikiBook you will see how the different areas of research in Cognitive Psychology are trying to solve the initial question raised by Knut.

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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D07x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TROMIKOSYNAGMA|&amp;#x1d070;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL PSIFISTOSYNAGMA|&amp;#x1d071;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGOSYNTHETON|&amp;#x1d072;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARGOSYNTHETON|&amp;#x1d073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ETERON ARGOSYNTHETON|&amp;#x1d074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL OYRANISMA NEO|&amp;#x1d075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMATISMOS ESO|&amp;#x1d076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMATISMOS EXO|&amp;#x1d077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THEMA APLOUN|&amp;#x1d078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL THES KAI APOTHES|&amp;#x1d079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KATAVASMA|&amp;#x1d07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ENDOFONON|&amp;#x1d07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFEN KATO|&amp;#x1d07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFEN ANO|&amp;#x1d07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL STAVROS|&amp;#x1d07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KLASMA ANO|&amp;#x1d07f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D08x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIPLI ARCHAION|&amp;#x1d080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMA ARCHAION|&amp;#x1d081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMA ALLO|&amp;#x1d082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KRATIMA NEO|&amp;#x1d083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APODERMA NEO|&amp;#x1d084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APLI|&amp;#x1d085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIPLI|&amp;#x1d086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIPLI|&amp;#x1d087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TETRAPLI|&amp;#x1d088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KORONIS|&amp;#x1d089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA ENOS CHRONOU|&amp;#x1d08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA DYO CHRONON|&amp;#x1d08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA TRION CHRONON|&amp;#x1d08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA TESSARON CHRONON|&amp;#x1d08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL LEIMMA IMISEOS CHRONOU|&amp;#x1d08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON NEO ANO|&amp;#x1d08f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D09x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON PARESTIGMENON ARISTERA|&amp;#x1d090;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON PARESTIGMENON DEXIA|&amp;#x1d091;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON|&amp;#x1d092;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON PARESTIGMENON ARISTERA KATO|&amp;#x1d093;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON PARESTIGMENON ARISTERA ANO|&amp;#x1d094;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGORGON PARESTIGMENON DEXIA|&amp;#x1d095;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIGORGON|&amp;#x1d096;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARGON|&amp;#x1d097;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIDIARGON|&amp;#x1d098;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIARGON|&amp;#x1d099;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI POLI ARGI|&amp;#x1d09a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI ARGOTERI|&amp;#x1d09b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI ARGI|&amp;#x1d09c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI METRIA|&amp;#x1d09d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI MESI|&amp;#x1d09e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI GORGI|&amp;#x1d09f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D0Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI GORGOTERI|&amp;#x1d0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL AGOGI POLI GORGI|&amp;#x1d0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PROTOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA ALLI PROTOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA DEYTEROS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA ALLI DEYTEROS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TRITOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TRIFONIAS|&amp;#x1d0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TETARTOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA TETARTOS LEGETOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA LEGETOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PLAGIOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ISAKIA TELOUS ICHIMATOS|&amp;#x1d0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL APOSTROFOI TELOUS ICHIMATOS|&amp;#x1d0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FANEROSIS TETRAFONIAS|&amp;#x1d0ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FANEROSIS MONOFONIAS|&amp;#x1d0af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D0Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FANEROSIS DIFONIAS|&amp;#x1d0b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA VARYS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PROTOVARYS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL MARTYRIA PLAGIOS TETARTOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORTHMIKON N APLOUN|&amp;#x1d0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORTHMIKON N DIPLOUN|&amp;#x1d0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ENARXIS KAI FTHORA VOU|&amp;#x1d0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIFONON|&amp;#x1d0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL IMIFTHORON|&amp;#x1d0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA ARCHAION DEYTEROU ICHOU|&amp;#x1d0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI PA|&amp;#x1d0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI NANA|&amp;#x1d0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA NAOS ICHOS|&amp;#x1d0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI DI|&amp;#x1d0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA SKLIRON DIATONON DI|&amp;#x1d0be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI KE|&amp;#x1d0bf;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D0Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI ZO|&amp;#x1d0c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI NI KATO|&amp;#x1d0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA DIATONIKI NI ANO|&amp;#x1d0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA MALAKON CHROMA DIFONIAS|&amp;#x1d0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA MALAKON CHROMA MONOFONIAS|&amp;#x1d0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FHTORA SKLIRON CHROMA VASIS|&amp;#x1d0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA SKLIRON CHROMA SYNAFI|&amp;#x1d0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA NENANO|&amp;#x1d0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHROA ZYGOS|&amp;#x1d0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHROA KLITON|&amp;#x1d0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL CHROA SPATHI|&amp;#x1d0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA I YFESIS TETARTIMORION|&amp;#x1d0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL FTHORA ENARMONIOS ANTIFONIA|&amp;#x1d0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS TRITIMORION|&amp;#x1d0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS TRITIMORION|&amp;#x1d0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS TETARTIMORION|&amp;#x1d0cf;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D0Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS APLI DYO DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS MONOGRAMMOS TESSERA DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS DIGRAMMOS EX DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIESIS TRIGRAMMOS OKTO DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS APLI DYO DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS MONOGRAMMOS TESSERA DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS DIGRAMMOS EX DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL YFESIS TRIGRAMMOS OKTO DODEKATA|&amp;#x1d0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GENIKI DIESIS|&amp;#x1d0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GENIKI YFESIS|&amp;#x1d0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI APLI MIKRI|&amp;#x1d0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI APLI MEGALI|&amp;#x1d0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI DIPLI|&amp;#x1d0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIASTOLI THESEOS|&amp;#x1d0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS|&amp;#x1d0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS DISIMOU|&amp;#x1d0df;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D0Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS TRISIMOU|&amp;#x1d0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS THESEOS TETRASIMOU|&amp;#x1d0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS|&amp;#x1d0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS DISIMOU|&amp;#x1d0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS TRISIMOU|&amp;#x1d0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL SIMANSIS ARSEOS TETRASIMOU|&amp;#x1d0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGRAMMA GG|&amp;#x1d0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL DIFTOGGOS OU|&amp;#x1d0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL STIGMA|&amp;#x1d0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO PA|&amp;#x1d0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO VOU|&amp;#x1d0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO GA|&amp;#x1d0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO DI|&amp;#x1d0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO KE|&amp;#x1d0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO ZO|&amp;#x1d0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL ARKTIKO NI|&amp;#x1d0ef;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D0Fx
|style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA NEO MESO|&amp;#x1d0f0;}}||style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMA NEO MESO|&amp;#x1d0f1;}}||style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMATA NEO KATO|&amp;#x1d0f2;}}||style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KENTIMA NEO KATO|&amp;#x1d0f3;}}||style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL KLASMA KATO|&amp;#x1d0f4;}}||style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|BYZANTINE MUSICAL SYMBOL GORGON NEO KATO|&amp;#x1d0f5;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Musical Symbols'''
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!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D10x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SINGLE BARLINE|&amp;#x1d100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE BARLINE|&amp;#x1d101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINAL BARLINE|&amp;#x1d102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSE FINAL BARLINE|&amp;#x1d103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DASHED BARLINE|&amp;#x1d104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHORT BARLINE|&amp;#x1d105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LEFT REPEAT SIGN|&amp;#x1d106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL RIGHT REPEAT SIGN|&amp;#x1d107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEAT DOTS|&amp;#x1d108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DAL SEGNO|&amp;#x1d109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DA CAPO|&amp;#x1d10a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEGNO|&amp;#x1d10b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CODA|&amp;#x1d10c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEATED FIGURE-1|&amp;#x1d10d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEATED FIGURE-2|&amp;#x1d10e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REPEATED FIGURE-3|&amp;#x1d10f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D11x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FERMATA|&amp;#x1d110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FERMATA BELOW|&amp;#x1d111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREATH MARK|&amp;#x1d112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CAESURA|&amp;#x1d113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BRACE|&amp;#x1d114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BRACKET|&amp;#x1d115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE-LINE STAFF|&amp;#x1d116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TWO-LINE STAFF|&amp;#x1d117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL THREE-LINE STAFF|&amp;#x1d118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FOUR-LINE STAFF|&amp;#x1d119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FIVE-LINE STAFF|&amp;#x1d11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIX-LINE STAFF|&amp;#x1d11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIX-STRING FRETBOARD|&amp;#x1d11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FOUR-STRING FRETBOARD|&amp;#x1d11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF|&amp;#x1d11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OTTAVA ALTA|&amp;#x1d11f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D12x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OTTAVA BASSA|&amp;#x1d120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL C CLEF|&amp;#x1d121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF|&amp;#x1d122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF OTTAVA ALTA|&amp;#x1d123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF OTTAVA BASSA|&amp;#x1d124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DRUM CLEF-1|&amp;#x1d125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DRUM CLEF-2|&amp;#x1d126;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STRESS|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d127;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING UNSTRESS|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d128;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ffab&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MULTIPLE MEASURE REST|&amp;#x1d129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE SHARP|&amp;#x1d12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE FLAT|&amp;#x1d12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT UP|&amp;#x1d12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT DOWN|&amp;#x1d12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NATURAL UP|&amp;#x1d12e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NATURAL DOWN|&amp;#x1d12f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D13x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHARP UP|&amp;#x1d130;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHARP DOWN|&amp;#x1d131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER TONE SHARP|&amp;#x1d132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER TONE FLAT|&amp;#x1d133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMMON TIME|&amp;#x1d134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CUT TIME|&amp;#x1d135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL OTTAVA ALTA|&amp;#x1d136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL OTTAVA BASSA|&amp;#x1d137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUINDICESIMA ALTA|&amp;#x1d138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUINDICESIMA BASSA|&amp;#x1d139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MULTI REST|&amp;#x1d13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL WHOLE REST|&amp;#x1d13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF REST|&amp;#x1d13c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER REST|&amp;#x1d13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL EIGHTH REST|&amp;#x1d13e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTEENTH REST|&amp;#x1d13f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D14x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL THIRTY-SECOND REST|&amp;#x1d140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTY-FOURTH REST|&amp;#x1d141;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE HUNDRED TWENTY-EIGHTH REST|&amp;#x1d142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL X NOTEHEAD|&amp;#x1d143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PLUS NOTEHEAD|&amp;#x1d144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CIRCLE X NOTEHEAD|&amp;#x1d145;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE NOTEHEAD WHITE|&amp;#x1d146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE NOTEHEAD BLACK|&amp;#x1d147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP WHITE|&amp;#x1d148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP BLACK|&amp;#x1d149;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD LEFT WHITE|&amp;#x1d14a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD LEFT BLACK|&amp;#x1d14b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD RIGHT WHITE|&amp;#x1d14c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD RIGHT BLACK|&amp;#x1d14d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD DOWN WHITE|&amp;#x1d14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD DOWN BLACK|&amp;#x1d14f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D15x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP RIGHT WHITE|&amp;#x1d150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE NOTEHEAD UP RIGHT BLACK|&amp;#x1d151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MOON NOTEHEAD WHITE|&amp;#x1d152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MOON NOTEHEAD BLACK|&amp;#x1d153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE-ROUND NOTEHEAD DOWN WHITE|&amp;#x1d154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGLE-ROUND NOTEHEAD DOWN BLACK|&amp;#x1d155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PARENTHESIS NOTEHEAD|&amp;#x1d156;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL VOID NOTEHEAD|&amp;#x1d157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NOTEHEAD BLACK|&amp;#x1d158;}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NULL NOTEHEAD|&amp;#x1d159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLUSTER NOTEHEAD WHITE|&amp;#x1d15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLUSTER NOTEHEAD BLACK|&amp;#x1d15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREVE|&amp;#x1d15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL WHOLE NOTE|&amp;#x1d15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF NOTE|&amp;#x1d15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL QUARTER NOTE|&amp;#x1d15f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D16x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL EIGHTH NOTE|&amp;#x1d160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTEENTH NOTE|&amp;#x1d161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL THIRTY-SECOND NOTE|&amp;#x1d162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SIXTY-FOURTH NOTE|&amp;#x1d163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE HUNDRED TWENTY-EIGHTH NOTE|&amp;#x1d164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STEM|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING SPRECHGESANG STEM|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-1|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-2|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-3|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d169;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-1|&amp;#x1d16a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-2|&amp;#x1d16b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-3|&amp;#x1d16c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING AUGMENTATION DOT|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d16d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-1|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d16e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-2|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d16f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D17x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-3|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-4|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-5|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d172;}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN BEAM|[BEGIN&lt;br /&gt;BEAM]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END BEAM|[END&lt;br /&gt;BEAM]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN TIE|[BEGIN&lt;br /&gt;TIE]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END TIE|[END&lt;br /&gt;TIE]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN SLUR|[BEGIN&lt;br /&gt;SLUR]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END SLUR|[END&lt;br /&gt;SLUR]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BEGIN PHRASE|[BEGIN&lt;br /&gt;PHR.]}}||style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END PHRASE|[END&lt;br /&gt;PHR.]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING ACCENT|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d17b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STACCATO|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TENUTO|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STACCATISSIMO|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d17e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING MARCATO|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d17f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D18x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING MARCATO-STACCATO|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING ACCENT-STACCATO|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING LOURE|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ARPEGGIATO UP|&amp;#x1d183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ARPEGGIATO DOWN|&amp;#x1d184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING DOIT|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING RIP|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLIP|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING SMEAR|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING BEND|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d189;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING DOUBLE TONGUE|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d18a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TRIPLE TONGUE|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d18b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL RINFORZANDO|&amp;#x1d18c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SUBITO|&amp;#x1d18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL Z|&amp;#x1d18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PIANO|&amp;#x1d18f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D19x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MEZZO|&amp;#x1d190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FORTE|&amp;#x1d191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CRESCENDO|&amp;#x1d192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DECRESCENDO|&amp;#x1d193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GRACE NOTE SLASH|&amp;#x1d194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GRACE NOTE NO SLASH|&amp;#x1d195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TR|&amp;#x1d196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TURN|&amp;#x1d197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL INVERTED TURN|&amp;#x1d198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TURN SLASH|&amp;#x1d199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TURN UP|&amp;#x1d19a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-1|&amp;#x1d19b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-2|&amp;#x1d19c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-3|&amp;#x1d19d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-4|&amp;#x1d19e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-5|&amp;#x1d19f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D1Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-6|&amp;#x1d1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-7|&amp;#x1d1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-8|&amp;#x1d1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-9|&amp;#x1d1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-10|&amp;#x1d1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORNAMENT STROKE-11|&amp;#x1d1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HAUPTSTIMME|&amp;#x1d1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NEBENSTIMME|&amp;#x1d1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL END OF STIMME|&amp;#x1d1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DEGREE SLASH|&amp;#x1d1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING DOWN BOW|&amp;#x1d1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING UP BOW|&amp;#x1d1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING HARMONIC|&amp;#x1d1ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING SNAP PIZZICATO|&amp;#x1d1ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PEDAL MARK|&amp;#x1d1ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PEDAL UP MARK|&amp;#x1d1af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D1Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF PEDAL MARK|&amp;#x1d1b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GLISSANDO UP|&amp;#x1d1b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GLISSANDO DOWN|&amp;#x1d1b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL WITH FINGERNAILS|&amp;#x1d1b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DAMP|&amp;#x1d1b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DAMP ALL|&amp;#x1d1b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MAXIMA|&amp;#x1d1b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA|&amp;#x1d1b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREVIS|&amp;#x1d1b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIBREVIS WHITE|&amp;#x1d1b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIBREVIS BLACK|&amp;#x1d1ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MINIMA|&amp;#x1d1bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MINIMA BLACK|&amp;#x1d1bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIMINIMA WHITE|&amp;#x1d1bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIMINIMA BLACK|&amp;#x1d1be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FUSA WHITE|&amp;#x1d1bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D1Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FUSA BLACK|&amp;#x1d1c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA PERFECTA REST|&amp;#x1d1c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA IMPERFECTA REST|&amp;#x1d1c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL BREVIS REST|&amp;#x1d1c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIBREVIS REST|&amp;#x1d1c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL MINIMA REST|&amp;#x1d1c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SEMIMINIMA REST|&amp;#x1d1c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS PERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE PERFECTA|&amp;#x1d1c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS PERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA|&amp;#x1d1c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS PERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE PERFECTA DIMINUTION-1|&amp;#x1d1c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE PERFECTA|&amp;#x1d1ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA|&amp;#x1d1cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA DIMINUTION-1|&amp;#x1d1cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA DIMINUTION-2|&amp;#x1d1cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TEMPUS IMPERFECTUM CUM PROLATIONE IMPERFECTA DIMINUTION-3|&amp;#x1d1ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CROIX|&amp;#x1d1cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D1Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GREGORIAN C CLEF|&amp;#x1d1d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL GREGORIAN F CLEF|&amp;#x1d1d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE B|&amp;#x1d1d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL VIRGA|&amp;#x1d1d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PODATUS|&amp;#x1d1d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLIVIS|&amp;#x1d1d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SCANDICUS|&amp;#x1d1d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CLIMACUS|&amp;#x1d1d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TORCULUS|&amp;#x1d1d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PORRECTUS|&amp;#x1d1d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PORRECTUS FLEXUS|&amp;#x1d1da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SCANDICUS FLEXUS|&amp;#x1d1db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TORCULUS RESUPINUS|&amp;#x1d1dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL PES SUBPUNCTIS|&amp;#x1d1dd;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN C CLEF|&amp;#x1d1de;}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN END OF PIECE|&amp;#x1d1df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D1Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN FINAL NOTE|&amp;#x1d1e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN RECITATIVE MARK|&amp;#x1d1e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN WHOLE NOTE|&amp;#x1d1e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN HALF NOTE|&amp;#x1d1e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN QUARTER NOTE STEM DOWN|&amp;#x1d1e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN QUARTER NOTE STEM UP|&amp;#x1d1e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN EIGHTH NOTE STEM DOWN|&amp;#x1d1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN EIGHTH NOTE STEM UP|&amp;#x1d1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KIEVAN FLAT SIGN|&amp;#x1d1e8;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SORI|&amp;#x1d1e9;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL KORON|&amp;#x1d1ea;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP|&amp;#x1d1eb;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE AND A HALF SHARP|&amp;#x1d1ec;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT|&amp;#x1d1ed;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT AND FLAT|&amp;#x1d1ee;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP UP|&amp;#x1d1ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D1Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP DOWN|&amp;#x1d1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE AND A HALF SHARP UP|&amp;#x1d1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE AND A HALF SHARP DOWN|&amp;#x1d1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT UP|&amp;#x1d1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT DOWN|&amp;#x1d1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT AND FLAT UP|&amp;#x1d1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL REVERSED FLAT AND FLAT DOWN|&amp;#x1d1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT TWO WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT FOUR WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT FIVE WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT SIX WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT SEVEN WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT NINE WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT FIVE WITH LOW STROKE|&amp;#x1d1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIGIT SEVEN WITH LOW STROKE|&amp;#x1d1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL LONGA REST|&amp;#x1d1ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Ancient Greek Musical Notation'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D20x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-1|&amp;#x1d200;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-2|&amp;#x1d201;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-3|&amp;#x1d202;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-4|&amp;#x1d203;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-5|&amp;#x1d204;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-6|&amp;#x1d205;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-7|&amp;#x1d206;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-8|&amp;#x1d207;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-9|&amp;#x1d208;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-10|&amp;#x1d209;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-11|&amp;#x1d20a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-12|&amp;#x1d20b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-13|&amp;#x1d20c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-14|&amp;#x1d20d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-15|&amp;#x1d20e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-16|&amp;#x1d20f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D21x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-17|&amp;#x1d210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-18|&amp;#x1d211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-19|&amp;#x1d212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-20|&amp;#x1d213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-21|&amp;#x1d214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-22|&amp;#x1d215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-23|&amp;#x1d216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-24|&amp;#x1d217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-50|&amp;#x1d218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-51|&amp;#x1d219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-52|&amp;#x1d21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-53|&amp;#x1d21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK VOCAL NOTATION SYMBOL-54|&amp;#x1d21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-1|&amp;#x1d21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-2|&amp;#x1d21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-4|&amp;#x1d21f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D22x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-5|&amp;#x1d220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-7|&amp;#x1d221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-8|&amp;#x1d222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-11|&amp;#x1d223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-12|&amp;#x1d224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-13|&amp;#x1d225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-14|&amp;#x1d226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-17|&amp;#x1d227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-18|&amp;#x1d228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-19|&amp;#x1d229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-23|&amp;#x1d22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-24|&amp;#x1d22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-25|&amp;#x1d22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-26|&amp;#x1d22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-27|&amp;#x1d22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-29|&amp;#x1d22f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D23x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-30|&amp;#x1d230;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-32|&amp;#x1d231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-36|&amp;#x1d232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-37|&amp;#x1d233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-38|&amp;#x1d234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-39|&amp;#x1d235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-40|&amp;#x1d236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-42|&amp;#x1d237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-43|&amp;#x1d238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-45|&amp;#x1d239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-47|&amp;#x1d23a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-48|&amp;#x1d23b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-49|&amp;#x1d23c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-50|&amp;#x1d23d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-51|&amp;#x1d23e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-52|&amp;#x1d23f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D24x
|style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-53|&amp;#x1d240;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK INSTRUMENTAL NOTATION SYMBOL-54|&amp;#x1d241;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GREEK MUSICAL TRISEME|&amp;#x1d242;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GREEK MUSICAL TETRASEME|&amp;#x1d243;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GREEK MUSICAL PENTASEME|&amp;#x1d244;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEK MUSICAL LEIMMA|&amp;#x1d245;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Musical Symbols Supplement'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D25x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-6|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d250;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-7|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d251;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING FLAG-8|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d252;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TWO HUNDRED FIFTY-SIXTH REST|&amp;#x1d253;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FIVE HUNDRED TWELFTH REST|&amp;#x1d254;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ONE THOUSAND TWENTY-
FOURTH REST|&amp;#x1d255;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d256;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT WITH DOUBLE STROKE|&amp;#x1d257;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FLAT WITH DOUBLE STEM|&amp;#x1d258;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HALF SHARP WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d259;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SHARP WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1d25a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-4|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d25b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING TREMOLO-5|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d25c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-4|&amp;#x1d25d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL FINGERED TREMOLO-5|&amp;#x1d25e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING BUZZ ROLL STEM|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d25f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D26x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIPLE FLAT|&amp;#x1d260;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SUSPENSION|&amp;#x1d261;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HEAVY DOUBLE BARLINE|&amp;#x1d262;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SYSTEM DIVIDER|&amp;#x1d263;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL NIENTE|&amp;#x1d264;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CRESCENDO WITH RING|&amp;#x1d265;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DECRESCENDO WITH RING|&amp;#x1d266;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD
WHOLE|&amp;#x1d267;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD
WHITE|&amp;#x1d268;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD
BLACK|&amp;#x1d269;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DIAMOND NOTEHEAD
HALF-FILLED|&amp;#x1d26a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TRIANGULAR
FERMATA|&amp;#x1d26b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE TRIANGULAR
FERMATA|&amp;#x1d26c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SQUARE FERMATA|&amp;#x1d26d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE SQUARE FERMATA|&amp;#x1d26e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HENZE LONG FERMATA|&amp;#x1d26f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D27x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL HENZE SHORT FERMATA|&amp;#x1d270;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL CURLEW|&amp;#x1d271;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL SALZEDO BREATH MARK|&amp;#x1d272;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORGAN PEDAL HEEL|&amp;#x1d273;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ORGAN PEDAL TOE|&amp;#x1d274;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OPTIONALLY
OTTAVA BASSA|&amp;#x1d275;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL DOUBLE G CLEF|&amp;#x1d276;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF OTTAVA BASSA
WITH C CLEF|&amp;#x1d277;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL C CLEF OTTAVA BASSA|&amp;#x1d278;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF QUINDICESIMA
ALTA|&amp;#x1d279;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL G CLEF QUINDICESIMA
BASSA|&amp;#x1d27a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF QUINDICESIMA
ALTA|&amp;#x1d279;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL F CLEF QUINDICESIMA
BASSA|&amp;#x1d27a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL C CLEF QUINDICESIMA
BASSA|&amp;#x1d27d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL TABLATURE CLEF|&amp;#x1d27e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL ARPEGGIATO UP WITH ARROW|&amp;#x1d27f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D28x
|style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STEM BOW BEHIND BRIDGE|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d280;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SYMBOL COMBINING STEM BOW ON TOP OF BRIDGE|&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x1d281;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D29x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D2Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D2Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Kaktovik Numerals'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D2Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL ZERO|&amp;#x1d2c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL ONE|&amp;#x1d2c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL TWO|&amp;#x1d2c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL THREE|&amp;#x1d2c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FOUR|&amp;#x1d2c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FIVE|&amp;#x1d2c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SIX|&amp;#x1d2c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SEVEN|&amp;#x1d2c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL EIGHT|&amp;#x1d2c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL NINE|&amp;#x1d2c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL TEN|&amp;#x1d2ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL ELEVEN|&amp;#x1d2cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL TWELVE|&amp;#x1d2cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL THIRTEEN|&amp;#x1d2cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FOURTEEN|&amp;#x1d2ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL FIFTEEN|&amp;#x1d2cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D2Dx
|style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SIXTEEN|&amp;#x1d2d0;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL SEVENTEEN|&amp;#x1d2d1;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL EIGHTTEEN|&amp;#x1d2d2;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAKTOVIK NUMERAL NINETEEN|&amp;#x1d2d3;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Mayan Numerals'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D2Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL ZERO|&amp;#x1d2e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL ONE|&amp;#x1d2e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL TWO|&amp;#x1d2e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL THREE|&amp;#x1d2e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FOUR|&amp;#x1d2e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FIVE|&amp;#x1d2e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SIX|&amp;#x1d2e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SEVEN|&amp;#x1d2e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL EIGHT|&amp;#x1d2e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL NINE|&amp;#x1d2e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL TEN|&amp;#x1d2ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL ELEVEN|&amp;#x1d2eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL TWELVE|&amp;#x1d2ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL THIRTEEN|&amp;#x1d2ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FOURTEEN|&amp;#x1d2ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL FIFTEEN|&amp;#x1d2ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D2Fx
|style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SIXTEEN|&amp;#x1d2f0;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL SEVENTEEN|&amp;#x1d2f1;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL EIGHTEEN|&amp;#x1d2f2;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAYAN NUMERAL NINETEEN|&amp;#x1d2f3;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Tai Xuan Jing Symbols'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D30x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MONOGRAM FOR EARTH|&amp;#x1d300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR HEAVENLY EARTH|&amp;#x1d301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR HUMAN EARTH|&amp;#x1d302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR EARTHLY HEAVEN|&amp;#x1d303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR EARTHLY HUMAN|&amp;#x1d304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGRAM FOR EARTH|&amp;#x1d305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CENTRE|&amp;#x1d306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FULL CIRCLE|&amp;#x1d307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR MIRED|&amp;#x1d308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR BARRIER|&amp;#x1d309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR KEEPING SMALL|&amp;#x1d30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONTRARIETY|&amp;#x1d30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ASCENT|&amp;#x1d30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR OPPOSITION|&amp;#x1d30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR BRANCHING OUT|&amp;#x1d30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DEFECTIVENESS OR DISTORTION|&amp;#x1d30f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D31x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIVERGENCE|&amp;#x1d310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR YOUTHFULNESS|&amp;#x1d311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR INCREASE|&amp;#x1d312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PENETRATION|&amp;#x1d313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR REACH|&amp;#x1d314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONTACT|&amp;#x1d315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR HOLDING BACK|&amp;#x1d316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR WAITING|&amp;#x1d317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FOLLOWING|&amp;#x1d318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ADVANCE|&amp;#x1d319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RELEASE|&amp;#x1d31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RESISTANCE|&amp;#x1d31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR EASE|&amp;#x1d31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR JOY|&amp;#x1d31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONTENTION|&amp;#x1d31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ENDEAVOUR|&amp;#x1d31f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D32x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DUTIES|&amp;#x1d320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CHANGE|&amp;#x1d321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DECISIVENESS|&amp;#x1d322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR BOLD RESOLUTION|&amp;#x1d323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PACKING|&amp;#x1d324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR LEGION|&amp;#x1d325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CLOSENESS|&amp;#x1d326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR KINSHIP|&amp;#x1d327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GATHERING|&amp;#x1d328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR STRENGTH|&amp;#x1d329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PURITY|&amp;#x1d32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FULLNESS|&amp;#x1d32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RESIDENCE|&amp;#x1d32c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR LAW OR MODEL|&amp;#x1d32d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RESPONSE|&amp;#x1d32e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GOING TO MEET|&amp;#x1d32f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D33x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ENCOUNTERS|&amp;#x1d330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR STOVE|&amp;#x1d331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GREATNESS|&amp;#x1d332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ENLARGEMENT|&amp;#x1d333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR PATTERN|&amp;#x1d334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR RITUAL|&amp;#x1d335;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FLIGHT|&amp;#x1d336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR VASTNESS OR WASTING|&amp;#x1d337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CONSTANCY|&amp;#x1d338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR MEASURE|&amp;#x1d339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ETERNITY|&amp;#x1d33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR UNITY|&amp;#x1d33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIMINISHMENT|&amp;#x1d33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CLOSED MOUTH|&amp;#x1d33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GUARDEDNESS|&amp;#x1d33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR GATHERING IN|&amp;#x1d33f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D34x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR MASSING|&amp;#x1d340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ACCUMULATION|&amp;#x1d341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR EMBELLISHMENT|&amp;#x1d342;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DOUBT|&amp;#x1d343;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR WATCH|&amp;#x1d344;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR SINKING|&amp;#x1d345;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR INNER|&amp;#x1d346;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DEPARTURE|&amp;#x1d347;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DARKENING|&amp;#x1d348;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIMMING|&amp;#x1d349;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR EXHAUSTION|&amp;#x1d34a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR SEVERANCE|&amp;#x1d34b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR STOPPAGE|&amp;#x1d34c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR HARDNESS|&amp;#x1d34d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR COMPLETION|&amp;#x1d34e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR CLOSURE|&amp;#x1d34f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D35x
|style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FAILURE|&amp;#x1d350;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR AGGRAVATION|&amp;#x1d351;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR COMPLIANCE|&amp;#x1d352;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR ON THE VERGE|&amp;#x1d353;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR DIFFICULTIES|&amp;#x1d354;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR LABOURING|&amp;#x1d355;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|TETRAGRAM FOR FOSTERING|&amp;#x1d356;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Counting Rod Numerals'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#72ff8a&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D36x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d360;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d361;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d362;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d363;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d364;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d365;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d366;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d367;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD UNIT DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d368;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d369;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d36a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d36b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d36c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d36d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d36e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d36f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D37x
|style=&quot;background:#72ff8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d370;}}||style=&quot;background:#72ff8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COUNTING ROD TENS DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d371;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK ONE|&amp;#x1d372;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK TWO|&amp;#x1d373;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK THREE|&amp;#x1d374;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK FOUR|&amp;#x1d375;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IDEOGRAPHIC TALLY MARK FIVE|&amp;#x1d376;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TALLY MARK ONE|&amp;#x1d377;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TALLY MARK FIVE|&amp;#x1d378;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D38x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D39x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D3Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D3Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D3Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D3Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D3Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D3Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D40x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d400;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d401;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d402;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d403;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d404;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d405;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d406;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d407;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d408;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d409;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d40a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d40b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d40c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d40d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d40e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d40f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D41x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d410;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d411;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d412;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d413;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d414;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d415;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d416;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d417;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d418;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d419;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL A|&amp;#x1d41a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL B|&amp;#x1d41b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL C|&amp;#x1d41c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL D|&amp;#x1d41d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL E|&amp;#x1d41e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL F|&amp;#x1d41f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D42x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL G|&amp;#x1d420;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL H|&amp;#x1d421;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL I|&amp;#x1d422;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL J|&amp;#x1d423;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL K|&amp;#x1d424;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL L|&amp;#x1d425;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL M|&amp;#x1d426;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL N|&amp;#x1d427;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL O|&amp;#x1d428;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL P|&amp;#x1d429;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d42a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL R|&amp;#x1d42b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL S|&amp;#x1d42c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL T|&amp;#x1d42d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL U|&amp;#x1d42e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL V|&amp;#x1d42f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D43x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL W|&amp;#x1d430;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL X|&amp;#x1d431;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d432;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d433;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d434;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d435;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d436;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d437;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d438;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d439;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d43a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d43b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d43c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d43d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d43e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d43f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D44x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d440;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d441;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d442;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d443;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d444;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d445;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d446;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d447;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d448;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d449;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d44a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d44b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d44c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d44d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL A|&amp;#x1d44e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL B|&amp;#x1d44f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D45x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL C|&amp;#x1d450;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL D|&amp;#x1d451;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL E|&amp;#x1d452;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL F|&amp;#x1d453;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL G|&amp;#x1d454;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL I|&amp;#x1d456;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL J|&amp;#x1d457;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL K|&amp;#x1d458;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL L|&amp;#x1d459;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL M|&amp;#x1d45a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL N|&amp;#x1d45b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL O|&amp;#x1d45c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL P|&amp;#x1d45d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d45e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL R|&amp;#x1d45f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D46x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL S|&amp;#x1d460;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL T|&amp;#x1d461;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL U|&amp;#x1d462;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL V|&amp;#x1d463;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL W|&amp;#x1d464;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL X|&amp;#x1d465;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d466;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d467;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d468;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d469;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d46a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d46b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d46c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d46d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d46e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d46f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D47x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d470;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d471;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d472;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d473;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d474;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d475;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d476;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d477;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d478;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d479;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d47a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d47b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d47c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d47d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d47e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d47f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D48x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d480;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d481;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL A|&amp;#x1d482;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL B|&amp;#x1d483;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL C|&amp;#x1d484;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL D|&amp;#x1d485;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL E|&amp;#x1d486;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL F|&amp;#x1d487;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL G|&amp;#x1d488;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL H|&amp;#x1d489;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL I|&amp;#x1d48a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL J|&amp;#x1d48b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL K|&amp;#x1d48c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL L|&amp;#x1d48d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL M|&amp;#x1d48e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL N|&amp;#x1d48f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D49x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL O|&amp;#x1d490;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL P|&amp;#x1d491;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d492;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL R|&amp;#x1d493;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL S|&amp;#x1d494;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL T|&amp;#x1d495;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL U|&amp;#x1d496;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL V|&amp;#x1d497;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL W|&amp;#x1d498;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL X|&amp;#x1d499;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d49a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d49b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d49c;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d49e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d49f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D4Ax
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d4a2;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d4a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d4a6;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d4a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d4aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d4ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d4ac;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d4ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d4af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D4Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d4b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d4b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d4b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d4b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d4b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d4b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL A|&amp;#x1d4b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL B|&amp;#x1d4b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL C|&amp;#x1d4b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL D|&amp;#x1d4b9;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL F|&amp;#x1d4bb;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL H|&amp;#x1d4bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL I|&amp;#x1d4be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL J|&amp;#x1d4bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D4Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL K|&amp;#x1d4c0;}}||style=&quot;background:#92ff6c&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL L|&amp;#x1d4c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL M|&amp;#x1d4c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL N|&amp;#x1d4c3;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL P|&amp;#x1d4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL R|&amp;#x1d4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL S|&amp;#x1d4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL T|&amp;#x1d4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL U|&amp;#x1d4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL V|&amp;#x1d4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL W|&amp;#x1d4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL X|&amp;#x1d4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d4cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D4Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d4df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D4Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL A|&amp;#x1d4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL B|&amp;#x1d4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL C|&amp;#x1d4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL D|&amp;#x1d4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL E|&amp;#x1d4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL F|&amp;#x1d4ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D4Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL G|&amp;#x1d4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL H|&amp;#x1d4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL I|&amp;#x1d4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL J|&amp;#x1d4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL K|&amp;#x1d4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL L|&amp;#x1d4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL M|&amp;#x1d4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL N|&amp;#x1d4f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL O|&amp;#x1d4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL P|&amp;#x1d4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL R|&amp;#x1d4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL S|&amp;#x1d4fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL T|&amp;#x1d4fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL U|&amp;#x1d4fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL V|&amp;#x1d4ff;}}
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!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D50x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL W|&amp;#x1d500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL X|&amp;#x1d501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SCRIPT SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d505;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d50a;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d50f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D51x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d514;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d51c;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL A|&amp;#x1d51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL B|&amp;#x1d51f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D52x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL C|&amp;#x1d520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL D|&amp;#x1d521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL E|&amp;#x1d522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL F|&amp;#x1d523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL G|&amp;#x1d524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL H|&amp;#x1d525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL I|&amp;#x1d526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL J|&amp;#x1d527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL K|&amp;#x1d528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL L|&amp;#x1d529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL M|&amp;#x1d52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL N|&amp;#x1d52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL O|&amp;#x1d52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL P|&amp;#x1d52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL R|&amp;#x1d52f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D53x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL S|&amp;#x1d530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL T|&amp;#x1d531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL U|&amp;#x1d532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL V|&amp;#x1d533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL W|&amp;#x1d534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL X|&amp;#x1d535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL FRAKTUR SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d539;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d53d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d53e;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D54x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d540;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d541;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d542;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d544;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d546;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d54a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d54b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d54c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d54d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d54e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d54f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D55x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d550;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL A|&amp;#x1d552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL B|&amp;#x1d553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL C|&amp;#x1d554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL D|&amp;#x1d555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL E|&amp;#x1d556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL F|&amp;#x1d557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL G|&amp;#x1d558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL H|&amp;#x1d559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL I|&amp;#x1d55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL J|&amp;#x1d55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL K|&amp;#x1d55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL L|&amp;#x1d55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL M|&amp;#x1d55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL N|&amp;#x1d55f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D56x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL O|&amp;#x1d560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL P|&amp;#x1d561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL R|&amp;#x1d563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL S|&amp;#x1d564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL T|&amp;#x1d565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL U|&amp;#x1d566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL V|&amp;#x1d567;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL W|&amp;#x1d568;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL X|&amp;#x1d569;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d56a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d56b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d56c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d56d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d56e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d56f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D57x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d574;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d575;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d576;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d577;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d578;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d579;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d57a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d57b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d57c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d57d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d57e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d57f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D58x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL A|&amp;#x1d586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL B|&amp;#x1d587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL C|&amp;#x1d588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL D|&amp;#x1d589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL E|&amp;#x1d58a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL F|&amp;#x1d58b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL G|&amp;#x1d58c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL H|&amp;#x1d58d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL I|&amp;#x1d58e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL J|&amp;#x1d58f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D59x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL K|&amp;#x1d590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL L|&amp;#x1d591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL M|&amp;#x1d592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL N|&amp;#x1d593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL O|&amp;#x1d594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL P|&amp;#x1d595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL R|&amp;#x1d597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL S|&amp;#x1d598;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL T|&amp;#x1d599;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL U|&amp;#x1d59a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL V|&amp;#x1d59b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL W|&amp;#x1d59c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL X|&amp;#x1d59d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d59e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD FRAKTUR SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d59f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D5Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d5a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d5a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d5a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d5a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d5a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d5a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d5a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d5a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d5a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d5a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d5aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d5ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d5ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d5ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d5ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d5af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D5Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d5b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d5b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d5b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d5b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d5b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d5b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d5b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d5b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d5b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d5b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL A|&amp;#x1d5ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL B|&amp;#x1d5bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL C|&amp;#x1d5bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL D|&amp;#x1d5bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL E|&amp;#x1d5be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL F|&amp;#x1d5bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D5Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL G|&amp;#x1d5c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL H|&amp;#x1d5c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL I|&amp;#x1d5c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL J|&amp;#x1d5c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL K|&amp;#x1d5c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL L|&amp;#x1d5c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL M|&amp;#x1d5c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL N|&amp;#x1d5c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL O|&amp;#x1d5c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL P|&amp;#x1d5c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d5ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL R|&amp;#x1d5cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL S|&amp;#x1d5cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL T|&amp;#x1d5cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL U|&amp;#x1d5ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL V|&amp;#x1d5cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D5Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL W|&amp;#x1d5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL X|&amp;#x1d5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d5df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D5Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL A|&amp;#x1d5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL B|&amp;#x1d5ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D5Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL C|&amp;#x1d5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL D|&amp;#x1d5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL E|&amp;#x1d5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL F|&amp;#x1d5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL G|&amp;#x1d5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL H|&amp;#x1d5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL I|&amp;#x1d5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL J|&amp;#x1d5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL K|&amp;#x1d5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL L|&amp;#x1d5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL M|&amp;#x1d5fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL N|&amp;#x1d5fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL O|&amp;#x1d5fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL P|&amp;#x1d5fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d5fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL R|&amp;#x1d5ff;}}
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D60x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL S|&amp;#x1d600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL T|&amp;#x1d601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL U|&amp;#x1d602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL V|&amp;#x1d603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL W|&amp;#x1d604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL X|&amp;#x1d605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d60a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d60b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d60c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d60d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d60e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d60f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D61x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d610;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d614;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d616;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d618;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d61a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d61b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d61c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d61d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d61e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d61f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D62x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL A|&amp;#x1d622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL B|&amp;#x1d623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL C|&amp;#x1d624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL D|&amp;#x1d625;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL E|&amp;#x1d626;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL F|&amp;#x1d627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL G|&amp;#x1d628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL H|&amp;#x1d629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL I|&amp;#x1d62a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL J|&amp;#x1d62b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL K|&amp;#x1d62c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL L|&amp;#x1d62d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL M|&amp;#x1d62e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL N|&amp;#x1d62f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D63x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL O|&amp;#x1d630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL P|&amp;#x1d631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL R|&amp;#x1d633;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL S|&amp;#x1d634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL T|&amp;#x1d635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL U|&amp;#x1d636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL V|&amp;#x1d637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL W|&amp;#x1d638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL X|&amp;#x1d639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d63a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF ITALIC SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d63b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d63c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d63d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d63e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d63f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D64x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d640;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d641;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d642;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d643;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d64f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D65x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL A|&amp;#x1d656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL B|&amp;#x1d657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL C|&amp;#x1d658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL D|&amp;#x1d659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL E|&amp;#x1d65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL F|&amp;#x1d65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL G|&amp;#x1d65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL H|&amp;#x1d65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL I|&amp;#x1d65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL J|&amp;#x1d65f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D66x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL K|&amp;#x1d660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL L|&amp;#x1d661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL M|&amp;#x1d662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL N|&amp;#x1d663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL O|&amp;#x1d664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL P|&amp;#x1d665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL R|&amp;#x1d667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL S|&amp;#x1d668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL T|&amp;#x1d669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL U|&amp;#x1d66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL V|&amp;#x1d66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL W|&amp;#x1d66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL X|&amp;#x1d66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d66f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D67x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL A|&amp;#x1d670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL B|&amp;#x1d671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL C|&amp;#x1d672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL D|&amp;#x1d673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL E|&amp;#x1d674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL F|&amp;#x1d675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL G|&amp;#x1d676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL H|&amp;#x1d677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL I|&amp;#x1d678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL J|&amp;#x1d679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL K|&amp;#x1d67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL L|&amp;#x1d67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL M|&amp;#x1d67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL N|&amp;#x1d67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL O|&amp;#x1d67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL P|&amp;#x1d67f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D68x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL Q|&amp;#x1d680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL R|&amp;#x1d681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL S|&amp;#x1d682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL T|&amp;#x1d683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL U|&amp;#x1d684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL V|&amp;#x1d685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL W|&amp;#x1d686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL X|&amp;#x1d687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL Y|&amp;#x1d688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE CAPITAL Z|&amp;#x1d689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL A|&amp;#x1d68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL B|&amp;#x1d68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL C|&amp;#x1d68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL D|&amp;#x1d68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL E|&amp;#x1d68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL F|&amp;#x1d68f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D69x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL G|&amp;#x1d690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL H|&amp;#x1d691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL I|&amp;#x1d692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL J|&amp;#x1d693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL K|&amp;#x1d694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL L|&amp;#x1d695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL M|&amp;#x1d696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL N|&amp;#x1d697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL O|&amp;#x1d698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL P|&amp;#x1d699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL Q|&amp;#x1d69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL R|&amp;#x1d69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL S|&amp;#x1d69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL T|&amp;#x1d69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL U|&amp;#x1d69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL V|&amp;#x1d69f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D6Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL W|&amp;#x1d6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL X|&amp;#x1d6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL Y|&amp;#x1d6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE SMALL Z|&amp;#x1d6a3;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL DOTLESS I|&amp;#x1d6a4;}}||style=&quot;background:#75ff6f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL DOTLESS J|&amp;#x1d6a5;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL LIGATURE LONG S WITH DESCENDER S|&amp;#x1d6a6;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL BETA|&amp;#x1d6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL DELTA|&amp;#x1d6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ZETA|&amp;#x1d6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL ETA|&amp;#x1d6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL THETA|&amp;#x1d6af;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D6Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL IOTA|&amp;#x1d6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL MU|&amp;#x1d6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL NU|&amp;#x1d6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL XI|&amp;#x1d6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL PI|&amp;#x1d6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL RHO|&amp;#x1d6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL TAU|&amp;#x1d6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL PHI|&amp;#x1d6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL CHI|&amp;#x1d6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL PSI|&amp;#x1d6bf;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D6Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d6c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD NABLA|&amp;#x1d6c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d6c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL BETA|&amp;#x1d6c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d6c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL DELTA|&amp;#x1d6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ZETA|&amp;#x1d6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL ETA|&amp;#x1d6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL THETA|&amp;#x1d6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL IOTA|&amp;#x1d6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL MU|&amp;#x1d6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL NU|&amp;#x1d6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL XI|&amp;#x1d6cf;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D6Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d6d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL PI|&amp;#x1d6d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL RHO|&amp;#x1d6d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d6d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d6d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL TAU|&amp;#x1d6d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d6d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL PHI|&amp;#x1d6d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL CHI|&amp;#x1d6d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL PSI|&amp;#x1d6d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d6da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&amp;#x1d6db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD EPSILON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD KAPPA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD PHI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6df;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D6Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD RHO SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD PI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL BETA|&amp;#x1d6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL DELTA|&amp;#x1d6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL ZETA|&amp;#x1d6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL ETA|&amp;#x1d6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL THETA|&amp;#x1d6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL IOTA|&amp;#x1d6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d6ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL MU|&amp;#x1d6ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL NU|&amp;#x1d6ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL XI|&amp;#x1d6ef;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D6Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL PI|&amp;#x1d6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL RHO|&amp;#x1d6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d6f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d6f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL TAU|&amp;#x1d6f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d6f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL PHI|&amp;#x1d6f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL CHI|&amp;#x1d6f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL PSI|&amp;#x1d6f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC CAPITAL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d6fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC NABLA|&amp;#x1d6fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d6fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL BETA|&amp;#x1d6fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d6fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL DELTA|&amp;#x1d6ff;}}
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!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D70x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ZETA|&amp;#x1d701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL ETA|&amp;#x1d702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL THETA|&amp;#x1d703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL IOTA|&amp;#x1d704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL MU|&amp;#x1d707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL NU|&amp;#x1d708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL XI|&amp;#x1d709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL PI|&amp;#x1d70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL RHO|&amp;#x1d70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL TAU|&amp;#x1d70f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D71x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL PHI|&amp;#x1d711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL CHI|&amp;#x1d712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL PSI|&amp;#x1d713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC SMALL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&amp;#x1d715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC EPSILON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC KAPPA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC PHI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC RHO SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL ITALIC PI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL BETA|&amp;#x1d71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL DELTA|&amp;#x1d71f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D72x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ZETA|&amp;#x1d721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ETA|&amp;#x1d722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA|&amp;#x1d723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL IOTA|&amp;#x1d724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL MU|&amp;#x1d727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL NU|&amp;#x1d728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL XI|&amp;#x1d729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PI|&amp;#x1d72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL RHO|&amp;#x1d72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL TAU|&amp;#x1d72f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D73x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PHI|&amp;#x1d731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL CHI|&amp;#x1d732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PSI|&amp;#x1d733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC NABLA|&amp;#x1d735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL BETA|&amp;#x1d737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL DELTA|&amp;#x1d739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL ZETA|&amp;#x1d73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL ETA|&amp;#x1d73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL THETA|&amp;#x1d73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL IOTA|&amp;#x1d73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d73f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D74x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL MU|&amp;#x1d741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL NU|&amp;#x1d742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL XI|&amp;#x1d743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL PI|&amp;#x1d745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL RHO|&amp;#x1d746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL TAU|&amp;#x1d749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL PHI|&amp;#x1d74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL CHI|&amp;#x1d74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL PSI|&amp;#x1d74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&amp;#x1d74f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D75x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC EPSILON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC KAPPA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC PHI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC RHO SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD ITALIC PI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL BETA|&amp;#x1d757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL DELTA|&amp;#x1d759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL ZETA|&amp;#x1d75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL ETA|&amp;#x1d75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL THETA|&amp;#x1d75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL IOTA|&amp;#x1d75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d75f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D76x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL MU|&amp;#x1d761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL NU|&amp;#x1d762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL XI|&amp;#x1d763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL PI|&amp;#x1d765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL RHO|&amp;#x1d766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL TAU|&amp;#x1d769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL PHI|&amp;#x1d76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL CHI|&amp;#x1d76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL PSI|&amp;#x1d76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD CAPITAL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD NABLA|&amp;#x1d76f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D77x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d770;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL BETA|&amp;#x1d771;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d772;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL DELTA|&amp;#x1d773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL ZETA|&amp;#x1d775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL ETA|&amp;#x1d776;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL THETA|&amp;#x1d777;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL IOTA|&amp;#x1d778;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d779;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL MU|&amp;#x1d77b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL NU|&amp;#x1d77c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL XI|&amp;#x1d77d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d77e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL PI|&amp;#x1d77f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D78x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL RHO|&amp;#x1d780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL TAU|&amp;#x1d783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL PHI|&amp;#x1d785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL CHI|&amp;#x1d786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL PSI|&amp;#x1d787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD SMALL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&amp;#x1d789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD EPSILON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD KAPPA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD PHI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD RHO SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD PI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d78f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D79x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL BETA|&amp;#x1d791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL DELTA|&amp;#x1d793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ZETA|&amp;#x1d795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL ETA|&amp;#x1d796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA|&amp;#x1d797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL IOTA|&amp;#x1d798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL MU|&amp;#x1d79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL NU|&amp;#x1d79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL XI|&amp;#x1d79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PI|&amp;#x1d79f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D7Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL RHO|&amp;#x1d7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL TAU|&amp;#x1d7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PHI|&amp;#x1d7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL CHI|&amp;#x1d7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL PSI|&amp;#x1d7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC CAPITAL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC NABLA|&amp;#x1d7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL ALPHA|&amp;#x1d7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL BETA|&amp;#x1d7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL GAMMA|&amp;#x1d7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL DELTA|&amp;#x1d7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL EPSILON|&amp;#x1d7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL ZETA|&amp;#x1d7af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D7Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL ETA|&amp;#x1d7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL THETA|&amp;#x1d7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL IOTA|&amp;#x1d7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL KAPPA|&amp;#x1d7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL LAMDA|&amp;#x1d7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL MU|&amp;#x1d7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL NU|&amp;#x1d7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL XI|&amp;#x1d7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMICRON|&amp;#x1d7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL PI|&amp;#x1d7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL RHO|&amp;#x1d7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL FINAL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL SIGMA|&amp;#x1d7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL TAU|&amp;#x1d7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL UPSILON|&amp;#x1d7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL PHI|&amp;#x1d7bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D7Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL CHI|&amp;#x1d7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL PSI|&amp;#x1d7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC SMALL OMEGA|&amp;#x1d7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL|&amp;#x1d7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC EPSILON SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC THETA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC KAPPA SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC PHI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC RHO SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD ITALIC PI SYMBOL|&amp;#x1d7c9;}}||style=&quot;background:#72ff8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD CAPITAL DIGAMMA|&amp;#x1d7ca;}}||style=&quot;background:#72ff8a&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD SMALL DIGAMMA|&amp;#x1d7cb;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1d7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d7cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D7Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d7d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d7d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d7d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d7d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d7d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d7d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d7d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL BOLD DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d7d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1d7d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d7d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d7da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d7db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d7dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d7dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d7de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d7df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D7Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1d7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d7eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1d7ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d7ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d7ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d7ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D7Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL SANS-SERIF BOLD DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1d7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1d7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1d7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1d7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1d7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1d7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1d7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1d7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1d7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATHEMATICAL MONOSPACE DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1d7ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Sutton SignWriting'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D80x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX|&amp;#x1d800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX|&amp;#x1d801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX|&amp;#x1d802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL INDEX|&amp;#x1d803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX|&amp;#x1d804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX|&amp;#x1d805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX BENT|&amp;#x1d806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX BENT|&amp;#x1d807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER INDEX BENT|&amp;#x1d808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX RAISED KNUCKLE|&amp;#x1d809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX CUPPED|&amp;#x1d80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED|&amp;#x1d80b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED LOW|&amp;#x1d80c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX HINGE|&amp;#x1d80d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d80e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d80f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D81x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE BENT|&amp;#x1d810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RAISED KNUCKLES|&amp;#x1d811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE HINGED|&amp;#x1d812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX UP MIDDLE HINGED|&amp;#x1d813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED INDEX BENT|&amp;#x1d816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED MIDDLE BENT|&amp;#x1d817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED CUPPED|&amp;#x1d818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED HINGED|&amp;#x1d819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CROSSED|&amp;#x1d81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE CROSSED|&amp;#x1d81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE BENT OVER INDEX|&amp;#x1d81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX BENT OVER MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB|&amp;#x1d81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE THUMB|&amp;#x1d81f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D82x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE STRAIGHT THUMB BENT|&amp;#x1d820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE BENT THUMB STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB BENT|&amp;#x1d822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE HINGED SPREAD THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX UP MIDDLE HINGED THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX UP MIDDLE HINGED THUMB CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX HINGED MIDDLE UP THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE UP SPREAD THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB CUPPED|&amp;#x1d828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB CIRCLED|&amp;#x1d829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB HOOKED|&amp;#x1d82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB HINGED|&amp;#x1d82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN INDEX MIDDLE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB SIDE CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB SIDE BENT|&amp;#x1d82f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D83x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB HOOKED INDEX UP|&amp;#x1d830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB HOOKED MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED HINGED THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CROSSED THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CONJOINED CUPPED THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB CUPPED INDEX UP|&amp;#x1d836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CUPPED MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB CIRCLED INDEX UP|&amp;#x1d838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB CIRCLED INDEX HINGED|&amp;#x1d839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB ANGLED OUT MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB ANGLED IN MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CIRCLED MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB CONJOINED HINGED|&amp;#x1d83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED OUT|&amp;#x1d83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED|&amp;#x1d83f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D84x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED OUT INDEX UP|&amp;#x1d840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED OUT INDEX CROSSED|&amp;#x1d841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB ANGLED INDEX UP|&amp;#x1d842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB HOOKED MIDDLE HINGED|&amp;#x1d843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS|&amp;#x1d844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS BENT|&amp;#x1d845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS HINGED|&amp;#x1d846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d847;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED SPLIT|&amp;#x1d848;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d849;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED BENT|&amp;#x1d84a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE FOUR FINGERS CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d84b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&amp;#x1d84c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&amp;#x1d84d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD FOUR BENT|&amp;#x1d84e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD FOUR BENT|&amp;#x1d84f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D85x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD BENT|&amp;#x1d850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD BENT|&amp;#x1d851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&amp;#x1d853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP FIVE FINGERS SPREAD OPEN|&amp;#x1d854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE FIVE FINGERS SPREAD OPEN|&amp;#x1d855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL FIVE FINGERS SPREAD|&amp;#x1d856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD HINGED|&amp;#x1d857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD HINGED THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT FIVE FINGERS SPREAD HINGED NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d859;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT|&amp;#x1d85a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT BETWEEN PALM FACINGS|&amp;#x1d85b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL|&amp;#x1d85c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d85d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT HEEL THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d85e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT THUMB BENT|&amp;#x1d85f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D86x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT INDEX THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT CENTRE|&amp;#x1d862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT CENTRE THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT CENTRE THUMB SIDE BENT|&amp;#x1d864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FLAT SPLIT LITTLE|&amp;#x1d865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW|&amp;#x1d866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK CURLICUE|&amp;#x1d86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK|&amp;#x1d86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN|&amp;#x1d86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP|&amp;#x1d86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d86f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D87x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP OPEN THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE OPEN|&amp;#x1d874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE|&amp;#x1d875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE|&amp;#x1d876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL|&amp;#x1d877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN|&amp;#x1d87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE|&amp;#x1d87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE SMALL|&amp;#x1d87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d87f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D88x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE OPEN NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE NO THUMB|&amp;#x1d882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE THUMB SIDE TOUCHING INDEX|&amp;#x1d883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE THUMB BETWEEN MIDDLE RING|&amp;#x1d884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE|&amp;#x1d885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RING|&amp;#x1d886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE RING|&amp;#x1d887;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX MIDDLE RING|&amp;#x1d888;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX MIDDLE RING|&amp;#x1d889;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE|&amp;#x1d88a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RING BENT|&amp;#x1d88b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE RING CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d88c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX MIDDLE RING CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d88d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN|&amp;#x1d88e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN RIPPLE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d88f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D89x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN RIPPLE CURVED|&amp;#x1d890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE DOWN OTHERS CIRCLED|&amp;#x1d891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE UP|&amp;#x1d892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER LITTLE UP|&amp;#x1d893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE LITTLE UP|&amp;#x1d894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL LITTLE UP|&amp;#x1d895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE UP|&amp;#x1d896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE RAISED KNUCKLE|&amp;#x1d897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE BENT|&amp;#x1d898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE TOUCHES THUMB|&amp;#x1d899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE THUMB|&amp;#x1d89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE THUMB|&amp;#x1d89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE INDEX THUMB|&amp;#x1d89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE INDEX THUMB|&amp;#x1d89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE INDEX THUMB INDEX THUMB OUT|&amp;#x1d89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE INDEX THUMB INDEX THUMB|&amp;#x1d89f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D8Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST LITTLE INDEX|&amp;#x1d8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE LITTLE INDEX|&amp;#x1d8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE LITTLE INDEX|&amp;#x1d8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE LITTLE INDEX|&amp;#x1d8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE RING|&amp;#x1d8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX MIDDLE LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX MIDDLE CROSS LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX MIDDLE CROSS LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING DOWN|&amp;#x1d8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE RING DOWN INDEX THUMB HOOK MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE RING DOWN MIDDLE THUMB INDEX CROSS|&amp;#x1d8ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING UP|&amp;#x1d8ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING RAISED KNUCKLE|&amp;#x1d8af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D8Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-OVAL RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d8b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING MIDDLE CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d8b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING MIDDLE RAISED KNUCKLES|&amp;#x1d8b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING INDEX|&amp;#x1d8b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST RING THUMB|&amp;#x1d8b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK RING THUMB|&amp;#x1d8b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE INDEX RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE INDEX RING LITTLE ON|&amp;#x1d8bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK INDEX RING LITTLE OUT|&amp;#x1d8bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK INDEX RING LITTLE IN|&amp;#x1d8be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK INDEX RING LITTLE UNDER|&amp;#x1d8bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D8Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX RING LITTLE OUT|&amp;#x1d8c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE DOWN|&amp;#x1d8c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d8c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d8c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE MIDDLE UP|&amp;#x1d8c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE RAISED KNUCKLE|&amp;#x1d8c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE UP THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d8c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE THUMB|&amp;#x1d8ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE THUMB LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CURLICUE MIDDLE RING LITTLE ON|&amp;#x1d8cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D8Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE OUT|&amp;#x1d8d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE IN|&amp;#x1d8d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CIRCLE MIDDLE RING LITTLE BENT|&amp;#x1d8d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d8d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED SIDE|&amp;#x1d8d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED OUT|&amp;#x1d8d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED IN|&amp;#x1d8d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HOOK MIDDLE RING LITTLE CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d8da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX HINGED|&amp;#x1d8db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d8dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB SIDE|&amp;#x1d8dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE THUMB DIAGONAL|&amp;#x1d8de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE THUMB CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d8df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D8Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE THUMB BENT|&amp;#x1d8e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE INDEX BENT|&amp;#x1d8e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE BOTH BENT|&amp;#x1d8e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB SIDE INDEX HINGE|&amp;#x1d8e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB FORWARD INDEX STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d8e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB FORWARD INDEX BENT|&amp;#x1d8e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB HOOK|&amp;#x1d8e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CURLICUE|&amp;#x1d8e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CURVE THUMB INSIDE|&amp;#x1d8e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CLAW INDEX THUMB CURVE THUMB INSIDE|&amp;#x1d8e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CURVE THUMB UNDER|&amp;#x1d8ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST INDEX THUMB CIRCLE|&amp;#x1d8eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX THUMB|&amp;#x1d8ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-CUP INDEX THUMB OPEN|&amp;#x1d8ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB OPEN|&amp;#x1d8ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB LARGE|&amp;#x1d8ef;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D8Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB|&amp;#x1d8f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-HINGE INDEX THUMB SMALL|&amp;#x1d8f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX THUMB OUT|&amp;#x1d8f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX THUMB IN|&amp;#x1d8f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-ANGLE INDEX THUMB|&amp;#x1d8f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB|&amp;#x1d8f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB HEEL|&amp;#x1d8f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB SIDE DIAGONAL|&amp;#x1d8f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB SIDE CONJOINED|&amp;#x1d8f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB SIDE BENT|&amp;#x1d8f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB FORWARD|&amp;#x1d8fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN INDEX MIDDLE|&amp;#x1d8fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN MIDDLE RING|&amp;#x1d8fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB BETWEEN RING LITTLE|&amp;#x1d8fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER TWO FINGERS|&amp;#x1d8fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB OVER TWO FINGERS|&amp;#x1d8ff;}}
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!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D90x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER THREE FINGERS|&amp;#x1d900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB UNDER FOUR FINGERS|&amp;#x1d901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST THUMB OVER FOUR RAISED KNUCKLES|&amp;#x1d902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST|&amp;#x1d903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAND-FIST HEEL|&amp;#x1d904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TOUCH SINGLE|&amp;#x1d905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TOUCH MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TOUCH BETWEEN|&amp;#x1d907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING GRASP SINGLE|&amp;#x1d908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING GRASP MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING GRASP BETWEEN|&amp;#x1d90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING STRIKE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d90b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING STRIKE MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d90c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING STRIKE BETWEEN|&amp;#x1d90d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BRUSH SINGLE|&amp;#x1d90e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BRUSH MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d90f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D91x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BRUSH BETWEEN|&amp;#x1d910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING RUB SINGLE|&amp;#x1d911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING RUB MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING RUB BETWEEN|&amp;#x1d913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SURFACE SYMBOLS|&amp;#x1d914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SURFACE BETWEEN|&amp;#x1d915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE LARGE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE SMALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE LARGE MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d918;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE SMALL MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d919;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE SEQUENTIAL|&amp;#x1d91a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK LARGE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d91b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK SMALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d91c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK LARGE MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d91d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK SMALL MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1d91e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLICK SEQUENTIAL|&amp;#x1d91f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D92x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SQUEEZE FLICK ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN LARGE|&amp;#x1d921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN SMALL|&amp;#x1d922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP SEQUENTIAL|&amp;#x1d923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE DOWN SEQUENTIAL|&amp;#x1d924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN ALTERNATING LARGE|&amp;#x1d925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE UP DOWN ALTERNATING SMALL|&amp;#x1d926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-HINGE SIDE TO SIDE SCISSORS|&amp;#x1d927;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE FINGER CONTACT|&amp;#x1d928;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE FINGER CONTACT|&amp;#x1d929;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT SMALL|&amp;#x1d92a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d92b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGE|&amp;#x1d92c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGEST|&amp;#x1d92d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SINGLE WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d92e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d92f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D93x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d930;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d931;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CROSS|&amp;#x1d933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE STRAIGHT MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1d934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BEND SMALL|&amp;#x1d938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BEND MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BEND LARGE|&amp;#x1d93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER SMALL|&amp;#x1d93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER LARGE|&amp;#x1d93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CORNER ROTATION|&amp;#x1d93e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CHECK SMALL|&amp;#x1d93f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D94x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CHECK MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CHECK LARGE|&amp;#x1d941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BOX SMALL|&amp;#x1d942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BOX MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE BOX LARGE|&amp;#x1d944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ZIGZAG SMALL|&amp;#x1d945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ZIGZAG MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ZIGZAG LARGE|&amp;#x1d947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE PEAKS SMALL|&amp;#x1d948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE PEAKS MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE PEAKS LARGE|&amp;#x1d94a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d94b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d94c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d94d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d94e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d94f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D95x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE SHAKING|&amp;#x1d951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ARM SPIRAL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ARM SPIRAL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-WALLPLANE ARM SPIRAL TRIPLE|&amp;#x1d954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY SMALL|&amp;#x1d955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY LARGE|&amp;#x1d957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL AWAY LARGEST|&amp;#x1d958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS SMALL|&amp;#x1d959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d95a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS LARGE|&amp;#x1d95b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL TOWARDS LARGEST|&amp;#x1d95c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY SMALL|&amp;#x1d95d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d95e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY LARGE|&amp;#x1d95f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D96x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN AWAY LARGEST|&amp;#x1d960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS SMALL|&amp;#x1d961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS LARGE|&amp;#x1d963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-DIAGONAL BETWEEN TOWARDS LARGEST|&amp;#x1d964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT SMALL|&amp;#x1d965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGE|&amp;#x1d967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE STRAIGHT LARGEST|&amp;#x1d968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SINGLE WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d96a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d96b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d96c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d96d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CROSS|&amp;#x1d96e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE STRAIGHT MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1d96f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D97x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d970;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1d971;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE TRIPLE ALTERNATING WRIST FLEX|&amp;#x1d972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BEND|&amp;#x1d973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CORNER SMALL|&amp;#x1d974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CORNER MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CORNER LARGE|&amp;#x1d976;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CHECK|&amp;#x1d977;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BOX SMALL|&amp;#x1d978;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BOX MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE BOX LARGE|&amp;#x1d97a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ZIGZAG SMALL|&amp;#x1d97b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ZIGZAG MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d97c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ZIGZAG LARGE|&amp;#x1d97d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE PEAKS SMALL|&amp;#x1d97e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE PEAKS MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d97f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D98x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE PEAKS LARGE|&amp;#x1d980;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d981;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d982;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d983;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TRAVEL-FLOORPLANE SHAKING|&amp;#x1d987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER SMALL|&amp;#x1d988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER LARGE|&amp;#x1d98a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE QUARTER LARGEST|&amp;#x1d98b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE SMALL|&amp;#x1d98c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d98d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE LARGE|&amp;#x1d98e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HALF-CIRCLE LARGEST|&amp;#x1d98f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D99x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE THREE-QUARTER CIRCLE SMALL|&amp;#x1d990;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE THREE-QUARTER CIRCLE MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d991;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP SMALL|&amp;#x1d992;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d993;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP LARGE|&amp;#x1d994;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP SMALL|&amp;#x1d995;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d996;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP LARGE|&amp;#x1d997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE DOUBLE SMALL|&amp;#x1d999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE DOUBLE MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE DOUBLE LARGE|&amp;#x1d99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE TRIPLE SMALL|&amp;#x1d99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE TRIPLE MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE CURVE TRIPLE LARGE|&amp;#x1d99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE THEN STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1d99f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D9Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVED CROSS SMALL|&amp;#x1d9a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVED CROSS MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d9a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATE|&amp;#x1d9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE SHAKING|&amp;#x1d9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING FRONT WALL|&amp;#x1d9ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE HUMP HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE LOOP HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9af;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D9Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE SINGLE HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE DOUBLE HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-WALLPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING CHEST|&amp;#x1d9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE DIAGONAL PATH SMALL|&amp;#x1d9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE DIAGONAL PATH MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WAVE DIAGONAL PATH LARGE|&amp;#x1d9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING CEILING SMALL|&amp;#x1d9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING CEILING LARGE|&amp;#x1d9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING LARGE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING SMALL TRIPLE|&amp;#x1d9bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING CEILING LARGE TRIPLE|&amp;#x1d9bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING SMALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING LARGE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9bf;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D9Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING CEILING LARGE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING CEILING SMALL|&amp;#x1d9c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING CEILING LARGE|&amp;#x1d9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE HITTING CEILING|&amp;#x1d9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE HITTING CEILING|&amp;#x1d9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING CEILING|&amp;#x1d9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING FLOOR SMALL|&amp;#x1d9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE HITTING FLOOR LARGE|&amp;#x1d9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR LARGE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR TRIPLE SMALL TRIPLE|&amp;#x1d9ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP HITTING FLOOR TRIPLE LARGE TRIPLE|&amp;#x1d9cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR SMALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR LARGE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP HITTING FLOOR LARGE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9cf;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D9Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING FLOOR SMALL|&amp;#x1d9d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE HITTING FLOOR LARGE|&amp;#x1d9d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE HITTING FLOOR|&amp;#x1d9d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE HITTING FLOOR|&amp;#x1d9d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING HITTING FLOOR|&amp;#x1d9d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE SMALL|&amp;#x1d9d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE MEDIUM|&amp;#x1d9d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE LARGE|&amp;#x1d9d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE LARGEST|&amp;#x1d9d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE COMBINED|&amp;#x1d9d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE HUMP SMALL|&amp;#x1d9da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE LOOP SMALL|&amp;#x1d9db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE SNAKE|&amp;#x1d9dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE SMALL|&amp;#x1d9dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WAVE LARGE|&amp;#x1d9de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D9Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION-FLOORPLANE ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d9e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE SHAKING PARALLEL|&amp;#x1d9e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE SMALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE MEDIUM SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE ARM CIRCLE MEDIUM DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL SMALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL MEDIUM SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL LARGE SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL SMALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL MEDIUM DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE ARM CIRCLE HITTING WALL LARGE DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WRIST CIRCLE FRONT SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE WRIST CIRCLE FRONT DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WRIST CIRCLE HITTING WALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1D9Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE WRIST CIRCLE HITTING WALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE FINGER CIRCLES SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE FINGER CIRCLES DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE FINGER CIRCLES HITTING WALL SINGLE|&amp;#x1d9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE FINGER CIRCLES HITTING WALL DOUBLE|&amp;#x1d9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC ARROWHEAD SMALL|&amp;#x1d9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC ARROWHEAD LARGE|&amp;#x1d9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC FAST|&amp;#x1d9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC SLOW|&amp;#x1d9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC TENSE|&amp;#x1d9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC RELAXED|&amp;#x1d9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC SIMULTANEOUS|&amp;#x1d9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC SIMULTANEOUS ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1d9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC EVERY OTHER TIME|&amp;#x1d9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DYNAMIC GRADUAL|&amp;#x1d9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD|&amp;#x1d9ff;}}
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD RIM|&amp;#x1da00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1da01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE TILT|&amp;#x1da02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1da03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE CURVE|&amp;#x1da04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE CURVE|&amp;#x1da05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HEAD MOVEMENT CIRCLE|&amp;#x1da06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FACE DIRECTION POSITION NOSE FORWARD TILTING|&amp;#x1da07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FACE DIRECTION POSITION NOSE UP OR DOWN|&amp;#x1da08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FACE DIRECTION POSITION NOSE UP OR DOWN TILTING|&amp;#x1da09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEBROWS STRAIGHT UP|&amp;#x1da0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEBROWS STRAIGHT NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEBROWS STRAIGHT DOWN|&amp;#x1da0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS NEUTRAL DOWN|&amp;#x1da0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS DOWN NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS UP NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING DREAMY EYEBROWS NEUTRAL UP|&amp;#x1da10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FOREHEAD NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FOREHEAD CONTACT|&amp;#x1da12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FOREHEAD WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES OPEN|&amp;#x1da14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES SQUEEZED|&amp;#x1da15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES CLOSED|&amp;#x1da16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYE BLINK SINGLE|&amp;#x1da17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYE BLINK MULTIPLE|&amp;#x1da18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES HALF OPEN|&amp;#x1da19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES WIDE OPEN|&amp;#x1da1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES HALF CLOSED|&amp;#x1da1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYES WIDENING MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1da1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYE WINK|&amp;#x1da1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYELASHES UP|&amp;#x1da1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYELASHES DOWN|&amp;#x1da1f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA2x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYELASHES FLUTTERING|&amp;#x1da20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1da21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT DOUBLE|&amp;#x1da22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1da23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT|&amp;#x1da24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT DOUBLE|&amp;#x1da25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE STRAIGHT ALTERNATING|&amp;#x1da26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE CURVED|&amp;#x1da27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-FLOORPLANE CURVED|&amp;#x1da28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EYEGAZE-WALLPLANE CIRCLING|&amp;#x1da29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING CHEEKS PUFFED|&amp;#x1da2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING CHEEKS NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING CHEEKS SUCKED|&amp;#x1da2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TENSE CHEEKS HIGH|&amp;#x1da2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TENSE CHEEKS MIDDLE|&amp;#x1da2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TENSE CHEEKS LOW|&amp;#x1da2f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA3x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EARS|&amp;#x1da30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE CONTACT|&amp;#x1da32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE WRINKLES|&amp;#x1da33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NOSE WIGGLES|&amp;#x1da34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR BLOWING OUT|&amp;#x1da35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR SUCKING IN|&amp;#x1da36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR BLOW SMALL ROTATIONS|&amp;#x1da37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING AIR SUCK SMALL ROTATIONS|&amp;#x1da38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BREATH INHALE|&amp;#x1da39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING BREATH EXHALE|&amp;#x1da3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CLOSED NEUTRAL|&amp;#x1da3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CLOSED FORWARD|&amp;#x1da3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CLOSED CONTACT|&amp;#x1da3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH SMILE|&amp;#x1da3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH SMILE WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da3f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA4x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH SMILE OPEN|&amp;#x1da40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH FROWN|&amp;#x1da41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH FROWN WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH FROWN OPEN|&amp;#x1da43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN CIRCLE|&amp;#x1da44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN FORWARD|&amp;#x1da45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN OVAL|&amp;#x1da47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN OVAL WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN OVAL YAWN|&amp;#x1da49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN RECTANGLE|&amp;#x1da4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN RECTANGLE WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH OPEN RECTANGLE YAWN|&amp;#x1da4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH KISS|&amp;#x1da4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH KISS FORWARD|&amp;#x1da4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH KISS WRINKLED|&amp;#x1da4f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA5x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH TENSE|&amp;#x1da50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH TENSE FORWARD|&amp;#x1da51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH TENSE SUCKED|&amp;#x1da52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIPS PRESSED TOGETHER|&amp;#x1da53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIP LOWER OVER UPPER|&amp;#x1da54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIP UPPER OVER LOWER|&amp;#x1da55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH CORNERS|&amp;#x1da56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH WRINKLES SINGLE|&amp;#x1da57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOUTH WRINKLES DOUBLE|&amp;#x1da58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE STICKING OUT FAR|&amp;#x1da59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE LICKING LIPS|&amp;#x1da5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE TIP BETWEEN LIPS|&amp;#x1da5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE TIP TOUCHING INSIDE MOUTH|&amp;#x1da5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE INSIDE MOUTH RELAXED|&amp;#x1da5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE MOVES AGAINST CHEEK|&amp;#x1da5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE CENTRE STICKING OUT|&amp;#x1da5f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA6x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TONGUE CENTRE INSIDE MOUTH|&amp;#x1da60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH|&amp;#x1da61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1da62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON TONGUE|&amp;#x1da63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON TONGUE MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1da64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON LIPS|&amp;#x1da65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH ON LIPS MOVEMENT|&amp;#x1da66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TEETH BITE LIPS|&amp;#x1da67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-WALLPLANE JAW|&amp;#x1da68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING MOVEMENT-FLOORPLANE JAW|&amp;#x1da69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING NECK|&amp;#x1da6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING HAIR|&amp;#x1da6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING EXCITEMENT|&amp;#x1da6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SHOULDER HIP SPINE|&amp;#x1da6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SHOULDER HIP POSITIONS|&amp;#x1da6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING WALLPLANE SHOULDER HIP MOVE|&amp;#x1da6f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA7x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FLOORPLANE SHOULDER HIP MOVE|&amp;#x1da70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SHOULDER TILTING FROM WAIST|&amp;#x1da71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TORSO-WALLPLANE STRAIGHT STRETCH|&amp;#x1da72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TORSO-WALLPLANE CURVED BEND|&amp;#x1da73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING TORSO-FLOORPLANE TWISTING|&amp;#x1da74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING UPPER BODY TILTING FROM HIP JOINTS|&amp;#x1da75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB COMBINATION|&amp;#x1da76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-1|&amp;#x1da77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-2|&amp;#x1da78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-3|&amp;#x1da79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-4|&amp;#x1da7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-5|&amp;#x1da7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-6|&amp;#x1da7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LIMB LENGTH-7|&amp;#x1da7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FINGER|&amp;#x1da7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION-WALLPLANE SPACE|&amp;#x1da7f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA8x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION-FLOORPLANE SPACE|&amp;#x1da80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION HEIGHT|&amp;#x1da81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION WIDTH|&amp;#x1da82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION DEPTH|&amp;#x1da83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION HEAD NECK|&amp;#x1da84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION TORSO|&amp;#x1da85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING LOCATION LIMBS DIGITS|&amp;#x1da86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING COMMA|&amp;#x1da87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FULL STOP|&amp;#x1da88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING SEMICOLON|&amp;#x1da89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING COLON|&amp;#x1da8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING PARENTHESIS|&amp;#x1da8b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DA9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-2|[SW F2]}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-3|[SW F3]}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-4|[SW F4]}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-5|[SW F5]}}||style=&quot;background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING FILL MODIFIER-6|[SW F6]}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#8a94ff;font-size:75%&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff;font-size:133%&quot;|1DAAx
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-2|[SW R2]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-3|[SW R3]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-4|[SW R4]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-5|[SW R5]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-6|[SW R6]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-7|[SW R7]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-8|[SW R8]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-9|[SW R9]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-10|[SW R10]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-11|[SW R11]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-12|[SW R12]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-13|[SW R13]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-14|[SW R14]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-15|[SW R15]}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGNWRITING ROTATION MODIFIER-16|[SW R16]}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DABx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DACx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DADx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Jianzi Format Controls'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DAEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DAFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows Extended'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN EQUALS SIGN|&amp;#x1db00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN EQUALS SIGN WITH DOUBLE
VERTICALS|&amp;#x1db01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN EQUALS SIGN WITH SMALL S|&amp;#x1db02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN GREATER-THAN SIGN|&amp;#x1db03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN LESS-THAN SIGN|&amp;#x1db04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN GREATER-THAN WITH SMALL P|&amp;#x1db05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN LESS-THAN WITH SMALL P|&amp;#x1db06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN GREATER-LESS-THAN SIGN|&amp;#x1db07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERTED SQUARE LEFT OPEN BOX OPERATOR|&amp;#x1db08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERTED SQUARE RIGHT OPEN BOX OPERATOR|&amp;#x1db09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO-LINE GREATER-THAN SIGN|&amp;#x1db0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO-LINE LESS-THAN SIGN|&amp;#x1db0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMMENSURABILITY|&amp;#x1db0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMMENSURABILITY|&amp;#x1db0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMMENSURABILITY IN SQUARE|&amp;#x1db0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMMENSURABILITY IN SQUARE|&amp;#x1db0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CARTESIAN EQUALS SIGN|&amp;#x1db10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN CONGRUENCE SIGN|&amp;#x1db11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN CONGRUENCE SIGN WITH VERTICAL BAR|&amp;#x1db12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN CONGRUENCE SIGN-2|&amp;#x1db13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN INVERTED CONGRUENCE SIGN-2|&amp;#x1db14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN INVERTED CONGRUENCE SIGN-2 WITH HORIZONTAL BAR|&amp;#x1db15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN INVERTED CONGRUENCE SIGN-2 WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BAR|&amp;#x1db16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN COINCIDENCE SIGN|&amp;#x1db17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERTED LAZY S OVER LAZY S|&amp;#x1db18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN SIMILARITY|&amp;#x1db19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN SIMILARITY-2|&amp;#x1db1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEIBNIZIAN DISSIMILARITY|&amp;#x1db1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACIT SYMBOL|&amp;#x1db1c;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DB9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DBAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DBBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DBCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DBDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DBEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DBFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Leibnizian Ambiguous Signs'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DC9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DCAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DCBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DCCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DCDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DCEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DCFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DD9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DDAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DDBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DDCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DDDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DDEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DDFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DE9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DEAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DEBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DECx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DEDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DEEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DEFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Latin Extended-G'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER FENG DIGRAPH WITH TRILL|&amp;#x1df00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER REVERSED SCRIPT G|&amp;#x1df01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED G|&amp;#x1df02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER REVERSED K|&amp;#x1df03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL L WITH BELT|&amp;#x1df04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER LEZH WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED Y WITH BELT|&amp;#x1df06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER REVERSED ENG|&amp;#x1df07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED R WITH LONG LEG AND RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH HOOK AND RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER RETROFLEX CLICK WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER ESH WITH DOUBLE BAR|&amp;#x1df0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER ESH WITH DOUBLE BAR AND CURL|&amp;#x1df0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED T WITH CURL|&amp;#x1df0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER INVERTED GLOTTAL STOP WITH CURL|&amp;#x1df0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER STRETCHED C WITH CURL|&amp;#x1df0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED K|&amp;#x1df10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH FISHHOOK|&amp;#x1df11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER DEZH DIGRAPH WITH PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH BELT AND
PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER ENG WITH PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED R WITH PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH FISHHOOK AND PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TESH DIGRAPH WITH PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER EZH WITH PALATAL HOOK|&amp;#x1df18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER DEZH DIGRAPH WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH STROKE AND RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER TESH DIGRAPH WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH RETROFLEX HOOK|&amp;#x1df1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH CURL|&amp;#x1df1e;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER D WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&amp;#x1df25;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&amp;#x1df26;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&amp;#x1df27;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&amp;#x1df28;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER S WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&amp;#x1df29;}}||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH MID-HEIGHT LEFT HOOK|&amp;#x1df2a;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DF9x
|style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH SMALL SLASH|&amp;#x1df90;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH DESCENDING LOOP|&amp;#x1df91;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER C WITH RIGHT LOOP|&amp;#x1df92;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER D ROTUNDA WITH CROSSING LOOP|&amp;#x1df93;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER R ROTUNDA WITH LOOP|&amp;#x1df94;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LIGATURE LONG S WITH DESCENDER S|&amp;#x1df95;}}||style=&quot;background:#c8a36f&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|LATIN SMALL LETTER LONG S WITH TOP LOOP|&amp;#x1df96;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DFAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DFBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DFCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DFDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DFEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1DFFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|}
{{:Unicode/Character/footer}}</text>
      <sha1>9sihaoh3bj98ysyqx8jmv3qk3zv364c</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Unicode/Character reference/2F000-2FFFF</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>77352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633344</id>
      <parentid>4633185</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T23:57:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Unicode Roadmap Changer|Unicode Roadmap Changer]] ([[User talk:Unicode Roadmap Changer|talk]]) to last version by ShakespeareFan00</comment>
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      <text bytes="88254" sha1="8g2eti7obiiv8sdzer3fsdjyh018cnw" xml:space="preserve">{{:Unicode/Character reference}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!width=&quot;4%&quot;|U+!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|0!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|1!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|2!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|3!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|4!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|5!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|6!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|7!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|8!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|9!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|A!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|B!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|C!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|D!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|E!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F00x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F01x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F02x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F03x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F04x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F05x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F06x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F07x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F08x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F09x
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''CJK Compatibility Ideographs Supplement'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F80x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F800|&amp;#x2f800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F801|&amp;#x2f801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F802|&amp;#x2f802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F803|&amp;#x2f803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F804|&amp;#x2f804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F805|&amp;#x2f805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F806|&amp;#x2f806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F807|&amp;#x2f807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F808|&amp;#x2f808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F809|&amp;#x2f809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F80A|&amp;#x2f80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F80B|&amp;#x2f80b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F80C|&amp;#x2f80c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F80D|&amp;#x2f80d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F80E|&amp;#x2f80e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F80F|&amp;#x2f80f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F81x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F810|&amp;#x2f810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F811|&amp;#x2f811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F812|&amp;#x2f812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F813|&amp;#x2f813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F814|&amp;#x2f814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F815|&amp;#x2f815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F816|&amp;#x2f816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F817|&amp;#x2f817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F818|&amp;#x2f818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F819|&amp;#x2f819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F81A|&amp;#x2f81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F81B|&amp;#x2f81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F81C|&amp;#x2f81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F81D|&amp;#x2f81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F81E|&amp;#x2f81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F81F|&amp;#x2f81f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F82x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F820|&amp;#x2f820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F821|&amp;#x2f821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F822|&amp;#x2f822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F823|&amp;#x2f823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F824|&amp;#x2f824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F825|&amp;#x2f825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F826|&amp;#x2f826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F827|&amp;#x2f827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F828|&amp;#x2f828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F829|&amp;#x2f829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F82A|&amp;#x2f82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F82B|&amp;#x2f82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F82C|&amp;#x2f82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F82D|&amp;#x2f82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F82E|&amp;#x2f82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F82F|&amp;#x2f82f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F83x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F830|&amp;#x2f830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F831|&amp;#x2f831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F832|&amp;#x2f832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F833|&amp;#x2f833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F834|&amp;#x2f834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F835|&amp;#x2f835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F836|&amp;#x2f836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F837|&amp;#x2f837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F838|&amp;#x2f838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F839|&amp;#x2f839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F83A|&amp;#x2f83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F83B|&amp;#x2f83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F83C|&amp;#x2f83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F83D|&amp;#x2f83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F83E|&amp;#x2f83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F83F|&amp;#x2f83f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F84x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F840|&amp;#x2f840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F841|&amp;#x2f841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F842|&amp;#x2f842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F843|&amp;#x2f843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F844|&amp;#x2f844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F845|&amp;#x2f845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F846|&amp;#x2f846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F847|&amp;#x2f847;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F848|&amp;#x2f848;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F849|&amp;#x2f849;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F84A|&amp;#x2f84a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F84B|&amp;#x2f84b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F84C|&amp;#x2f84c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F84D|&amp;#x2f84d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F84E|&amp;#x2f84e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F84F|&amp;#x2f84f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F85x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F850|&amp;#x2f850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F851|&amp;#x2f851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F852|&amp;#x2f852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F853|&amp;#x2f853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F854|&amp;#x2f854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F855|&amp;#x2f855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F856|&amp;#x2f856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F857|&amp;#x2f857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F858|&amp;#x2f858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F859|&amp;#x2f859;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F85A|&amp;#x2f85a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F85B|&amp;#x2f85b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F85C|&amp;#x2f85c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F85D|&amp;#x2f85d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F85E|&amp;#x2f85e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F85F|&amp;#x2f85f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F86x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F860|&amp;#x2f860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F861|&amp;#x2f861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F862|&amp;#x2f862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F863|&amp;#x2f863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F864|&amp;#x2f864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F865|&amp;#x2f865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F866|&amp;#x2f866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F867|&amp;#x2f867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F868|&amp;#x2f868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F869|&amp;#x2f869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F86A|&amp;#x2f86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F86B|&amp;#x2f86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F86C|&amp;#x2f86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F86D|&amp;#x2f86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F86E|&amp;#x2f86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F86F|&amp;#x2f86f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F87x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F870|&amp;#x2f870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F871|&amp;#x2f871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F872|&amp;#x2f872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F873|&amp;#x2f873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F874|&amp;#x2f874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F875|&amp;#x2f875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F876|&amp;#x2f876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F877|&amp;#x2f877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F878|&amp;#x2f878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F879|&amp;#x2f879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F87A|&amp;#x2f87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F87B|&amp;#x2f87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F87C|&amp;#x2f87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F87D|&amp;#x2f87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F87E|&amp;#x2f87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F87F|&amp;#x2f87f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F88x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F880|&amp;#x2f880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F881|&amp;#x2f881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F882|&amp;#x2f882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F883|&amp;#x2f883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F884|&amp;#x2f884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F885|&amp;#x2f885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F886|&amp;#x2f886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F887|&amp;#x2f887;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F888|&amp;#x2f888;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F889|&amp;#x2f889;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F88A|&amp;#x2f88a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F88B|&amp;#x2f88b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F88C|&amp;#x2f88c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F88D|&amp;#x2f88d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F88E|&amp;#x2f88e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F88F|&amp;#x2f88f;}}
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!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F89x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F890|&amp;#x2f890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F891|&amp;#x2f891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F892|&amp;#x2f892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F893|&amp;#x2f893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F894|&amp;#x2f894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F895|&amp;#x2f895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F896|&amp;#x2f896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F897|&amp;#x2f897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F898|&amp;#x2f898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F899|&amp;#x2f899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F89A|&amp;#x2f89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F89B|&amp;#x2f89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F89C|&amp;#x2f89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F89D|&amp;#x2f89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F89E|&amp;#x2f89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F89F|&amp;#x2f89f;}}
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|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A0|&amp;#x2f8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A1|&amp;#x2f8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A2|&amp;#x2f8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A3|&amp;#x2f8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A4|&amp;#x2f8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A5|&amp;#x2f8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A6|&amp;#x2f8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A7|&amp;#x2f8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A8|&amp;#x2f8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8A9|&amp;#x2f8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8AA|&amp;#x2f8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8AB|&amp;#x2f8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8AC|&amp;#x2f8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8AD|&amp;#x2f8ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8AE|&amp;#x2f8ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8AF|&amp;#x2f8af;}}
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|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B0|&amp;#x2f8b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B1|&amp;#x2f8b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B2|&amp;#x2f8b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B3|&amp;#x2f8b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B4|&amp;#x2f8b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B5|&amp;#x2f8b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B6|&amp;#x2f8b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B7|&amp;#x2f8b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B8|&amp;#x2f8b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8B9|&amp;#x2f8b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8BA|&amp;#x2f8ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8BB|&amp;#x2f8bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8BC|&amp;#x2f8bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8BD|&amp;#x2f8bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8BE|&amp;#x2f8be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F8BF|&amp;#x2f8bf;}}
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|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F990|&amp;#x2f990;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F991|&amp;#x2f991;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F992|&amp;#x2f992;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F993|&amp;#x2f993;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F994|&amp;#x2f994;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F995|&amp;#x2f995;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F996|&amp;#x2f996;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F997|&amp;#x2f997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F998|&amp;#x2f998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F999|&amp;#x2f999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F99A|&amp;#x2f99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F99B|&amp;#x2f99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F99C|&amp;#x2f99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F99D|&amp;#x2f99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F99E|&amp;#x2f99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F99F|&amp;#x2f99f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F9Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A0|&amp;#x2f9a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A1|&amp;#x2f9a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A2|&amp;#x2f9a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A3|&amp;#x2f9a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A4|&amp;#x2f9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A5|&amp;#x2f9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A6|&amp;#x2f9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A7|&amp;#x2f9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A8|&amp;#x2f9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9A9|&amp;#x2f9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9AA|&amp;#x2f9aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9AB|&amp;#x2f9ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9AC|&amp;#x2f9ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9AD|&amp;#x2f9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9AE|&amp;#x2f9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9AF|&amp;#x2f9af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F9Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B0|&amp;#x2f9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B1|&amp;#x2f9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B2|&amp;#x2f9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B3|&amp;#x2f9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B4|&amp;#x2f9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B5|&amp;#x2f9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B6|&amp;#x2f9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B7|&amp;#x2f9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B8|&amp;#x2f9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9B9|&amp;#x2f9b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9BA|&amp;#x2f9ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9BB|&amp;#x2f9bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9BC|&amp;#x2f9bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9BD|&amp;#x2f9bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9BE|&amp;#x2f9be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9BF|&amp;#x2f9bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F9Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C0|&amp;#x2f9c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C1|&amp;#x2f9c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C2|&amp;#x2f9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C3|&amp;#x2f9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C4|&amp;#x2f9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C5|&amp;#x2f9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C6|&amp;#x2f9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C7|&amp;#x2f9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C8|&amp;#x2f9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9C9|&amp;#x2f9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9CA|&amp;#x2f9ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9CB|&amp;#x2f9cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9CC|&amp;#x2f9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9CD|&amp;#x2f9cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9CE|&amp;#x2f9ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9CF|&amp;#x2f9cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F9Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D0|&amp;#x2f9d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D1|&amp;#x2f9d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D2|&amp;#x2f9d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D3|&amp;#x2f9d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D4|&amp;#x2f9d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D5|&amp;#x2f9d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D6|&amp;#x2f9d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D7|&amp;#x2f9d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D8|&amp;#x2f9d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9D9|&amp;#x2f9d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9DA|&amp;#x2f9da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9DB|&amp;#x2f9db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9DC|&amp;#x2f9dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9DD|&amp;#x2f9dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9DE|&amp;#x2f9de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9DF|&amp;#x2f9df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F9Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E0|&amp;#x2f9e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E1|&amp;#x2f9e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E2|&amp;#x2f9e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E3|&amp;#x2f9e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E4|&amp;#x2f9e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E5|&amp;#x2f9e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E6|&amp;#x2f9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E7|&amp;#x2f9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E8|&amp;#x2f9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9E9|&amp;#x2f9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9EA|&amp;#x2f9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9EB|&amp;#x2f9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9EC|&amp;#x2f9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9ED|&amp;#x2f9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9EE|&amp;#x2f9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9EF|&amp;#x2f9ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2F9Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F0|&amp;#x2f9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F1|&amp;#x2f9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F2|&amp;#x2f9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F3|&amp;#x2f9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F4|&amp;#x2f9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F5|&amp;#x2f9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F6|&amp;#x2f9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F7|&amp;#x2f9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F8|&amp;#x2f9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9F9|&amp;#x2f9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9FA|&amp;#x2f9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9FB|&amp;#x2f9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9FC|&amp;#x2f9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9FD|&amp;#x2f9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9FE|&amp;#x2f9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2F9FF|&amp;#x2f9ff;}}
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA00|&amp;#x2fa00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA01|&amp;#x2fa01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA02|&amp;#x2fa02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA03|&amp;#x2fa03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA04|&amp;#x2fa04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA05|&amp;#x2fa05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA06|&amp;#x2fa06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA07|&amp;#x2fa07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA08|&amp;#x2fa08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA09|&amp;#x2fa09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA0A|&amp;#x2fa0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA0B|&amp;#x2fa0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA0C|&amp;#x2fa0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA0D|&amp;#x2fa0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA0E|&amp;#x2fa0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA0F|&amp;#x2fa0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d0ff66&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA10|&amp;#x2fa10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA11|&amp;#x2fa11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA12|&amp;#x2fa12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA13|&amp;#x2fa13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA14|&amp;#x2fa14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA15|&amp;#x2fa15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA16|&amp;#x2fa16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA17|&amp;#x2fa17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA18|&amp;#x2fa18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA19|&amp;#x2fa19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA1A|&amp;#x2fa1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA1B|&amp;#x2fa1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA1C|&amp;#x2fa1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-2FA1D|&amp;#x2fa1d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FA9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FAAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FABx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FACx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FADx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FAEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FAFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FB0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FB1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|2FB2x
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|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
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{{:Unicode/Character/footer}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Computer Revolution/Artificial Intelligence/Translators</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>102656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633338</id>
      <parentid>4084423</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T22:43:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaltenmeyer</username>
        <id>715252</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <origin>4633338</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1759" sha1="q4p58le6u9thvp5xfu6cyuzbo19qq33" xml:space="preserve">Reserved Group 6
==Introduction==
There are many resources you can use when you need a word translated for you. The internet is always a good source for sites, but if you require one for on the go, you may purchase different types of translator from stores or offline places such as Ebay. When you purchase a translator check and see if the translator you purchased is capable of translating in the language of your choice.

==Types==
===pocket===
There are pocket translators such as the PDAs, or the Yishen888(Super). There are many options to choose from with the ability to translate multiple languages. These translators can cost at least $100 CDN. The TG470Plus can translate phrses in 12 different languages is around $100 CDN. 
===Online===
Many sites that are able to provide free translation. There are sites such as babelfish, and of course [http://www.freetranslation.com/ freetranslations.com]. The easiest way to find sites is just to search for translators through any search engine.

Free online multilingual translation software for English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish languages. This is another great link for translation.  

www.translation2.paralink.com

==Weakness==
Translators as helpful as they are some obstacles that they need to overcome. When dealing with slang and idioms, translators are unsure of what the saying is really suppose to be so they often choose words that can confuse an original saying. There is also a problem, that I have encountered, is the grammar from online sites. I have most commonly seen people trusting sites to translate perfectly, but have problems when it comes to the grammar. Hopefully someone can figure out how to overcome these problems so it is easier.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cookbook:Tonkatsu</title>
    <ns>102</ns>
    <id>127957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633384</id>
      <parentid>4513570</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:40:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26343-16</username>
        <id>3580407</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>4633384</origin>
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      <text bytes="2624" sha1="00bv2z63nrdl04mnxey37qc0wlt0dxi" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
{{Recipe summary
| Category = Japanese recipes
| Difficulty = 3
| Image = [[File:Tonkatsu by yoppy in Shibuya, Tokyo.jpg|300px]]
}}

{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of Japan|Cuisine of Japan]]

== Ingredients ==

=== Sauce ===
Equal parts of:
*[[Cookbook:Soy Sauce|Soy sauce]]
*[[Cookbook:Sugar|Sugar]]
*[[Cookbook:Worcestershire Sauce|Worcestershire sauce]]
*[[Cookbook:Ketchup|Ketchup]]

=== Tonkatsu ===
*2 pork cutlets (boneless pork loin chop), about 1 cm thick
*½ [[Cookbook:Teaspoon|teaspoon]] [[Cookbook:salt|kosher salt]]
*⅛ teaspoon [[Cookbook:pepper|black pepper]]
*1 [[Cookbook:Egg|egg]] (beaten)
*2 [[Cookbook:Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:flour|flour]]
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] panko (Japanese [[Cookbook:Bread Crumb|bread crumbs]])
*[[Cookbook:Oil|Vegetable oil]] for frying
== Procedure ==

=== Sauce ===

# Combine the soy sauce, sugar, Worcestershire, and ketchup. Beat with fork until consistent.
# If desired, chill sauce for a half hour to thicken.

=== Tonkatsu ===
#Pound pork with meat mallet until thin, perhaps ¼ inch (a little more than 0.5 cm) thick. To reduce splatter you should put the meat in an open ziplock bag.
#Season pounded cutlets with salt and pepper on each side.
# Put beaten egg, flour, and bread crumbs in separate shallow bowls.
# Place pork in the flour, then egg, then crumbs (in that order) so that it is completely coated with each.
# Heat oil in a [[Cookbook:Frying Pan|frying pan]] to about ½ inch or 1.25 cm deep. Drop in crumbs to test when the oil is ready—the crumbs should float and sizzle.
# [[Cookbook:Frying|Fry]] pork until deep golden or golden brown, most likely a for a few minutes on either side.
# With a sharp knife cut pork into strips.
# Serve with Japanese short grain [[Cookbook:Rice|rice]] and thinly shredded cabbage.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Pork cannot be substituted by [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] or [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]].
*Finished tonkatsu can be served as a topping to [[Cookbook:Japanese curry|Japanese curry]] or simmered with egg and broth and served over rice as [[Cookbook:Katsudon|katsudon]].

[[Category:Japanese recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using pork]]
[[Category:Fried recipes]]
[[Category:Deep fried recipes]]
[[Category:Main course recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with images]]
[[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]]
[[Category:Recipes using sugar]]
[[Category:Recipes using bread crumb]]
[[Category:Recipes using salt]]
[[Category:Recipes using pepper]]
[[Category:Recipes using egg]]
[[Category:Recipes using wheat flour]]
[[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]]
[[Category:Recipes using ketchup]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633386</id>
      <parentid>4633384</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:40:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26343-16</username>
        <id>3580407</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>4633386</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2621" sha1="6ss7uyb53ml6oi71cfgm9qh5d0p8ejj" xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
{{Recipe summary
| Category = Japanese recipes
| Difficulty = 3
| Image = [[File:Tonkatsu by yoppy in Shibuya, Tokyo.jpg|300px]]
}}

{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of Japan|Cuisine of Japan]]

== Ingredients ==

=== Sauce ===
Equal parts of:
*[[Cookbook:Soy Sauce|Soy sauce]]
*[[Cookbook:Sugar|Sugar]]
*[[Cookbook:Worcestershire Sauce|Worcestershire sauce]]
*[[Cookbook:Ketchup|Ketchup]]

=== Tonkatsu ===
*2 pork cutlets (boneless pork loin chop), about 1 cm thick
*½ [[Cookbook:Teaspoon|teaspoon]] [[Cookbook:salt|kosher salt]]
*⅛ teaspoon [[Cookbook:pepper|black pepper]]
*1 [[Cookbook:Egg|egg]] (beaten)
*2 [[Cookbook:Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:flour|flour]]
* ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] panko (Japanese [[Cookbook:Bread Crumb|bread crumbs]])
*[[Cookbook:Oil|Vegetable oil]] for frying
== Procedure ==

=== Sauce ===

# Combine the soy sauce, sugar, Worcestershire, and ketchup. Beat with fork until consistent.
# If desired, chill sauce for a half hour to thicken.

=== Tonkatsu ===
#Pound pork with meat mallet until thin, perhaps ¼ inch (a little more than 0.5 cm) thick. To reduce splatter you should put the meat in an open ziplock bag.
#Season pounded cutlets with salt and pepper on each side.
# Put beaten egg, flour, and bread crumbs in separate shallow bowls.
# Place pork in the flour, then egg, then crumbs (in that order) so that it is completely coated with each.
# Heat oil in a [[Cookbook:Frying Pan|frying pan]] to about ½ inch or 1.25 cm deep. Drop in crumbs to test when the oil is ready—the crumbs should float and sizzle.
# [[Cookbook:Frying|Fry]] pork until deep golden or golden brown, most likely a for a few minutes on either side.
# With a sharp knife cut pork into strips.
# Serve with Japanese short grain [[Cookbook:Rice|rice]] and thinly shredded cabbage.

==Notes, tips, and variations==
* Pork can be substituted by [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] or [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]].
*Finished tonkatsu can be served as a topping to [[Cookbook:Japanese curry|Japanese curry]] or simmered with egg and broth and served over rice as [[Cookbook:Katsudon|katsudon]].

[[Category:Japanese recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes using pork]]
[[Category:Fried recipes]]
[[Category:Deep fried recipes]]
[[Category:Main course recipes]]
[[Category:Recipes with images]]
[[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]]
[[Category:Recipes using sugar]]
[[Category:Recipes using bread crumb]]
[[Category:Recipes using salt]]
[[Category:Recipes using pepper]]
[[Category:Recipes using egg]]
[[Category:Recipes using wheat flour]]
[[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]]
[[Category:Recipes using ketchup]]</text>
      <sha1>6ss7uyb53ml6oi71cfgm9qh5d0p8ejj</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6/4. Ng5/4...d5/5. exd5/5...b5</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>136872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633318</id>
      <parentid>3230084</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:22:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>format, history</comment>
      <origin>4633318</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2209" sha1="pgxce904vf9d7xrimcvt2hpg7w6hynl" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Ulvestad variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C57]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6|Two knights defence]] → [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6/4. Ng5|4. Ng5]] → [[../|5. exd5]]
}}
==5...b5 · Ulvestad variation==

Black offers a pawn to deflect the bishop from control of d5 and pressure of f7, so that they may retake on d4 with the queen. 

If White accepts the sacrifice, [[/6. Bxb5|'''6. Bxb5?!''']], this works out well for Black. 6...Qxd5 and both White's bishop and the g2-pawn are under attack. 

If White trades, [[/6. dxc6|'''6. dxc6?!''']] bxc4, Black has equalised. 

[[/6. Bf1|'''6. Bf1!''']] is the surprising refutation. Undeveloping the bishop guards g2, and though Black may retake the pawn with their queen, they'd be hit by Nc3 with tempo (6...Qxd5 7. Nc3), so the main line involves 6...Nd4 as in the Fritz variation.  

=== History ===
The move was analysed by Olaf Ulvestad in ''Chess Review'' in 1941.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=[[c:File:Chess Review, 1941.pdf|A New Move in an Old Defense]] |journal=Chess Review |last=Ulvestad |first=Olaf I. |volume=1941 |issue=January |pages=7-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
:1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5

Ulvestad Variation
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;[[/6. Bf1|Bf1]]&lt;br&gt;Nd4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Ne4&lt;br&gt;Qh4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Ng3&lt;br&gt;Bg4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f3&lt;br&gt;e4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;∞&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;[[/6. Bxb5|Bxb5]]&lt;br&gt;Qxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qxg2&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Qxf3&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf3&lt;br&gt;Bd7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O&lt;br&gt;Bd6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;[[/6. dxc6|dxc6]]&lt;br&gt;bxc4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qe2&lt;br&gt;Qd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f4&lt;br&gt;Qxc6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;fxe5&lt;br&gt;Bg4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nf3&lt;br&gt;O-O-O&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

{{ChessMid}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
{{Wikipedia|Two Knights Defence}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>pgxce904vf9d7xrimcvt2hpg7w6hynl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633335</id>
      <parentid>4633318</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T22:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>history</comment>
      <origin>4633335</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3032" sha1="h5bdqz4nk6v7lkr4zel1mjp66feypow" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Ulvestad variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C57]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6|Two knights defence]] → [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6/4. Ng5|4. Ng5]] → [[../|5. exd5]]
}}
==5...b5 · Ulvestad variation==

Black offers a pawn to deflect the bishop from control of d5 and pressure of f7, so that they may retake on d4 with the queen. 

If White accepts the sacrifice, [[/6. Bxb5|'''6. Bxb5?!''']], this works out well for Black. 6...Qxd5 and both White's bishop and the g2-pawn are under attack. 

If White trades, [[/6. dxc6|'''6. dxc6?!''']] bxc4, Black has equalised. 

[[/6. Bf1|'''6. Bf1!''']] is the surprising refutation. Un-developing the bishop guards g2, and though Black may retake the pawn with their queen, they'd be hit by Nc3 with tempo (6...Qxd5 7. Nc3), so the main line involves 6...Nd4 as in the Fritz variation.  

=== History ===
The move was suggested by Olaf Ulvestad in ''Chess Review'' in 1941, where he expressed dissatisfaction with the main move, 5...Na5:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=[[c:File:Chess Review, 1941.pdf|A New Move in an Old Defense]] |journal=Chess Review |last=Ulvestad |first=Olaf I. |volume=1941 |issue=January |pages=7-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;is it absolutely necessary to move the Knight [to a5]? ... Black must lose time getting it back into the game [and] it is in no way a real counter-attack, as it permits the very strong reply [Bb5+]. From these considerations, it became more and more obvious to me that [5...Na5] is a weak, ineffectual move which actually violates the principles of good chess... In positions like this, one should look for possible counter attacks.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

After 5...b5, Ulvestad analysed 6. Bxb5, 6. Bb3, 6. dxc6, 6. Bf1 and 6. Be2 and judged that White could not hold an advantage. To 6. Bf1, considered the best move today, he suggested 6...h6 and analysed 7. Nf3 and 7. dxc6, but did not appreciate that White was better after 7. Nxf7 Kxf7 8. dxc6. 

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
:1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5

Ulvestad Variation
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;[[/6. Bf1|Bf1]]&lt;br&gt;Nd4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Ne4&lt;br&gt;Qh4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Ng3&lt;br&gt;Bg4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f3&lt;br&gt;e4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;∞&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;[[/6. Bxb5|Bxb5]]&lt;br&gt;Qxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qxg2&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Qxf3&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf3&lt;br&gt;Bd7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O&lt;br&gt;Bd6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;[[/6. dxc6|dxc6]]&lt;br&gt;bxc4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qe2&lt;br&gt;Qd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f4&lt;br&gt;Qxc6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;fxe5&lt;br&gt;Bg4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nf3&lt;br&gt;O-O-O&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

{{ChessMid}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
{{Wikipedia|Two Knights Defence}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>h5bdqz4nk6v7lkr4zel1mjp66feypow</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6/4. Ng5/4...d5/5. exd5/5...b5/6. Bf1</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>136893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633379</id>
      <parentid>3230085</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>analysis of candidate moves</comment>
      <origin>4633379</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3478" sha1="m6ju8jrmakr9m9s03ulirjwmmbatz9z" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Ulvestad variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C57]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6|Two knights defence]] → [[../|Ulvestad variation]]
}}
== 6. Bf1 ==

6. Bf1! is a surprising move that un-develops the Bishop, but by guarding the g2 pawn with the bishop the threat of ...Qxd5 is nullified. 

Now if [[/6...Qxd5|'''6...Qxd5?!''']], White can calmly answer 7. Nc3 with tempo, and once Black's queen is driven from the a8-h1 diagonal, e.g. after 7...Qc5, White can then snap up the pawn after all, 8. Bxb5!, and Black has no threats. 

Though 6...Qxd5 may be off the table, Black's knight is still en prise and this must be resolved.

Black may consider moving the knight instead. [[/6...Nd4|'''6...Nd4''']] is the main move. The knight guards b5 and pressures important squares in White's position. White is best to shoo it away immediately, leading to a trade of knights: 7. c3 Nxd5 8. cxd4 Qxg5 9. Bxb5+ Kd8 {{Chess/not|+}}. White wins back the pawn and has a small edge. 

Ulvestad's original analysis suggested '''6...h6?!''', a counterattack on White's knight that recognised that Black was better after either 7. Nf3? or 7. dxc6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=[[c:File:Chess Review, 1941.pdf|A New Move in an Old Defense]] |journal=Chess Review |last=Ulvestad |first=Olaf I. |volume=1941 |issue=January |pages=7-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in 1963&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1224842 Kurkin v Mihaljcisin, 1963. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; it was discovered that White can play 7. Nxf7! anyway, the Kurkin gambit, and after 7...Kxf7 8. dxc6 has run away with the pawns.

Why not simply take the pawn back with the knight? [[/6...Nxd5|'''6...Nxd5''']], as played in Carlsen-Gukesh, 2024, is good and has become more popular in recent years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=2701481 Gukesh v Carlsen, 2024. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; 

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
:'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bf1'''

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bf1&lt;br&gt;[[/6...h6|h6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;dxc6&lt;br&gt;Bc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Be2&lt;br&gt;Rf8&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;...&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nf3&lt;br&gt;Qxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qe6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;Fritz variation&lt;br&gt;by transposition&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nd4|Nd4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;∞&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Qxd5|Qxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Be7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Bd7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O&lt;br&gt;O-O&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nxd5|Nxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Qxg5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qxd5&lt;br&gt;Qf6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Bg4|Bg4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;fxg4&lt;br&gt;Nf4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Estimated next move likelihood==
h6 40%, Nd4 40%, Qxd5 15%, Nxd5 4%

{{ChessMid}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{Wikipedia|Two Knights Defence}}

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>m6ju8jrmakr9m9s03ulirjwmmbatz9z</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633380</id>
      <parentid>4633379</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:28:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 6. Bf1 */</comment>
      <origin>4633380</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3561" sha1="ccx3asy6nb2x54xwnlw1d0ow8mwjzjw" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Ulvestad variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C57]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6|Two knights defence]] → [[../|Ulvestad variation]]
}}
== 6. Bf1 ==

6. Bf1! is a surprising move that un-develops the Bishop, but by guarding the g2 pawn with the bishop the threat of ...Qxd5 is nullified. 

Now if [[/6...Qxd5|'''6...Qxd5?!''']], White can calmly answer 7. Nc3 with tempo, and once Black's queen is driven from the a8-h1 diagonal, e.g. after 7...Qc5, White can then snap up the pawn after all, 8. Bxb5!, and Black has no threats. 

Though 6...Qxd5 may be off the table, Black's knight is still en prise and this must be resolved.

Black may consider moving the knight instead. [[/6...Nd4|'''6...Nd4''']] is the main move. The knight guards b5 and pressures important squares in White's position. White is best to shoo it away immediately, leading to a trade of knights: 7. c3 Nxd5 8. cxd4 Qxg5 9. Bxb5+ Kd8 {{Chess/not|+}}. White wins back the pawn and has a small edge. This is a transposition into the Fritz variation, where ...Nd4 is played on turn 5. 

Ulvestad's original analysis suggested '''6...h6?!''', a counterattack on White's knight that recognised that Black was better after either 7. Nf3? or 7. dxc6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=[[c:File:Chess Review, 1941.pdf|A New Move in an Old Defense]] |journal=Chess Review |last=Ulvestad |first=Olaf I. |volume=1941 |issue=January |pages=7-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in 1963&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1224842 Kurkin v Mihaljcisin, 1963. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; it was discovered that White can play 7. Nxf7! anyway, the Kurkin gambit, and after 7...Kxf7 8. dxc6 has run away with the pawns.

Why not simply take the pawn back with the knight? [[/6...Nxd5|'''6...Nxd5''']], as played in Carlsen-Gukesh, 2024, is good and has become more popular in recent years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=2701481 Gukesh v Carlsen, 2024. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
:'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bf1'''

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bf1&lt;br&gt;[[/6...h6|h6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;dxc6&lt;br&gt;Bc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Be2&lt;br&gt;Rf8&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;...&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nf3&lt;br&gt;Qxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qe6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;Fritz variation&lt;br&gt;by transposition&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nd4|Nd4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;∞&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Qxd5|Qxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Be7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Bd7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O&lt;br&gt;O-O&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nxd5|Nxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Qxg5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qxd5&lt;br&gt;Qf6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Bg4|Bg4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;fxg4&lt;br&gt;Nf4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Estimated next move likelihood==
h6 40%, Nd4 40%, Qxd5 15%, Nxd5 4%

{{ChessMid}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{Wikipedia|Two Knights Defence}}

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>ccx3asy6nb2x54xwnlw1d0ow8mwjzjw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633381</id>
      <parentid>4633380</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:28:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Estimated next move likelihood */</comment>
      <origin>4633381</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3491" sha1="mxikktvgqyffqvoz6bf6c0mhg2zvg1j" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Ulvestad variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C57]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6|Two knights defence]] → [[../|Ulvestad variation]]
}}
== 6. Bf1 ==

6. Bf1! is a surprising move that un-develops the Bishop, but by guarding the g2 pawn with the bishop the threat of ...Qxd5 is nullified. 

Now if [[/6...Qxd5|'''6...Qxd5?!''']], White can calmly answer 7. Nc3 with tempo, and once Black's queen is driven from the a8-h1 diagonal, e.g. after 7...Qc5, White can then snap up the pawn after all, 8. Bxb5!, and Black has no threats. 

Though 6...Qxd5 may be off the table, Black's knight is still en prise and this must be resolved.

Black may consider moving the knight instead. [[/6...Nd4|'''6...Nd4''']] is the main move. The knight guards b5 and pressures important squares in White's position. White is best to shoo it away immediately, leading to a trade of knights: 7. c3 Nxd5 8. cxd4 Qxg5 9. Bxb5+ Kd8 {{Chess/not|+}}. White wins back the pawn and has a small edge. This is a transposition into the Fritz variation, where ...Nd4 is played on turn 5. 

Ulvestad's original analysis suggested '''6...h6?!''', a counterattack on White's knight that recognised that Black was better after either 7. Nf3? or 7. dxc6.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=[[c:File:Chess Review, 1941.pdf|A New Move in an Old Defense]] |journal=Chess Review |last=Ulvestad |first=Olaf I. |volume=1941 |issue=January |pages=7-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in 1963&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1224842 Kurkin v Mihaljcisin, 1963. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; it was discovered that White can play 7. Nxf7! anyway, the Kurkin gambit, and after 7...Kxf7 8. dxc6 has run away with the pawns.

Why not simply take the pawn back with the knight? [[/6...Nxd5|'''6...Nxd5''']], as played in Carlsen-Gukesh, 2024, is good and has become more popular in recent years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=2701481 Gukesh v Carlsen, 2024. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
:'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bf1'''

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bf1&lt;br&gt;[[/6...h6|h6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;dxc6&lt;br&gt;Bc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Be2&lt;br&gt;Rf8&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;...&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nf3&lt;br&gt;Qxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qe6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;Fritz variation&lt;br&gt;by transposition&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nd4|Nd4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;∞&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Qxd5|Qxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Be7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Bd7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O&lt;br&gt;O-O&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nxd5|Nxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Qxg5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qxd5&lt;br&gt;Qf6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Bg4|Bg4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;fxg4&lt;br&gt;Nf4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{Wikipedia|Two Knights Defence}}

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
      <sha1>mxikktvgqyffqvoz6bf6c0mhg2zvg1j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633382</id>
      <parentid>4633381</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:30:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 6. Bf1 */</comment>
      <origin>4633382</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3492" sha1="jqr90mtzyjfyq14qg78k4j9jc4n9cpa" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Ulvestad variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C57]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Nf6|Two knights defence]] → [[../|Ulvestad variation]]
}}
== 6. Bf1 ==

6. Bf1! is a surprising move that un-develops the Bishop, but by guarding the g2 pawn with the bishop the threat of ...Qxd5 is nullified. 

Now if [[/6...Qxd5|'''6...Qxd5?!''']], White can calmly answer 7. Nc3 with tempo, and once Black's queen is driven from the a8-h1 diagonal, e.g. after 7...Qc5, White can then snap up the pawn after all, 8. Bxb5!, and Black has no threats. 

Though 6...Qxd5 may be off the table, Black's knight is still en prise and this must be resolved.

Black may consider moving the knight instead. [[/6...Nd4|'''6...Nd4''']] is the main move. The knight guards b5 and pressures important squares in White's position. White is best to shoo it away immediately, leading to a trade of knights: 7. c3 Nxd5 8. cxd4 Qxg5 9. Bxb5+ Kd8 {{Chess/not|+}}. White wins back the pawn and has a small edge. This is a transposition into the Fritz variation, where ...Nd4 is played on turn 5. 

Ulvestad's original analysis suggested '''6...h6?!''', a counterattack on White's knight that recognised that Black was better after either 7. Nf3? or 7. dxc6?.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=[[c:File:Chess Review, 1941.pdf|A New Move in an Old Defense]] |journal=Chess Review |last=Ulvestad |first=Olaf I. |volume=1941 |issue=January |pages=7-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, in 1963&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1224842 Kurkin v Mihaljcisin, 1963. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt; it was discovered that White can play 7. Nxf7! anyway, the Kurkin gambit, and after 7...Kxf7 8. dxc6 has run away with the pawns.

Why not simply take the pawn back with the knight? [[/6...Nxd5|'''6...Nxd5''']], as played in Carlsen-Gukesh, 2024, is good and has become more popular in recent years.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=2701481 Gukesh v Carlsen, 2024. Chessgames.com]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}
:'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4 Nf6 4.Ng5 d5 5.exd5 b5 6.Bf1'''

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bf1&lt;br&gt;[[/6...h6|h6]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;dxc6&lt;br&gt;Bc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Be2&lt;br&gt;Rf8&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;...&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nf3&lt;br&gt;Qxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qe6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;Fritz variation&lt;br&gt;by transposition&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nd4|Nd4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;∞&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Qxd5|Qxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;Qc5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Be7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Bd7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;O-O&lt;br&gt;O-O&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Nxd5|Nxd5]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Bxb5&lt;br&gt;Bb7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qf3&lt;br&gt;Qxg5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Qxd5&lt;br&gt;Qf6&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nc3&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
	&lt;tr&gt;
		&lt;th align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;...&lt;br&gt;[[/6...Bg4|Bg4]]&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;f3&lt;br&gt;Nxd5&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;Nxf7&lt;br&gt;Kxf7&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;fxg4&lt;br&gt;Nf4&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;c3

&lt;/td&gt;
		&lt;td&gt;+=&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{NCO}}
{{Wikipedia|Two Knights Defence}}

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Writing Adolescent Fiction/Character names/Girls</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>136979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633357</id>
      <parentid>4621662</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T05:14:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26291-30</username>
        <id>3580356</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Common names */ Ilana was already mentioned in the catergory &quot;uncommon names,&quot; so I deleted Ilana in the common names catergory.</comment>
      <origin>4633357</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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== Organization note ==
This list of general girls' names is divided into three tiers. In the first tier are roughly the top 400 names among girls of high school age in the past few decades. In the second tier are other names you might run into more than once in your lifetime. Unusual names go into the third tier. Before adding a name, please check all three tiers to make sure it is not already on the list. If the name you are adding is an uncommon name, you might consider adding it to one of the other lists at [[Writing Adolescent Fiction/Character names|Character names]] instead.

== Common names ==
# Amara
# Allysandra
# Anna Beth
# Anja/Anya
# Anny
# Aura
# Aila
# Aaliyah/Aliyah
# Abigail
# Abby
# Audrey/Aubrey
# Adeline/Adele
# Aisha
# Ariel
# Alisha
# Alicia
# Alyce/Alice
# Andye/Andra
# Ashly/Ashley
# Ashlyn
# Ashylinelle/Ashylinea
# Alana
# Alexa/Alex
# Alexandria
# Alexis/Lexi
# Alicia/Alisha/Alesha/Elisha
# Allison/Alison
# Althea
# Alyssa/Alissa/Alessia/Elyssa/Ilyssa/Elissa
# Amanda/Mandy/Mandi
# Amberline/Amber
# Amelia/Emilia
# Ally/Allie/Aly/Alyson/Alle
# Amy
# Ana
# Anna
# Andrea/Andy
# Angel/Angleia
# Angela/Angie
# Angelica/Angie
# Andi
# Angelina
# Asala
# Anika
# Anita
# Annabeth
# Annastasia/Anna/Anastasia/Ana/Anya/Nastya
# Anne/Ann/Annie
# Annette
# Annica
# April
# Ariana/Arianna/Aria/Ari/Arya
# Ashley/Ashleigh/Ashlie
# Aubrey/Aubree/Aubrinna/Aubria/Aubrianna
# Athena
# Autumn
# Ava
# Avery
# Barbara/Barb/Barbie
# Becky/Becca
# Bethany/Beth
# Bianca
# Bessie/Blessie/Bess
# Blaire
# Bonnie
# Brandy
# Breanna/Brianna/Briana/Bryanna/Breana/Bryana/BreAnna
# Breanne
# Brenda
# Bridget
# Brittany/Britney/Brittney
# Briella
# Brooke/Brookelyn
# Beulah
# Clarissa/Clary/Clarisse
# Caitlin/Katelyn/Kaitlyn/Caitlyn/Kaitlin
# Cadence
# Candace
# Cali/Callie/Calli/Kali
# Carla/Karla
# Carly
# Cathy
# Carrie
# Carol
# Caroline
# Carolyn
# Carmen
# Carrington/Kerrington
# Cassandra/Cassie/Cassy/Cass
# Charlie/Charley/Charlee
# Cecilia/Celcile
# Celestia/Celeste
# Cory/Corey
# Chelsea
# Cheryl
# Cheyenne
# Chloe
# Christina/Cristina/Kristina/Crissy
# Christine
# Cindy/Cyndi
# Cinder
# Claire/Clare
# Clara/Cara
# Claudia
# Colette
# Charlene/Char
# Charlotte/Charlie
# Colleen/Koleen
# Constance/Connie
# Consuelo
# Camilla
# Calorine
# Corinne
# Courtney
# Crystal
# Cynthia
# Daisy
# Dana
# Diana
# Danielle
# Darcy
# Daria
# Darlene
# Dawn
# Deanna
# Dalia
# Delaney/Delanie/Delaine/Delanee
# Denise
# Desiree/Desirae/Desiray
# Destine
# Destiny
# Devon
# Diana
# Dolores
# Dominique
# Donna
# Ebony
# Eileen/Aileen
# Elaine
# Elena/Elana/Elaina/Alayna
# Elisa
# Elizabeth/Ellie/Beth/Liz/Lizzy/Lizzie/Libby/Eliza
# Ella/Ellie
# Ellen
# Elva
# Emily
# Emma
# Emmalyn
# Erica/Erika
# Erin
# Eva/Eve/Ava
# Evangeline
# Evelyn
# Faith
# Fiona
# Flora/Flor
# Felicity
# Felicia
# Francesca/Francisca
# Gabriela/Gabriella
# Gabrielle
# Gina/Geena/Gianna
# Gloria
# Grace
# Gwendolyn/Gwen/Gwyneth
# Hayley/Hailey/Hailee
# Haley/Hallie
# Hannah/Han
# Hazel
# Heather
# Heidi
# Helen
# Helene
# Hillary/Hilary
# Holly
# Hope
# Iman
# Ingrid
# Irene
# Iris
# Irish
# Isabella/Isabelle/Isabela
# Ivy
# Junee / Junie
# Jasmine
# Jacinda
# Jaclyn/Jacqueline/Jacquelyn/Jacklyn/Jackie
# Jaiden
# Jamie
# Jana
# Jane
# Janelle
# Janet
# Janice/Janis
# Janine
# Jay/Jai
# Jean
# Jeanette/Jeannette
# Jeanine
# Jeanne
# Jemima/Jemimah
# Jenna
# Jennifer/Jenny/Jen
# Jessica/Jessie/Jess
# Jillian/Jill/Gillian
# Josie/Josephine/Jose
# Joe
# Josette/Josie
# Joan
# Jalisa
# Joanne/Joanna
# Jodi/Jody
# Johanna
# Joni
# Jordan
# Jordyn
# Juanita
# Judith/Judy/Judi
# Julith
# Julia/Juliya/Julie
# Katie/Kati
# Kinn
# Kira
# Kiara
# Kalah
# Karen
# Kari/Kerri/Carey
# Kathleen/Kathy
# Katrina
# Kayla
# Kaya
# Kaylee/Kayleigh/Kalie/Kaley
# Keisha
# Kelly/Kellie/Kelley/Kelli
# Kelsey
# Kendra
# Keya
# Kinsley/Kinzley/Kinzlee/Kinsleigh
# Kimberly/Kimi/Kimmy/Kimbo
# Kili/keily/kilie/kielie
# Kirsten/Kiersten
# Krista/Christa
# Kristen/Kristin
# Kylee/Kylie
# Kate
# Lorelai
# Lacey/Lacy
# Laney
# Lana
# LaBella
# LaBelle
# Lane/Laine/Lani
# Latasha
# Latoya
# Laura/Laurie
# Laurel
# Lauren/Laurie
# Leah
# Leann/Leanne
# Leila/Laila/Layla/Leilah
# Lena
# Leni
# Leslie
# Letitia
# Lia/Lila
# Lilia
# Lillian
# Lily/Lilly/Lili/Lillie
# Linda
# Lindsay/Lindsey
# Lisa
# Lola
# Lora
# Lorena
# Loretta
# Lori/Lory
# Lorraine
# Luciana
# Louise
# Lovell
# Luann
# Lucy/Luci
# Lunar/Luna
# Lydia
# Lynn
# Lynna Beth
# Macey/Macie
# Mackensie
# Mackenzie
# Madiha
# Matilda
# Mae
# Mackenna
# Maya/Miya
# Madeleine/Madeline
# Madison
# Magdalena
# Marci/Marcy
# Margaret/Maggie
# Margarita
# Marinette
# Margo
# Maria
# Mariah
# Mariam/Maryam
# Marianna
# Mariana
# Marianne
# Mariane
# Marie/Maria
# Mariel
# Marilyn//Maryline
# Marion/Marionne/Marian
# Marissa/Marisa
# Mary
# Mary Anne
# Mary Beth
# Mary Jane
# Maureen
# Maxine/Max/Maximus
# Maya
# Meagan/Maegan
# Megan/Meghan/Meg/M'gann
# Melanie
# Melinda
# Melissa
# Maryellen
# Mercedes
# Meredith
# Mia/Mea
# Michaela/Mikayla/Makayla/McKayla/Micaela
# Michelle
# Mindy
# Minzy/Minsy
# Miranda
# Mirabelle
# Miriam
# Mirajane
# Misty
# Molly/Mollie
# Monica
# Monique
# Morgan
# Nadia
# Nagini
# Nadine
# Nancy
# Naiya/Nai
# Naomi
# Natalie/Nat/Natty/Nattie/Natt/Natti
# Natasha/Tasha
# Nicole
# Nina
# Niya
# Noelle
# Nora
# Noreen
# Nova
# Olivia/Livia
# Ophelia
# Parlee
# Paige
# Pamela/Pam
# Patricia
# Peony
# Paula
# Pauleen/Pauline
# Phoebe
# Phyllis
# Quinn
# Quansmah
# Rachael
# Rachel/Rach
# Rae
# Raven
# Ravena
# Rain
# Rami
# Ramses
# Ramona
# Raquel/Raquelle
# Rebecca/Becky/Becca
# Regina
# Rutam
# Rhiannon/Rhiann
# Rhonda
# Riley
# Rita
# Robin/Robyn
# Rochelle
# Rosa
# Rose
# Rori
# Rosemarie
# Roxanne
# Ruth
# Ruby
# Rumi
# Sabrina
# Samantha/sam
# Saria
# Sandra
# Sandy
# Sarah/Sara
# Sasha
# Savannah/Savanna
# Selena
# Serena
# Shanda
# Shannon
# Sharon
# Shawn
# Shawna
# Sheena
# Sheila
# Shelby
# Serafina
# Shelly/Shelley
# Sherry/Shari
# Sierra
# Sienna
# Sinéad
# Simoné
# Siya
# Sky/Skye
# Sonia/Sonya/Sonja
# Sophia/Sophie/Sofia
# Stacey/Stacy
# Stephanile/Steph
# Summer
# Sunny/Sunni
# Susan
# Susana
# Suzanne
# Sydney/Sidney
# Sylvia
# Tabitha/Tabatha
# Tamara/Tammy
# Tanya
# Tara
# Taylor
# Teresa/Theresa
# Terry/Terri
# Tiffany
# Tammitha
# Tammy/Tabatha
# Talia
# Tracy
# Tricia
# Trina
# Trinety
# Trixie
# Tyler
# Tyleigh
# Tessa
# Valerie/Vallorie
# Vanessa
# Veronica
# Vera/ Vara/Vero
# Victoria
# Vicky
# Wanda
# Wendy
# Whitney
# Will
# Winter
# Uri
# Zuri
# Zaydee/Zaidee/Zaidey/Zaidie/Zaydie/Zaydey
# Zoe/Zoey
# Zofia/Zofi/Zof/Zo/Zzz
# Zara


== Other Common Names ==

# Athenia/Athinia/Athena
# Amaya
# Aniya 
# Acacia/Akazia
# Ada
# Adelita
# Ador
# Adrianne
# Afra
# Agatha
# Agnes
# Aida
# Akiko
# Alaina
# Alana
# Alandra
# Alanis
# Albina
# Alejandra
# Alessandra
# Aletha
# Alethia
# Alexi
# Alexia
# Alexa
# Alina
# Amber
# Alisa
# Alisha
# Aliza
# Allegra
# Allyn
# Alma
# Alondra
# Alpha
# Amalia/Amelie
# Amanda Sue
# Amara
# Amaryllis
# Amelita
# Amethyst/Amethizt
# Amina
# Amira
# Anais
# Analia
# Analise/Analisse/Anneliese
# Ana Maria
# Ananda
# Andromeda
# Angeles
# Angeline
# Anissa
# Annabel/Annabelle
# Annabella
# Anna-Maria
# Anna Olivia
# Antonia
# Anya
# Aphrodite
# Aphelia
# April
# Aria/Arriah/Ari
# Ariel
# Arlene
# Artemis
# Arwen
# Aerowen/Aero/Arrow
# Asha
# Ashby
# Ashlyn/Ashlynne
# Ashton
# Asia
# Astro
# Aspen
# Astrid
# Asuna
# Audra
# Aura
# Aurelia
# Aurélie
# Aurora
# Autumn
# Avril
# Aya
# Azure
# Baileigh/Bailey/Baylee/Bayleigh
# Bari
# Basia
# Belinda
# Bella
# Belle
# Benita
# Brynn/Brin
# Bernadette
# Bathaba
# Beverly
# Biana
# Billie/Billy
# Birgit
# Bjorg
# Blain/Blaine
# Blair/Blaire
# Blanca
# Blanche
# Blossom
# Bonita
# Braxton
# Breck
# Bree
# Breezy
# Brianne
# Brigitta
# Brigitte
# Brina
# Bristol
# Bronwen/Brownyn
# Blaze
# Brooklyn
# Buffy
# Cadence
# Cai/Chai
# Caitlin/Katelyn
# Calista/Callysto
# Calla
# Camilla
# Cam
# Camille
# Cara
# Carmelita
# Carola
# Carole
# Carolina
# Caryn
# Casey
# Callie
# Calaban
# Cameron
# Cassidy
# Catalina
# Catherine
# Catriona
# Ceara
# Celeste
# Celia
# Chanda
# Catherine
# Chandra
# Chantal
# Charis
# Charity
# Charla
# Charlene
# Charlize
# Charmaine
# Charné/Charnay/Chané/Sharnay/Shané/Sharné/Shenae
# Chasity
# Chastity
# Cher
# Celine
# Cheri/Cherry
# China
# Chiquita
# Chita/Cheeta
# Chlorine
# Chinga
# Christelle
# Christiana
# Christianne
# Christienne
# Clara
# Claudette
# Claudine
# Cleo/Chléo
# Cleopatra
# Colby/Colbie
# Concepción
# Concetta
# Concha/Conchita
# Consuela
# Contessa
# Cora
# Coraline
# Cosette
# Courtlynn
# Crescent/Cress
# Cristina
# Dagmar
# Dahlia
# Dalia
# dakayla
# Damaris
# Danell/Danelle
# Danica
# Daniela/Daniella/Dani
# Daphne
# Dara
# Darby
# Darci
# Darla
# Diana
# Delilah
# Davida
# Deana
# Deandra
# Deanne/Deane
# DeeDee
# Deena
# Deirdre
# Delilah/Delila
# Della
# Delma
# Deloris
# Demetria/Demi
# Dena
# Denisha
# Desdemona
# Devika
# Dharma
# Dexas
# Diamond
# Dina
# Dora
# Doreen
# Dorianne
# Dorothy
# Drucilla
# Dusty
# Eden
# Edith
# Ekaterini
# Elaina
# Electra/Elektra
# Eleni
# Elham
# Eppi
# Elise/Elyse
# Elissa
# Eliza
# Ellery
# Ellen
# Elnora
# Elsha
# Elvira
# Emerald
# Elenor
# Emery/Emmarie/Emory
# Emilia
# Emmaline
# Engracia
# Enya
# Esmeralda
# Esperanza
# Estefani
# Estella
# Estelle
# Etta
# Eudora
# Eula
# Eufemia
# Eulalia
# Evangeline
# Everliegh
# Fabiana
# Farah/Farrah
# Farida
# Fatemeh
# Fatima
# Faye/Fae
# Felicity
# Filipa
# Flannery
# Flavia
# Fleur
# Flora
# Florence
# Florida
# Frances
# Francine
# Freda
# Falon
# Felicity
# Fuchsia
# Genesis
# Geneva
# Genevieve
# Gennifer
# Georgia
# Geraldine
# Gia
# Gurtrude
# Ginger
# Gioia
# Giorgia
# Giselle
# Gita/Geeta
# Giulia
# Glenda
# Glorianne
# Gretchen
# Guadalupe
# Halle/Hallie
# Happy
# Harley
# Harriet
# Harnold
# Haven
# Hazel
# Heaven
# Helena
# Hermione
# Hilda
# Honey
# Idina
# Iesha
# Ilana
# Ilena
# Ilona
# Ilse
# Imogene
# Ina
# Ines
# India
# Isabel
# Isadora
# Ivana
# Ivy
# Irissa
# Jacinta
# Jacquline
# Jada/Jayda
# Jade
# Jesus
# Jaimee
# Jamila
# Joanne
# Jan
# Janae
# Janeane
# Janessa
# Janine
# Jasmin
# Jaya
# Jayne
# Jeanna
# Jemma/Gemma
# Jenee
# Jenelle
# Jenine
# Jennica
# Jewel
# Joelle
# Joellen/Joellyn
# Johnnie
# Jolanda
# Jolene/Jolleen
# Jo Marie
# Jorien
# Josefina
# Josephine/Jo
# JoJo/Jojo
# Joy
# Joyce
# Joycelyn
# Juana
# Julia
# Julianna
# Julianne
# Julienne
# Juliet
# Juliette
# Julina
# Juline
# June
# Justice
# Kaede
# Kami
# Kenzy
# Kamila
# Karida
# Karima
# Kate
# Kanie
# Karl
# Karly
# Kone
# Karina
# Karma
# Kenzy
# Karoline
# Karyn
# Kassandra
# Katarina/Kat/Katy/Katia/Katerina/Kathe/Katharina
# Kay/Kaye
# Keeley/Keely
# Keiko
# Keilana/Kaylana
# Kendall/Kendyll
# Kenna
# Kennedy
# Keshia
# Keyesha
# Kevin
# Khalida
# Kiarrianna
# Kiera
# Kioko
# Kira
# Krishna
# Krystal
# Krystle
# Kyler
# Liberty
# Libby
# Lily
# Lyla
# Larlyiagatha
# Large
# Lara
# Larissa
# Lazari/Laz/Lazzy
# Latifah
# Laureen
# Lavelle
# Lavender/Lavendar
# Laverne
# Layne
# Lea
# Leanna
# Lee/Leigh
# Leigha
# Leilani
# Lela
# Leliah
# Lenora
# Lenore
# Leola
# Leona
# Leontine
# Leora
# Leticia
# Letty
# Liana
# Licia/Lice
# Liesl/Lisl
# Life
# Lilac
# Liliana
# Lilith
# Lilli
# Lillian
# Lina
# Lisbet
# Lisette/Lissette
# Livona
# Luz
# Lizabeth
# Lizabetha
# Lizbeth
# Logan
# Lois
# Lolita
# Lorelei
# LoriBeth
# Lorna
# Louella
# Lourdes
# Love
# Luanne
# Lucia
# Luciana
# Lucille
# Lucinda
# Lucrecia
# Lucretia
# Luisa
# Luise
# Lula
# Luminous
# Luna
# Lurlene
# Luz
# Lynette
# Lynsey
# Lyra
# Madonna
# Madina/Madiena/Madena/Madeena
# Maeve
# Magenta
# Malaysia
# Malina
# Mallory
# Manda
# Manuela
# Mara
# Marcela/Marcella
# Marcia/Marsha
# Maren
# Margit
# Marguerite
# Mari
# Mariana
# Maribel
# Maribeth
# Marietta
# Marilou
# Marina
# Marisa
# Marisol
# Marita
# Mariya
# Marjorie/Marjore
# Marlene
# Martha
# Maryam
# Mary Ellen
# Mary Jo
# Mary Kate
# Mary Kay
# Mary Lou
# Mary Louise
# Maja (Maya)
# Masha
# Mattie
# Maura
# Mavis
# May
# Maybelle/Mabel/Maybel/Maibelle/Maybull
# McKenzie/Mackenzie/Mack/Mac/Makenzie/Kenzie/Mackinzie
# Mcayla
# Melody
# Melora
# Mia
# Micah
# Michal
# Michèle
# Mieke
# Mimi
# Millie
# Ming
# Mira/Meera
# Mitra
# Mitzi
# Moira
# Mona
# Moon
# Morag
# Mya
# Myra
# Na’ama
# Nadira
# Nadya
# Nafisa
# Nafisha
# Natalie
# Nahal
# Najwa
# Nanette
# Narcissa
# Natalia
# Natane
# Nathalie
# Nathana
# Nettie
# Nevada
# Neve
# Niamh
# Nichole
# Nicolette/Nicoletta
# Nikhila
# Nirvana
# Nita
# Niva
# Noah
# Noelia
# Noemi
# Nona
# Norma
# Odessa
# Odile
# Olga
# Olive
# Olympia/Olimpya
# Paola
# Paris
# Parker
# Pasha
# Patience
# Patrice
# Paulette
# Paulina
# Pauline
# Payton
# Paz
# Police
# Pearl
# Penelope/Penny
# Perpetua
# Petra
# Peyton
# Philippa/Pippa
# Phylicia
# Pia
# Pip
# Polly
# Poppy
# Portia
# Prudence
# Quincy/Quincie
# Rae/Ray
# Rafaela
# Raheema/Raheima
# Rainbow
# Raja
# Rana
# Rani
# Rashida
# Raven
# Rayanne
# Rayna
# Reagan
# Reba
# Reena
# Reese
# Reilly
# Rena
# Renata
# Reyna
# Rhea
# Rhoda
# Ria
# Ritienne
# Roberta/Bobbi
# Robi
# Romance
# Romey
# Romina
# Rona
# Roralie
# Rosalia
# Rosalie
# Rosalind
# Rosalyn
# Rosa Maria
# Rosanna
# Roseanne
# Rosemary
# Rosie
# Roslyn
# Rowena
# Rowan/Rowen 
# Roxanna
# Roxy/Roxie/Roxi
# Ruby
# Rukhsar
# Saba
# Sabina
# Sabine
# Shibani
# Sabra
# Sade
# Sadie
# Saffron
# Sage
# Sahara
# Serafina
# Salah
# Salima
# Sally
# Samara/Samarah
# Sami
# Sanya
# Sarai
# Sari
# Sarita
# Sasha
# Saundra
# Scarlett
# Schuyler/Skylar/Sky
# Shai
# Shaina
# Shakira
# Shalanda
# Shalia
# Shana
# Shandra
# Shanna
# Shaquita
# Sharice/Sherice
# Sharita
# Sharla
# Shayna
# Shea
# Shelia
# Sheryl
# Shira/Shirah
# Shirley
# Shonda
# Shoshana
# Sia
# Sibyllina
# Silke
# Silvia
# Sinead
# Siobhan
# Siri
# Sofie
# Sofiya
# Soheila/Soheyla
# Solange
# Sondra
# Spencer
# Star
# Selene
# Stefana
# Stefanie/Steffi
# Stella
# Stormy
# Sue Ann
# Sumi
# Sunshine
# Suri
# Susana
# Susannah
# Susanne/Susi
# Suzette
# Sybil/Sibyl
# Symmetry/Symetri
# Talia/Taliah/Tahlia
# Tamar
# Taylor
# Thoryn
# Tameka
# Tamika
# Tamsyn
# Tanesha/Taneisha/Tanisha
# Tania
# Tara
# Taryn
# Tatiana/Tania
# Tatum
# Tera
# Teresita
# Terra
# Tess
# Tessa
# Thalassa
# Thalia
# Thea
# Tia
# Tiana
# Tiara
# Tierra
# Tomorrow
# Trini
# Trinidad
# Trisha
# Tsuna
# Twyla/Twila
# Tyra
# Vanda
# Vanya
# Veena
# Venera#Venus
# Vera
# Viktoria/Viki
# Violet
# Viva
# Vivian/Vivienne/Vivien
# Viviana
# Vonda
# Veronica
# Vennessa
# Whitney
# Whitley
# Willow
# Windy/Wendy
# Winona
# Xandra
# Ximena
# Xochitl
# Yahaira
# Yasmeen/Yasmin
# Yelena
# Yoko
# Ysabela
# Zac
# Zelda
# Zahra

== Unusual names ==
#Antosia
# Akili
# Abrianna
#April
# Acima
# Ada
# Adaj
# Adalyn
# Adelaide
# Adina
# Adonelle
# Adonna
# Adorna
# Adriel
# Adrina
# Adrienne
# Aerriannahi
# Afira
# Africa
# Ainsley
# Aira
# Alaska
# Alba
# Alexanderina
# Alexina
# Alexstrasza
# Aleonalu
# Alfreda
# Aliki
# Alise
# Alivette
# Aljaee
# Allesse
# Allura
# Aloradanna
# Alsoha
# Alta
# Aluna
# Alundra
# Alvina
# Alyce
# Alycia
# Amaka
# Amanda Mae
# Amariona
# Amyata
# Anchal
# Andersson
# Andrea Rose
# Aneris
# Aniessa
# Anisa
# Anisia
# AnnaLi
# Anna Theresa
# Anthem
# Aquamarine
# Aquanetta
# Arabella
# Ardith
# Arelis
# Areona
# Ariadne
# Arlana
# Arlanda
# Arlena
# Arnetta
# Arnoldine
# Arrowanna
# Aerowen/Arrowen/Arrow
# Aruna
# Arystina
# Arzella
# Ashley Katherine
# Ashley Nicole
# Asia Marie
# Athena
# Aubrée
# Aubrenique
# Audreyann
# August
# Augusta
# Auleen
# Aumber
# Aurea
# Austrial
# Autumn
# Autry
# Avia
# Avis
# Axemia
# Ayn
# Baiu
# Beata
# Beaulah
# Belicia
# Bellanca
# Belva
# Bentleigh
# Berenice
# Berkley
# Bernadine
# Bertha
# Bethel
# Betsabeth
# Bijou
# Bindhu
# Bindy
# Binish
# Blessing
# Blondeen
# Blue
# Bobolink
# Boston
# Brana
# Braylynne
# Brazil
# Brazoria
# Brea Lynn
# Breighlin
# Breset
# Briane
# Bridgette
# Bright
# Brin
# Brindalyn/Brindalynn
# Brindizi
# Billie
# Brindy
# Brisa
# Brisel
# Brunhilda
# Brunhilde
# Bryattie
# Brylea
# Bryndalynn
# Cabria
# Cadira
# Caela
# Cairo
# Calandra
# Clancyu
# Calistra
# Cally
# Calypso
# Calphubna
# Cambia
# Cambria
# Canberra
# Candia
# Candida
# Caprece
# Caprice
# Chia
# Care
# Carelis
# Carina
# Carisa
# Carlene
# Carmella
# Caroline
# Caria
# Caryl
#Cersei
# Cheryl
# Cathalia
# Catherine
# Catina
# Cedar
# Cedina
# Cesia
# Cassiel
# Cetavia
# Cha Cha
# Champagne
# Chancella
# Chancy
# Chanin
# Charesse
# Charisse
# Charm
# Cherilynn
# Cherry
# Chesna
# Chionia
# Chiya
# Chlorina
# Christen
# Christinik
# Chrystelle
# Chrystyna
# Cinderella
# Claireen
# Claramae
# Clarice
# Cleotilde
# Clotilda
# Coco Lynn
# Concordia
# Conolyn
# Consandra
# Corgi
# Corine
# Cormaine
# Corrine
# Coryn
# Cosmia
# Cosmica
# Coyla
# Crayon
# Cresta
# Crician
# Crista
# Cristelle
# Curtia
# Cydee
# Cydney
# Cymetria
# Cynthria
# Cyrena
# Dacia
# Dacel
# Dacquiri
# Dadarsay
# Dadie
# Daecha
# Daily
# Daiquiri
# Dakota
# Dalma
# Damera
# Danaria
# Danasia
# Dandra
# Danea
# Danette
# Danitra
# Dariela
# Darienne
# Darlin
# Davianne
# Davita
# Davonna
# Dayalyn
# Dayonna
# Deasa
# Debrasia
# December
# Deja
# Delanna
# Dellia
# Delouette
# Delphine
# Demeka
# Denise-Anne
# Desire
# Desirea
# Dessie
# Develyn
# Diann
# Diannah
# Diantha
# Dilcia
# Dilemma
# Dinitia
# Diona
# Dixie
# Domingue
# Donessa
# Donnalyn
# Doretha
# Dorka
# Dottie
# Dreama
# Drissia
# Druzilla
# Dysdera
# Earlene
# Earline
# Eartha
# Ebba
# Eccentricity
# Ecclesia
# Echo
# Edaba
# Edriana
# Edris
# Effie
# Elba
# Elenora
# Eleven
# Elevena
# Elize
# Elma
# Elvina
# Ember
# Emilynne
# Emmerson
# Endia
# Endora
# Enid
# Enita
# Ephra
# Ericka
# Erickka
# Eriel
# Erinne
# Erla
# Erlinda
# Erma
# Ermentrude
# Erminia
# Erynn
# Eternity
# Etilia
# Europia
# Evalda
# Evdokia
# Evenicia
# Exemia
# Exie
# Exilda
# El
# Fabriana
# Fallon
# Fanta
# Fantasia
# Faren
# Faria
# Farrin
# Fashawn
# Faustine
# Favel
# Fawn
# Fayetta
# Fayja
# Felipa
# Fermina
# Ferrel
# Fleur
# Fleurentina
# Floretta
# Flossie
# Forever
# Frankki
# Frauke
# Future
# Gala
# Galdina
# Galloway
# Gamma
# Gayla
# Gelasia
# Gentra
# Genesis
# Gentry
# Gineen
# Ginelie
# Glimmer
# Glory
# Grada
# Graner
# Graphira
# Grecia
# Grecy
# Greer
# Grenda
# Gussie
# Guya
# Hadley
# Halcyonella
# Halena
# Halla
# Hallie
# Halston
# Haneen
# Hastelia
# Hattie
# Havanna
# Heavenly
# Heleen
# Helena
# Hemma
# Hepzibah
# Herminia
# Hetty
# Hiatt
# Hildegarde
# Hollian
# Honoria
# Horizon
# Hortense
# Hortensia
# Hulda
# Hymothea
# Hypatia
# Hyperborea
# Iana
# Iantha
# Icess
# Ilauoa
# Ileene
# Ima
# Infinity
# Iqra
# Irisa
# Irma
# Isariah
# Isis
# Ismarie
# Ita
# Italaia
# Itzel
# Iyonah
# Izola
# Jacinthe
# Jalna
# Jamaya
# Jamia
# Jamiee
# Jancis
# Janette
# Janessa
# Janique
# Janita
# Janneth
# Janthina
# January
# Jasinia
# Jawn
# Jay
# Jaylagh
# Jaynelle
# Jeanetta
# Jeania
# Jeneka
# Jenika
# Jenilee
# Jenni Lee
# Jerney
# Jerrine
# Jersey
# Jerusha
# Jessalin
# Jessenia
# Jessi
# Jettie
# Jewels
# Jezebel
# Jieva
# Jinda
# Joannah
# Joby
# Johaunna
# Johnetta
# Jolaine
# Jolena
# Jolie
# JonBenét
# Jonee
# Jonelle
# Jocelyne
# Jordon-Ashley
# Jorian
# Josie
# Josyphene
# Joulisa
# Jovita
# Joyelle
# Jubilee
# Julivia
# Julisa
# July
# Julynn
# Juniah
# Junko
# Juturna
# Kaira
# Kamberlyn
# Kameron
# Kandice
# Kansas
# Karalee
# Karis
# Ka'Riya
# Karlene
# Karlisha
# Kasi
# Kasmira
# Kateri
# Kathrine
# Kathyria
# Kearstin
# Kendrah
# Kepley
# Keturah
# Khyla
# Kiele
# Kiersty
# Kist
# Kiwanis
# Kleis
# Klurisa
# Kobie
# Kora
# Korah
# Koreena
# Korie
# Korin/Koryn
# Kowyn/Koko
# Krissa
# Kristi
# Kristiana
# Kristina
# Krizia
# Kwanise
# Kylynn
# Kynedra
# Kyla
# Kyrah
# La
# LaDessa
# Lafayette
# Laisee
# Laker
# Lala
# Lanasia
# La Netta
# Laramie
# Larayne
# Laren
# Lariah
# Larin
# Lark
# Larkin
# La Roe
# Latha
# Lauralen
# Lauralynn
# Laurasia
# Laurica
# Lavonne
# Lay
# Lazari
# Leandra
# Leasia
# Lemyra
# Lesa
# Leslie-Belle
# Leta
# Letha
# Liella
# Lilibeth
# Linae
# Linton
# Lis
# Livia
# Liza
# Lizeth
# Lizina
# Lizmarie
# Llesenia
# Lolly
# Lonna
# Lorea
# Lorelle
# Lottie
# Loundy
# Lovie
# Lowell
# Loyita
# Luciele
# Lullabye
# Lulu
# Lumen
# Luscious
# Lyceth
# Lymari
# Lynnette
# Lyris
# Lyssa
# Ma
# Macarena
# Macrina
# Madelia
# Magdalene
# Magic
# Magonia
# Mahulda
# Mai Mai
# Mai
# Mairi
# Maisie
# Maitha
# Mamie
# Mandalay
# Mandeline
# Maranda
# Marela
# Marene
# Marestella
# Marielle
# Marin
# Marine
# Marinette
# Maritza
# Malena
# Marla
# Marlee
# Marlena
# Marleni
# Marlowe
# Marlys
# Marnetta
# Marria
# Marsenia
# Marty
# Marva
# Marvel
# Marvella
# Maryland
# Mataya
# Mattea
# Mattison
# Mauve
# Mayenna
# Maysa
# Maysann
# McCall
# McKee
# Meadow
# Mecca
# Megan Sue
# Melanda
# Melba
# Melecia
# Melena
# Melva
# Menley
# Meriah
# Merena
# Merissa
# Merna
# Messalina
# Meycell
# Michael Ann
# Michaelina
# Mignon
# Mikeal
# Mikeli
# Milan
# Milonia
# Mima
# Minden
# Mirage
# Miranda Kae
# Mirisa
# Mistica
# M’Liss
# Molland
# Monasia
# Montine
# Morah
# Moranda
# Morelia
# Morielle
# Mozelle
# Muna
# Muriel
# Mya
# Myda
# Myrna
# Mystery
# Mystique
# Nada
# Nadina
# Nafateri
# Nagisa
# Naida
# Naima
# Naina
# Namrita
# Nan
# Nancine
# Nandina
# Nandine
# Nanina
# Nannatte
# Nara
# Narcissica
# Nareen
# Narissica
# Narnia
# Nashi
# Nataleigh
# Natane
# Navia
# Navonna
# Nebula
# Necia
# Nedina
# Nefertiti
# Nelda
# Nenemoosha
# Nepheria
# Nerrisa
# Nesli
# Neva
# Nevaeh
# Nhydia
# Nida
# Nikita
# Nila
# Nilda
# Noelene
# Nola
# Nonie
# Nordica
# Nova
# November
# Nubia
# Nydia
# Nylene
# Nyssa
# Oakley
# Ocala
# Octavia
# Octivy
# October
# Odyssey
# Oklahoma/Okie
# Oleta
# Olinda
# Ollie
# Omega
# Ondrea
# Ontanasia
# Oona
# Orange
# Ordena
# Oriette
# Orvella
# Osberta
# Osiris
# Ouida
# Ousley
# Oyra
# Pachina
# Palma
# Pamarista
# Pasty
# Paulasia
# Paulicia
# Peggy Sue
# Phyra
# Pierceton
# Porsche
# Pretty
# Priscillia
# Pride
# Prin
# Prista
# Pulcheria
# Quaintance
# Quateria
# QuaYein
# Racine
# Raissa
# Raymelle
# Raynell
# Rebekah
# Reganne
# Renatya
# Rennae
# Retha
# Rhapsody
# Rhema
# Rholonda
# Richelle
# Rini
# Risa
# Rockett
# Roe
# Ronald-Ann
# Rosarie
# Roseann
# Roselia
# Roseline
# Rosella
# Roselle
# Rosellen
# Rose-Lynn
# Rossella
# Royben
# Rozanne
# Rozele
# Rudelle
# Ruthy
# Rydina
# Ryesen
# Rynn
# Sabella
# Sadia
# Saiyapa
# Samaria
# Sanana
# SanDee
# Sandrah
# Santina
# Sarah Joy
# Sarahlyn
# Saran
# Satchel
# Savette
# Schauwea
# Scotia
# Scout
# Selene
# Senalda
# Sendy
# Senna
# Septatha
# September
# Seredine
# Serenade
# Serendipity
#Sersi
# Sevina
# Shait
# Shamara
# Sharilyn
# Sharmin
# Sharolyn
# Shasta
# Shavonne
# Shawneen
# Shee
#Shego
# Shelbry
# Shenandoah
# Sheree
# Sherleen
# Shiela
# Shiila
# Shireen
# Shreena
# Shrina
# Sicora
# Signy
# Sigourney
# Silver
# Silverina
# Siouxsie
# Sissy
# Sixta
# Snow
# Socorro
# Solace
# Solana
# Solemnity
# Solenne
# Solidarity
# Solstice
# Sommer
# Sonata
# Sora
# Sorrow
# Soshie
# Sparla
# Special
# Spring
# Starling
# Starr
# Stavia
# Steigh
# Sterre
# Stesha
# Stetson
# Story
# Stripes
# Suellen
# Sugar
# Sunday
# Sunkist
# Sunset
# Sura
# Susquehanna
# Suzan
# Sweet
# Sybilla
# Sylah
# Symbria
# Symetria
# Symone
# Symphoni
# Symphony
# Tabria
# Tadia
# Taes
# Taft
# Taiba
# Talaya
# Tamcarolika
# Tamiel
# Tamra
# Tanith
# Tantania
# Taria
# Tarrisyna
# Tashara
# Tashiana
# Taydem
# Taydra
# Tea
# Teal
# Tempest
# Temple
# Tenea
# Teneal
# Tenille
# Tenley
# Tessela
# Thea
# Theola
# Thesnelda
# Thirza
# Threnody
# Tibisa
# Tijuana
# Tillie
# Tipper
# Tippi
# Tomasa
# Tona
# Tootsie
# Torianne
# Tornasa
# Tosha
# Tottiona
# Tragedy
# Tranlaura
# Treva
# Triska
# Trista
# Tristin
# Troian
# Tuesday
# Twilena
# Tycelia
# Ulma
# Umayma
# Unity
# Ursla
# Usha
# Utah
# Utopia
# Vada
# Valarie
# Valery
# Valeska
# Vandora
# Valkyrie
# Vanity
# Vanora
# Vava
# Velnet
# Vena
# Vendela
# Verena
# Vernice
# Verve
# Vestepria
# Vesta
# Vestepia
# Vibra
# Victoria Mary
# Victrix
# Vienna
# Vincentia
# Vrenda
# Vy
# Vyan
# Vyn
# Waverly
# Wayla
# Wednesday
# Wende
# Wesley
# Westerly
# Whelma
# Wilda
# Willowcahill
# Wilona
# Winterashia
# Wisdom
# Witni
# Wynter
# Wyomia
# Xiomara/Xo
# Xabeth
# Xaphania
# Xhana
# Xylina
# Xylla
# Xander
# Xylphia
# Xyreine
# Yadira
# Yaretzi/Yara
# Yandy
# Yosra
# Yuridia
# Yuriel
# Yvet
# Zabrina
# Zadrima
# Zahtavia
# Zaida
# Zane
# Zalgo
# Zaida
# Zaynah/Zeyna
# Zeal
# Zelda
# Zelia
# Zella
# Zelma
# Zenda
# Zephia
# Zerlina
# Zerlinda
# Zilphia
# Zimeng
# Zlema
# Zoe Elizabeth
# Zoella
# Zola
# Zorona
# Zozo
# Zsa Zsa
# Zusette
# Zwalina
# Zyla
# Zyra
# Zynn
# Zzelle
# Zialac
# Zane
# Zwalalala
# Zanderina
# Zilana
# Zackiya/Zaciya/Zaqiya/Zakaiya
# Zamaria

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>9n5r7n8xitp9imwnxrfhmxd5n6y77pe</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Writing Adolescent Fiction/Character names/Boys</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>136980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633358</id>
      <parentid>4632005</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T05:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26291-30</username>
        <id>3580356</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Organization note */ More variations of the name &quot;Aidan&quot;</comment>
      <origin>4633358</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="13538" sha1="ekrhxteng70pctzlbkn1rttv2351545" xml:space="preserve">==Organization note==
This list of general boys' names is divided into three tiers. In the first tier are the top 237 names among boys of high school age in the past few decades. In the second tier are other names you might run into more than once in your lifetime. Unusual names go into the third tier. Before adding a name, please check all three tiers to make sure it is not already on the list. If the name you are adding is an uncommon ethnic name, you might consider adding it to one of the other lists at [[Writing_Adolescent_Fiction/Character_names|Character names]] instead. 

#Aaron
#Abdul
#Adam
#Amden
#Adrian/Adrien
#Aidan/Aiden/Aydan/Ayden
#Ajay
#Alan/Allan/Allen
#Alessandro
#Alexander/Alex/Sandy/Alec
#Ali
#Andre
#Andrew/Andy/Drew
#Angel
#Angelo
#Arjun
#Arthur/Art
#Ash
#Ashton
#Ashley
#Axel
#Barrett
#Bernard/Barry
#Beau/Bo
#Benjamin/Ben/Benji
#Blake
#Brad/Bradley
#Brandon
#Brendan
#Brent
#Brish
#Bluely
#Brett/Bret
#Brenden
#Brian/Bryan
#Bruce
#Bryce
#Byron
#Caleb
#Cameron
#Carlos
#Carlton
#Carson
#Casey
#Chad
#Charles/Charlie/Chuck
#Chase
#Christian/Chris
#Christopher/Chris/Kris/Topher/Kit
#Clayton/Clay
#Clifford/Cliff
#Cody
#Cole
#Colin
#Colton
#Connor
#Corey/Cory
#Craig
#Curtis/Kurt
#Cyrus
#Dakota
#Dale
#Damian/Damien/Damion
#Daniel/Dan/Danny
#Darren
#Darryl
#Darnell
#David/Dave/Davy
#Davis
#Dean
#Dennis
#Derek
#Desmond
#Devon/Devin
#Diego
#Dick
#Dominic/Dom
#Donald/Don/Donnie
#Douglas/Doug
#Duane/Dwayne
#Dustin
#Dylan
#Edward/Ed
#Eli
#Elijah
#Eric/Erik/Erick
#Ethan
#Eugene/Gene
#Evan
#Fabio
#Felipe
#Felix
#Frank/Frankie
#Fraser
#Gabriel/Gabe
#Garrett/Garret
#Gary
#Gavin
#George
#Glenn
#Gerik
#Gordon/Gordie/Gord
#Graham
#Grant
#Gregory/Greg
#Hans
#Harold/Harry/Hal
#Henry/Harry/Hank
#Howard/Howie
#Hunter
#Ian
#Isaac
#Isa
#Isaiah
#Jackson/Jaxon/Jaxson/Jax
#Jacob/Jakob/Jake
#Jaime /Jamie
#Jamal
#James/Jim/Jem
#Jared
#Jason/Jay/Jase
#Jay
#Jeffrey/Geoffrey/Jeff
#Jeremy/Jerry
#Jerome
#Jesse
#Jesús
#Joel
#Joey
#John/Jack
#Jonathan/Jonathon/Jon
#Jordan/Jordy
#Jorge
#Jane
#Janice
#Janiqua
#Janiquea
#Janique
#Jallinson
#Jose
#Joseph/Joe/Joey
#Joshua/Josh
#Juan
#Julio
#Justin
#Karl/Carl
#Kai
#Keith
#Kelan
#Kenneth/Ken/Kenny
#Kero
#Kevin/Keven
#Kurt
#Kyle
#Lance
#Lawrence/Larry
#Lee
#Leonard/Len
#Leonardo/Leo
#Logan
#Louis/Lewis/Lou
#Lucas/Luke
#Luis
#Liam
#Malcolm
#Marchie
#Manuel/Manny
#Marc/Mark/Marcus/Markus
#Marco
#Martin/Marty
#Matthew/Matt
#Max/Maxwell
#Michael/Mike
#Miguel
#Miles
#Mitchell/Mitch
#Nathan/Nate
#Nathaniel/Nat
#Neil
#Nicholas/Nick/Nicky
#Noah
#Noor
#Narchie
#Omar
#Owen
#Oliver
#Patrick/Pat
#Paul
#Pedro
#Peter/Pete
#Pietro
#Philip/Phillip/Phil
#Pranav
#Rafael/Raphael
#Ramón
#Randall/Randy
#Raymond/Ray
#Reed/Reid
#Ricardo
#Richard/Rick/Rich/Ritchie/Ricky
#Robert/Rob/Bob
#Roberto
#Roy
#Russell/Russ/Rusty
#Ryan/Ry
#Samuel/Sam
#Scott
#Sean/Shawn/Shaun
#Seth
#Shane
#Simon
#Spencer
#Stanley/Stan
#Stephen/Steven/Stephan/Steve
#Taylor
#Terry/Terrence
#Theodore/Ted
#Thomas/Tom/Thom
#Timothy/Tim
#Tobias/Toby
#Todd
#Tony/Anthony/Antonio
#Tommy
#Travis/Trav
#Trent
#Trevor/Trev
#Trey
#Tristan
#Troy
#Tyler/Ty
#Tyrone/Ty
#Victor/Viktor
#Vincent/Vince
#Wayne
#Wesley/Wes
#William/Will
#Xavier
#Zachary/Zach/Zac/Zack
#Zavier
#Zander
#Zedrick

==Other  Names==
#Aaron
#Adan
#Adel
#Adonis
#Ahmed
#Alain
#Albert/Al
#Alberto/Al
#Alexander/Alex 
#Alfonso/Al
#Alfred/Al
#Alfredo/Al
#Alistaire/Alistair
#Alvin
#Amin/Ameen
#Amir/Aamir
#Amyas
#Anand
#Andreas/Andy
#Andres
#Anselm
#Antoine/Antwan
#Anton
#Ari
#Armando
#Arnold/Arnie
#Ash
#Ashton
#Aurelio
#Alfrado
#Austin
#Avery
#Axel/Axl
#Balthassar
#Bartholomew/Bart
#Basheer
#Benito
#Bennett
#Bilal
#Baily/Baileigh
#Bailey
#Bjorn
#Blade
#Blaine
#Blair
#Boyce
#Boyd
#Bradford/Brad
#Brady
#Bram
#Brant
#Brantley
#Brendon
#Brennan/Brennon
#Brenton
#Brick
#Brock
#Broderick/Brodie
#Bronson
#Brook
#Bruno
#Caden/Kaiden
#Calvin/Cal
#Camilo
#Calob/Caleb
#Carlo
#Carey/Carry
#Carter
#Cassius
#Cedric
#Cesar
#Chance
#Chandler
#Chester/Chet
#Clarence
#Clark
#Claude
#Clem
#Cletus/Clete
#Cleve/Cleveland
#Clifton/Cliff
#Clinton/Clint
#Clive
#Colby
#Conrad/Konrad
#Constantine/Gus
#Cosmo
#Cristian
#Curly
#Dallas
#Damon
#Dane
#Dante
#Darby
#Darcy
#Dario
#Darius
#Davis
#Dawson
#Deandre
#DeAngelo
#DeJuan
#Del
#Demetri/Demetrius
#Denzel
#Dev
#Dewey
#DeWitt
#Dexter
#Dion/Deon
#Dirk
#Donnell/Don
#Donovan/Donavin/Don
#Donte
#Doyle
#Duncan
#Dusty
#Dwight
#Earl
#Edgar
#Eduardo
#Edwin
#Elias
#Elliott
#Ellis
#Elroy
#Elton
#Elvis
#Emery/Emory
#Emil
#Emilio
#Emmett
#Enrico/Rick
#Enrique
#Enzo
#Ernest/Ernie
#Esteban
#Ezra
#Fabio
#Faruq/Farouq
#Fernando
#Ferris
#Filippo
#Finn
#Flint
#Floyd
#Forrest
#Francisco/Chico
#Franco
#Franklin
#Frederick/Fred
#Fritz
#Gabriel
#Gage
#Galen
#Gareth
#Garth
#Genaro/Gennaro
#Gerald/Jerry
#Geraldo
#Gilbert/Gil
#Gilberto/Gil
#Giles/Gilles
#Gino
#Giorgio
#Giovanni
#Giuseppe/Joey
#Grayson/Greyson
#Gus/Augustine
#Guy
#Hakeem
#Halim
#Hamish
#Hamzah
#Harlan
#Harry
#Harrison
#Harvey
#Hassan
#Hayden
#Heath
#Hector
#Helias
#Hendrick/Hendrik
#Herbert/Herb/Herbie
#Hercules/Herc
#Herman
#Homer
#Houston
#Howell/Howie
#Hudson
#Hugh/Huey
#Hugo
#Hussein/Husain
#Ike
#Ilham
#Imani
#Immanuel/Emanuel/Emmanuel/Manny
#Ira
#Irwin
#Ivan
#Jabari/Jabbar/Jabar
#Jace
#Jack
#Jacques
#Jafar
#Jake
#Jaleel/Jalil
#Jamaal
#Jamar
#Jamison                                                                                                                                         
#Jamel
#Jamil
#Jan
#Jaron
#Jasper
#Javier
#Javon/Jayvaughn
#Jayden/Jaden
#Jean-Luc
#Jean-Paul
#Jeb/Jebediah
#Jed/Jedediah
#Jeremiah/Jerry
#Jermaine
#Jess
#Jet/Jett
#Jethro
#Joaquin
#Joel
#John Paul
#Jonah
#Jonas
#Judd/Jude
#Julian
#Kaden
#Kai
#Kaleel/Kalil
#Kami
#Kareem
#Kaseem/Kasim
#Kaspar/Kasper
#Keenan
#Kelly
#Kelvin
#Kendall
#Kendrick
#Kennan/Kennon
#Kent
#Khalil
#Kiley
#Kim
#Kimo
#Kirby
#Kirk
#Kistra/Kist/Chistrah
#Krishna
#Kwame
#Kweisi
#Kya
#Laine/Lane/Layne
#Lamar
#Lamont
#Lane
#LaRon
#Lars
#Lateef
#Leandro
#Leland
#Leon
#Leroy
#Leslie
#Lester/Les
#Levi
#Liam
#Lincoln
#Lloyd
#Lon/Lonnie
#London
#Lorenzo
#Luca/Luka
#Lucius
#Lyle
#Lyman
#Lyndon
#Mackenzie
#Mahmoud
#Malik
#Mansoor/Mansur
#Marcos
#Mario
#Marquis
#Marshall
#Marvin
#Mason
#Masoud
#Mateo
#Matteo
#Mattheo/Matheo
#Maurice/Morris
#Maximillian/Max
#Mehdi
#Melvin/Mel
#Micah
#Milo
#Mohammed
#Monte/Monty
#Morgan
#Ned
#Nelson
#Nestor
#Neville
#Nico
#Nicola
#Nicolai
#Nigel
#Nikolaus
#Nils/Niels
#Nino
#Noe
#Norman/Norm
#Odin
#Oliver
#Orion
#Orlando
#Oscar
#Pablo
#Palmer
#Paolo
#Paris
#Parker
#Payne
#Percy
#Perry
#Philippe
#Pierce
#Pierre
#Prescott
#Preston/Pres
#Quentin
#Quinton/Quint
#Rafiq
#Raheem/Rahim
#Rajeev/Rajiv
#Raley
#Ralph
#Ramiro
#Randolph
#Rashad/Rashaad
#Rashid/Rasheed
#Raul
#Ravi
#Raymi
#Reagan
#Reese/Reece
#Reginald/Rex/Reggie
#Rembrandt
#Remington
#René
#Riley/Reilly
#Robin
#Rock
#Rocko
#Rocky
#Rodney/Rod
#Roger
#Roland
#Rolando
#Rolly 
#Roman
#Romeo
#Ronald/Ron
#Rory
#Roscoe
#Ross
#Royce
#Ruben/Reuben
#Rudolph/Rudolf/Rudy
#Salvador/Sal
#Sameer/Samir
#Sancho
#Sanjay
#Santiago
#Saul
#Sawyer
#Sebastian/Sebi
#Sergio
#Shad
#Shannon
#Shareef/Sharif
#Shea
#Sheldon
#Sherman/Sherm
#Shervin
#Sidney/Sydney/Sid
#Silas
#Sky
#Slade
#Socrates
#Solomon
#Stefano/Stephano
#Stone
#Storm
#Stuart/Stewart
#Sulaiman
#Sven
#Tahj
#Tal
#Tanner
#Tariq
#Tate
#Tawfiq
#Telly
#Teo
#Terrell
#Thaddeus/Tad
#Trace
#Tracy
#Trenton/Trent
#Tucker/Tuck
#Tully
#Turner
#Tyson/Ty
#Van
#Vance
#Vernon/Vern
#Vikram
#Virgil
#Wade
#Walker
#Walter/Walt
#Ward
#Warren
#Webster
#Wendell
#Weston/Wes
#William/Will
#Whitney/Whit
#Wilfredo
#Wyatt
#Xavier
#Zachariah/Zach
#Zane
#Zeke
#Zephyr

==Unusual names==
#Abbott
#Abednego
#Abelard
#Abiel
#Ack
#Ace
#Acton
#Adalbert
#Addison
#Adelard
#Adiel
#Adley
#Adlin
#Adriel
#Adrin
#Agrippa
#Ahab
#Ainsley
#Ajax
#Alaska
#Alden
#Alder
#Aldo
#Aldon
#Aldous
#Alfie
#Algernon
#Alick
#Aloysius
#Alphonse
#Alston
#Alton
#Alvery
#Alvis
#Ammon
#Andreus
#Andri
#Andrue
#Ansel
#Arcadio
#Arec
#Aren
#Argus
#Armand
#Arundel
#Asa
#Ashby
#Ashleigh
#Ashon
#Audie
#Audiffredy
#Aurelian
#Auran
#Authen
#Avalon
#Ayman
#Bailey
#Bainbridge
#Baljeet
#Bane
#Banner
#Barney
#Baron
#Barrett
#Barrington
#Barrow
#Bartholomew
#Baryt
#Beauregarde
#Beavis
#Beckam/Beck
#Beckham/Beck
#Beckett
#Belnar
#Belvin
#Benson
#Bentley
#Benton
#Benz
#Benzer
#Bertan
#Bertram
#Bink
#Birney
#Birtle
#Bishop
#Bix
#Blain
#Boaz
#Bohden
#Bon
#Booker
#Boston
#Bosworth
#Brainard
#Bramm
#Brayden
#Breaden
#Brecken
#Brenner
#Brentland
#Briar
#Brij
#Broden
#Brodin
#Bronce
#Brooks
#Brutus
#Bryson
#Bud
#Buford
#Bunker
#Burl
#Burton
#Buxton
#Cabell
#Caesar
#Cage
#Cairo
#Caldwell
#Calhoun
#Camden
#Camdon
#Canaan
#Canberra
#Canen
#Cannon
#Carldrick
#Carlisle
#Carys
#Case
#Cass
#Cassiel
#Cater
#Cathal
#Cavanough
#Cayd
#Cepheus
#Chadoe
#Chadwick
#Chancellor
#Chanton
#Chapman
#Charlene/Char/Charlie
#Charleston
#Chasen
#Chaylor
#Chirag
#Christopherus
#Cicero
#Cirq
#Cisco
#Claiborne
#Clarus
#Claudian
#Cleisthenes
#Cleon
#Climacus
#Clitus
#Clovis
#Colorado
#Concordius
#Connon
#Conlan
#Contardo
#Conway
#Conwell
#Cooper
#Cord
#Cordell
#Cordova
#Cork
#Cornell
#Cosby
#Cosmos
#Courtland
#Courtney
#Covert
#Crispus
#Crittenden
#Critty
#Cupid
#Cuthbert
#Cyle
#Dabney
#Dagget
#Dagwood
#Dameon
#Dana
#Danion
#Dardanos
#Daris
#Darragh
#Dartagnan
#Darwin
#Dash
#David
#Davidson
#Davin
#Davith
#Dax
#Daxton
#Dayton
#Dayv
#Dedrick
#Deion
#Delbert
#Delmer
#Demon
#Dennerio
#Dentury
#Denuel
#Denver
#Derry
#Desi
#Desiderius
#Destin
#Digby
#Digger
#Dijon
#Dilbert
#Dillard
#Dionysius
#Dodo
#Donato
#Donking
#Dorian
#Dossie
#Dotson
#Draco
#Drai
#Drogo
#Dru
#Duriel
#Duwayne
#Eason
#Easton
#Eaton
#Edwin
#Elbert
#Eldon
#Eldred
#Eleazar
#Eliezer
#Elmer
#Elmo
#Elsdon
#Elvin
#Elwood
#Emerson
#Engelbert
#Englebert
#Ennis
#Erza
#Ephan
#Eros
#Errol
#Erroll
#Ervin
#Erwan
#Eustace
#Ezekiel
#Farley
#Faron
#Favian
#Ferdinand
#Filbert
#Fisher
#Fitch
#Flame
#Foster
#Fox
#Freeman
#Friday
#Frost
#Fructosius
#Galloway
#Gamaliel
#Garfield
#Garland
#Garlon
#Garnett
#Garrick
#Garroth
#Gatlin
#Gaylord
#Gehrig
#Godfrey
#Grady
#Granite
#Gray
#Grey
#Greydon
#Griswold
#Grover
#Guy Edward
#Hadley
#Haight
#Halston
#Ham
#Han
#Harlen
#Harris
#Hart
#Hartley
#Hawke
#Hayes
#Haynes
#Hayson
#Hayward
#Heathcliff
#Henner
#Herberth
#Herwick
#Heyward
#Heywood
#Hobart
#Holden
#Hollis
#Horton
#Hospatio
#Huett
#Humphrey
#Humps
#Huntley
#Hurricane
#Huxley
#Hyland
#Icarus
#Ichabod
#Iggy
#Innocent
#Iowa
#Irelan
#Irvin
#Ishmael
#Iziah
#Iziah Edouard
#Jabin
#Jacari
#Jack Ross
#Jagger
#Jaime Ali
#Jaimie
#Jamar
#Jameson
#Jamyron
#Japheth
#Jarek
#Jarvis
#Jaspiern
#Javert
#Jaxton
#Jaxxon
#Jaymes
#Jay Paul
#Jayceon
#Jayson
#Jaython
#Jayvion
#Jaz
#Jeacock
#Jeff Anthony
#Jem
#Jensen
#Jericho
#Jersey
#Jeumol
#Joacin
#Joad
#Joby
#Jodocus
#Johano
#Johnathan
#John John
#John Lee
#John Cena
#Johnson
#Jomario
#Jonatan
#Jon Marc
#Joseph Ryan
#Joshuah
#Judah 
#Judas
#Jude
#Juston
#Justus
#Kade
#Kairo
#Kaiser
#Kalin
#Kansy
#Kase
#Kaymon
#Kazel
#Kedric
#Kedrick
#Kehre
#Keifer
#Kel
#Kelan
#Kelton
#Kennesaw
#Kenton
#Kid
#Kidd
#Kiefer
#Kiev
#Killian
#Kilroy
#King
#Kipland
#Kipling
#Kirkland
#Kirklin
#Knox
#Kole
#Kyrin
#Kyron
#Langley
#Lanny
#Lap
#Laramie
#Lawson
#Lazarus
#LeBaron
#Lee Roy
#Legend
#Leopold
#Leviticus
#Lex
#Link
#Linwood
#Lithium
#Livan
#Logan James
#Loren
#Lorin
#Lorne
#Lover
#Lowell
#Lucian
#Luck
#Ludis
#Lunden
#Lydel
#Lymphoid
#Lyndsey
#Mackay
#Manassas
#Maneill
#Manfred
#Manley
#Marcian
#Marlon
#Marlowe
#Mathan
#Matthews
#Matwain
#Maxton
#Maynard
#McKinley
#McScott
#Mecole
#Mei
#Melanchthon
#Melchizedek
#Melville
#Merle
#Merlin
#Merritt
#Merton
#Merv
#Mervin
#Merwyn
#Meshach
#Micahel
#Michael James
#Migh
#Mikal
#Milford
#Milhouse
#Millard
#Mize
#Monroe
#Montana
#Moore
#Morley
#Morton
#Murgatroyd
#Mya
#Myron
#Nahum
#Napoleon
#Narcissus
#Nash
#Newt
#Newton
#Nicephorus
#Nicodemus
#Nikolao
#Nimrod
#Noah Bryce
#Nobert
#Nobie
#Norris
#Norton
#Norval
#Norville
#Numps
#Oder
#Odor
#Omar Jesús
#O’Mead
#Omer
#Omni
#Ontario
#Onyx
#Orson
#Orwell
#Othniel
#Painter
#Paras
#Parrish
#Parrott
#Parth
#Patrick Henry
#Patton/Pat
#Paxton
#Pearson
#Pickford
#Poindexter
#Pollard
#Polyeuctus
#Porter
#Prabhdev
#Primus
#Prince
#Princeton
#Proctor
#Quaterius
#Quincy
#Quinlan
#Quinn
#Quintin
#Quirt
#Raleigh
#Raynell
#Reamer
#Red
#Redrick
#Reef
#Reen
#Reginel
#Relix
#Renton
#Rexford
#Reyes
#Rezon
#Rhett
#Richmond
#Ridge
#Ridley
#Rigden
#Roark
#Robert Jay
#Rocket
#Roderick
#Rodolfo
#Roe
#Rollin
#Roosevelt
#Roper
#Roxbury
#Rulon
#Rulx
#Rush
#Russet
#Rusty James
#Rutherford
#Ryal
#Ryder
#Rylan
#Ryland
#Sage
#Salathiel
#Salem
#San Juan
#Satchel
#Savikar
#Sefton
#Senna
#Seymour
#Shade
#Shale
#Shandon
#Shavar
#Sheaffer
#Sherlock
#Shitrai
#Sisko
#Slate
#Slyder
#Sonji
#Speed
#Spicer
#Spike
#Stacius
#Stacy
#Standish
#Stanford
#Stanislas
#Stanton
#Starling
#Steehl
#Stenson
#Stephon
#Sterling
#Stetson
#Stevan
#Stevenson
#Steward
#Strom
#Stupen
#Swithin
#Symmachus
#Tabio
#Talbot
#Talmadge
#Taurus
#Tenley
#Tenner
#Terry Allen
#Texas
#Thaxton
#Thorne
#Thurman
#Turdd
#Till
#Tilly Willy
#Timaeus/Timeus
#Timmothy
#Tince
#Tirqueon
#Tirrell
#Tisign
#Tomen
#Tor
#Torey
#Torrance
#Tragedy
#Tramone
#Trask
#Travell
#Traver
#Travien
#Tree
#Tremaine
#Tristan Kyle
#Tristran
#Tryce
#Tustin
#Ty Kurt
#Tyler Frank
#Tyray
#Tyrus
#Ulysses
#Upton
#Utah
#Uzziah
#Val
#Valiant
#Van Buren
#Vensley
#Vere
#Vibson
#Vicson
#Ville
#Vinson
#Vitus
#Waldo
#Walton
#Walyn
#Warner
#Wayland
#Waylon
#Weldon
#Wells
#Weseley
#Westerly
#Westly
#Whitby
#Whitley
#Wilbert
#Wilbur
#Wilburn
#Wilkin
#Williams
#Winthrop
#Wolfgang
#Woodrow
#Worth
#Wylie
#Xeno
#Yale
#Yelberton
#Yoni
#York
#Yoftae
#Zaki
#Zander
#Zechariah
#Zell
#Zelman
#Zephaniah
#Zitner
#Zuriel
#Zurishaddai


{{BookCat}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...Nf6/2. Nc3/2...d5</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>143329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633371</id>
      <parentid>4627299</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T09:13:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 2...d5 · Scandinavian variation */</comment>
      <origin>4633371</origin>
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      <text bytes="1781" sha1="erx5uqp57gqtp1sz37s1zdaa8uv4u1u" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Scandinavian variation
|eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B02]]
|parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...Nf6|Alekhine's defence]] → [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...Nf6/2. Nc3|2. Nc3]]
}}
== 2...d5 · Scandinavian variation ==

Black attacks e4. Surely White cannot drop the pawn, so they have two main options. Both are relatively drawish. 

After [[/3. exd5|'''3. exd5''']] Nxd5 4. Nxd5 Qxd5, Black has a strong centralised queen and easy development, leaving equality or a slight advantage to Black.

After [[/3. e5|'''3. e5''']] Nfd7 and White may defend their e5 pawn or trade it. 4. d4 and the position resembles the Steinitz French, except Black can delay playing e6 until after they have developed their bishop (4...c5 5. f4 cxd4 6. Nb5 Nc6 7. Nf3 Ndb8 8. Nbxd4 Bg4 9. h3 Bxf3 10. Nxf3 e6 {{chess/not|+}}). If exchanging the pawns instead, 4. Nxd5 Nxe5 comes with tempo on White's knight. If 3...d4 then a cascade of trades leads to a drawish position. 

Unless, of course, White ''can'' drop the pawn. 

[[/3. d4|'''3. d4?''']] dxe4 is a transposition into the Blackmar-Diemer gambit. This is dubious but potentially trappy and may be a playable club-level, blitz or bullet weapon. 

Other alternatives are 3. d3, 3. f3, or even 3. Bd3, but none of them give White any more than equality.

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}

{{Chess/theory table
|line1=3. exd5 Nxd5 4. Nxd5 Qxd5
|name1=Scandinavian variation
|line2=3. e5 Nfd7 3. d4 c5 5. f4 cxd4 6. Nb5 Nc6 7. Nf3 Ndb8 8. Nbxd4 Bg4 9. h3 Bxf3 10. Nxf3 e6
|line3=4. d4? dxe4 -
|name3=Blackmar-Diemer gambit&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(by transposition)&lt;/small&gt;
}}

{{ChessMid}}
{{Wikipedia|Alekhine Defence}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
=== See also ===
{{NCO}}
{{BCO2}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Writing Adolescent Fiction/Character names/Chinese</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>148801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633355</id>
      <parentid>4373770</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26363-80</username>
        <id>3580345</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Yon.</comment>
      <origin>4633355</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38151" sha1="ms9qgvhc7e0ir3rg583mltakrk9ghs7" xml:space="preserve">==Usage note==

Chinese names are used by ethnic Chinese people worldwide, consisting of the Chinese language's lexicon instead of &quot;proper&quot; names or random made-up words as in the West. Therefore, Chinese given names don't come fully-made for the public's usage, nor are they inherently gendered, nor are their meanings anything less than clear and distinct, in the same way Western names do and are. Parents, grandparents, and namers create given names by combining name-y Chinese characters, or take inspiration from literature, dramas, serials, movies, and even video games, but never from real-life people. [https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_taboo Naming taboos] are taken very seriously in Chinese and Vietnamese spheres, most especially in ancient times.

In the Sinosphere, the family name comes before the given name. Family names are most commonly single-character, and therefore pronounced with only one syllable, hence why Sino people's names seem so short and straightforward compared to other cultures, particularly European and American names. Dual-character family names exist to a much rarer occurrence; only around 60 exist and are still in use today, but they are treated the same way as single-character ones. Family names are typically passed down patrilineally, though the usage of maternal family names is not uncommon in the modern day, especially for those whose mother is a single child, those whose father is unknown or estranged, or those whose family is making a statement of progressiveness. The law allows its citizens to use any family name from any side of their family, as long as they have the right to inherit it.

Given names consist of 1–3 characters, with single-character given names being a thing of the past and considered outdated nowadays, dual-character given names the most common and favored throughout the times, while triple-character given names are just now slowly seeing a rise in trend as population number skyrockets and dual-character given names start to lack distinct uniqueness. Non-Han ethnic groups of China and Taiwan sometimes use their own native naming traditions and transliterate their names to Chinese for legal registration, often ending up with very long Chinese full names. There is no legal limit to how many characters an individual's name may have; everyone just knows their lanes.

Many Asian-Americans, Asian-Europeans, and Asian-Australians use the same name stock as the general population, but some girls' names (Angela, Caroline, Cindy, Helen, Michelle, Mindy, Nicole, Rachel, Wendy) and boys' names (Aaron, Andrew, Brandon, David, Ethan, James, Jason, Michael, Nathan) are particularly common among Asians, and diminutives (Amy, Angie, Connie, Johnny, Jimmy, Kenny, Tommy) as given names are more common among Asian-Americans than among the general populace.

==Feminine given names==
Here are examples of Chinese feminine given names.
*爱丽 (Aili) &quot;lovely and pretty&quot;
*爱玲 (Ailing) &quot;lovely jade tinkling sounds&quot;
*安雅 (Anya) &quot;safely refined elegance&quot;
*安美 (Anmei) &quot;safe beauty&quot;
*宝甜 (Baotian, Pao-tien, Bou-tim) &quot;sweet like a precious treasure&quot;
*彩霞 (Caixia, Tsai-hsia, Choi-ha) &quot;colorful, rosy clouds&quot;
*婵娟 (Chanjuan, Sim-gyun) &quot;the moon, moonlight; lovely, beautiful woman&quot;
*
*
*
*春花 (Chunhua, Cheun-fa) &quot;springtime flowers; springtime blooms&quot;
*春兰 (Chunlan, Cheun-lan) &quot;springtime orchids&quot;
*春雨 (Chunyu, Chun-ik, Cheun-yu) &quot;spring rain&quot;
*丹凤 (Danfeng, Dan-fung) &quot;red cinnabar phoenix&quot;
*芳 (Fang, Fong) &quot;sweet-smelling, fragrant, good name, good reputation&quot;
*芳花 (Fanghua, Fong-fa) &quot;sweet-smelling flower&quot;
*芳音 (Fangyin, Fang-in, Fong-yam) &quot;sweet-smelling sound; fragrant musical note&quot;
*芳引 (Fangyin, Fang-in, Fong-yan, Fong-yen) &quot;the sweet fragrance extends far, lures, and guides&quot;
*芳英 (Fangying, Fang-ing, Fong-ing) &quot;sweet-smelling flower; fragrant hero&quot;
*菲娜 (Feina) &quot;flowery fragrance, luxuriant growth, and elegance&quot; 
*芬 (Fen, Fan) &quot;perfume, fragrance, sweet aroma&quot;
*凤 (Feng, Fong) &quot;phoenix&quot;
*凤怡 (Fengyi, Fong-i) &quot;phoenix joy; phoenix delight&quot;
*凤银 (Fengyin, Fong-in)
*凤胤 (Fengyin, Fong-in)
*甘雨 (Gānyǔ) &quot;Sweet Rain&quot;
*贵芬 (Guifen, Kwei-fen, Gwai-fan) &quot;expensive, precious, and noble fragrance&quot;
*海霞 (Haixia) &quot;rosy glowing sky out on the ocean&quot;
*海音 (Haiyin) &quot;the sea's melody; the sound of the sea&quot;
*花娜 (Huana) &quot;flower-like grace&quot;
*欢悦 (Huanyue)
*惠 (Hui)
*慧 (Hui)
*惠凤 (Huifeng, Hwei-fong)
*慧凤 (Huifeng, Hwei-fong)
*恵伶 (Huiling, Hwei-ling)
*惠瑛 (Huiying, Hwei-ing)
*佳丽 (Jiali, Chiali, Ga-lai) &quot;beautiful, beauty&quot;
*江惠 (Jianghui, Chiang-hui, Chiang-hwei)
*锦琳 (Jinlin, Chin-lin)
*锦蔺 (Jinlin, Chin-lin)
*嘉霓 (Jiani, Chia-ni, Ga-ngaih) &quot;excellent, distinguished rainbow; to praise or commend the rainbow&quot;
*姣 (Jiao, Chiao, Gau) &quot;beautiful&quot;
*(Jihong)
*(Jingmei)
*金美 (Jinmei, Chinmei, Gam-mei) &quot;golden beauty&quot;
*金梅 (Jinmei, Chinmei, Gam-mui) &quot;golden plum&quot;
*金花 (Jinhua, Gam-fa) &quot;golden flower&quot;
*乐映 (Leying, Lok-ing) &quot;enjoyment reflects, mirrors, or shines&quot;
*莲花 (Lianhua, Lienhua, Lin-fa) &quot;lotus flower, lotus blossom&quot;
*莲英 (Lianying, Lien-ing, Lin-ing) &quot;lotus flower, lotus blossom, lotus hero&quot;
*(Lihong)
*(Lihua)
*(Limei)
*(Limin)
*丽铭 (Liming)
*琳 (Lin) &quot;fine jade&quot;
*丽娜 (Lina) &quot;pretty and graceful&quot;
*玲 (Ling)
*玲菲 (Lingfei)
*玲曼 (Lingman)
*玲艳 (Lingyan)
*琳维 (Linwei)
*琳耀 (Linyao)
*丽萍 (Liping)
*丽琴 (Liqin, Li-ch'in)
*丽荣 (Lirong)
*丽玮 (Liwei)
*丽雅 (Liya) &quot;gorgeously elegant, refined, and proper&quot;
*丽叶 (Liye) &quot;pretty leaves&quot;
*美楚 (Meichu)
*美娟 (Meijuan)
*美丽 (Meili) &quot;beautiful, pretty&quot;
*美莲 (Meilian, Meilien, Mei-lin) &quot;beautiful lotus&quot;
*美琳 (Meilin) &quot;beautiful precious jade&quot;
*美玲 (Meiling, May-ling) &quot;beautiful jade tinklings&quot;
*美伶 (Meiling, May-ling) &quot;beautiful and clever; beautiful actress or performer&quot;
*美素 (Meisu, Mei-sou, May-sue) &quot;beautiful element, beautiful essence; beautifully plain, simple, white, and unadorned&quot;
*美桃 (Meitao) &quot;beautiful peach&quot;
*梅幸 (Meixing, Mei-hsing)
*梅贞 (Meizhen, Mei-chen)
*明芳 (Mingfang)
* 鸣莉 (Mingli)
*鸣羽 (Mingyu)
*茗悦 (Mingyue)
*娜 (Na) &quot;phonetic na, graceful, elegant&quot;
*妮娜 (Nina) &quot;Nina; graceful young girl&quot;
*佩君 (Peijun)
*萍蕊 (Pingrui, Ping-rwei, Ping-yeui, Ping-yeoi) &quot;duckweed stamens/unopened flower buds&quot;
*琪 (Qi, Chi, Ch'i, Kei, Kay, Kaye) &quot;fine jade&quot;
*琦 (Qi, Chi, Ch'i, Kei, Kay, Kaye) &quot;precious stone, unique and admirable&quot;
*绮 (Qi, Chi, Ch'i, I, Yi) &quot;damask, fine woven thin silk, beautiful&quot;
*(Qinmei, Chinmei, Ch'inmei)
*(Qiutian, Chiu-tien, Ch'iu-tien)
*荣芳 (Rongfang, Wing-fong) &quot;luxuriantly thriving, glorified sweet fragrance&quot;
*荣美 (Rongmei, Wing-mei) &quot;prosperous, glorified beauty&quot;
*荣芯 (Rongxin, Rong-hsin, Wing-sam) &quot;luxuriantly thriving, glorified rush pith&quot;
*荣珍 (Rongzhen, Rong-chen, Wing-jan) &quot;prospering, thriving, luxurious treasure&quot;
*瑞萍 (Ruiping, Rwei-ping, Seui-ping, Seoi-ping) &quot;lucky omen duckweed&quot;
* (Shufang) &quot;graceful fragrant&quot;
* (Shuyan, Shu-yen) &quot;graceful swallow&quot;
*(Songlian, Sung-lien)
*(Suchen)
*(Suchu)
* (Songli, Sung-li)
*(Suyin)
*(Suying)
*(Tianyun, Tien-yun)
*(Tiankai, Tien-kai)
* 婷燕 (Tingyan)
*(Tongmei, Tung-mei)
*婉 (Wan, Yun) &quot;tactful, polite, subtle, graceful&quot;
*婉婷 (Wanting, Yunting, Yun-ting)
*(Wangfen)
*伟丽 (Weili, Wai-lai) &quot;imposing and beautiful, greatly pretty&quot;
*文丽 (Wenli, Man-lai) &quot;literature prettiness&quot;
*雯丽 (Wenli, Man-lai) &quot;pretty like colorful clouds&quot;
*(Wenhuan)
* 夏和 (Xiahe, Hsia-he, Ha-wo)
*夏梦 (Xiameng, Hsia-meng, Ha-mung) &quot;summer dream&quot; → in reference to Shakespeare's ''Midsummer Night's Dream'' «仲夏夜之梦»
* (Xiangling)
*香雨 (Xiangyu, Hsiang-yu, Siang-ik, Heung-yu) &quot;sweet-smelling rain&quot;
*(Xiaohong, Hsiaohong, Hsiao-hong)
*(Xiaoxing, Hsiao-hsing)
*(Xiaoxuan, Hsiao-hsuan)
*欣? (Xin, Hsin)
*馨蕾 (Xinlei, Hsinlei, Hing-leuih) &quot;strongly fragrant flower bud&quot;
*欣怡 (Xinyi, Hsinyi, Hsin-yi, Hsin-i)
*秀丽 (Xiuli, Hsiuli, Hsiou-li, Sau-lai) &quot;beautiful, pretty&quot;
*希望 (Xiwang, Hsiwang, Hei-mong) &quot;hope, wish, expectation&quot;
*绚丽 (Xuanli, Hsuanli, Hyun-lai) &quot;gorgeous and magnificent&quot;
*雪芳 (Xuefang, Hsue-fang, Hsye-fang, Syut-fong) &quot;snow fragrance&quot;
*雪娜 (Xuena) &quot;graceful as snow&quot;
*艳俊 (Yanjun)
*艳丽 (Yanli, Yenli, Im-lai) &quot;bright-colored and garishly beautiful&quot;
*怡荣 (Yirong)
*永美 (Yongmei, Wing-mei) &quot;forever beautiful, eternal beauty&quot;
*Yuewan
*Yueyan
*Yueying
*玉美 (Yumei, Yuk-mei) &quot;jade-like beauty&quot;
*玉丽 (Yuli, Yuk-lai) &quot;pretty as jade&quot;
*玉瑞 (Yurui, Yuk-seui, Yuk-seoi) &quot;auspicious jade token, precious omen of luck&quot;
*玉蕊 (Yurui, Yuk-yeui, Yuk-yeoi) &quot;jade buds, jade stamens, a type of traditional Chinese bud-only tea&quot;
*玉润 (Yurun, Yuk-yeun) &quot;smooth as jade&quot; (especially of a woman's skin)
*芸 (Yun)
*允萍 (Yunping)
*韵绮 (Yunqi)
*珍安 (Zhen'an)
*珍娟 (Zhenjuan)
*珍莉 (Zhenli)
*珠涵 (Zhuhan)

==Masculine given names==
Here are examples of Chinese masculine given names.
*
*诚明 (Chengming, Sing-ming)
*诚德 (Chengde, Sing-dak)
*崇良 (Chongliang, Jung-liang, Sung-leung)
*德世 (Deshi, De-shih, Dak-sai)
*东华 (Donghua) &quot;eastern splendor, magnificence of the East, east China&quot;
*恩赉 (Enlai) &quot;favor and kindness will grant&quot;
*敢豪 (Ganhao, Kan-hau, Gam-hou, Kam-ho) &quot;brave, bold, wealthy, and powerful person&quot;
*敢晃 (Ganhuang)
*刚勝 (Gangsheng)
*东海 (Haidong, Hai-tung, Hoi-tung) &quot;to the eastern side of the sea&quot;
*鸿财 (Hongcai, Hong-tsai, Hung-choi) &quot;grand wealth and fortunes&quot;
*鸿泉 (Hongquan, Hong-ch'uan, Hung-chyun) &quot;grand water spring&quot;
*鸿雁 (Hongyan, Hung-ngan) &quot;grand swan goose&quot;
*佳亮 (Jialiang, Chia-liang, Gai-leung) &quot;fine bright light&quot;
*健刚 (Jiangang, Chien-kang, Gin-gong, Kin-kong) &quot;healthy, strong, indomitable, and unyielding&quot;
*建国 (Jianguo, Chien-kuo, Gin-gwok, Kin-kwok) &quot;building and establishing the country&quot;
*建宁 (Jianning, Chien-ning, Gin-ning, Kin-ning) &quot;building and establishing tranquility&quot;
*建平 (Jianping, Chien-ping, Gin-ping, Kin-ping)
*建叡 (Jianrui, Chien-rwei, Gin-yeui, Kin-yeui) &quot;building and establishing astute farsightedness&quot;
*建泰 (Jiantai, Chien-tai, Chien-t'ai, Gin-tai, Kin-tai) &quot;building and establishing peace&quot;
*家宇 (Jiayu) &quot;house eaves&quot;
*靖伟 (Jingwei, Ching-wei, Jing-wai, Ching-wai)
*景值 (Jingzhi, Jing-chih, Ching-chih, Ging-jik)
*举隆 (Julong, Chu-long, Ch'u-long, Geui-lung) &quot;to lift, raise, or elect the grand, magnificent, and thriving&quot;
*凯翔 (Kaixiang, Kai-hsiang, Hoi-cheung)
*凯宣 (Kaixuan, Kai-hsuan, Hoi-syun)
*康 (Kang, Hong) &quot;healthy; well-being; abundant&quot;
*康力 (Kangli, Hong-lik) &quot;healthy power; healthy, robust, and mighty powerful&quot;
*良德 (Liangde)
*连俊 (Lianjun, Lien-chun)
*连伟 (Lianwei)
*龙文 (Longwen, Lung-wen) &quot;dragon script; dragon scripture; dragon literature&quot;
*龙之 (Longzhi, Lung-chih) &quot;the dragon's; of the dragon&quot;
*铭翰 (Minghan)
*明威 (Mingwei, Ming-wai)
*敏宇 (Minyu, Man-yu) &quot;quick-witted, agile, nimble, keen, clever&quot; + &quot;eaves, room, space, universe&quot;
*祺伟 (Qiwei, Ch'iwei, Kei-wai) &quot;auspicious greatness&quot;
*仁 (Ren, Yan, Yen) &quot;benevolence, humanity&quot;
*仁亮 (Renliang)
*山博 (Shanbo)
*山忠 (Shanzhong, Shan-chung)
*绍琪 (Shaoqi)
*盛冠 (Shengguan) &quot;the flourishing, energetic, prevailing champion&quot;
*诗庭 (Shiting, Shih-ting, Si-ting) &quot;main hall of poems&quot;
*示伟 (Shiwei) &quot;to show greatness; to reveal greatness&quot;
*顺定 (Shunding)
*伟 (Wei) &quot;great, grand&quot;
*伟国 (Weiguo) &quot;great country; great nation&quot;
*伟和 (Weihe) &quot;“great harmony; great japan&quot;
*韦宏 (Weihong)
*惟民 (Weimin)
*威盛 (Weisheng)
*惟彦 (Weiyan)
*雄朗 (Xionglang, Hsiong-lang)
*旭达 (Xuda, Hsu-da, Yuk-dat) &quot;to extend and reach [the goal] at daybreak's first sunlight&quot;
*旭挖 (Xuwa, Hsu-wa, Yuk-wat) &quot;to dig, excavate, and explore at daybreak's first sunlight&quot;
*彦鸿 (Yanhong, Yin-hung)
*雅顺 (Yashun, Nga-seun, Ngah-seun) &quot;elegantly smooth and successful, neatly-arranged, well-written, properly obeying&quot;
*奕杰 (Yijie, Ichieh, Ik-git) &quot;great outstanding hero&quot;
* 毅聆 (Yiling, I-ling)
*奕敏 (Yimin, I-min, Ik-man) &quot;great quick-witted nimbleness&quot;
*志超 (Zhichao, Chih-chao)
*志源 (Zhiyuan, Chih-yuan)
*忠养 (Zhongyang, Chung-yang, Jung-yeung) &quot;raised to be loyal and faithful; devoted cultivation&quot;
*倬然 (Zhuoran, Chuo-ran, Cheuk-yin) &quot;notable, outstanding, striking, distinct&quot;
*子轩 (Zixuan)
*梓轩 (Zixuan)

==Unisex given names==
Here are examples of Chinese unisex and gender-neutral given names.
*宝熙 (Baoxi, Pau-hsi, Bou-hei) &quot;bright treasured sunny warmth; this treasure is prosperous, happy, and content&quot;
*宝玉 (Baoyu, Pao-i, Bou-yuk) &quot;rare and treasured jade&quot;
*炳晴 (Bingqing, Ping-ching, Ping-ch'ing) &quot;splendid clarity&quot;
*畅永 (Changyong, Cheung-wing) &quot;free and worry-less forever&quot;
*潮汐 (Chaoxi, Chao-hsi, Chiu-jik) &quot;morning and night tides&quot;
*春梦 (Chunmeng, Cheun-mung) &quot;spring dream; fleeting illusion&quot;
*聪 (Cong, Tsong, Tsung, Chung) &quot;clever, wise, having good hearing and comprehension&quot;
*丹 (Dan) &quot;cinnabar; bright vermilion red&quot;
*泛 (Fan) &quot;general, surface-deep, mediocre, ordinary, common&quot;
*繁 (Fan) &quot;numerous, manifold, multitudinous, complex, to propagate, to multiply&quot;
*昉 (Fang, Fong) &quot;dawn, to dawn on, to begin&quot;
*海夏 (Haixia, Hai-hsia, Haisia, Hoi-ha) &quot;summer at the ocean&quot;
*海英 (Haiying, Hai-ing, Hoi-ing) &quot;ocean hero; ocean flower&quot;
*和平 (Heping, Ho-ping, Wo-ping) &quot;peace, peaceful&quot;
*赫秀 (Hexiu, He-hsiu, Ho-hsiu, Hak-sau) &quot;grandiosely conspicuous, awe-inspiring, and talented person&quot;
*佳宁 (Jianing, Chia-ning, Gai-ning) &quot;fine tranquility; beautiful and tranquil&quot;
*晶灵 (Jingling, Ching-ling) &quot;crystal, quartz, sparkling&quot; + &quot;spirit, soul; sharp, quick, and intelligent; effective&quot;
*金国 (Jinguo, Chin-kuo, Chin-kwok, Gam-gwok, Kam-kwok, Kim-kok) &quot;golden country&quot;
*均吉 (Junji, Chun-chi, Gwan-gat, Kwan-kat) &quot;equal good lucks; evenly-spread auspiciousness; all auspice without exception&quot;
*霖畅 (Linchang, Lam-cheung) &quot;continuous rain pouring freely, unimpededly&quot;
*霖昌 (Linchang, Lam-cheung) &quot;continuous rain [makes us] prosperous and flourishing&quot;
*霖善 (Linshan, Lam-sin) &quot;the good virtue of the continuous rain&quot;
*栗暄 (Lixuan) &quot;chestnut&quot; + &quot;sunshine; warm and sunny; fluffy and soft&quot;
*敏 (Min, Man) &quot;quick-witted, agile, nimble, keen, clever&quot;
*明华 (Minghua, Ming-wa, Ming-wah) &quot;bright, clear, and distinct splendor; splendor of justice and the light&quot;
*明瑶 (Mingyao, Ming-yiu)
*平和 (Pinghe, Ping-ho, Ping-wo) &quot;gentle, mild, placid&quot;
*祺密 (Qimi, Chimi, Ch'i-mi, Kei-mat) &quot;the secret to auspiciousness, felicity, and best wishes&quot;
* (Qiming, Chi-ming, Ch'i-ming)
* (Qingkuan, Ching-kwan)
* (Qinglai, Chinglai)
* (Qingyu, Ching-yu, Ching-i)
* (Qingyuan, Ching-yuen, Ch'ing-yuan)
* (Qingxi, Ching-hsi, Ch'ing-hsi)
*诗亭 (Shiting, Shih-ting, Si-ting) &quot;pavilion of poems&quot;
*顺心 (Shunxin, Shun-hsin, Seun-sam) &quot;satisfactory, satisfying, pleasing, to agree with the heart, in accordance to desires&quot;
*彤语 (Tongyu, Tung-yu) &quot;scarlet language&quot;
*文采 (Wencai, Wen-tsai, Man-choi) &quot;literary talent and grace, gorgeously rich and bright colors&quot;
*显瑛 (Xianying, Hsien-ying, Hsien-ing, Hin-ying, Hinying)
*晓辰 (Xiaochen, Hsiao-chen, Hiu-san, Hyusan) &quot;celestial bodies at dawn&quot;
*Xiaoqiu, Hsiao-chiu, Hsiao-ch'iu
*Xiaoyi, Hsiao-yi, Hsiao-i
*Xianghan, Hsiang-han
*Xianyuan, Hsien-yuan
*星礼 (Xingli, Hsingli) &quot;star gift; gift of the star; the star's courtesy; starry manners&quot;
*欣倩 (Xinqian, Hsin-chien, Hsin-ch'ien, Yen-sin) &quot;joyfully pretty/handsome&quot;
*秀英 (Xiuying, Hsiu-ying, Hsiu-ing, Siu-ing, Sau-ing) &quot;intelligent, beautiful, and talented hero/flower&quot;
*雪亮 (Xueliang, Hsue-liang, Hsueh-liang, Sueliang, Syut-leung) &quot;bright as snow&quot;
*映 (Ying)
*意容 (Yirong)
*意泽 (Yize)
*Yueyou
*Yujie
*Zhaoying
*Ziping, Tzu-ping, Tzih-ping, Tze-ping, Tse-ping
*Zitong, Tzu-tong, Tzih-tong, Tze-tung, Tse-tung
*Zixi, Tzu-hsi, Tzih-hsi, Tze-hsi, Tse-hsi

==Yon==
Chinese nicknames stem from either diminutives of the given name, diminutives of the family name, [diminutives of] the person’s foreign/western name, words relating to the person’s characteristics and traits, words that a close friend or relative deemed as matching the person’s vibes, random cutesy or pretty words they like, terms of endearment, inner jokes, or even titles and lines of work. Generally, nicknames are only used by people who are well acquainted with each other (friends, co-workers, etc.) or by fans of celebrities and public figures. It's not customary for strangers and newly-made friends to start using nicknames right away. Here are the most common formulas to get a nickname:

====== 阿 + a compound from the given name ======
&lt;small&gt;阿 is a prefix used by southerners at the start of nicknames, titles, or terms of address to indicate familiarity or informality. It is ''not'' part of the person's name.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;small&gt;The most common practice is to use the very last compound of the name, but using one from the middle can also be done, as it is mostly a matter of the name bearer's preference. For example:&lt;/small&gt;

*阿达 (Ada, Adat, Ah-dat) → for someone surnamed 达 Da, or has 达 Da in their name
*阿红 (Ahong, Ahung, Ah-hong, Aang, Ah-ang) → for someone surnamed 红 Hong, or has 红 Hong in their name
*阿金 (Ajin, Achin, Agam, Akam, Ah-gam, Ah-kam, Akim, Ah-kim) &quot;goldie&quot; → for someone surnamed 金 Jin, or has 金 Jin in their name
*阿蓝 (Alan, Alam, Ah-lam) &quot;blue-y&quot; → for someone with 蓝 Lan in their name
*阿香 (Axiang, Ahsiang, Ah-hsiang, Aheung, Ah-heung) → for someone with 香 Xiang in their name
*阿祥 (Axiang, Ahsiang, Ah-hsiang, Acheung, Ah-cheung) → for someone with 祥 Xiang in their name
*阿燕 (Ayan, Ayin, Ah-yin)  → for someone with 燕 Yan in their name
*阿艳 (Ayan, Ayim, Ah-yim)  → for someone with 艳 Yan in their name
*阿彦 (Ayan, Ayin, Ah-yin) → for someone with 彦 Yan in their name
*阿延 (Ayan, Ayin, Ah-yin) → for someone surnamed 延 Yan, or has 延 Yan in their name

====== 阿 + a family name ======
&lt;small&gt;For example:&lt;/small&gt;

*阿达 (Ada, Adat, Ah-dat) → for someone surnamed 达 Da, or has 达 Da in their name
*阿红 (Ahong, Ahung, Ah-hong, Aang, Ah-ang) → for someone surnamed 红 Hong, or has 红 Hong in their name
*阿金 (Ajin, Achin, Agam, Akam, Ah-gam, Ah-kam, Akim, Ah-kim) &quot;goldie&quot; → for someone surnamed 金 Jin, or has 金 Jin in their name
*阿林 (Alin, Alam, Ah-lam, Alim, Ah-lim) &quot;forresty&quot; → for someone surnamed 林 Lin, or has 林 Lin in their name
*阿延 (Ayan, Ayin, Ah-yin) → for someone surnamed 延 Yan, or has 延 Yan in their name

====== Repetition of a compound from the given name ======
&lt;small&gt;Repetition of sound is generally viewed as ''cutesy''-fying someone's name, and therefore is more commonly done to girls' names than boys'. The most common practice is to use the very last compound of the name, but using one from the middle can also be done, as it is mostly a matter of the name bearer's preference. For example:&lt;/small&gt;

*安安 (Anan, An'an, On-on) &quot;safe and sound; secure; at ease&quot; → for someone with 安 An in their name
*凡凡 (Fanfan) &quot;ordinary, mundane, of the mortal world, all, altogether&quot; → for someone with 凡 Fan in their name
*泛泛 (Fanfan) &quot;very general, surface-deep, mediocre, ordinary, common&quot; → for someone with 泛 Fan in their name
*繁繁 (Fanfan) &quot;very numerous, manifold, multitudinous, complex, to propagate, to multiply&quot; → for someone with 繁 Fan in their name
*芬芬 (Fenfen, Fanfan) &quot;fragrance aroma&quot; → for someone with 芬 Fen in their name
*凤凤 (Fengfeng, Fongfong) &quot;phoenix phoenix&quot; → for someone with 凤 Feng in their name
*河河 (Hehe, Hoho, Haha) &quot;river river&quot; → for someone with 河 He in their name
*丽丽 (Lili) → for someone with 丽 Li in their name
*莉莉 (Lili) → for someone with 莉 Li in their name
*美美 (Meimei) &quot;beautiful beauty&quot; → for someone with 美 Mei in their name
*米米 (Mimi, Maimai) &quot;grain grain, or rice rice&quot; → for someone with 米 Mi in their name, or used for the phonetic value of &quot;mimi&quot;
*润润 (Runrun, Yeun-yeun) &quot;moist, damp, smooth and sleek, glossy&quot; → for someone with 润 Run in their name
*婷婷 (Tingting) &quot;slender and graceful woman&quot; → for someone with 婷 Ting in their name
*星星 (Xingxing, Hsing-hsing) &quot;starry stars; many stars&quot; → for someone with 星 Xing in their name
*秀秀 (Xiuxiu) &quot;excellent and talented&quot; → for someone with 秀 Xiu in their name
*雅雅 (Yaya) &quot;standard, proper, refined, elegant&quot; → for someone with 雅 Ya in their name
*燕燕 (Yanyan) &quot;swallow swallow&quot; (the bird of the hirundinidae genus) → for someone with 燕 Yan in their name
*映映 (Yingying) &quot;to shine, to reflect (light), to project (images)&quot; → for someone with 映 Ying in their name

====== Repetition of the family name ======
&lt;small&gt;The main custom for addressing people by their family names is to tack on the appropriate kinship prefix or suffix to them. This makes repeating the family name or a character from the family name(s)—with or without a kinship affix—occur a great deal less often than repetition of the given name. However, it can be done. For example:&lt;/small&gt;

* 凤凤 (Fengfeng, Fongfong) &quot;phoenix phoenix&quot; → for someone surnamed 凤 Feng
*河河 (Hehe, Hoho, Haha) &quot;river river&quot; → for someone surnamed 河 He
*林林 (Linlin, Lam-lam, Limlim) &quot;forest forest&quot; → for someone surnamed 林 Lin
*米米 (Mimi, Maimai) &quot;grain grain, or rice rice&quot; → for someone surnamed 米 Mi
*秦秦 (Qinqin, Chin-chin, Ch'in-ch'in) → for someone surnamed 秦 Qin

====== 小 + a compound from the given name ======
&lt;small&gt;Nicknames with the character 小 are used to refer to people younger or of similar age as the speaker, or physically shorter than but of the same generation range as the speaker, because it means &quot;small, little, young&quot;. These nicknames indicate close familiarity between the speaker and the addressed, therefore they should not be used by strangers and distant acquaintances. The most common practice is to use the very last compound of the name, but using one from the middle can also be done, as it is mostly a matter of the name bearer's preference.&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;For example:&lt;/small&gt;

*小菲
* 小丽
* 小美 (Xiaomei, Siu-mei, Sio-bi) &quot;little beauty&quot; → for someone with 美 Mei in their name
* 小默

====== 小 + a family name ======
&lt;small&gt;Same rules for 小 apply. For example:&lt;/small&gt;

* 小黄 (Xiaohuang, Siu-wong) &quot;little yellow&quot; → for someone surnamed 黄 Huang
* 小林 (Xiaolin, Siu-lam, Sio-lim) &quot;little forest&quot; → for someone surnamed 林 Lin
* 小王 (Xiaowang, Siu-wong, Sio-ong) &quot;little king&quot; → for someone surnamed 王 Wang

====== Personal attributes ======
&lt;small&gt;For example:&lt;/small&gt;

* 美男 (Meinan) &quot;pretty boy; beautiful man&quot; → jocular nickname for a masculine individual regarded to be pretty, handsome, or attractive, used only by those who are close to the individual and know them well, otherwise it may sound insulting
* 美女 (Meinü, Meinv) &quot;pretty girl; beautiful woman&quot; → general term for a feminine individual regarded to be pretty, beautiful, or attractive
* 猛男 (Mengnan) &quot;hunk; handsome, robust, athletic guy&quot; → casual, sometimes jocular, nickname for a guy who is a good-looking piece of hunk
* 帅哥 (Shuaige, Seui-go, Seui-goh, Seoi-go) &quot;handsome and clever brother&quot; → for a masculine individual of the speaker's generation range—though usually not biologically related to the speaker—who is just downright dashing
* 小美 (Xiaomei, Syu-mei, Sio-bi) &quot;little beauty&quot; → for someone younger or of similar age as the speaker, who is popular for being pretty

====== Based on relationship with the speaker ======
&lt;small&gt;For example:&lt;/small&gt;

* 老板
* 爷爷
* 太太
* 叔叔
* 哥们
* 哥们儿
* 哥哥
* 小哥 (Xiaoge) &quot;small older brother&quot; → within family, for older brothers and cousins who are close to one's age. For non-family members, this kinship term is used for a masculine individual of the speaker's generation, ranging from slightly younger to considerably older than the speaker. Also used by adults to refer to young boys—especially those with younger siblings—to make them feel big and respected.
* 小弟
* 小姐姐 (Xiaojiejie) &quot;small older sister&quot; → within family, for older sisters and cousins who are close to one's age. For non-family members, this kinship term is used for a feminine individual of the speaker's generation, ranging from slightly younger to considerably older than the speaker. Also used by adults to refer to young girls—especially those with younger siblings—to make them feel big and respected.
* 小妹
* 姑娘

==Family names==
===Top 30 (PRC only, 2018)===
#王 Wang, Wong, Ong, Vong
#李 Li, Lee, Lie, Lei
#张 Zhang, Chang, Cang, Jhang, Jeung, Cheung, Tio, Tiu, Tiau, Teo, Theo, Thio, Chong, Diong
#刘 Liu, Liow, Liou, Lio, Lew, Lau, Law, Lao, Lieu
#陈 Chen, Chan, Can, Tan, Chhun, Chun, Ding, Deng, Dang, Zen
#杨 Yang, Young, Yeung, Yoeng, Joeng, Io, Yo, Yeo, Yeoh, Iu, Yu, Chhiu, Chhio, Yong, Yon, Yen, Hhian
#黄 Huang, Hwang, Wong, Vong, Ng, Ui, Uy, Oey, Wi, Wee, Huan, Hhuaan, Uan, Wan
#赵 Zhao, Chao, Chau, Chaw, Jhao, Jhaw, Jaw, Jiu, Chiu, Chyu, Ziu, Tio, Tiao, Chheu, Diau, Dieu, Zau
#吴 Wu, U, Oo, Woo, Ng, Ngo, Go, Goh, Vu, Ngu, Ghou, Hu, Hhu
#周 Zhou, Chou, Chow, Jhou, Jhow, Joe, Jau, Chau, Zau, Chiu, Ciu, Ziu, Chu, Ciu, Tseu
#徐 Xu, Hsu, Hs'u, Hsyu, Shu, Shoo, Shoe, Shew, Shyu, Cheui, Ceoi, Tsui, Chi, Chee, Chhi, Ce, Xxi
#孙 Sun, Soon, Syun, Sng, Sung, Song, Sen
#马 Ma, Mah, Mak, Maa, Bhe, Be, Mo
#朱 Zhu, Chu, Choo, Jyu, Cyu, Chiu, Zyu, Cu, Zu, Tsr
#胡 Hu, Hoo, Who, Wu, Woo, U, O, Oh, Ou, Fu
#郭 Guo, Kuo, Kwo, Kwok, Kuok, Gwo, Gwok, Gwoh, Guok, Koeh, Keh, Kok, Quock, Quoc, Gua, Gwa, Kua, Kwa
#何 He, Ho, Hoh, Hok, O, Oh
#林 Lin, Lynn, Lam, Lum, Lim, Liem, Ling, Lang
#高 Gao, Kao, Ko, Gou, Gow, Kou, Kow, Gau, Gaw, Kau, Kaw, Go
#罗 Luo, Lo, Loh, Low, Law
#郑 Zheng, Cheng, Jheng, Zeng, Te, Ti, Tee, Chng, Cheang, Chiang, Chang, Thang, Tay, Teh
#梁 Liang, Leung, Loeng, Leong, Leng, Liong, Niu, Nio, Neo
#谢 Xie, Hsieh, Hsie, Sie, Sieh, Ze, Che, Tse, Sia, Chia, Cheah, Tshia
#宋 Song, Sung, Sang, Soong
#唐 Tang, Tong, Tng, Teng, Thong, T'ang
#许 Xu, Hsu, Hsyu, Hs'u, Shu, Shyu, Su, Syu, Heoi, Hoi, Hui, Kho, Khoh, Koh, Ko, Hi, Hee, Hie, He
#邓 Deng, Teng, Dang, Tang, Theng, Dng, Tng, Then, Ten
#韩 Han, Hon
#冯 Feng, Fung, Fong, Foong, Pang
#草 Cao, Tsao, Cou, Chou, Cho, Tso, Chow, Chaw
===Others===
[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Family_Surnames Hundred Family Surnames (百家姓 baijiaxing)]
*安 An, Ann, On
*卬 Ang, Yeung, Yoeng, Joeng
*敖 Ao, Au, Aw, Aok, Ngou, Ngow
*巴 Ba, Pa
*仈 Ba, Pa
*百 Bai, Pai, Bak, Pak
*白 Bai, Pai, Bak, Pak
*柏 Bai, Pai, Pak
*班 Ban, Pan
*包 Bao, Pao, Bau, Pau, Pow, Paw, Bow
*暴 Bao, Pao, Bou, Pou, Bow
*鲍 Bao, Pao, Bau, Pau, Pow, Paw, Bow
*毕 Bi, Bee, Pi, Pee, Pie, Bat, Pat
*邲 Bi, Bee, Pi, Pee, Pie, Bei, Bey, Pei, Pey
*卞 Bian, Bien, Pien, Bin, Pin
*秉 Bing, Ping
*邴 Bing, Ping
*薄 Bo, Po, Boh, Poh, Bok, Pok
*步 Bu, Boo, Pu, Poo, Bou, Pou, Bow
*卜 Bu, Boo, Pu, Poo, Bak, Pak
*蔡 Cai, Tsai, Choi, Choy, Coi, Choa, Chwa, Chua, Cwa, Tswa, Tjwa, Tjai
*柴 Chai
*朝 Chao, Chiu, Chyu, Chew
*巢 Chao, Chau, Chaw
*晁 Chao, Chiu, Chyu, Chew
*鼂 Chao, Chiu, Chyu, Chew
*车 Che
*成 Cheng, Sing
*程 Cheng, Ching
*承 Cheng, Sing
*澄 Cheng, Ching
*乘 Cheng, Sing
*晟 Cheng, Sing
*庱 Cheng
*郕 Cheng, Sing
*迟 Chi, Chih, Chee
*池 Chi, Chih, Chee
*蚩 Chi, Chih, Chee
*崇 Chong, Chung, Jung, Sung
*丑 Chou, Chow, Chau, Chaw
*楚 Chu, Choo, Cho
*储 Chu, Choo, Chiu, Chyu, Chew
*禇 Chu, Choo, Chiu, Chyu, Chew
*鄐 Chu, Choo, Chuk, Chook
*钏 Chuan, Chwan, Cwan, Chyun, Chiun, Cyun
*春 Chun, Choon, Cheun, Choen, Ceon
*从 Cong, Tsong, Tsung, Chung, Cung
*琮 Cong, Tsong, Tsung, Chung, Cung
*爨 Cuan, Cwan, Tsuan, Tswan, Chyun, Chiun, Cyun
*崔 Cui, Cwei, Cuei, Cuey, Tsuei, Tsuey, Tswei, Cheui, Ceoi
*达 Da, Ta, Dat, Tat
*笪 Da, Ta, Dat, Tat
*戴 Dai, Tai
*翟 Di, Dee, Ti, Tee, Dik, Tik
*狄 Di, Dee, Ti, Tee, Dik, Tik
*刁 Diao, Tiao, Tiau, Tiaw, Diu, Dyu, Tiu, Tyu
*丁 Ding, Ting
*东 Dong, Tong, Tung, Dung
*冬 Dong, Tong, Tung, Dung
*董 Dong, Tong, Tung, Dung
*东方 Dongfang, Tongfang, Tungfang, Tungfong, Dungfang
*窦 Dou, Dow, Dough, Tou, Tow, Dau, Daw, Tau, Taw
*杜 Du, Tu, Doo, Too, Dou, Dow, Dough, Tou, Tow
*都 Du, Tu, Doo, Too, Dou, Dow, Dough, Tou, Tow
*段 Duan, Dwan, Tuan, Twan, Dyun, Diun, Tyun, Tiun
*法 Fa, Fat
*范 Fan
*樊 Fan
*方 Fang, Fong, Fung
*房 Fang, Fong, Fung
*坊 Fang, Fong, Fung
*费 Fei, Fey, Fay, Faye, Fai
*斐 Fei, Fey, Fay, Faye
*封 Feng, Fung
*凤 Feng, Fung
*丰 Feng, Fung
*酆 Feng, Fung
*富 Fu, Foo, Fuk
*付 Fu, Foo, Fuk
*伏 Fu, Foo, Fuk
*福 Fu, Foo, Fuk
*符 Fu, Foo, Fuk
*傅 Fu, Foo, Fuk
*赅 Gai, Kai, Goi, Goy, Koi, Koy
*甘 Gan, Kan, Kam, Gam, Gum
*干 Gan, Kan, Kam, Gon, Kon, Gone
*港 Gang, Kang, Gong, Kong, Kung
*郜 Gao, Kao, Ko, Gou, Gow, Kou, Kow, Gau, Gaw, Kau, Kaw, Go
*葛 Ge, Ke, Got, Kot
*盖 Ge, Ke, Goi, Goy, Koi, Koy
*戈 Ge, Ke, Gwo, Guo, Kwo, Kuo
*鬲 Ge, Ke, Lik
*根 Gen, Ken, Gan, Kan
*亘 Gen, Ken, Gang, Kang
*耿 Geng, Keng, Kng, Gang, Kang
*宫 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*贡 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*公 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*弓 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*龚 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*工 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*功 Gong, Kong, Kung, Gung
*缑 Gou, Kou, Kow, Gow, Go, Ko, Gau, Gaw, Kau, Kaw
*苟 Gou, Kou, Kow, Gow, Go, Ko, Gau, Gaw, Kau, Kaw
*勾 Gou, Kou, Kow, Gow, Go, Ko, Ngau, Ngaw
*古 Gu, Goo, Ku, Koo
*谷 Gu, Goo, Ku, Koo, Guk, Kuk, Cook, Kook, Gook
*顾 Gu, Goo, Ku, Koo
*辜 Gu, Goo, Ku, Koo
*关 Guan, Gwan, Kuan, Kwan
*管 Guan, Gwan, Kuan, Kwan, Gun, Kun, Koon, Goon
*官 Guan, Gwan, Kuan, Kwan, Gun, Kun, Koon, Goon
*观 Guan, Gwan, Kuan, Kwan, Gun, Kun, Koon, Goon
*冠 Guan, Gwan, Kuan, Kwan, Gun, Kun, Koon, Goon
*筦 Guan, Gwan, Kuan, Kwan, Gun, Kun, Koon, Goon
*归 Gui, Gwei, Guei, Guey, Kwei, Kuei, Kuey, Gwai, Kwai, Kuai, Guai
*桂 Gui, Gwei, Guei, Guey, Kwei, Kuei, Kuey, Gwai, Kwai, Kuai, Guai
*妫 Gui, Gwei, Guei, Guey, Kwei, Kuei, Kuey, Gwai, Kwai, Kuai, Guai
*炅 Gui, Gwei, Guei, Guey, Kwei, Kuei, Kuey, Gwai, Kwai, Kuai, Guai
*邽 Gui, Gwei, Guei, Guey, Kwei, Kuei, Kuey, Gwai, Kwai, Kuai, Guai
*炔 Gui, Gwei, Guei, Guey, Kwei, Kuei, Kuey, Kyut, Kiut, Cute
*过 Guo, Kuo, Kwo, Kwok, Kuok, Gwo, Gwok, Gwoh, Guok, Quock, Quoc
*国 Guo, Kuo, Kwo, Kwok, Kuok, Gwo, Gwok, Gwoh, Guok, Quock, Quoc
*呙 Guo, Kuo, Kwo, Kwok, Kuok, Gwo, Gwok, Gwoh, Guok, Quock, Quoc, Gwa, Gua, Kwa, Kua
*虢 Guo, Kuo, Kwo, Kwok, Kuok, Gwo, Gwok, Gwoh, Guok, Quock, Quoc, Gwik, Guik, Guick, Kwik, Kuik, Quick
*海 Hai, High, Hi, Hoi, Hoy
*翰 Han, Hon
*寒 Han, Hon
*含 Han, Ham
*函 Han, Ham
*航 Hang, Hung, Hong
*杭 Hang, Hung, Hong
*郝 Hao, Hau, How, Haw, Ho, Hou, Hoh, Hok, Kok
*昊 Hao, Hau, How, Haw, Ho, Hou, Hoh, Hok
*和 He, Hek, Wo, Woh, Ho
*河 He, Hek, Hoh, Ho
*贺 He, Hek, Hoh, Ho
*赫 He, Hek, Hoh, Ho, Hak
*佫 He, Hek, Hoh, Ho, Hok
*恒 Heng, Hang, Hng
*衡 Heng, Hang, Hng
*后 Hou, Howe, Hoe, Hau, Haw, Hauh
*侯 Hou, Howe, Hoe, Hau, Haw, Hauh
*郈 Hou, Howe, Hoe, Hau, Haw, Hauh
*Hu, Hoo, Who
*Hua, Hwa, Fa
*Huan, Hwan
*Hui, Hwei, Huei, Huey,
*火 Huo, Hwo, Hwok, Hwoh, Huoh, Fo, Foh
*霍 Huo, Hwo, Hwok, Hwoh, Huoh, Fo, Foh, Fok, Fock
*皇 Huang, Hwang, Wong, Vong
*Ji, Jee, Chi, Chee
*Jia, Chia, Chya, Jya
*Jian, Chien, Jien,
*Jiang, Chiang
*Jiao, Chiao
*Jin, Chin, Cin, Kim
*Jing, Ching
*樛 Jiu, Chiou, Chiow, Jiou, Jiow, Gau, Gaw, Gao, Kau, Kaw, Kao
*Ju
*涓 Juan, Chuan, Chwan, Jwan, Gyun, Kyun, Kyune, Kyoon, Kiun, Kune, Gyune, Giun, Gune
*隽 Juan, Chuan, Chwan, Jwan, Syun, Siun, Syoon
*Jue
*凯 Kai, Hoi, Hoy
*Kan
*Kang
*Kao, Kau, Kaw
*Ke, Keh
*Ku
*Kuai
*Kuan
*Kuang
*Kui
*Lai
*Lan
*Lang
*Lao, Lau, Law
*Le, Lok, Lo
*Lei, Ley, Lay, Leigh
*Leng
*Lian
*Liang, Lyang
*Liao, Liau, Liaw
*Lian, Lien
*Lie, Liek, Lyek, Lye
*Ling
*Liong, Lyong
*柳 Liu, Liow, Liou, Lio, Lew, Lau, Law, Lao, Lieu
*Long, Lung
*Lu, Luh, Luk
*Luan
*Luo, Lwo, Lwok, Lwoh, Luoh, Luok, Lo, Loh, Lok, Loo, Lou, Low
*麻 Ma, Mah, Mak, Maa
*Man, Mann
*Mang
*Mao, Mau, Maw
*Mei, May, Mey
*Men, Mun
*Meng
*Mi, Mie, Mee
*Miao, Miau, Miaw, Meow
*Min, Minn, Meen, Mean
*Ming
*墨 Mo, Mok, Mou, Mow, Mok, Mock, Moch, Moo
*莫 Mo, Mok, Mou, Mow, Mok, Mock, Moch, Moo
*鄚 Mo, Mok, Mou, Mow, Mok, Mock, Moch, Moo
*木 Mu, Muk, Moo, Mook, Moock, Mooch
*牧 Mu, Muk, Moo, Mook, Moock, Mooch
*穆 Mu, Muk, Moo, Mook, Moock, Mooch
*那 Na, Nak, Nah
*纳 Na, Nak, Nah, Nap
*南 Nan, Nam
*Ni, Nee, Knee
*Nie, Nieh, Niek, Nek, Nye, Nyeh, Nyek, Neck
*Nian, Nien
*Ning
*Niu, Niou, Niow, Nio, Neo
*区 Ou, Ow, Keui, Keoi
*欧 Ou, Ow, Au, Aw
*殴 Ou, Ow, Au, Aw
*欧阳 Ouyang, Auyeung, Auyong, Auyoung, Aujoeng, Oyang, Owyang, Owyoung, O’Young
*Pa, Pak, Pah
*Pan
*Pang
*Pei, Pey, Pay
*Peng, Pung, Png
*皮 Pi, Pih, Pik, Pee, Pei, Pey, Pay, Peih
*裨 Pi, Pih, Pik, Pee, Pei, Pey, Pay, Peih
*邳 Pi, Pih, Pik, Pee, Bei, Bey, Bay, Beih, Pei, Pey, Pay, Peih
*Pian, Pien
*Piao, Piau, Piaw, Peow
*平 Ping
*Po
*Pu, Poo, Pooh, Puh
*Qi, Chi, Chee, Ci, Ji
*Qian, Chien, Cien, Jien
*Qiao, Chiao, Ciao, Jiao
*Qin, Chin, Cin, Jin
*Qiu, Chiu, Chiou, Chiow, Ciu, Ciou, Ciow, Jiu, Jiou, Jiow
*Qu, Ch'u, Chu, Chyu, Cyu, Jyu, Ju, Cu
*Quan, Ch'uan, Chuan, Chyuan, Cyuan, Jyuan, Juan, Cuan
*Que, Ch'ue, Chue, Chuek, Chyue, Chyuek, Cyue, Cyuek, Jyue, Jyuek, Jue, Juek, Cue, Cuek
*Ran
*Rao, Rau, Raw
*任 Ren, Yam, Jin
*Rong
*Ru, Roo, Rue
*Ruan, Rwan
*Sa
*Sang
*Sha
*Shan
*Shang
*Shangguan
*Shao, Shau
*She, Sheh, Shek
*Shen
*Sheng
*Shi, Shih
*Shou, Show, Sho
*Shu, Shoo, Shoe
*Shuang, Shwang, Suang, Swang
*Shui, Shwei, Shuei, Shuey, Swei, Suei, Suey
*Si, Sih, Sek, Seh, Se
*司马 Sima, Sih-ma, Sek-ma, Seh-ma, Sema, Simah
*司徒 Situ, Sih-tu, Sih-too, Sih-toe, Sek-tu, Sek-too, Sek-toe, Seh-tu, Seh-too, Seh-toe, Setu, Setoo, Setoe, Sitou, Sitouh, Sitow, See-tow
*松 Song, Sung, Soong, Chung, Choong, Cung, Tsung
*Sou, Sow, Souw, So, Soo
*Su, Sue, Soo, Soe, Suk, Suh
*Sui, Swei, Suei, Suey, Swe, Sway
*索 Suo, Swo, Suoh, Swoh, Suok, Swok, Sak, Sack
*妁 Suo, Swo, Suoh, Swoh, Suok, Swok, Shuo, Jeuk, Cheuk, Zoek
*台 Tai, Thai, Taih, Taik, Toy, Toi, Toih, Tye, Tie
*邰 Tai, Thai, Taih, Taik, Toy, Toi, Toih, Tye, Tie
*漦 Tai, Thai, Taih, Taik, Toy, Toi, Toih, Tye, Tie
*Tan, Tann
*Tang
*Tao, Tau, Taw
*Te, Tee, Tay
*Teng, Tng
*Ti, Tee
*Tian, Tien
*Tiao, Tiau, Tiaw
*Tie, Tiek, Tieh
*Ting
*Tong, Tung
*Tou, Tow
*Tu, Too, Toe, Tuh, Tuk
*Tuan, Twan
*Wan, One
*Wei, Wey, Way, Weigh
*温 Wen, Wan, One
*闻 Wen, Man
*文 Wen, Man
*翁 Weng, Wng, Yung, Yoong
*瓮 Weng, Wng, Ung, Oong
*武 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Mou, Mow, Mouh
*伍 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Ng
*巫 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Mou, Mow, Mouh
*乌 Wu, Woo, U, Oo
*吾 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Ng
*仵 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Ng
*邬 Wu, Woo, U, Oo
*毋 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Mou, Mow, Mouh
*兀 Wu, Woo, U, Oo, Ngat
*习 Xi, Hsi, Shee, See, Jap, Chap, Cap
*夏 Xia, Hsia, Ha
*冼 Xian, Hsian, Hsien, Shien, Sin
*咸 Xian, Hsian, Hsien, Shien, Ham
*向 Xiang, Hsiang, Siang, Heung, Hoeng
*相 Xiang, Hsiang, Siang, Seung, Soeng
*项 Xiang, Hsiang, Siang, Hong
*肖 Xiao, Hsiao, Siao, Chiu
*萧 Xiao, Hsiao, Siao, Siu
*谢 Xie, Hsie, Hsieh, Je, Che, Sia
*解 Xie, Hsie, Hsieh, Gai, Kai
*新 Xin, Hsin, Sin, San
*辛 Xin, Hsin, Sin, San
*兴 Xing, Hsing, Sing, Hing
*幸 Xing, Hsing, Sing, Hang
*邢 Xing, Hsing, Sing, Ying, Ing
*熊 Xiong, Hsiong, Siong, Hung
*敻 Xiong, Hsiong, Siong, Hing
*修 Xiu, Hsiu, Hsiou, Hsiow, Siu, Sau
*休 Xiu, Hsiu, Hsiou, Hsiow, Siu, Sau
*盱 Xu, Hsu, Hs'u, Heui
*胥 Xu, Hsu, Hs'u, Seui
*鄦 Xu, Hsu, Hs'u, Heui
*雪 Xue, Hsue, Hs'ue, Syut
*薛 Xue, Hsue, Hs'ue, Sit
*荀 Xun, Hsun, Hs'un, Seun, Soen
*轧 Ya, Ja, Jat, Chat, Zat
*衙 Ya, Ja, Nga, Ngah
*严 Yan, Yen, Yim, Im
*颜 Yan, Yen, Ngan
*延 Yan, Yen, Yin, In
*燕 Yan, Yen, Yin, In
*杨 Yang, Yeung, Io, Yo, Yeo, Yeoh
*扬 Yang, Yeung
*羊 Yang, Yeung
*仰 Yang, Yeung
*姚 Yao, Yau, Yaw, Yiu
*摇 Yao, Yau, Yaw, Yiu
*瑶 Yao, Yau, Yaw, Yiu
*尧 Yao, Yau, Yaw, Yiu
*叶 Ye, Yeh, Yap, Ip, Yip
*Yi, I, Ee, Yee
*Yin, In, Inn, Een
*Ying, Ing, Eeng
*Yong, Yung, Yoong
*Yuan, Yuen, Jyen
*Yue, Yueh
*Yu, Iu, Ioo, Yoo, Yuh, Ik
*Yun, Yoon, Yune
*Zan, Tzan, Can, Tsan, Tjan
*Zang, Tzang, Cang, Tsang, Tjang
*Ze, Tze, Ce, Tse, Tje
*Zeng, Tzeng, Ceng, Tseng, Tjeng
*Zeng, Tzeng, Ceng, Tseng, Tjeng
*Zeng, Tzeng, Ceng, Tseng, Tjeng
*Zhan, Chan, Can, Jhan
*Zhang, Chang, Cang, Jhang
*Zhao, Chao, Cao, Jhao, Jhaw, Jaw
*Zhen, Chen, Cen, Chn, Jhen
*Zheng, Cheng, Ceng, Chng, Jheng, Jhng
*Zhi, Chih, Jhih
*Zhong, Chong, Chung, Jhong, Jhung
*Zhou, Chou, Chow, Chouh, Jhou, Jhow, Joe
*Zhu, Chu, Choo, Jhu
*庄 Zhuang, Chuang, Cuang, Jhuang
*诸葛 Zhuge, Chu-ke, Chu-kek, Chu-keh, Jhuge
*Zhuo, Chuo, Chuok, Chuoh, Chwo, Chwok, Chwoh, Jhuo, Jhuok
*Zi, Tzi, Tzu, Tz'u, Tzih, Tze, Tsih, Tse, Cih, Ce, Tjih, Tje
*Zong, Tzong, Tzung, Tsong, Tsung, Tjong, Tjung, Cong, Cung
*Zou, Tzou, Tzow, Tsou, Tsow, Tjou, Tjow, Cou
*组 Zu, Tzu, Tsu, Tju, Cu, Jou, Joe, Jow, Chou, Chow, Cou, Cow
*祖 Zu, Tzu, Tsu, Tju, Cu, Jou, Joe, Jow, Chou, Chow, Cou, Cow
*坐 Zuo, Tzuo, Tzuok, Tzuoh, Tzwo, Tzwok, Tzwoh, Tjuo, Tjuok, Tjuoh, Tjwo, Tjwok, Tjwoh, Cuo, Cuok, Cuoh, Cwo, Cwok, Cwoh, Cho, Choh
*左 Zuo, Tzuo, Tzuok, Tzuoh, Tzwo, Tzwok, Tzwoh, Tjuo, Tjuok, Tjuoh, Tjwo, Tjwok, Tjwoh, Cuo, Cuok, Cuoh, Cwo, Cwok, Cwoh, Jo, Joe, Joh

===Chinese-Guyanese surnames===

These three-part surnames are used by people of Chinese descent in Guyana:

#Chee-A-Nam
#Chee-A-Tow
#Chee-Yee-Cheong
#Cho-Kin-Choy
#Cho-See-Nam
#Fung-A-Fat
#Fung-On
#Hoahing
#Hoalim
#Ho-A-Yun
#Lam-A-Sy
#Low-A-Chee
#Man-Son-Hing
#Phung Foo Pow
#Sue-A-Quan
#Tjon-A-Kien
#Tsoi-A-Sue
#Woon-Sam

===Surnames of Chinese in Hawaii and Samoa===
These names are peculiar to people who immigrated to Hawaii or Samoa from China. The &quot;Ah&quot; before many of these names comes from a Chinese title of respect.

#Ah Ching
#Ah Choi
#Ah Chong
#Ah Fat
#Ah Fong
#Ah Him
#Ah Kam
#Ah King
#Ah Kiong
#Ah Liki
#Ah Loe
#Ah Mau
#Ahnee
#Ah Quin
#Ah Sam
#Ahsing
#Ah Wong
#Ah You
#Hew Len
#Ho Ching
#Po Ching
{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <text bytes="34490" sha1="4sxt1030uhap9xn91e35vgcvbhaele1" xml:space="preserve">__NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left&lt;!--|limit=2--&gt;}}

Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks.

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== Consultation to replace the outdated MassBlock gadget ==

Fellow administrators, I plan to replace the current MassBlock gadget with [[w:it:MediaWiki:Gadget-Massblock.js|this version imported from the Italian Wikipedia]]. Currently on this project, MassBlock only blocks IP addresses, which are no longer visible to the public and it's not ideal. Thoughts? '''[[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 October 2025 (UTC)

:In principle, I have no problem with this, but I'm not as familiar with the technical aspects or potential limitations—I'd need other people to weigh in. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:07, 2 November 2025 (UTC)
:: I've tested this, and there are some additional options to blank and/or protect user/user talk pages, but we should probably not use them unless absolutely necessary. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:28, 7 November 2025 (UTC)
: {{doing|Doing per lack of objection...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:00, 2 January 2026 (UTC)
: Apologies for the recent technical difficulties, the script wasn't working because some dependencies were not added... – it's fixed. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:28, 2 January 2026 (UTC)

== Retiring [[Template:Deleted page]] ==

{{tlx|Deleted page}} is a template that was used back in the day before salting (page creation protection) existed. Back then, if an admin wanted to prevent a page from being recreated, they would delete it and then recreate it with just that template, before fully protecting it. This method is completely unnecessary now that we can directly create-protect pages, and no new page has been added to [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] in nearly eight years.

Furthermore, I would like to propose that all the pages that currently have {{tlx|Naming policy notice}} be deleted and added to the ''title blacklist''. In the [[MediaWiki:Titleblacklist|title blacklist]], the error message should be set to an interface message that transcludes {{tlx|Naming policy notice}}. Since this is an editor-facing template, only would-be editors should be able to see it. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:55, 31 December 2025 (UTC)
: Do you think we should delete {{tlx|Deleted page}} via RfD, but keep {{tlx|Naming policy notice}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:04, 31 December 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Yes. {{tlx|Deleted page}} should be deleted, and {{tlx|Naming policy notice}} should be fully protected and transcluded in a MediaWiki namespace message. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:16, 31 December 2025 (UTC)
:::Considering there were no objections to this proposal here, {{Doing|I am doing this...}} [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:44, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
::::{{done|All done}}, but the discussion about {{tlx|Deleted page}} is awaiting to be closed (since I initiated it). [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:37, 30 March 2026 (UTC)
:[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]], I filed a request at [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Template:Deleted page]] to discuss whether to delete this template (and the categories used). [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:38, 29 January 2026 (UTC)

== Some proposals involving a separate permission request page and notification of ongoing RFAs ==

I would like to propose the following below:
=== Proposal 1 ===
&lt;s&gt;We split off [[Wikibooks:Requests for adminship]] as a separate page for requesting adminship, bureaucrat, checkuser and suppressor (oversight) permissions. All other permissions, except the former mentioned permissions, would still be requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] (this is also the case for requesting interface administrator permissions, for admins).&lt;/s&gt;
=== Proposal 2 ===
Given the low activity on this project, I propose that we must notify the community about ongoing RFAs, which could be either [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]] or adding a notification at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General]]. A general rule is that the notification must be written in a neutral fashion.
=== In conclusion... ===
Feel free to comment, ask, or anything else. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:31, 1 January 2026 (UTC)

:1. I don't see [[WB:RFP]] being clogged to justify creating a fork just for advanced permissions. 
:2. That is already something we do occasionally on a case-by-case basis. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:40, 1 January 2026 (UTC)
:My thoughts below:
:# I agree with @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] and don't really see a need for splitting off [[Wikibooks:Requests for adminship]] as a separate page, since there are generally not so many requests.
:# I do think it could potentially be useful to notify the community about requests for adminship using [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]]—it's not something I've seen us do before. @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] are you proposing specifically that we codify it in policy?
:—[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 1 January 2026 (UTC)
::After considering, I've crossed out proposal 1, and regarding proposal 2, I would still think it should be in a guideline, not a policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:22, 1 January 2026 (UTC)
:Proposal 2 seems reasonable to me. It could help people find requests if they are not watching RFP. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:01, 2 January 2026 (UTC)
:I've been thinking about proposal 2, and it seems like it would be a good idea to create a template for this purpose that we could just pop into [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]]. What about creating [[Template:RFA notice]], which could take as parameters the requestor and the path to the discussion? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:35, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
::I agree. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:12, 27 January 2026 (UTC)

== Implement Visual Editor in more namespaces ==

{{closed|The Phabricator task has been resolved, and VE is enabled on the proposed namespaces as of today. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:06, 27 January 2026 (UTC)}}
See the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Visual Editor Implementation|original discussion]] for reference. 

===Proposal===
Currently, the visual editor is implemented on the following namespaces:
* Main
* User
* Help
* Category
* Cookbook
* Wikijunior
I am proposing that we implement the visual editor on the following namespaces:
* Wikibooks
* Transwiki

===Reasoning===
I use the source editor and the visual editor for different purposes. One of my primary uses of the visual editor is for text-heavy pages, where I use it for writing content and proofreading/copyediting. In contrast, I use the source editor for more complex and technical edits. I find it very difficult to parse text in the source editor, especially when there are many templates, tables, links, etc, and it is a pretty significant accessibility issue for me—I imagine that it could be so for other users as well.

The Wikibooks and Transwiki namespaces are both namespaces that contain text- and content-heavy pages (e.g. policies, guidelines, essays), and I know I would benefit from the visual editor here—for example, I am currently working on the [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence/Unstable|unstable branch of a policy]], and it is proving to be kind of a pain to do without having the visual editor as an adjunct tool.

The main challenge I see is that the Wikibooks namespace contains some talk pages (i.e. the reading room), and the visual editor is not intended for talk pages. However, there is [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370158 precedent] for implementing the visual editor in namespaces that contain talk pages as long as it is understood that the visual editor is not intended for these talk pages. Overall, it looks technically feasible.

—[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:40, 11 January 2026 (UTC)

=== Discussion ===

Kicking off the discussion here! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:37, 24 January 2026 (UTC)

:Pinging people who were part of the original discussion thread: @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]].
:Also pinging some other active administrators: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] @[[User:Xania|Xania]] @[[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] @[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:48, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
::No objections. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:30, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
::I'm fine as well. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:04, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
:::Ditto. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 22:49, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
::All good on my end. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:09, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:Phab ticket has been created at {{phab|T415595}}! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:49, 26 January 2026 (UTC)
{{end closed}}

== Redefining the inactivity policy for administrators and bots ==

Hi. I would like to propose that we redefine the inactivity policy for administrators (superseding the current procedure), and to create a local inactivity policy for bots.
* For administrators that have made zero edits '''''and''''' zero logged actions for over a year, they will be listed under the removal section of [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] (and notified on their user talk pages), where they are given a specific timeframe to respond so that they can retain their access, unless they specify otherwise. If they do not respond after that timeframe, a request will be forwarded to the removal section of [[:m:SRP]]. Should the timeframe last at least one week, two weeks, or one month?
* For bots, the process is slightly different. Bots that are inactive (made no edits/logged actions) for over two years will be listed under the removal section of RfP (in the same manner as inactive administrators), but their operators must be notified first, and a week is given for the operators to respond. After the timeframe passes and an operator does not respond to the inactive bot removal request (for example), a request will be forwarded to the removal section of [[:m:SRB]]. Bot users that do not have the bot user group might be exempt, unless the discussion proposes otherwise.
Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:34, 18 January 2026 (UTC)

:Sounds fine to me. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 06:58, 21 January 2026 (UTC)
::Agreed here. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 00:36, 25 January 2026 (UTC)
:I have no problem with this. Regarding the timeframe for administrators, one months seems reasonable. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:29, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
::I think one month might be excessive IMO, but one week might not be enough for a timeframe, especially given the lack of discussion activity. Let’s compromise by choosing two weeks instead, if that's okay.
::Also, the reason I made this is because the inactivity policy on [[Wikibooks:Administrators]] seems vague. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:15, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], what timeframe would be feasible, two weeks, or one month? I'll be ready to implement this today. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:20, 30 January 2026 (UTC)
::::Two weeks should probably be fine unless anyone else has thoughts! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:55, 31 January 2026 (UTC)
:::::[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am reconsidering the current timeframe. I think we should revise by lowering the timeframe to one week for administrator inactivity removal, similar to how we currently do this for bots. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:17, 10 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::I think we should check to see what other people think here —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:49, 10 February 2026 (UTC)
:I'm afraid I don't fully understand the procedure you're proposing for administrators. When someone is listed to be removed on RFP, is there a vote? Or is the poster just waiting for the inactive admin to reply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:31, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
::In my new proposal, there will be no votes for removal, but inactive admins will be notified and given a timeframe to respond if they wish to retain their rights, unless they specify otherwise. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:42, 24 January 2026 (UTC)
:{{done|Implemented}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:51, 31 January 2026 (UTC)
::Should I reduce the timeframe from two weeks down to one week? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:55, 22 February 2026 (UTC)

== Create a &quot;file&quot; that is an Example Book structured to be copied/used to quickly start a new book? ==

I am new to Wikibooks, if this already exists let me know.... 

If there was a Wikibook &quot;file&quot; that contained all the templates and &quot;parts&quot; that are used to create a properly structured book, it might be easier and quicker to create and contribute books here. This would have to include text that would explain the purpose of each of the sections and templates and offer advice for making changes that customize the example.  

One might copy it to their sandbox, follow the directions and make the updates that create the framework for their book. Then the work would be to fill in the text. I suppose the downside is that books would be categorized and shelved that are in progress. Abandoned books would need to be deleted or some template might need to be developed that might indicate that the book is incomplete. This would be removed when the book is ready for prime-time.
{{unsigned|Rchaswms01|01:32, 3 February 2026}}

== Allow all users (registered and unregistered) to view edit filters and their logs? ==

Hello, everyone. I would like to propose allowing all users to view not just edit filters and [[Special:AbuseLog|their log]], but also detailed edit filter log entries. In addition to that, I am also proposing that we set &lt;code&gt;$wgAbuseFilterNotifications&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;true&lt;/code&gt; by removing &lt;code&gt;$wgAbuseFilterNotifications = false;&lt;/code&gt;.

{{collapse top|This proposal aims to reverse a part of [[phab:T26304]] for the AbuseFilter extension:}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;wikitext&quot;&gt;
We would like to enable the AbuseFilter extension (see below) with custom permissions. Please *add*:

$wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-view'] = false;
$wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log'] = false;
$wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-view'] = true;
$wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log'] = true;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;wikitext&quot;&gt;
I'm sorry for yet another reply, but the user rights for the abuse filter need to be tweaked to match the request.

abusefilter-view should be for autoconfirmed/confirmed only and not for all users.

abusefilter-log should be for autoconfirmed/confirmed only and not for all users.

The logic behind this was to prevent casual vandals from gaming the system.

Thank you for your efforts.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{collapse bottom}}
{{collapse top|Current configuration}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;php&quot;&gt;
case 'enwikibooks':
	$wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-view'] = false;
	$wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log'] = false;
	$wgAbuseFilterNotifications = false;
	$wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-view'] = true;
	$wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log'] = true;
	$wgGroupPermissions['autoconfirmed']['abusefilter-log-detail'] = true; // T383332
	$wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['abusefilter-revert'] = true; // T411828
	$wgAbuseFilterActions['block'] = true; // T273864
	break;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{collapse bottom}}

{{collapse top|Proposed configuration}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;php&quot;&gt;
case 'enwikibooks':
	$wgGroupPermissions['*']['abusefilter-log-detail'] = true;
	$wgGroupPermissions['sysop']['abusefilter-revert'] = true; // T411828
	$wgAbuseFilterActions['block'] = true; // T273864
	break;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{collapse bottom}}
Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:55, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

:See also: {{section link|Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2025/January#Reforming the edit filter}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:50, 2 April 2026 (UTC)

== Introduce speedy deletion criteria? ==

I would like to propose that we introduce speedy deletion criteria to Wikibooks, such as {{tq|G1: [reason]}}. I suggest that we adapt from the English Wikipedia's CSD criteria ([[:w:Wikipedia:Speedy deletion]]) but utilize our existing deletion reasons, and even include '''G''' for general, '''R''' for redirects, and so on.

Speedy deletion reasons are already included in the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deletion policy]], but should this proposal pass, the new speedy deletion criteria can be split out to a separate policy page, if needed (e.g. [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]]).

Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:39, 7 April 2026 (UTC)

:On the whole, that seems like it could be useful to expand out our CSD in a more detailed way. Why don't you go ahead and create [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]] as a draft, write out your initial proposal, and then we can workshop it together? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:33, 10 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: How can this proposal avoid accusations of [[m:Instruction creep|instruction creep]]? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:21, 14 April 2026 (UTC)
:: How does instruction creep have anything to do with this? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:31, 14 April 2026 (UTC)
::: Well, in that case, we might keep the descriptions simple, not overly detailed. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:30, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
::::In that case, we may need to introduce that motion. – [[User:RestoreAccess111|RestoreAccess111]] &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Arimo, Arial;&quot;&gt;[[User talk:RestoreAccess111|Talk!]]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup style=&quot;font-family:Times New Roman, Tinos;&quot;&gt;[[Special:Contributions/RestoreAccess111|Watch!]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:38, 17 April 2026 (UTC)
:We already have speedy deletion though so I don't understand this proposal. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 15:56, 24 April 2026 (UTC)
:@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] I created a very early draft in [[User:Kingofnuthin/sandbox|my sandbox]] by merging content from [[w:Wikipedia:Speedy deletion]] and [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy]]. I added most of the criteria from English Wikipedia's page but I left some that can't be in Wikibooks (such as notability criteria). As I said, the draft is currently very undetailed and only provides simple explanations for criteria except for a few of them.  You can add this draft to [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]] to clarify the details of the proposal. I am also open to any feedback regarding the draft. [[User:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: lime&quot;&gt;kingofnuthin&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: teal&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]) 16:11, 26 April 2026 (UTC)
:: I moved your draft to [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:15, 26 April 2026 (UTC)
::This generally looks good; I've got a couple comments on specific criteria:
::* &quot;G5. Pages dependent on a non-existent or deleted page&quot; includes subpages with no parent page. Given the extent to which Wikibooks uses page nesting, this seems risky - at a minimum, the criterion should be revised to &quot;subpages with no parent '''book'''&quot;, and existing pages which meet this criterion should be grandfathered in or otherwise addressed.
::* &quot;B4. Books that duplicate an existing topic&quot; should probably be removed. Unlike Wikipedia, Wikibooks has historically allowed multiple books to address the same topic, e.g. [[Mandarin Chinese]] and [[Chinese (Mandarin)]], or [[C++ Language]] and [[C++ Programming]]. Whether a book &quot;expands upon, details or improves information&quot; in another book is very subjective; determining whether this is the case should be handled in a deletion discussion, not by an admin processing speedy deletions.
::Additionally, I'd suggest that three criteria be added:
::* Books which are over a week old and which contain no instructional content (e.g. books which are nothing but a table of contents). These books are already routinely deleted under [[WB:NMC]]; adopting this as a CSD streamlines the process.
::* Pages in any namespace which are unambiguously advertisements or promotional in nature (akin to [[:w:WP:CSD#G11]]).
::* Pages in any namespace which infringe upon copyright, akin to [[:w:WP:CSD#G12]]. F6/F7 address ''files'' which are copyvios, but not text.
::[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:54, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
::: [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]], feel free to make those changes to [[Wikibooks:Speedy deletion]], from your comments. It's a draft proposal. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:21, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]]: I agree on your thoughts for the removal of B4 and the addition of a new general criterion for copyvios, so I did those. However, I think that G5 is fine in its current state. I don't understand what situation would be &quot;risky&quot; in this case, so please provide some example for that. Additionally, I don't think we need an advertisement criterion right now, as Wikibooks does not seem to have a promotion problem, as it is a collection of textbooks. Also, you mentioned [[Wikibooks:NMC]] as a new criterion even though I copy-pasted criterion G1 from the exact part you mentioned. Such pages could be deleted under G1. [[User:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: lime&quot;&gt;kingofnuthin&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: teal&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]) 16:06, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
::::With regards to G5, I've seen some situations where a book was incorrectly renamed in such a way that some of the subpages remained under the original title of the book, or pages of a book are inadvertently created under an incorrect title. Given the proposed wording for G5, those pages would be eligible for speedy deletion, even though they are in use as part of the book.
::::With regards to advertisements, Wikibooks does get some spam page creations; you'll see some if you scroll through [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Log?type=delete the deletion log]. It's typically deleted quickly by admins, but if we're codifying criteria for speedy deletion, this should be included as an allowable reason.
::::As far as G1 / NMC is concerned, I initially read G1 as applying only to pages which contain no meaningful content at all, like pages which are empty, nonsense, or vandalism, and which should be deleted promptly. I see this as distinct from books which are superficially well-formed, but which fail to develop, e.g. a user who creates an ambitious-sounding table of contents for a book, but never returns to write any of the text. These shouldn't be deleted immediately (since it takes time to write content!), but are routinely speedily deleted once it's clear that no further content is forthcoming. Since this is a bit of a different process, it should probably be treated as a separate criterion. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 17:28, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
:::::I added &quot;Editors should be careful when nominating such pages, as they might be incorrectly named instead. In such cases, editors should move the page to its correctly-titled version.&quot; to G5. For advertising you said &quot;Wikibooks does get some spam page creations&quot;, but we already have &quot;Spam and vandalism&quot; for G1. In G1, I removed &quot;abandoned content&quot; and made it a new criterion B5 under the book section. (As this would only apply to books.) [[User:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: lime&quot;&gt;kingofnuthin&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: teal&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]) 17:43, 29 April 2026 (UTC)

== Questions about [[Wikibooks:Annotated texts]] ==

I was recently reading over the policy on annotated texts and had a few questions aimed at reforming that policy. (The talk page for the policy has been inactive for eleven years, so I figured a post there would be unlikely to attract attention.)

# First and foremost - how many annotated texts of the type described by this policy are actually hosted on Wikibooks? I am only aware of one, [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses]], which is quite incomplete. Are there a significant number more that I am unable to find? If not, might it be appropriate to revise this policy and related documents to reflect that annotated texts are, at best, an experimental part of the project?
# The policy on annotated texts currently permits '''unannotated''' source texts to be hosted on Wikibooks provided that either the text is not on Wikisource, or that it is &quot;widely used in classrooms&quot;. This seems like a rather large unintended loophole in the policy - there are innumerable texts which have not been transcribed on Wikisource, but which it would not make sense for Wikibooks to house either. Similarly, there are many texts which are &quot;widely used in classrooms&quot;, but which have never been annotated on Wikibooks and are unlikely to ever be. The policy also notes the possibility that a multilingual project could create annotated texts with parallel page names across all language editions; I am certainly unaware of any such. Are there any texts on Wikibooks which rely on this policy, or would it be appropriate to strike this section?
[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:54, 28 April 2026 (UTC)

:The policy seems to be contradicting [[Wikibooks:SOURCE]], which states that annotated texts are the only exception to published texts being on Wikibooks. This means that we have a policy that says unannotated source texts are permitted, and another one that says they aren't allowed. [[User:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: lime&quot;&gt;kingofnuthin&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: teal&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]) 19:02, 28 April 2026 (UTC)
:There is also [[Annotations of The Complete Peanuts]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 14:26, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
::That isn't an annotated text of the type described by this policy, as it doesn't include the original text that's being commented on. (Which it can't, because ''Peanuts'' is still under copyright.) [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 16:29, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
:::Correct, it is not an inline annotation: I was just pointing it out as another kind of annotated text here.
:::For what it's worth, our sister project Wikisource [[:s:en:Category:Wikisource annotations|also hosts inline annotations]], such as [[:s:en:What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?/Annotated]], which I made. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 16:33, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
:::The main problem here is that the policy permits &quot;unannotated texts&quot; even though we don't host them here. I think that the first thing you mentioned can stay but we might need to strike out the second part from the policy as it is contradictory. [[User:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: lime&quot;&gt;kingofnuthin&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Georgia; color: teal&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]) 16:38, 29 April 2026 (UTC)
::::Yeah - I certainly don't mean to suggest that the ''Ulysses'' annotations need to go away; I'm mostly curious if this policy has any wider applicability, or if its only function is to allow this one text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 17:37, 29 April 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>4sxt1030uhap9xn91e35vgcvbhaele1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/House Plants</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>160412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633374</id>
      <parentid>4418927</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T09:27:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Túrelio</username>
        <id>98556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:Duplicate|Duplicate]]: [[File:Philodendron01.jpg]] → [[File:Starr 031108-0220 Philodendron bipinnatifidum.jpg]] Exact or scaled-down duplicate: [[c::File:Starr 031108-0220 Philodendron bipinnatifidum.jpg]]</comment>
      <origin>4633374</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20943" sha1="pbi2go90p4hslr6lt2ejugkaw1qzq6s" xml:space="preserve">{{honor_header|2|1976|Nature|General Conference}}
==1. Name at least five house plants raised for their foliage.==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Snake plant.jpg|[[w:Sansevieria trifasciata|''Sansevieria trifasciata'' (Snake Plant)]]
Image:Chlorophytum comosum0.jpg|[[w:Chlorophytum comosum|''Chlorophytum comosum'' (Spider Plant)]]
Image:Ficus benjamina2.jpg|[[w:Ficus benjamina|''Ficus benjamina'' (Benjamin's Ficus)]]
Image:Schefflera arboricola.jpg|[[w:Schefflera arboricola|''Schefflera arboricola'' (Dwarf Umbrella Tree)]]
Image:Aloe vera with shoots 2.jpg|[[w:Aloe vera|''Aloe vera'']]
Image:Araucaria heterophylla 01 by Line1.JPG|[[w:Araucaria heterophylla|''Araucaria heterophylla'' (Norfolk Island Pine)]]
Image:Ficus elastica3.jpg|[[w:Ficus elastics|''Ficus elastica'' (Rubber Tree)]]
Image:Crassula argentea 1.jpg|[[w:Crassula ovata|''Crassula ovata'' (Jade Plant)]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==2. Name three house plants raised for their flowers.==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Purple African Violet Top.JPG|[[w:Saintpaulia|''Saintpaulia spp.'' (African Violet)]]
Image:ZygocactusTruncatus.jpg|[[w:Holiday Cactus|''Schlumbergera spp.'' Christmas Cactus]]
Image:Begonia-IMG 0089sm.jpg|[[w:Begonia|''Begonia spp.'' (Begonia)]]
Image:Hippeastrum.overallview.arp.jpg|[[w:Hippeastrum|Hippeastrum spp.]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==3. Name three house plants adapted to direct sunlight, dry soils, and very moist soils.==
===House plants adapted to direct sunlight===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Flowering christmas cactus.JPG|''Schlumbergera spp.'' (Christmas Cactus)
Image:Ficus benjamina2.jpg|''Ficus benjamina'' (Weeping Fig or Benjamin's Fig)
Image:Aloe vera with shoots 2.jpg|''Aloe vera'' (Aloe)
Image:Donkey's tail in bloom March 06.jpg|''Sedum morganianum'' (Burro's Tail)
Image:Alpenveilchen_Cyclamen_1.jpg|''Cyclamen persicum'' (Cyclamen)
Image:AphelandraSquarrosa.jpg|''Aphelandra squarrosa'' (Zebra Plant)
&lt;/gallery&gt;
===House plants adapted to dry soils===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Ferocactus-echidne01.jpg|''Echinocactus and Ferocactus'' (Barrel Cacti)
Image:Opuntia ovata 2.jpg| ''Opuntia'' (Prickly Pear)
Image:Ficus benjamina2.jpg|''Ficus benjaminana'' (Weeping fig)
Image:Crassula ovata + Florero.jpg|''Crassula ovata'' (Jade plant)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===House plants adapted to very moist soils===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Ficus retusa.jpg|''Ficus retusa'' (Indian Laurel Fig)
Image:Asparagus setaceus Leaves 2760px.jpg|''Asparagus setaceus'' (Common Asparagus Fern)
Image:Starr 031108-0220 Philodendron bipinnatifidum.jpg|''Philodendron'' (Phildendron)
Image:AphelandraSquarrosa.jpg|''Aphelandra squarrosa'' (Zebra Plant) 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==4. Most house plants like a 65-to 75-degree (18 C - 22 C) temperature. Name one that requires a cool room (45 to 55 degrees F.) (7 C - 13 C).==
The '''cyclamen''' commonly sold by florists is ''C. persicum'', which is frost-tender. Selected cyclamen cultivars can have white, bright pink, red or purple flowers. While flowering, florists' cyclamens should be kept below 68&amp;nbsp;°F (20&amp;nbsp;°C), with the night time temperatures preferably between 44&amp;nbsp;°F to 59&amp;nbsp;°F (6.67&amp;nbsp;°C to 15&amp;nbsp;°C). Temperatures above 68&amp;nbsp;°F (20&amp;nbsp;°C) may induce the plant to go dormant.

==5. Prepare a special potting mix soil including at least 3 different ingredients. Select two house plants from requirement two and grow them in this soil for three weeks.==
{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|Rather than calling out &quot;requirement two&quot;, it is almost certain that this requirement should be calling out &quot;requirement eleven&quot;.  The wording of requirement 11 supports this thought, and lists 21 plants for use in requirements 5 and 8.  Some of these are not raised for their flowers (Boston Fern being the prime example) as per requirement 2.  We therefore will assume in these answers that requirement 11 was the intended reference here.
|5.Prepare a special potting mix soil including at least 3 different ingredients. Select two house plants from requirement eleven and grow them in this soil for three weeks.
}}

There are potting soil recipes all over the web, including these:
* [http://www.organicgardening.com/feature/0,7518,s1-5-21-185,00.html Organic Gardening]
* [http://www.gardenmama.com/gardening.html?id=92&amp;catId=13 Garden Mama]
A search engine such as Google or Yahoo will surely turn up more.
===Soil Ingredients===
Different potting soil ingredients impart different properties to the soil.  We list several ingredients here along with their characteristics:
;Clay: Clay is soil that sticks together into a ball when compressed.  It is impermeable to water, so it inhibits drainage.  It is very common in garden soil and is typically avoided as a potting soil ingredient.
;Silt: Silt is soil or rock derived granular material of a specific grain size. Silt may occur as a soil or alternatively as suspended sediment in a water column of any surface water body. It may also exist as deposition soil at the bottom of a water body. 
;Sand: Sand is made up of mineral grains larger than those that make up silt.  Water will pass through sand, so it is useful in creating well-drained soils.
;Perlite: Perlite is an amorphous volcanic glass that has a relatively high water content.  It makes composts more open to air, while still having good water-retention properties.  It can therefore hold water in the soil until it is needed by a plant.
;Vermiculite: Vermiculite is a natural mineral that expands with the application of heat. It is very similar to perlite and has many of the same properties.
;Peat: Peat is soft and easily compressed. Under pressure, water in the peat is forced out.  It is also dug into soil to increase the soil's capacity to retain moisture and add nutrients.
;Humus: Humus refers to any organic matter which has reached a point of stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not change, remain essentially as it is for centuries, if not millennia.  It is often the basis for potting soils.
;Compost: Also known as brown manure, compost is the aerobically decomposed remnants of organic matter.  Compost serves as a growing medium,or a porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and nutrients in which most plants will flourish. To maximize plant growth, it is sometimes necessary to dilute compost with soil or peat to reduce salinity or to add neutralisers to bring the pH closer to 7, or additional nutrients like fertilisers or manure, wetting agents, and materials to improve drainage and aeration, such as sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite, perlite, or clay granules.
;Manure: Manure is organic matter used as fertilizer. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen that is trapped by bacteria in the soil. Manure is generally acidic, lowering the soil's pH.  It is often combined with lime to bring the pH back to a neutral level.
;Pea gravel/crushed stone: These are often layered at the bottom of a pot to promote drainage.  Crushed stone will also raise the pH of the soil making is less acidic.
;Fertilizer: Inorganic fertilizers are described by three numbers (such as 10-20-20) which specify the amount of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) they contain.  These are essential plant nutrients.
;Lime: Lime is used for raising the pH of soil.  Combined with manure, the horticulturalist can set the soil's pH level to a plant's optimum level.
;Bonemeal: Bone meal is a mixture of crushed and coarsely ground bones that is used as an organic fertilizer. As a slow-release fertilizer, bone meal is primarily used as a source of phosphorus.
;Blood meal: Blood meal is dried, powdered animal blood used as a high-nitrogen fertilizer. It is one of the highest non-synthetic sources of nitrogen and if over-applied it can burn plants with excessive ammonia. Blood meal is completely soluble and can be mixed with water to be used as a liquid fertilizer.
;Pine bark: Shredded bark will make soil hold more water.
===Plant Needs===
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=1 width=90% align=&quot;center&quot;
! Plant || pH range || Soil range || Water range || Notes
|-
|Narcissus||4.5-8.5||Sandy Loam to Clay Loam||Well-drained || Do not include organic amendments. 
|-
|Aspidistra||5.5-7.5||Mostly Sand to Mostly Clay||Normal to moist || 
|-
|Philodendron||5.5-6.5||Sandy Loam to Clay Loam||Normal to moist|| 
|-
|Aluminum plant||5.5-6.5||Loam ||Normal to moist || 
|-
|Daffodil||4.5-8.5||Sandy Loam to Clay Loam||Well-drained || Daffodils are the same thing as Narcissus.
|-
|Sanseveria||5-7 ||Sandy loam to Clay loam ||Normal to moist || Snake plant
|-
|Boston fern||5-6.5 ||Some sand to Loam ||Normal to wet || 
|-
|Piggy-back plant||4.5-7.5||Sandy loam to some clay ||Normal to moist || 
|-
|Bird's nest fern||5.5-6.5||Loam to Clay ||Moist|| 
|-
|Caladium||4.5-6.5||Sandy loam to Clay loam||Normal to moist|| 
|-
|Gloxinia||7-8.5||Sandy loam to loam||Moist|| High pH (use lime and avoid manure)
|-
|Spider plant||7-8.5 ||Loam to potting soil||Dry to normal|| High pH (use lime and avoid manure)
|-
|Geranium||5-8||Mostly sand to mostly clay||Dry to moist|| 
|-
|Maidenhair fern||7-8||Mostly sand to loam||Moist to wet || Prefer humus-rich, moist, well-drained sites.
|-
|Begonia||6-7||Some sand to clay loam||Normal to moist|| 
|-
|Ficus||5.5-7.5||Bark to potting soil||Normal to moist|| 
|-
|Tulip||5.5-8||Mostly sand to some clay||Normal|| 
|-
|Iris||5-7.5||Some sand to some clay||Normal to moist || 
|-
|Crocus||5.5-8.5||Mostly sand to clay loam||Normal|| 
|-
|Coleus||5.5-6.5||Sandy loam to clay loam||Normal|| 
|-
|Hyacinth||6-8||Mostly sand to mostly clay ||Dry to moist || 
|}

==6.How much light does an African violet need? Where in the house is the best place to grow them? Grow two or more African violets.==
African Violets do best when the available light is about 1000 foot candles, though unless you have access ot a light meter, this information is not terribly useful.  Instead, you should learn how to tell if the plant is getting too much or too little light by observing its leaves.  If they receive too much light, the leaves will turn pale or yellowish green.  If they are not receiving enough, the leaves will turn a deep, dark shade of green.  African Violets need fairly bright light, but should not be placed in direct sunlight.  Rather, they need diffuse, indirect light.  If you place your hand between the plant and its light source, your hand should cast a shadow, but it should not feel too hot.  This light level can typically be attained by placing the plant about one meter from a southeast- or west-facing window.

Furthermore, they will not bloom unless they have at least eight hours darkness every day, so if you are growing them under lights, make sure the lights are on a timer.

==7. All gesneriads need approximately the same growing conditions. Where do they come from originally? What kind of temperature, light, and humidity do they need?==
Saintpaulia, commonly known as African violet, is a genus of 6 species of herbaceous perennial flowering plants in the family Gesneriaceae, native to Tanzania and adjacent southeastern Kenya in eastern tropical Africa, with a concentration of species in the Nguru mountains of Tanzania.

African violets prefer a constant temperature between 20-25&amp;nbsp;°C (68-77&amp;nbsp;°F) with high humidity, and thrive best planted in well-drained humus or coir compost.  We sometimes think of the tropics as very HOT and HUMID places, but under the tall trees of a true tropical environment, the temperature is rather moderate and comfortable, though the amount of moisture in the air is higher than in many places in the western U.S.

In practical houseplanting terms, this means that African violets and other gesnariads (jes nair' e ad OR guess nair' e ad) are comfortable in the same temperatures and moisture levels that human beings are UNLESS the African violet is placed near an air conditioning vent, where the cold dry air will cause it to perish.

==8. Name two house plants that can be propagated from leaves, stem sections or divi­sions. Select one plant from requirement two above, experiment with each of these methods of propagation and keep them growing for three months.==
{{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Problematic requirement
|See note on requirement 5.
|8. Name two house plants that can be propagated from leaves, stem sections or divi­sions. Select one plant from requirement eleven below, experiment with each of these methods of propagation and keep them growing for three months.
}}
===Cuttings===
;Leaf cuttings: Any plant with leaves such as African Violet, Geranium etc. can be propagated with leaf cuttings. Using a sharp knife, cut off a healthy leaf at the point where it joins the stem. Insert the cut part, called a petiole, into the rooting hormone. Place the end into a small container of light potting soil in which you make a small hole with a pencil.  Making a hole prior to planting assures that the rooting hormone will not be brushed off the cutting when you plant it. Perlite, Vermiculite, and/or water-soaked Sphagnum moss can be added to potting soil to make the soil light. Make sure the leaf is leaning slightly so that the new plants will have plenty of light and not be shaded by the leaf.

;Stem cuttings: These are treated just like leaf cuttings except you cut off a stem with several leaves instead of just one leaf. Remove the bottom leaves, leaving a few at the top. Proceed as with the leaf cutting.

In both instances, cover the pot with a plastic bag or inverted glass jar. This will keep moisture from evaporating and keep the cutting from wilting. Keep in a warm location with diffused light but out of direct sunlight. When there is indications of growth after about 3 to 6 weeks, transplant the new emerging plant into a new pot of potting soil. Continue to keep a humid environment for about 2 more weeks until active growth begins.
===Layering===
'''Layering''' is a means of plant propagation in which a portion of an aerial stem grow roots while still attached to the parent plant and then detaches as an independent plant.

Natural layering typically occurs when a branch touches the ground, whereupon it produces adventitious roots. At a later stage the connection with the parent plant is severed and a new plant is produced as a result.

The horticultural layering process typically involves wounding the target region to expose the inner stem and optionally applying rooting compounds. In '''ground layering''', the stem is bent down and the target region buried in the soil. This is done in plant nurseries in imitation of natural layering by many plants such as brambles which bow over and touch the tip on the ground, at which point it grows roots and, when separated, can continue as a separate plant. In either case, the rooting process may take from several weeks to a year.

Layering is more complicated than taking cuttings, but has the advantage that the propagated portion can continue to receive water and nutrients from the parent plant while it is forming roots.  This is important for plants that form roots slowly, or for propagating large pieces.
===Offsets===
Offsets are layers of plants in the plant nursery business. They are clones of the mother plants (&quot;hens and chicks&quot;), meaning that they have the same genetic code.

Offsets form when meristem regions of plants, such as axillary buds or homologous structures enlarge, and differentiate into a new plant with self-sustaining structures. Tulips and lilies are examples which display offset characteristics.

When propagating plants to increase a stock of a cultivar, thus seeking identical copies of parent plant, various cloning techniques (asexual reproduction) are used. Offsets is a natural means by which plants may be cloned.

In contrast, when propagating plants to create new cultivars, sexual reproduction through pollination is used to create seeds. The recombination of genes gives rise to offspring plant with similar but distinct offspring genome.
===Division===
Division is a method of asexual plant propagation, where the plant (usually an herbaceous perennial) is broken up into two or more parts. Both the root and crown of each part is kept intact.  The technique is of ancient origin, and has long been used to propagate bulbs such as garlic and saffron.

To divide a plant, wait until late summer when the plant has quit producing flowers and has died back. Dig up the bulbs and break them apart as you would a clove of garlic (which is a bulb).  Replant the bulbs wherever you want them (some perhaps in the very spot where you dug them up, others elsewhere).

===The Plants===
;a. Narcissus: The Narcissus is most easily propagated by dividing the bulbs in late summer.
;b. Aspidistra: Divide the rhizomes (underground stems).
;c. Philodendron: Propagate with stem cuttings, air layering, or by offsets.
;d. Aluminum plant: Propagate by cuttings or divisions.
;e. Daffodil: See Narcissus (Daffodils belong to the ''Narcissus'' genus)
;f. Sanseveria: Use leaf cuttings
;g. Boston fern: Propagate by division in early spring.
;h. Piggy-back plant: Propagate by divisions, layering, leaf cuttings
;i. Bird's nest fern: Divide the root ball.
;j. Caladium: Divide the roots in the fall, clean them, and store them over the winter in a dry, dark place at least 40&amp;nbsp;°F (4&amp;nbsp;°C) or warmer.  Replant in the spring.
;k. Gloxinia: Best when propagated from seed, but you can also try tuber, stem, and leaf cuttings.
;l. Spider plant: Propagate by layering or by dividing the mother plant.
;m. Geranium: Use stem cuttings in late summer or early fall before the first frost.
;n. Maidenhair fern: Divide mother plant in the spring.
;o. Begonia: Take stem cuttings and place them in a small jar of water until roots form and grow to a half inch (12&amp;nbsp;mm) long.  Then transplant to potting soil.
;p. Ficus: Remove a stem with at least five nodes.  Bury three of them in a well drained potting mix and water it well.
;q. Tulip: Tulips can be propagated through offsets.
;r. Iris: Divide the rhizomes in the fall.
;s. Crocus: Divide the corm (bulb-like stem) in the fall.
;t. Coleus: Take stem cuttings at any time of the year.
;u. Hyacinth: Divide bulbs into bulblets in the fall.

==9. What is a Bonsai?==
[[Image:Bonsai IMG 6421.jpg|thumb|200px|Bonsai]]
Bonsai is the art of aesthetic miniaturization of trees by growing them in containers. Cultivation includes techniques for shaping, watering, and repotting in various styles of containers.  The word ''bonsai'' has been used in the West as an umbrella term for all miniature trees.
{{clear}}

==10. What is humidity? How is it important to house plants?==
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. The term &quot;humidity&quot; is usually taken in daily language to refer to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the amount of water vapor in a sample of air compared to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at any specific temperature in a form of 0 to 100%.

Humidity, along with temperature, moisture, light, soil mixture, fertilizers, potting, and pest control, is one of the critical factors that should be considered when caring for a houseplant.

Humidity is slightly more difficult to control than temperature. The more commonly used houseplants have established that they can survive in low humidity environments as long as their roots are kept properly irrigated. Most plants thrive in 80% relative humidity while most homes are usually kept around 20% to 60% relative humidity. Besides buying a humidifier, there are a few things that can be done to increase humidity around houseplants. The most popular methods used to raise the ambient humidity are misting and pebble trays, which are shallow trays covered with pebbles and filled with water that evaporates to increase humidity. Other methods of raising humidity include grouping plants closely together and not placing plants in drafty areas. Misting is somewhat controversial among gardeners, with some that swear by it and others that say it does little to increase humidity around plants.

==11. Below is a list of plants to choose from for requirements five and eight above==
{|border=0 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=5 align=&quot;center&quot; width=80%
|-
|a. Narcissus&lt;br&gt;
b. Aspidistra&lt;br&gt;
c. Philodendron&lt;br&gt;
d. Aluminum plant&lt;br&gt;
e. Daffodil&lt;br&gt;
f. Sanseveria&lt;br&gt;
g. Boston fern&lt;br&gt;
|
h. Piggy-back plant&lt;br&gt;
i. Bird's nest fern&lt;br&gt;
j. Caladium&lt;br&gt;
k. Gloxinia&lt;br&gt;
l. Spider plant&lt;br&gt;
m. Geranium&lt;br&gt;
n. Maidenhair fern&lt;br&gt;
|
o. Begonia&lt;br&gt;
p. Ficus&lt;br&gt;
q. Tulip&lt;br&gt;
r. Iris&lt;br&gt;
s. Crocus&lt;br&gt;
t. Coleus&lt;br&gt;
u. Hyacinth&lt;br&gt;
|}

==References==
* http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=236
* http://www.backyardgardener.com/plantname/index.html

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[[Image:UVa Rotunda.jpg|thumb|196px|right|The Rotunda at The University of Virginia]]

''Lentis: The Social Interface of Technology'' is a guidebook to the realm where technological phenomena and social phenomena intersect. If we think of technology and society as circular domains that overlap, the common domain they share is a [[w:Lens (geometry)|lens]] in shape. Hence the short title of the book, ''Lentis,'' which is Latin for &quot;of [or about] the lens.&quot; If the title (with its association with [[w:Lens|lenses]]) also suggests means of viewing, of examining, of magnifying, and of discovering, so much the better. The lens-shaped realm is called the &quot;social interface of technology.&quot;

The chief authors of ''Lentis'' are students at the University of Virginia's School of Engineering and Applied Science. The authors are engineers representing diverse fields of engineering.

As a wikibook, ''Lentis'' will accept contributions from authors and editors all over the world, but the student authors will take particular responsibility to produce a complete, well documented, well written and useful book. This is a student project. Until May 5, 2026, would-be contributors who are not students in the class are asked to consider editing sparingly, but are invited to comment freely on discussion pages, where their suggestions and advice will be welcomed and appreciated. No one's right to edit is in question.

''Lentis'' is intended to serve a general purpose and a specific purpose. The general purpose is to present to interested readers worldwide illuminating cases with practical lessons for those who navigate the dangerous channels of the social interface of technology. The book begins with the premise that success in technological and social endeavors often depends upon the skillful negotiation of sociotechnical factors, where technological techniques alone, or social techniques alone, are insufficient. A second premise is that case studies offer generalizable lessons that can guide people who work where technology and society overlap. They are, in effect, &quot;true fables&quot; that offer &quot;morals&quot; of practical value in diverse endeavors.

More specifically, ''Lentis'' is a book written by and for engineers. Here the premise is that engineers by definition are problem solvers whose instruments may include social as well as technological tools, whose work ultimately serves non-engineers, and who must therefore inevitably venture into the social interface of technology, where these non-engineers dwell. Too often, engineers have had to leave this territory to managers, policymakers, clients and others who lack the technical expertise for success in this zone. If engineers can develop the social expertise they need at the social interface of technology, they can lead there.

If &quot;those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it,&quot; then those who recover the past can best lead us out of it. In the history of technology countless technological innovations succeeded until they met the social interface, where social phenomena interact with technological phenomena in surprising ways. This book will be a success if it helps engineers anticipate these effects.

Most of the chapters in ''Lentis'' are examinations of cases. The authors will attempt to derive practical lessons from these cases; the most valuable lessons will be generalizable. If a lesson is generalizable, it is applicable in cases and situations that may be far removed in time, space or engineering field. A case from American transportation engineering in the 1990s, for example, may have lessons useful to biomedical engineers in 2026. The authors have endeavored to find such lessons in the cases they investigated. Because social theories are also useful navigational aids in the social interface of technology, some chapters examine such theories. The authors have sought not only to explain these theories, but to show how they can be of practical value.

== Table of Contents ==

=== '''Preliminaries''' ===
* [[/Chapters: Active and Candidates/]]

=== '''Lentis: The Social Interface of Technology''' ===

==== Food and Energy ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Public Health, Sugary Drinks, and the US Beverage Lobby|Public Health, Sugary Drinks, and the US Beverage Lobby]]

* [[/Biofuels Vs. Food in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Politics of Biofuels/]]
* [[/Opposition to GMOs in Europe/]]
* [[/Patenting of GM Seeds/]]
* [[/Corn, Beef and Feedlots/]]
* [[/Dakota Access Pipeline/]]
* [[/High-Fructose Corn Syrup/]]
* [[/The Organic Foods Movement/]]
* [[/Local Food as a Case of Disintermediation/]]
* [[/Local Food as a Social Movement/]]
* [[/Marketing of Natural Foods/]]
* [[/Corn Ethanol in the United States/]]
* [[/Popular Perceptions of Nuclear Power/]]
* [[/Nuclear Meltdown: Is Nuclear Energy Socially Viable Following the 2011 Japanese Earthquake?/]]
* [[/Fracking/]]
* [[/Wind Energy/]] 
* [[/Rare Earth Metals/]]
* [[/Carbon Offsets/]]
* [[/Clean Coal/]]
* [[/Food Waste in the United States/]]
* [[/Genetically Modified Food Controversy in the United States/]]
*[[/Solar Energy Policy in Germany/]]
*[[/Peak Oil/]]
*[[/U.S. Arctic Oil Mining/]]
*[[/How Energy Companies Rebrand Themselves/]]
* [[/Gluten-Free: Nutritional Principle or Social Value/]]
*[[/Vegan and Vegetarian Diets: Nutritional and Social Values/]]
*[[/Energy from Trash/]]
*[[/Life Off the Grid/]]
* [[/Soylent/]]
* [[/Expansion of Solar Farms in the Rural United States/]]
* [[/Urban Farming/]]
* [[/Oil Palm Plantations/]]
* [[/Golden Rice/]]
* [[/Miracle Rice/]]
*[[/The Cavendish Banana, Monoculture, and Blight/]]
*[[/Atlantic Coast Pipeline/]]
* [[/Cooking with Wood Fuel/]]
* [[Lentis/Solar Panel Recycling in the United States|Solar Panel Recycling in the United States]]
* [[Lentis/Line 3 Pipeline Controversy|Line 3 Pipeline Controversy]]
* [[/Data Centers and Energy/]]
* [[/Conflicts of Interest in US Nutrition Research/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Environmental Values and Climate Change ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/8 House|8 House]]
* [[Lentis/Plastic Bags|Plastic Bags]]
* [[Lentis/Water Bottles|Water Bottles]]
* [[Lentis/Competition for Water in California|Competition for Water in California]]
* [[Lentis/Green Roofing|Green Roofing]]
* [[Lentis/Hypoxic Zones|Hypoxic Zones]]
* [[Lentis/Unnatural Selection: Explaining Strange Pet Breeds|Unnatural Selection: Explaining Strange Pet Breeds]]
* [[Lentis/Masdar City|Masdar City]]
* [[Lentis/World Trade as an Invasive Species Vector|World Trade as an Invasive Species Vector]]
* [[Lentis/Noise pollution|Noise pollution]]
* [[Lentis/Ecovillages|Ecovillages]]
* [[Lentis/Climate Change Denial|Climate Change Denial]]
* [[Lentis/Lawn Care in America: Intensive Agriculture, No Harvest|Lawn Care in America: Intensive Agriculture, No Harvest]]
* [[Lentis/Marine Waste|Marine Waste]]
* [[Lentis/Gold, Mercury, and Madre de Dios, Peru|Gold, Mercury, and Madre de Dios, Peru]]
* [[Lentis/The Amazon Basin Fires of 2019|The Amazon Basin Fires of 2019]]
* [[Lentis/Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles|Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles]]
* [[Lentis/BedZED|BedZED]]
* [[Lentis/Small Island Countries and Sea Level Rise|Small Island Countries and Sea Level Rise]]
* [[Lentis/Light pollution|Light pollution]]
* [[Lentis/The 2020 Western Wildfire Season in the U.S.|The 2020 Western Wildfire Season in the U.S.]]
* [[Lentis/les Zadistes|les Zadistes]]
*[[/Flight Shaming/]]
*[[/Ecological Implications of Commercial Marine Fishing/]]
*[[/Zero-Plastic Retailing/]]
*[[/The PFAS Controversy/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Health and Medicine ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/The Ebola Outbreak of 2014|The Ebola Outbreak of 2014]]

* [[AI &amp; Medical Imaging]]
* [[Antimicrobial Agents in Consumer Products]]
* [[Mental Health as a Pharmacological Growth Market]]
* [[/Nicotine Addictions/]]
* [[/Thinking Small: Appropriate Technology for Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Water Supply, Sanitation, and Public Health in Haiti/]]
* [[/Fluoridation/]]
* [[/Medicine and Disgust/]]
* [[/Popular Hygiene: Perceptions and Practices/]]
* [[/Bedside Manner in the High-Tech Hospital/]]
* [[/Technology and Quality of Life for the Terminally Ill/]]
* [[/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy/]]
* [[/Chatbots as Therapists/]]
* [[/Placebos/]]
* [[/Baby Formula/]]
* [[/Sick Building Syndrome/]]
* [[/Football and Concussions/]]
* [[/The Dietary and Bodybuilding Supplement Industry in the United States  /|The Dietary and Bodybuilding Supplement Industry in the United States]]
* [[/Obesity and Diets in Economic Classes in the United States/]]
* [[/Steroids and Baseball/]]
* [[/Nanotechnology and Health/]]
* [[/Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder)/]]
* [[/Malaria and Mosquito Nets/]]
* [[/International Air Travel as a Disease Vector/]]
* [[/Social Resistance to Vaccination: Thiomersal and Autism/]]
* [[/Religious Opposition to Vaccination/]]
* [[/Physician-Assisted Suicide/]]
* [[/Power Balance, Magnetic Bracelets and Other Strange Cures/]]
* [[/The D.A.R.E. Program/]]
* [[/Social Obstacles to Public Health in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Athletes, Superstition, and Performance/]]
* [[/Gattaca Revisited/]]
* [[/Artificial Wombs/]]
* [[/The Weight Loss Industry in the United States/]]
* [[/Direct-to-Consumer Personal Genomics/]]
* [[/Vaping/]]
* [[/Neuroprosthetics/]]
* [[/Detoxing as a Social Phenomenon/]]
* [[/Antibiotics in India/]]
* [[/Public Health: Fear Appeals vs Self-Efficacy and Social Norms Campaigns/]]
* [[/Public Health Responds to Physical Inactivity/]]
* [[/Mobility and Access for the Disabled/]]
* [[/Power Lines and Public Health/]]
* [[/The HPV Vaccine/]]
* [[/Medication Overload/]]
* [[/The 2020 Pandemic Response in Italy/]]
* [[/Healthcare in U.S. Prisons/]]
* [[/Antimaskers in the U.S. during the 2020 Pandemic/]]
* [[/Pain Scales/]]
* [[/Augmented Reality in Medicine/]]
* [[/COVID-19 Vaccine Distribution/]]
* [[/Chloramination of Drinking Water/]]
* [[/Manual Water Collection in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/The U.S. Pandemic Response: Influenza, 1918-1919/]]
* [[/Robotic Pets for Psychosocial Therapeutics/]]
* [[/Caffeine Addiction/]]
* [[/The Cultural Politics of Obesity Drugs in the US/]]
* [[/Pharma’s influence in FDA/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Mobility and Land Use ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/Cascadia Earthquake Preparation/]]
* [[/Bicyclists in Cities/]]
* [[/Drivers’ and Bicyclists’ Perceptions of Each Other/]]
* [[/American Automobility and the Car Counter-Culture/]]
* [[/Congestion Pricing/]]
* [[/Urban Sprawl/]]
* [[/Planned Communities/]]
* [[/Slugging/]]
* [[/Bicycling in the Netherlands/]]
* [[/Tata Nano and Mobility in India/]]
* [[/How Cars Became Dining Rooms: Drive-Thrus, Cupholders and American Culture/]]
* [[/Autonomous Vehicles/]]
* [[/The Disappearing American Streetcar/]]
* [[/Pedestrians and Walkability in Cities and Suburbs/]]
* [[/Real-time Ridesharing/]]
* [[/Hitchhiking in the Digital Age /]]
* [[/Arcology/]]
* [[/Lowriding/]]
* [[/California High Speed Rail/]]
* [[/Self-Driving Cars/]]
* [[/The Future of U.S. Civil Aviation in 1945/]]
* [[/Road Rage/]]
* [[/The Ogallala Aquifer/]]
* [[/Rail in America/]]
* [[/The Belt and Road Initiative/]]
* [[/Car Dependency in the U.S./]]
* [[/Guerrilla Urbanism/]]
*[[/The Transformation of Times Square/]]
*[[/David Engwicht and Street Reclaiming/]]
*[[/Vision Zero/]]
*[[/Shared Space and Woonerven/]]
*[[/Eyjafjallajökull 2010/]]
*[[Lentis/Driving Speed Enforcement|Driving Speed Enforcement]]
*[[/E-bikes and Personal Mobility/]]
*[[Lentis/Zoning Laws in the United States|Zoning Laws in the United States]]
*[[Lentis/Carpooling|Carpooling]]
*[[The Politics of Electric Vehicle Subsidies]]
*[[Lentis/Freeway Removal Movements in US Cities|Freeway Removal Movements in US Cities]]
*[[/New Urbanism/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Computers and the Internet ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/AI: More Human Than You Think/]]
* [[/Antipiracy/]]
* [[/Amazon and the Ecommerce Evolution/]]
* [[/Compulsive Connectivity/]]
* [[/Screen-Free Child Rearing/]]
* [[/Crowdsourcing Higher Education/]]
* [[/Cryptocurrency/]] 
* [[/&quot;Data is the new oil&quot;/]]
* [[/Deepfakes/]]
* [[/Fake Users/]]
* [[/Hacker Culture/]]
* [[/Human Flesh Search Engine/]]
* [[/Social Engineering/]]
* [[/Internet Memes/]]
* [[/Internet Subcultures/]]
* [[/The Open-Source Movement/]]
* [[/Electronic Voting/]]
* [[/Online Consumer Reviews/]]
* [[/Online Dating Scams/]]
* [[/Online Shopping/]]
* [[/Online Reputation Management/]]
* [[/Online Recruitment by Extremist Groups/]]
* [[/Peer-to-Peer Media Sharing/]]
* [[/Program and High Frequency Trading/]]
* [[/Social Networks/]]
* [[/Social Media and the Arab Spring/]]
* [[/Social Norms in Virtual Worlds/]]
* [[/Software Journalism: When Programs Write the News/]]
* [[/Street View/]]
* [[/Second Life/]]
* [[/User-Generated Content in the Internet Age/]]
* [[/password1234: Internet Security and Password Culture/]]
* [[/Reddit: Anonymity and Social Norms/]]
* [[/Wikipedia/]]
* [[/Cyber-Attacks on Cyber-Physical Systems/]]
* [[/Cyberterrorism and Cyberwarfare/]]
* [[/Mass Collaboration/]]
* [[/Net Neutrality/]]
* [[/Mass Control of a Single Gamer/]]
* [[/Harmonious Society: Internet Censorship in China/]]
* [[/Web Induced Risk Taking/]]
* [[/Where It Goes: Electronic Waste and Salvage/]]
* [[/Working Conditions at Apple Hardware Factories in China/]]
* [[/Facebook Cheating/]]
* [[/Intellectual Property in the Internet Age/]]
* [[/The Social Psychology of YouTube/]]
* [[/Learning from a Distance/]]
* [[/Communication Technology and Interpersonal Relationships/]]
* [[/Identity Theft/]]
* [[/Higher Education Online/]]
* [[/The Culture of Instagram/]]
* [[/New Media and the United States Presidential Election of 2008/]]
* [[/Targeted Advertising/]]
* [[/Viral Marketing/]]
* [[/Web Tracking/]]
* [[/Internet Anonymity/]]
* [[/The Culture of Snapchat/]]
* [[/Snopes, PolitiFact, and Other Fact-Checking Websites/]]
* [[/Twitter and other social networks in the Iranian protests of 2009/]]
* [[/The Internet Strategy of White Supremacists/]]
* [[/Google Translate|Google Translate]]
* [[/The Deep Web/]]
* [[/Social Media Mining/]]
* [[/Internet Witch Hunts/]]
* [[/News Echo Chambers/]]
* [[/Featuritis/]]
* [[/Content Moderation/]]
* [[/Virtual Reality/]]
*
* [[/Social Media Shaming Campaigns/]]
* [[Lentis/The Geopolitics of TikTok|The Geopolitics of TikTok]]
* [[/AI Music, Creativity, and Intellectual Property/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Portable Electronics ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Smartphones and Cognitive Offloading|Smartphones and Cognitive Offloading]]
* [[Cell Phones and Cancer in Britain]]
* [[/Driving while Texting/]]
* [[/GPS and Driving/]]
* [[/Sociology of Texting/]]
* [[/The Text Effect/]]
* [[/Norms of Handheld Device Use/]]
* [[/Happy Slapping/]]
* [[/The Walkman Effect/]]
* [[/Electronically Enabled Test Cheating/]]
* [[/Cell Phones versus Face-to-Face Interaction/]]
* [[/Children and Cell Phones/]]
* [[/Amazon, E-readers and the Future of the Publishing Industry/]]
* [[/Social Aspects of Cell Phone Cameras/]]
* [[/Airline Passengers and Portable Electronics/]]
* [[/Pokémon Go/]]
* [[/Phone Cinematography/]]
* [[/Cell Phones in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Wearable Activity Trackers/]]
* [[/Handheld Electronics in South Korean Society/]]
* [[/The Looking Glass/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Entertainment and Media ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games/]]
* [[/Gambling/]]
* [[/Game Addictions/]]
* [[/The Psychology and Technology of Game Immersion/]]
* [[/The Proliferation of Music Production Capability/]]
* [[/Grand Theft Auto: Violent Video Games and Controversy/]]
* [[/Doom: Violent Video Games and Controversy/]]
* [[/Implementation of Technology in Sports: Historical Successes and Failures, and Modern Discussion/]]
* [[/Portrayal of Women in Video Games/]]
* [[/Children,Video Games and Obesity/]]
* [[/Electronic Sports (eSports)/]]
* [[/Electronic Music Popular/]]
* [[/From Cronkite to Stewart: TV News during and after Network Hegemony/]]
* [[/The Impact of Fans on Technological Innovation in the NFL/]]
* [[/Gold Farming/]]
* [[/Jackass: Media Driven Risk Propagation/]]
* [[/Anti-TV Social Movements/]]
* [[/Media Format Wars/]]
* [[/Microtransactions in Videogames/]]
* [[/Moe Anthropomorphism/]] 
* [[/Hello Kitty: Identity Crisis, Kawaii Culture, and More/]] 
* [[/Technology and Conventional Norms of Personal Beauty/]]
* [[/Dance Dance Revolution/]]
* [[/Super Smash Bros./]]
* [[/Twitch/]]
* [[/Instant Replay in International Soccer/]]
* [[/Among Us: Social Behavior in a Virtual World/]]
* [[Lentis/TikTok|TikTok]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Security, Official Violence, Freedom, Privacy ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/JEDI Cloud/]]
* [[/Digital Rights Management/]]
* [[/Military Industrial Complex/]]
* [[/Tasers and Stun Guns/]]
* [[/Probation Technology/]]
* [[/International Drug Trafficking and Law Enforcement/]]
* [[/Air Travel Security/]]
* [[/The United States - Mexico Border/]]
* [[/Recording Police Activity/]]
* [[/Video Surveillance/]]
* [[/Shopkeepers and Shoplifters: Technology and the Changing Balance of Power/]]
* [[/Cell Phones in Prison/]]
* [[/Cell Phone Jamming in the United States/]]
* [[/Freedom of Information: WikiLeaks/]]
* [[/Playing Games at Work: Employees versus Employers, Surveillance and Stealth/]]
* [[/Cyberslacking/]]
* [[/Mashups and Remixes: Between Creativity and Theft/]]
* [[/Video Surveillance in Great Britain/]]
* [[/Technology and Incarceration in the United States/]]
* [[/Additive Manufacturing/]]
* [[/Law Enforcement Access to Encrypted Data/]]
* [[/Amateurs with Drones/]]
* [[/Body Cameras/]]
* [[/Human Terrain System: Military Meets Cultural Mindfulness/]]
* [[/Law Enforcement and Social Media/]]
* [[/Cyber-attack Attribution/]]
* [[/China’s Social Credit System/]]
* [[/Technology in the 2019 Hong Kong Protests/]]
* [[/8chan/]]
* [[/Lockheed Martin F-35/]]
*[[/Capital Punishment in the United States/]]
* [[/The Yellow Vests Movement/]]
* [[Lentis/The 2018 U.S. Prison Strike|The 2018 U.S. Prison Strike]]
* [[Lentis/Office Productivity in the Changing Workplace|Office Productivity in the Changing Workplace]]
* [[Lentis/The Geopolitics of Asymmetric War: The Case of Ukraine|The Geopolitics of Asymmetric War: The Case of Ukraine]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Systemic Racism in the U.S. ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/Gentrification/]]
* [[/Predictive Policing/]]
*[[The Prison-Industrial Complex]]
*[[/The War on Drugs/]]
*[[Lentis/Algorithmic Bias|Algorithmic Bias]]
*[[Lentis/The School to Prison Pipeline|The School to Prison Pipeline]]
*[[Lentis/TheHBCURenaissance|The HBCU Renaissance]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Technology and Gender ====
* [[Lentis/Algorithmic_bias_by_gender|Algorithmic Bias by Gender]]

==== History of Technology ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[The Decline of Public Transport in the U.S., 1945-1975]]

* [[/The Pill, the Vatican, and American Catholics/]]
* [[/Education and the Space Race in the United States/]]
* [[/Technology, Organized Crime, and Law Enforcement in the early 20th-Century United States/]]
* [[/Disease Prevention in the First World War/]]
* [[/Atomic Age Optimism: 1930s - 1960s/]]
* [[/Abortion in America as a Sociotechnical Controversy/]]
* [[/Phreaking/]]
* [[/Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Development of Environmental Values, 1950-1970/]]
*[[/The Legacy of the Donora Smog of 1946/]]
*[[/COINTELPRO: The FBI, Civil Rights, and Domestic Surveillance/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Sociotechnical Theories and Movements ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Protection Motivation Theory|Protection Motivation Theory]]
* [[/The Singularity/]]
* [[/Conversion to the Metric Standard in the United States/]]
* [[/Disintermediation/]]
* [[/Jevons Paradox/]]
* [[/Path Dependence/]]
* [[/Neoluddism and Technophilia/]]
* [[/Emergent Behavior/]]
* [[/Free Range Kids/|Free Range Kids: Children's Independent Mobility]]
* [[/User Trust/]]
* [[/The Panopticon/]]
* [[/Planned Obsolescence/]]
* [[/Fake News/]]
*[[/Iron Triangles in the U.S. Federal Government/]]
*[[/Risk Compensation/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

{{BookCat}}
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{{alphabetical|L}}
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[[Image:UVa Rotunda.jpg|thumb|196px|right|The Rotunda at The University of Virginia]]

''Lentis: The Social Interface of Technology'' is a guidebook to the realm where technological phenomena and social phenomena intersect. If we think of technology and society as circular domains that overlap, the common domain they share is a [[w:Lens (geometry)|lens]] in shape. Hence the short title of the book, ''Lentis,'' which is Latin for &quot;of [or about] the lens.&quot; If the title (with its association with [[w:Lens|lenses]]) also suggests means of viewing, of examining, of magnifying, and of discovering, so much the better. The lens-shaped realm is called the &quot;social interface of technology.&quot;

The chief authors of ''Lentis'' are students at the University of Virginia's School of Engineering and Applied Science. The authors are engineers representing diverse fields of engineering.

As a wikibook, ''Lentis'' will accept contributions from authors and editors all over the world, but the student authors will take particular responsibility to produce a complete, well documented, well written and useful book. This is a student project. Until December 20, 2024, would-be contributors who are not students in the class are asked to consider editing sparingly, but are invited to comment freely on discussion pages, where their suggestions and advice will be welcomed and appreciated. No one's right to edit is in question.

''Lentis'' is intended to serve a general purpose and a specific purpose. The general purpose is to present to interested readers worldwide illuminating cases with practical lessons for those who navigate the dangerous channels of the social interface of technology. The book begins with the premise that success in technological and social endeavors often depends upon the skillful negotiation of sociotechnical factors, where technological techniques alone, or social techniques alone, are insufficient. A second premise is that case studies offer generalizable lessons that can guide people who work where technology and society overlap. They are, in effect, &quot;true fables&quot; that offer &quot;morals&quot; of practical value in diverse endeavors.

More specifically, ''Lentis'' is a book written by and for engineers. Here the premise is that engineers by definition are problem solvers whose instruments may include social as well as technological tools, whose work ultimately serves non-engineers, and who must therefore inevitably venture into the social interface of technology, where these non-engineers dwell. Too often, engineers have had to leave this territory to managers, policymakers, clients and others who lack the technical expertise for success in this zone. If engineers can develop the social expertise they need at the social interface of technology, they can lead there.

If &quot;those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it,&quot; then those who recover the past can best lead us out of it. In the history of technology countless technological innovations succeeded until they met the social interface, where social phenomena interact with technological phenomena in surprising ways. This book will be a success if it helps engineers anticipate these effects.

Most of the chapters in ''Lentis'' are examinations of cases. The authors will attempt to derive practical lessons from these cases; the most valuable lessons will be generalizable. If a lesson is generalizable, it is applicable in cases and situations that may be far removed in time, space or engineering field. A case from American transportation engineering in the 1990s, for example, may have lessons useful to biomedical engineers in 2024. The authors have endeavored to find such lessons in the cases they investigated. Because social theories are also useful navigational aids in the social interface of technology, some chapters examine such theories. The authors have sought not only to explain these theories, but to show how they can be of practical value.

== Table of Contents ==

=== '''Preliminaries''' ===
* [[/Chapters: Active and Candidates/]]

=== '''Lentis: The Social Interface of Technology''' ===

==== Food and Energy ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Public Health, Sugary Drinks, and the US Beverage Lobby|Public Health, Sugary Drinks, and the US Beverage Lobby]]

* [[/Biofuels Vs. Food in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Politics of Biofuels/]]
* [[/Opposition to GMOs in Europe/]]
* [[/Patenting of GM Seeds/]]
* [[/Corn, Beef and Feedlots/]]
* [[/Dakota Access Pipeline/]]
* [[/High-Fructose Corn Syrup/]]
* [[/The Organic Foods Movement/]]
* [[/Local Food as a Case of Disintermediation/]]
* [[/Local Food as a Social Movement/]]
* [[/Marketing of Natural Foods/]]
* [[/Corn Ethanol in the United States/]]
* [[/Popular Perceptions of Nuclear Power/]]
* [[/Nuclear Meltdown: Is Nuclear Energy Socially Viable Following the 2011 Japanese Earthquake?/]]
* [[/Fracking/]]
* [[/Wind Energy/]] 
* [[/Rare Earth Metals/]]
* [[/Carbon Offsets/]]
* [[/Clean Coal/]]
* [[/Food Waste in the United States/]]
* [[/Genetically Modified Food Controversy in the United States/]]
*[[/Solar Energy Policy in Germany/]]
*[[/Peak Oil/]]
*[[/U.S. Arctic Oil Mining/]]
*[[/How Energy Companies Rebrand Themselves/]]
* [[/Gluten-Free: Nutritional Principle or Social Value/]]
*[[/Vegan and Vegetarian Diets: Nutritional and Social Values/]]
*[[/Energy from Trash/]]
*[[/Life Off the Grid/]]
* [[/Soylent/]]
* [[/Expansion of Solar Farms in the Rural United States/]]
* [[/Urban Farming/]]
* [[/Oil Palm Plantations/]]
* [[/Golden Rice/]]
* [[/Miracle Rice/]]
*[[/The Cavendish Banana, Monoculture, and Blight/]]
*[[/Atlantic Coast Pipeline/]]
* [[/Cooking with Wood Fuel/]]
* [[Lentis/Solar Panel Recycling in the United States|Solar Panel Recycling in the United States]]
* [[Lentis/Line 3 Pipeline Controversy|Line 3 Pipeline Controversy]]
* [[/Data Centers and Energy/]]
* [[/Conflicts of Interest in US Nutrition Research/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Environmental Values and Climate Change ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/8 House|8 House]]
* [[Lentis/Plastic Bags|Plastic Bags]]
* [[Lentis/Water Bottles|Water Bottles]]
* [[Lentis/Competition for Water in California|Competition for Water in California]]
* [[Lentis/Green Roofing|Green Roofing]]
* [[Lentis/Hypoxic Zones|Hypoxic Zones]]
* [[Lentis/Unnatural Selection: Explaining Strange Pet Breeds|Unnatural Selection: Explaining Strange Pet Breeds]]
* [[Lentis/Masdar City|Masdar City]]
* [[Lentis/World Trade as an Invasive Species Vector|World Trade as an Invasive Species Vector]]
* [[Lentis/Noise pollution|Noise pollution]]
* [[Lentis/Ecovillages|Ecovillages]]
* [[Lentis/Climate Change Denial|Climate Change Denial]]
* [[Lentis/Lawn Care in America: Intensive Agriculture, No Harvest|Lawn Care in America: Intensive Agriculture, No Harvest]]
* [[Lentis/Marine Waste|Marine Waste]]
* [[Lentis/Gold, Mercury, and Madre de Dios, Peru|Gold, Mercury, and Madre de Dios, Peru]]
* [[Lentis/The Amazon Basin Fires of 2019|The Amazon Basin Fires of 2019]]
* [[Lentis/Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles|Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles]]
* [[Lentis/BedZED|BedZED]]
* [[Lentis/Small Island Countries and Sea Level Rise|Small Island Countries and Sea Level Rise]]
* [[Lentis/Light pollution|Light pollution]]
* [[Lentis/The 2020 Western Wildfire Season in the U.S.|The 2020 Western Wildfire Season in the U.S.]]
* [[Lentis/les Zadistes|les Zadistes]]
*[[/Flight Shaming/]]
*[[/Ecological Implications of Commercial Marine Fishing/]]
*[[/Zero-Plastic Retailing/]]
*[[/The PFAS Controversy/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Health and Medicine ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Insurance Companies’ Influence in US Health Policy|Insurance Companies’ Influence in US Health Policy]]

* [[Lentis/The Ebola Outbreak of 2014|The Ebola Outbreak of 2014]]

* [[AI &amp; Medical Imaging]]
* [[Antimicrobial Agents in Consumer Products]]
* [[Mental Health as a Pharmacological Growth Market]]
* [[/Nicotine Addictions/]]
* [[/Thinking Small: Appropriate Technology for Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Water Supply, Sanitation, and Public Health in Haiti/]]
* [[/Fluoridation/]]
* [[/Medicine and Disgust/]]
* [[/Popular Hygiene: Perceptions and Practices/]]
* [[/Bedside Manner in the High-Tech Hospital/]]
* [[/Technology and Quality of Life for the Terminally Ill/]]
* [[/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy/]]
* [[/Chatbots as Therapists/]]
* [[/Placebos/]]
* [[/Baby Formula/]]
* [[/Sick Building Syndrome/]]
* [[/Football and Concussions/]]
* [[/The Dietary and Bodybuilding Supplement Industry in the United States  /|The Dietary and Bodybuilding Supplement Industry in the United States]]
* [[/Obesity and Diets in Economic Classes in the United States/]]
* [[/Steroids and Baseball/]]
* [[/Nanotechnology and Health/]]
* [[/Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder)/]]
* [[/Malaria and Mosquito Nets/]]
* [[/International Air Travel as a Disease Vector/]]
* [[/Social Resistance to Vaccination: Thiomersal and Autism/]]
* [[/Religious Opposition to Vaccination/]]
* [[/Physician-Assisted Suicide/]]
* [[/Power Balance, Magnetic Bracelets and Other Strange Cures/]]
* [[/The D.A.R.E. Program/]]
* [[/Social Obstacles to Public Health in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Athletes, Superstition, and Performance/]]
* [[/Gattaca Revisited/]]
* [[/Artificial Wombs/]]
* [[/The Weight Loss Industry in the United States/]]
* [[/Direct-to-Consumer Personal Genomics/]]
* [[/Vaping/]]
* [[/Neuroprosthetics/]]
* [[/Detoxing as a Social Phenomenon/]]
* [[/Antibiotics in India/]]
* [[/Public Health: Fear Appeals vs Self-Efficacy and Social Norms Campaigns/]]
* [[/Public Health Responds to Physical Inactivity/]]
* [[/Mobility and Access for the Disabled/]]
* [[/Power Lines and Public Health/]]
* [[/The HPV Vaccine/]]
* [[/Medication Overload/]]
* [[/The 2020 Pandemic Response in Italy/]]
* [[/Healthcare in U.S. Prisons/]]
* [[/Antimaskers in the U.S. during the 2020 Pandemic/]]
* [[/Pain Scales/]]
* [[/Augmented Reality in Medicine/]]
* [[/COVID-19 Vaccine Distribution/]]
* [[/Chloramination of Drinking Water/]]
* [[/Manual Water Collection in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/The U.S. Pandemic Response: Influenza, 1918-1919/]]
* [[/Robotic Pets for Psychosocial Therapeutics/]]
* [[/Caffeine Addiction/]]
* [[/The Cultural Politics of Obesity Drugs in the US/]]
* [[/Pharma’s influence in FDA/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Mobility and Land Use ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/Cascadia Earthquake Preparation/]]
* [[/Bicyclists in Cities/]]
* [[/Drivers’ and Bicyclists’ Perceptions of Each Other/]]
* [[/American Automobility and the Car Counter-Culture/]]
* [[/Congestion Pricing/]]
* [[/Urban Sprawl/]]
* [[/Planned Communities/]]
* [[/Slugging/]]
* [[/Bicycling in the Netherlands/]]
* [[/Tata Nano and Mobility in India/]]
* [[/How Cars Became Dining Rooms: Drive-Thrus, Cupholders and American Culture/]]
* [[/Autonomous Vehicles/]]
* [[/The Disappearing American Streetcar/]]
* [[/Pedestrians and Walkability in Cities and Suburbs/]]
* [[/Real-time Ridesharing/]]
* [[/Hitchhiking in the Digital Age /]]
* [[/Arcology/]]
* [[/Lowriding/]]
* [[/California High Speed Rail/]]
* [[/Self-Driving Cars/]]
* [[/The Future of U.S. Civil Aviation in 1945/]]
* [[/Road Rage/]]
* [[/The Ogallala Aquifer/]]
* [[/Rail in America/]]
* [[/The Belt and Road Initiative/]]
* [[/Car Dependency in the U.S./]]
* [[/Guerrilla Urbanism/]]
*[[/The Transformation of Times Square/]]
*[[/David Engwicht and Street Reclaiming/]]
*[[/Vision Zero/]]
*[[/Shared Space and Woonerven/]]
*[[/Eyjafjallajökull 2010/]]
*[[Lentis/Driving Speed Enforcement|Driving Speed Enforcement]]
*[[/E-bikes and Personal Mobility/]]
*[[Lentis/Zoning Laws in the United States|Zoning Laws in the United States]]
*[[Lentis/Carpooling|Carpooling]]
*[[The Politics of Electric Vehicle Subsidies]]
*[[Lentis/Freeway Removal Movements in US Cities|Freeway Removal Movements in US Cities]]
*[[/New Urbanism/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Computers and the Internet ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/AI: More Human Than You Think/]]
* [[/Antipiracy/]]
* [[/Amazon and the Ecommerce Evolution/]]
* [[/Compulsive Connectivity/]]
* [[/Screen-Free Child Rearing/]]
* [[/Crowdsourcing Higher Education/]]
* [[/Cryptocurrency/]] 
* [[/&quot;Data is the new oil&quot;/]]
* [[/Deepfakes/]]
* [[/Fake Users/]]
* [[/Hacker Culture/]]
* [[/Human Flesh Search Engine/]]
* [[/Social Engineering/]]
* [[/Internet Memes/]]
* [[/Internet Subcultures/]]
* [[/The Open-Source Movement/]]
* [[/Electronic Voting/]]
* [[/Online Consumer Reviews/]]
* [[/Online Dating Scams/]]
* [[/Online Shopping/]]
* [[/Online Reputation Management/]]
* [[/Online Recruitment by Extremist Groups/]]
* [[/Peer-to-Peer Media Sharing/]]
* [[/Program and High Frequency Trading/]]
* [[/Social Networks/]]
* [[/Social Media and the Arab Spring/]]
* [[/Social Norms in Virtual Worlds/]]
* [[/Software Journalism: When Programs Write the News/]]
* [[/Street View/]]
* [[/Second Life/]]
* [[/User-Generated Content in the Internet Age/]]
* [[/password1234: Internet Security and Password Culture/]]
* [[/Reddit: Anonymity and Social Norms/]]
* [[/Wikipedia/]]
* [[/Cyber-Attacks on Cyber-Physical Systems/]]
* [[/Cyberterrorism and Cyberwarfare/]]
* [[/Mass Collaboration/]]
* [[/Net Neutrality/]]
* [[/Mass Control of a Single Gamer/]]
* [[/Harmonious Society: Internet Censorship in China/]]
* [[/Web Induced Risk Taking/]]
* [[/Where It Goes: Electronic Waste and Salvage/]]
* [[/Working Conditions at Apple Hardware Factories in China/]]
* [[/Facebook Cheating/]]
* [[/Intellectual Property in the Internet Age/]]
* [[/The Social Psychology of YouTube/]]
* [[/Learning from a Distance/]]
* [[/Communication Technology and Interpersonal Relationships/]]
* [[/Identity Theft/]]
* [[/Higher Education Online/]]
* [[/The Culture of Instagram/]]
* [[/New Media and the United States Presidential Election of 2008/]]
* [[/Targeted Advertising/]]
* [[/Viral Marketing/]]
* [[/Web Tracking/]]
* [[/Internet Anonymity/]]
* [[/The Culture of Snapchat/]]
* [[/Snopes, PolitiFact, and Other Fact-Checking Websites/]]
* [[/Twitter and other social networks in the Iranian protests of 2009/]]
* [[/The Internet Strategy of White Supremacists/]]
* [[/Google Translate|Google Translate]]
* [[/The Deep Web/]]
* [[/Social Media Mining/]]
* [[/Internet Witch Hunts/]]
* [[/News Echo Chambers/]]
* [[/Featuritis/]]
* [[/Content Moderation/]]
* [[/Virtual Reality/]]
*
* [[/Social Media Shaming Campaigns/]]
* [[Lentis/The Geopolitics of TikTok|The Geopolitics of TikTok]]
* [[/AI Music, Creativity, and Intellectual Property/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Portable Electronics ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Smartphones and Cognitive Offloading|Smartphones and Cognitive Offloading]]
* [[Cell Phones and Cancer in Britain]]
* [[/Driving while Texting/]]
* [[/GPS and Driving/]]
* [[/Sociology of Texting/]]
* [[/The Text Effect/]]
* [[/Norms of Handheld Device Use/]]
* [[/Happy Slapping/]]
* [[/The Walkman Effect/]]
* [[/Electronically Enabled Test Cheating/]]
* [[/Cell Phones versus Face-to-Face Interaction/]]
* [[/Children and Cell Phones/]]
* [[/Amazon, E-readers and the Future of the Publishing Industry/]]
* [[/Social Aspects of Cell Phone Cameras/]]
* [[/Airline Passengers and Portable Electronics/]]
* [[/Pokémon Go/]]
* [[/Phone Cinematography/]]
* [[/Cell Phones in Developing Countries/]]
* [[/Wearable Activity Trackers/]]
* [[/Handheld Electronics in South Korean Society/]]
* [[/The Looking Glass/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Entertainment and Media ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games/]]
* [[/Gambling/]]
* [[/Game Addictions/]]
* [[/The Psychology and Technology of Game Immersion/]]
* [[/The Proliferation of Music Production Capability/]]
* [[/Grand Theft Auto: Violent Video Games and Controversy/]]
* [[/Doom: Violent Video Games and Controversy/]]
* [[/Implementation of Technology in Sports: Historical Successes and Failures, and Modern Discussion/]]
* [[/Portrayal of Women in Video Games/]]
* [[/Children,Video Games and Obesity/]]
* [[/Electronic Sports (eSports)/]]
* [[/Electronic Music Popular/]]
* [[/From Cronkite to Stewart: TV News during and after Network Hegemony/]]
* [[/The Impact of Fans on Technological Innovation in the NFL/]]
* [[/Gold Farming/]]
* [[/Jackass: Media Driven Risk Propagation/]]
* [[/Anti-TV Social Movements/]]
* [[/Media Format Wars/]]
* [[/Microtransactions in Videogames/]]
* [[/Moe Anthropomorphism/]] 
* [[/Hello Kitty: Identity Crisis, Kawaii Culture, and More/]] 
* [[/Technology and Conventional Norms of Personal Beauty/]]
* [[/Dance Dance Revolution/]]
* [[/Super Smash Bros./]]
* [[/Twitch/]]
* [[/Instant Replay in International Soccer/]]
* [[/Among Us: Social Behavior in a Virtual World/]]
* [[Lentis/TikTok|TikTok]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Security, Official Violence, Freedom, Privacy ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/JEDI Cloud/]]
* [[/Digital Rights Management/]]
* [[/Military Industrial Complex/]]
* [[/Tasers and Stun Guns/]]
* [[/Probation Technology/]]
* [[/International Drug Trafficking and Law Enforcement/]]
* [[/Air Travel Security/]]
* [[/The United States - Mexico Border/]]
* [[/Recording Police Activity/]]
* [[/Video Surveillance/]]
* [[/Shopkeepers and Shoplifters: Technology and the Changing Balance of Power/]]
* [[/Cell Phones in Prison/]]
* [[/Cell Phone Jamming in the United States/]]
* [[/Freedom of Information: WikiLeaks/]]
* [[/Playing Games at Work: Employees versus Employers, Surveillance and Stealth/]]
* [[/Cyberslacking/]]
* [[/Mashups and Remixes: Between Creativity and Theft/]]
* [[/Video Surveillance in Great Britain/]]
* [[/Technology and Incarceration in the United States/]]
* [[/Additive Manufacturing/]]
* [[/Law Enforcement Access to Encrypted Data/]]
* [[/Amateurs with Drones/]]
* [[/Body Cameras/]]
* [[/Human Terrain System: Military Meets Cultural Mindfulness/]]
* [[/Law Enforcement and Social Media/]]
* [[/Cyber-attack Attribution/]]
* [[/China’s Social Credit System/]]
* [[/Technology in the 2019 Hong Kong Protests/]]
* [[/8chan/]]
* [[/Lockheed Martin F-35/]]
*[[/Capital Punishment in the United States/]]
* [[/The Yellow Vests Movement/]]
* [[Lentis/The 2018 U.S. Prison Strike|The 2018 U.S. Prison Strike]]
* [[Lentis/Office Productivity in the Changing Workplace|Office Productivity in the Changing Workplace]]
* [[Lentis/The Geopolitics of Asymmetric War: The Case of Ukraine|The Geopolitics of Asymmetric War: The Case of Ukraine]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Systemic Racism in the U.S. ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[/Gentrification/]]
* [[/Predictive Policing/]]
*[[The Prison-Industrial Complex]]
*[[/The War on Drugs/]]
*[[Lentis/Algorithmic Bias|Algorithmic Bias]]
*[[Lentis/The School to Prison Pipeline|The School to Prison Pipeline]]
*[[Lentis/TheHBCURenaissance|The HBCU Renaissance]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Technology and Gender ====
* [[Lentis/Algorithmic_bias_by_gender|Algorithmic Bias by Gender]]

==== History of Technology ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[The Decline of Public Transport in the U.S., 1945-1975]]

* [[/The Pill, the Vatican, and American Catholics/]]
* [[/Education and the Space Race in the United States/]]
* [[/Technology, Organized Crime, and Law Enforcement in the early 20th-Century United States/]]
* [[/Disease Prevention in the First World War/]]
* [[/Atomic Age Optimism: 1930s - 1960s/]]
* [[/Abortion in America as a Sociotechnical Controversy/]]
* [[/Phreaking/]]
* [[/Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Development of Environmental Values, 1950-1970/]]
*[[/The Legacy of the Donora Smog of 1946/]]
*[[/COINTELPRO: The FBI, Civil Rights, and Domestic Surveillance/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Sociotechnical Theories and Movements ====
&lt;div style=&quot;column-count:3&quot;&gt;
* [[Lentis/Protection Motivation Theory|Protection Motivation Theory]]
* [[/The Singularity/]]
* [[/Conversion to the Metric Standard in the United States/]]
* [[/Disintermediation/]]
* [[/Jevons Paradox/]]
* [[/Path Dependence/]]
* [[/Neoluddism and Technophilia/]]
* [[/Emergent Behavior/]]
* [[/Free Range Kids/|Free Range Kids: Children's Independent Mobility]]
* [[/User Trust/]]
* [[/The Panopticon/]]
* [[/Planned Obsolescence/]]
* [[/Fake News/]]
*[[/Iron Triangles in the U.S. Federal Government/]]
*[[/Risk Compensation/]]
&lt;/div&gt;

{{BookCat}}
{{Shelves|general engineering|Class projects}}
{{alphabetical|L}}
{{status|100%}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Rrizwanahmed</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>260117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633350</id>
      <parentid>4629935</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T00:15:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This doesn't match the speedy deletion criteria, and the account is currently frozen until further notice.</comment>
      <origin>4633350</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1653" sha1="8yvhwytnedp87upyjcs4ny29ihfo5zb" xml:space="preserve">== This page designed to help other peoples who willing to work on Computer networks ==
&lt;br /&gt;
{{center|[[File:Mainlogo2.gif]]}}
&lt;br /&gt;

                 &lt;big&gt;In this site you will find some of configurations/ help topics and How-to&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
I tried my best to share knowledge that I know about any product or scenario. &lt;br /&gt; This website have all of those things which I configured and done successfully.&lt;br /&gt;
(I always thankful to all my colleges and friends those who help me in some of configurations/ setups)&lt;br /&gt;
(If any of you found any problem with this web please feel free to contact me) rrizwanahmed@gmail.com&lt;br /&gt;
(all configurations and setup are working in my live scenarios / LAB)


=== LAN ===
==== How-to/ Guides about LAN ====
 &lt;br /&gt;
(This Page is still under construction you are advised to visit frequently to make your self update, for more recent configurations and experiences.)
&lt;br /&gt;

=== WAN ===
How-to/ Guides about WAN
&lt;br /&gt;

=== Windows ===
How-to/ Guides about Windows
{{rule}}&lt;br /&gt;

=== LINUX ===
How-to/ Guides about Linux&lt;br /&gt;

Linux is my favorite OS for Servers.

All configuration are working fine in live/ LAB environments.

All configuration done due to my MIND BUG,
&lt;br /&gt;
==== [[Linux command and other help]] ====  
(available &amp; under editing)&lt;br /&gt;
==== [[Fedora Core 2 Server installation]] ====

&lt;br /&gt;

=== Cisco ===
How-to/ Guides about Cisco 
&lt;br /&gt;

=== Juniper ===
How-to/ Guides about Juniper
&lt;br /&gt;

=== VoIP ===
How-to/ Guides about VoIP
&lt;br /&gt;

=== Wireless ===
How-to/ Guides about Wireless
&lt;br /&gt;

=== Tools n utilities ===
How-to/ Guides about Network Tools and utilities
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>8yvhwytnedp87upyjcs4ny29ihfo5zb</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Unicode/Character reference/1E000-1EFFF</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>266214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633343</id>
      <parentid>4633183</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T23:57:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Unicode Roadmap Changer|Unicode Roadmap Changer]] ([[User talk:Unicode Roadmap Changer|talk]]) to last version by ~2026-25946-98</comment>
      <origin>4633010</origin>
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      <text bytes="123589" sha1="9g6rmvm9nqjo4etcu5qaszoz0uh57ok" xml:space="preserve">{{:Unicode/Character reference}}

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|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Glagolitic Supplement'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!width=&quot;4%&quot;|U+!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|0!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|1!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|2!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|3!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|4!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|5!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|6!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|7!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|8!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|9!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|A!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|B!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|C!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|D!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|E!!width=&quot;6%&quot;|F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E00x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER AZU|&amp;#x1e000;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER BUKY|&amp;#x1e001;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER VEDE|&amp;#x1e002;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER GLAGOLI|&amp;#x1e003;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER DOBRO|&amp;#x1e004;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER YESTU|&amp;#x1e005;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER ZHIVETE|&amp;#x1e006;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER ZEMLJA|&amp;#x1e008;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER IZHE|&amp;#x1e009;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER INITIAL IZHE|&amp;#x1e00a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER I|&amp;#x1e00b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER DJERVI|&amp;#x1e00c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER KAKO|&amp;#x1e00d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER LJUDIJE|&amp;#x1e00e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER MYSLITE|&amp;#x1e00f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E01x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER NASHI|&amp;#x1e010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER ONU|&amp;#x1e011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER POKOJI|&amp;#x1e012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER RITSI|&amp;#x1e013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER SLOVO|&amp;#x1e014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER TVRIDO|&amp;#x1e015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER UKU|&amp;#x1e016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER FRITU|&amp;#x1e017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER HERU|&amp;#x1e018;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER SHTA|&amp;#x1e01b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER TSI|&amp;#x1e01c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER CHRIVI|&amp;#x1e01d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER SHA|&amp;#x1e01e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER YERU|&amp;#x1e01f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E02x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER YERI|&amp;#x1e020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER YATI|&amp;#x1e021;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER YU|&amp;#x1e023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER SMALL YUS|&amp;#x1e024;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER YO|&amp;#x1e026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER IOTATED SMALL YUS|&amp;#x1e027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER BIG YUS|&amp;#x1e028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER IOTATED BIG YUS|&amp;#x1e029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING GLAGOLITIC LETTER FITA|&amp;#x1e02a;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Cyrillic Extended-D'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E03x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL A|&amp;#x1e030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL BE|&amp;#x1e031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL VE|&amp;#x1e032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL GHE|&amp;#x1e033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL DE|&amp;#x1e034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL IE|&amp;#x1e035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL ZHE|&amp;#x1e036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL ZE|&amp;#x1e037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL I|&amp;#x1e038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL KA|&amp;#x1e039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL EL|&amp;#x1e03a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL EM|&amp;#x1e03b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL O|&amp;#x1e03c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL PE|&amp;#x1e03d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL ER|&amp;#x1e03e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL ES|&amp;#x1e03f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E04x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL TE|&amp;#x1e040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL U|&amp;#x1e041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL EF|&amp;#x1e042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL HA|&amp;#x1e043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL TSE|&amp;#x1e044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL CHE|&amp;#x1e045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL SHA|&amp;#x1e046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL YERU|&amp;#x1e047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL E|&amp;#x1e048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL YU|&amp;#x1e049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL DZZE|&amp;#x1e04a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL SCHWA|&amp;#x1e04b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL BYELORUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN I|&amp;#x1e04c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL JE|&amp;#x1e04d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL BARRED O|&amp;#x1e04e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL STRAIGHT U|&amp;#x1e04f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E05x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL PALOCHKA|&amp;#x1e050;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER A|&amp;#x1e051;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER BE|&amp;#x1e052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER VE|&amp;#x1e053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER GHE|&amp;#x1e054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER DE|&amp;#x1e055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER IE|&amp;#x1e056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER ZHE|&amp;#x1e057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER ZE|&amp;#x1e058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER I|&amp;#x1e059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER KA|&amp;#x1e05a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER EL|&amp;#x1e05b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER O|&amp;#x1e05c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER PE|&amp;#x1e05d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER ES|&amp;#x1e05e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER U|&amp;#x1e05f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E06x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER EF|&amp;#x1e060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER HA|&amp;#x1e061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER TSE|&amp;#x1e062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER CHE|&amp;#x1e063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER SHA|&amp;#x1e064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER HARD SIGN|&amp;#x1e065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER YERU|&amp;#x1e066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER GHE WITH UPTURN|&amp;#x1e067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER BYELORUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN I|&amp;#x1e068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER DZE|&amp;#x1e069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CYRILLIC SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER DZHE|&amp;#x1e06a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL ES WITH DESCENDER|&amp;#x1e06b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL YERU WITH BACK YER|&amp;#x1e06c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODIFIER LETTER CYRILLIC SMALL STRAIGHT U WITH STROKE|&amp;#x1e06d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E07x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E08x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|COMBINING CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER BYELORUSSIAN-UKRAINIAN I|&amp;#x1e08f;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended-B'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E09x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E0Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E0Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E0Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E0Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E0Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E0Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E10x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER MA|&amp;#x1e100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER TSA|&amp;#x1e101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NTA|&amp;#x1e102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER TA|&amp;#x1e103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER HA|&amp;#x1e104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NA|&amp;#x1e105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER XA|&amp;#x1e106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NKA|&amp;#x1e107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER CA|&amp;#x1e108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER LA|&amp;#x1e109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER SA|&amp;#x1e10a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER ZA|&amp;#x1e10b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NCA|&amp;#x1e10c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NTSA|&amp;#x1e10d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER KA|&amp;#x1e10e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER DA|&amp;#x1e10f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E11x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NYA|&amp;#x1e110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NRA|&amp;#x1e111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER VA|&amp;#x1e112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NTXA|&amp;#x1e113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER TXA|&amp;#x1e114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER FA|&amp;#x1e115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER RA|&amp;#x1e116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER QA|&amp;#x1e117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER YA|&amp;#x1e118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NQA|&amp;#x1e119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER PA|&amp;#x1e11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER XYA|&amp;#x1e11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NPA|&amp;#x1e11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER DLA|&amp;#x1e11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER NPLA|&amp;#x1e11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER HAH|&amp;#x1e11f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E12x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER MLA|&amp;#x1e120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER PLA|&amp;#x1e121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER GA|&amp;#x1e122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER RRA|&amp;#x1e123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER A|&amp;#x1e124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER AA|&amp;#x1e125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER I|&amp;#x1e126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER U|&amp;#x1e127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER O|&amp;#x1e128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER OO|&amp;#x1e129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER E|&amp;#x1e12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER EE|&amp;#x1e12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LETTER W|&amp;#x1e12c;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E13x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-B|&amp;#x1e130;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-M|&amp;#x1e131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-J|&amp;#x1e132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-V|&amp;#x1e133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-S|&amp;#x1e134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-G|&amp;#x1e135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG TONE-D|&amp;#x1e136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SIGN FOR PERSON|&amp;#x1e137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SIGN FOR THING|&amp;#x1e138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SIGN FOR LOCATION|&amp;#x1e139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SIGN FOR ANIMAL|&amp;#x1e13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SIGN FOR INVERTEBRATE|&amp;#x1e13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SIGN XW XW|&amp;#x1e13c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG SYLLABLE LENGTHENER|&amp;#x1e13d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E14x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e141;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e145;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e149;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG LOGOGRAM NYAJ|&amp;#x1e14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NYIAKENG PUACHUE HMONG CIRCLED CA|&amp;#x1e14f;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Eebee Hmong'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E15x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E16x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E17x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E18x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E19x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E1Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E1Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E1Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E1Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E1Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E1Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Western Cham'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E20x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER KA|&amp;#x1e200;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER KHA|&amp;#x1e201;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER GA|&amp;#x1e202;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER GHA|&amp;#x1e203;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NGUE|&amp;#x1e204;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NGA|&amp;#x1e205;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER CHA|&amp;#x1e206;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER CHHA|&amp;#x1e207;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER JA|&amp;#x1e208;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER JHA|&amp;#x1e209;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NHUE|&amp;#x1e20a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NHA|&amp;#x1e20b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NHJA|&amp;#x1e20c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER TAK|&amp;#x1e20d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER THA|&amp;#x1e20e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER DA|&amp;#x1e20f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E21x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER DHA|&amp;#x1e210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NUE|&amp;#x1e211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER NA|&amp;#x1e212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER SIGN NOEN|&amp;#x1e213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER DDA|&amp;#x1e214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER PA|&amp;#x1e215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER PA TNAW|&amp;#x1e216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER PA PRONG|&amp;#x1e217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER PHA|&amp;#x1e218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER BA|&amp;#x1e219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER BHA|&amp;#x1e21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER MUE|&amp;#x1e21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER MA|&amp;#x1e21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER BBA|&amp;#x1e21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER YA|&amp;#x1e21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER RA|&amp;#x1e21f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E22x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER LA|&amp;#x1e220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER VA|&amp;#x1e221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER SSA|&amp;#x1e222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER SA|&amp;#x1e223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER A|&amp;#x1e224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER A DHA|&amp;#x1e225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER A DHA|&amp;#x1e226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER A BA|&amp;#x1e227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER A U|&amp;#x1e228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER I|&amp;#x1e229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER U|&amp;#x1e22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER E|&amp;#x1e22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER AI|&amp;#x1e22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LETTER OH|&amp;#x1e22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN AA|&amp;#x1e22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN I|&amp;#x1e22f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E23x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN II|&amp;#x1e230;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN AI|&amp;#x1e231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN OEK|&amp;#x1e232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN OE|&amp;#x1e233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN E|&amp;#x1e234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN AAY|&amp;#x1e235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN AW|&amp;#x1e236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM VOWEL SIGN U|&amp;#x1e237;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E24x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E25x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e250;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e251;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e252;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e253;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e254;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e255;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e256;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e257;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e258;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e259;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM TANA PATOK SAP|&amp;#x1e25a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM SHADDAH|&amp;#x1e25b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM TANA PATOK PHUN|&amp;#x1e25c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM TANA TAMA PHUN|&amp;#x1e25d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM TANA TAMA PHUN|&amp;#x1e25e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM TANA PDAEM IU|&amp;#x1e25f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E26x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DANDA|&amp;#x1e260;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM DOUBLE DANDA|&amp;#x1e261;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM TRIPLE DANDA|&amp;#x1e262;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM SIGN TANA TAMAT AYAT|&amp;#x1e263;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM SIGN TANA TAMAT TAKUE|&amp;#x1e264;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WESTERN CHAM LUNAR TEN|&amp;#x1e265;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Ethiopic Numbers'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#bba757&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E27x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e270;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER ELEVEN|&amp;#x1e271;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER TWELVE|&amp;#x1e272;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER THIRTEEN|&amp;#x1e273;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER FOURTEEN|&amp;#x1e274;}}|{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER FIFTEEN|&amp;#x1e275;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER SIXTEEN|&amp;#x1e276;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER SEVENTEEN|&amp;#x1e277;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER EIGHTEEN|&amp;#x1e278;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER NINETEEN|&amp;#x1e279;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER THOUSAND|&amp;#x1e27a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER HUNDRED THOUSAND|&amp;#x1e27b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER MILLION|&amp;#x1e27c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC NUMBER BILLION|&amp;#x1e27d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E28x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Toto'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E29x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER PA|&amp;#x1e290;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER BA|&amp;#x1e291;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER TA|&amp;#x1e292;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER DA|&amp;#x1e293;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER KA|&amp;#x1e294;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER GA|&amp;#x1e295;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER MA|&amp;#x1e296;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER NA|&amp;#x1e297;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER NGA|&amp;#x1e298;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER SA|&amp;#x1e299;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER CHA|&amp;#x1e29a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER YA|&amp;#x1e29b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER WA|&amp;#x1e29c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER JA|&amp;#x1e29d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER HA|&amp;#x1e29e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER RA|&amp;#x1e29f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E2Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER LA|&amp;#x1e2a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER I|&amp;#x1e2a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER BREATHY I|&amp;#x1e2a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER IU|&amp;#x1e2a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER BREATHY IU|&amp;#x1e2a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER U|&amp;#x1e2a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER E|&amp;#x1e2a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER BREATHY E|&amp;#x1e2a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER EO|&amp;#x1e2a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER BREATHY EO|&amp;#x1e2a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER O|&amp;#x1e2aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER AE|&amp;#x1e2ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER BREATHY AE|&amp;#x1e2ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO LETTER A|&amp;#x1e2ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOTO SIGN RISING TONE|&amp;#x1e2ae;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E2Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Wancho'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E2Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER AA|&amp;#x1e2c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER A|&amp;#x1e2c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER BA|&amp;#x1e2c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER CA|&amp;#x1e2c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER DA|&amp;#x1e2c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER GA|&amp;#x1e2c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER YA|&amp;#x1e2c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER PHA|&amp;#x1e2c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER LA|&amp;#x1e2c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER NA|&amp;#x1e2c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER PA|&amp;#x1e2ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER TA|&amp;#x1e2cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER THA|&amp;#x1e2cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER FA|&amp;#x1e2cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER SA|&amp;#x1e2ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER SHA|&amp;#x1e2cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E2Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER JA|&amp;#x1e2d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER ZA|&amp;#x1e2d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER WA|&amp;#x1e2d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER VA|&amp;#x1e2d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER KA|&amp;#x1e2d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER O|&amp;#x1e2d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER AU|&amp;#x1e2d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER RA|&amp;#x1e2d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER MA|&amp;#x1e2d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER KHA|&amp;#x1e2d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER HA|&amp;#x1e2da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER E|&amp;#x1e2db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER I|&amp;#x1e2dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER NGA|&amp;#x1e2dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER U|&amp;#x1e2de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER LLHA|&amp;#x1e2df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E2Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER TSA|&amp;#x1e2e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER TRA|&amp;#x1e2e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER ONG|&amp;#x1e2e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER AANG|&amp;#x1e2e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER ANG|&amp;#x1e2e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER ING|&amp;#x1e2e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER ON|&amp;#x1e2e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER EN|&amp;#x1e2e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER AAN|&amp;#x1e2e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER NYA|&amp;#x1e2e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER UEN|&amp;#x1e2ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO LETTER YIH|&amp;#x1e2eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO TONE TUP|&amp;#x1e2ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO TONE TUPNI|&amp;#x1e2ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO TONE KOI|&amp;#x1e2ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO TONE KOINI|&amp;#x1e2ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E2Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e2f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e2f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e2f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e2f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e2f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e2f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e2f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e2f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e2f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e2f9;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANCHO NGUN SIGN|&amp;#x1e2ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Loma'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E30x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E31x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E32x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E33x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E34x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E35x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E36x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E37x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E38x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E39x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E3Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E3Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E3Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E3Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E3Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E3Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E40x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E41x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Bagam'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E42x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E43x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E44x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E45x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E46x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E47x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E48x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E49x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E4Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E4Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E4Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Nag Mundari'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E4Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER O|&amp;#x1e4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER OP|&amp;#x1e4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER OL|&amp;#x1e4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER OY|&amp;#x1e4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER ONG|&amp;#x1e4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER A|&amp;#x1e4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER AJ|&amp;#x1e4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER AB|&amp;#x1e4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER ANY|&amp;#x1e4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER AH|&amp;#x1e4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER I|&amp;#x1e4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER IS|&amp;#x1e4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER IDD|&amp;#x1e4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER IT|&amp;#x1e4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER IH|&amp;#x1e4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER U|&amp;#x1e4df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E4Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER UC|&amp;#x1e4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER UD|&amp;#x1e4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER UK|&amp;#x1e4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER UR|&amp;#x1e4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER E|&amp;#x1e4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER ENN|&amp;#x1e4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER EG|&amp;#x1e4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER EM|&amp;#x1e4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER EN|&amp;#x1e4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER ETT|&amp;#x1e4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI LETTER ELL|&amp;#x1e4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI SIGN OJOD|&amp;#x1e4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI SIGN MUHOR|&amp;#x1e4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI SIGN TOYOR|&amp;#x1e4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI SIGN IKIR|&amp;#x1e4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI SIGN SUTUH|&amp;#x1e4ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0c0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E4Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e4f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAG MUNDARI DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e4f9;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Pungchen'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E50x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E51x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E52x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E53x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E54x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E55x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E56x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E57x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E58x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E59x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | 
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E5Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E5Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E5Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Ol Onal'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;

!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E5Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER O|&amp;#x1e5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER OM|&amp;#x1e5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER ONG|&amp;#x1e5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER ORR|&amp;#x1e5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER OO|&amp;#x1e5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER OY|&amp;#x1e5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER A|&amp;#x1e5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER AD|&amp;#x1e5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER AB|&amp;#x1e5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER AH|&amp;#x1e5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER AL|&amp;#x1e5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER AW|&amp;#x1e5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER I|&amp;#x1e5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER IT|&amp;#x1e5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER IP|&amp;#x1e5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER ITT|&amp;#x1e5df;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E5Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER ID|&amp;#x1e5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER IN|&amp;#x1e5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER U|&amp;#x1e5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER UK|&amp;#x1e5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER UDD|&amp;#x1e5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER UJ|&amp;#x1e5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER UNY|&amp;#x1e5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER UR|&amp;#x1e5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER E|&amp;#x1e5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER ES|&amp;#x1e5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER EH|&amp;#x1e5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER EC|&amp;#x1e5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER ENN|&amp;#x1e5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL LETTER EG|&amp;#x1e5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL SIGN MU|&amp;#x1e5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL SIGN IKIR|&amp;#x1e5ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#edc3b4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E5Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL SIGN HODDOND|&amp;#x1e5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e5fa;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|OL ONAL ABBREVIATION SIGN|&amp;#x1e5ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Chola'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E60x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E61x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E62x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E63x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E64x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E65x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Box-Headed'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E66x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E67x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E68x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E69x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E6Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E6Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Tai Yo'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E6Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW KO|&amp;#x1e6c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH KO|&amp;#x1e6c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW KHO|&amp;#x1e6c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH KHO|&amp;#x1e6c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER GO|&amp;#x1e6c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER NGO|&amp;#x1e6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER CO|&amp;#x1e6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW XO|&amp;#x1e6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH XO|&amp;#x1e6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW NYO|&amp;#x1e6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH NYO|&amp;#x1e6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER DO|&amp;#x1e6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW TO|&amp;#x1e6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH TO|&amp;#x1e6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER THO|&amp;#x1e6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER NO|&amp;#x1e6cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E6Dx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER BO|&amp;#x1e6d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW PO|&amp;#x1e6d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH PO|&amp;#x1e6d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER PHO|&amp;#x1e6d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW FO|&amp;#x1e6d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH FO|&amp;#x1e6d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER MO|&amp;#x1e6d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER YO|&amp;#x1e6d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LO|&amp;#x1e6d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER VO|&amp;#x1e6d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW HO|&amp;#x1e6da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH HO|&amp;#x1e6db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER QO|&amp;#x1e6dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER LOW KVO|&amp;#x1e6dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER HIGH KVO|&amp;#x1e6de;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E6Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AA|&amp;#x1e6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER I|&amp;#x1e6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER UE|&amp;#x1e6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO SIGN UE|&amp;#x1e6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER U|&amp;#x1e6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AE|&amp;#x1e6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO SIGN AU|&amp;#x1e6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER O|&amp;#x1e6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER E|&amp;#x1e6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER IA|&amp;#x1e6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER UEA|&amp;#x1e6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER UA|&amp;#x1e6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER OO|&amp;#x1e6ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AUE|&amp;#x1e6ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO SIGN AY|&amp;#x1e6ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO SIGN ANG|&amp;#x1e6ef;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ddb495&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E6Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AN|&amp;#x1e6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AM|&amp;#x1e6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AK|&amp;#x1e6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AT|&amp;#x1e6f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO LETTER AP|&amp;#x1e6f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO SIGN OM|&amp;#x1e6f5;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO SYMBOL MUEANG|&amp;#x1e6fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAI YO XAM LAI|&amp;#x1e6ff;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Lampung'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E70x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E71x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E72x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E73x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Kerinci'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E74x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E75x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E76x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Buginese Supplement'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E77x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E78x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E79x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E7Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E7Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E7Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E7Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Ethiopic Extended-B'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E7Ex
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYA|&amp;#x1e7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYU|&amp;#x1e7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYI|&amp;#x1e7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYAA|&amp;#x1e7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYEE|&amp;#x1e7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYE|&amp;#x1e7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHYO|&amp;#x1e7e6;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE HHWA|&amp;#x1e7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHWI|&amp;#x1e7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHWEE|&amp;#x1e7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE HHWE|&amp;#x1e7eb;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE MWI|&amp;#x1e7ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE MWEE|&amp;#x1e7ee;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffc0e0&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E7Fx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE QWI|&amp;#x1e7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE QWEE|&amp;#x1e7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE QWE|&amp;#x1e7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE BWI|&amp;#x1e7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE BWEE|&amp;#x1e7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE KWI|&amp;#x1e7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE KWEE|&amp;#x1e7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE KWE|&amp;#x1e7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE GWI|&amp;#x1e7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE GWEE|&amp;#x1e7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE GWE|&amp;#x1e7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE FWI|&amp;#x1e7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE FWEE|&amp;#x1e7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE PWI|&amp;#x1e7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ETHIOPIC SYLLABLE GURAGE PWEE|&amp;#x1e7fe;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Mende Kikakui'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E80x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M001 KI|&amp;#x1e800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M002 KA|&amp;#x1e801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M003 KU|&amp;#x1e802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M065 KEE|&amp;#x1e803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M095 KE|&amp;#x1e804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M076 KOO|&amp;#x1e805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M048 KO|&amp;#x1e806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M179 KUA|&amp;#x1e807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M004 WI|&amp;#x1e808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M005 WA|&amp;#x1e809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M006 WU|&amp;#x1e80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M126 WEE|&amp;#x1e80b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M118 WE|&amp;#x1e80c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M114 WOO|&amp;#x1e80d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M045 WO|&amp;#x1e80e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M194 WUI|&amp;#x1e80f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E81x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M143 WEI|&amp;#x1e810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M061 WVI|&amp;#x1e811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M049 WVA|&amp;#x1e812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M139 WVE|&amp;#x1e813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M007 MIN|&amp;#x1e814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M008 MAN|&amp;#x1e815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M009 MUN|&amp;#x1e816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M059 MEN|&amp;#x1e817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M094 MON|&amp;#x1e818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M154 MUAN|&amp;#x1e819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M189 MUEN|&amp;#x1e81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M010 BI|&amp;#x1e81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M011 BA|&amp;#x1e81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M012 BU|&amp;#x1e81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M150 BEE|&amp;#x1e81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M097 BE|&amp;#x1e81f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E82x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M103 BOO|&amp;#x1e820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M138 BO|&amp;#x1e821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M013 I|&amp;#x1e822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M014 A|&amp;#x1e823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M015 U|&amp;#x1e824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M163 EE|&amp;#x1e825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M100 E|&amp;#x1e826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M165 OO|&amp;#x1e827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M147 O|&amp;#x1e828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M137 EI|&amp;#x1e829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M131 IN|&amp;#x1e82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M135 IN|&amp;#x1e82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M195 AN|&amp;#x1e82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M178 EN|&amp;#x1e82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M019 SI|&amp;#x1e82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M020 SA|&amp;#x1e82f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E83x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M021 SU|&amp;#x1e830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M162 SEE|&amp;#x1e831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M116 SE|&amp;#x1e832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M136 SOO|&amp;#x1e833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M079 SO|&amp;#x1e834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M196 SIA|&amp;#x1e835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M025 LI|&amp;#x1e836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M026 LA|&amp;#x1e837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M027 LU|&amp;#x1e838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M084 LEE|&amp;#x1e839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M073 LE|&amp;#x1e83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M054 LOO|&amp;#x1e83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M153 LO|&amp;#x1e83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M110 LONG LE|&amp;#x1e83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M016 DI|&amp;#x1e83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M017 DA|&amp;#x1e83f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E84x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M018 DU|&amp;#x1e840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M089 DEE|&amp;#x1e841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M180 DOO|&amp;#x1e842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M181 DO|&amp;#x1e843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M022 TI|&amp;#x1e844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M023 TA|&amp;#x1e845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M024 TU|&amp;#x1e846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M091 TEE|&amp;#x1e847;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M055 TE|&amp;#x1e848;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M104 TOO|&amp;#x1e849;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M069 TO|&amp;#x1e84a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M028 JI|&amp;#x1e84b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M029 JA|&amp;#x1e84c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M030 JU|&amp;#x1e84d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M157 JEE|&amp;#x1e84e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M113 JE|&amp;#x1e84f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E85x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M160 JOO|&amp;#x1e850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M063 JO|&amp;#x1e851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M175 LONG JO|&amp;#x1e852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M031 YI|&amp;#x1e853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M032 YA|&amp;#x1e854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M033 YU|&amp;#x1e855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M109 YEE|&amp;#x1e856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M080 YE|&amp;#x1e857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M141 YOO|&amp;#x1e858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M121 YO|&amp;#x1e859;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M034 FI|&amp;#x1e85a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M035 FA|&amp;#x1e85b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M036 FU|&amp;#x1e85c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M078 FEE|&amp;#x1e85d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M075 FE|&amp;#x1e85e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M133 FOO|&amp;#x1e85f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E86x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M088 FO|&amp;#x1e860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M197 FUA|&amp;#x1e861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M101 FAN|&amp;#x1e862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M037 NIN|&amp;#x1e863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M038 NAN|&amp;#x1e864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M039 NUN|&amp;#x1e865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M117 NEN|&amp;#x1e866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M169 NON|&amp;#x1e867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M176 HI|&amp;#x1e868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M041 HA|&amp;#x1e869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M186 HU|&amp;#x1e86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M040 HEE|&amp;#x1e86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M096 HE|&amp;#x1e86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M042 HOO|&amp;#x1e86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M140 HO|&amp;#x1e86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M083 HEEI|&amp;#x1e86f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E87x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M128 HOOU|&amp;#x1e870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M053 HIN|&amp;#x1e871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M130 HAN|&amp;#x1e872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M087 HUN|&amp;#x1e873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M052 HEN|&amp;#x1e874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M193 HON|&amp;#x1e875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M046 HUAN|&amp;#x1e876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M090 NGGI|&amp;#x1e877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M043 NGGA|&amp;#x1e878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M082 NGGU|&amp;#x1e879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M115 NGGEE|&amp;#x1e87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M146 NGGE|&amp;#x1e87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M156 NGGOO|&amp;#x1e87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M120 NGGO|&amp;#x1e87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M159 NGGAA|&amp;#x1e87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M127 NGGUA|&amp;#x1e87f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E88x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M086 LONG NGGE|&amp;#x1e880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M106 LONG NGGOO|&amp;#x1e881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M183 LONG NGGO|&amp;#x1e882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M155 GI|&amp;#x1e883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M111 GA|&amp;#x1e884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M168 GU|&amp;#x1e885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M190 GEE|&amp;#x1e886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M166 GUEI|&amp;#x1e887;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M167 GUAN|&amp;#x1e888;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M184 NGEN|&amp;#x1e889;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M057 NGON|&amp;#x1e88a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M177 NGUAN|&amp;#x1e88b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M068 PI|&amp;#x1e88c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M099 PA|&amp;#x1e88d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M050 PU|&amp;#x1e88e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M081 PEE|&amp;#x1e88f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E89x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M051 PE|&amp;#x1e890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M102 POO|&amp;#x1e891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M066 PO|&amp;#x1e892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M145 MBI|&amp;#x1e893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M062 MBA|&amp;#x1e894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M122 MBU|&amp;#x1e895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M047 MBEE|&amp;#x1e896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M188 MBEE|&amp;#x1e897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M072 MBE|&amp;#x1e898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M172 MBOO|&amp;#x1e899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M174 MBO|&amp;#x1e89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M187 MBUU|&amp;#x1e89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M161 LONG MBE|&amp;#x1e89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M105 LONG MBOO|&amp;#x1e89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M142 LONG MBO|&amp;#x1e89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M132 KPI|&amp;#x1e89f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E8Ax
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M092 KPA|&amp;#x1e8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M074 KPU|&amp;#x1e8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M044 KPEE|&amp;#x1e8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M108 KPE|&amp;#x1e8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M112 KPOO|&amp;#x1e8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M158 KPO|&amp;#x1e8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M124 GBI|&amp;#x1e8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M056 GBA|&amp;#x1e8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M148 GBU|&amp;#x1e8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M093 GBEE|&amp;#x1e8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M107 GBE|&amp;#x1e8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M071 GBOO|&amp;#x1e8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M070 GBO|&amp;#x1e8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M171 RA|&amp;#x1e8ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M123 NDI|&amp;#x1e8ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M129 NDA|&amp;#x1e8af;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E8Bx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M125 NDU|&amp;#x1e8b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M191 NDEE|&amp;#x1e8b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M119 NDE|&amp;#x1e8b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M067 NDOO|&amp;#x1e8b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M064 NDO|&amp;#x1e8b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M152 NJA|&amp;#x1e8b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M192 NJU|&amp;#x1e8b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M149 NJEE|&amp;#x1e8b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M134 NJOO|&amp;#x1e8b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M182 VI|&amp;#x1e8b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M185 VA|&amp;#x1e8ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M151 VU|&amp;#x1e8bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M173 VEE|&amp;#x1e8bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M085 VE|&amp;#x1e8bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M144 VOO|&amp;#x1e8be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M077 VO|&amp;#x1e8bf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E8Cx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M164 NYIN|&amp;#x1e8c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M058 NYAN|&amp;#x1e8c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M170 NYUN|&amp;#x1e8c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M098 NYEN|&amp;#x1e8c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI SYLLABLE M060 NYON|&amp;#x1e8c4;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e8c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e8c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e8c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e8ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e8cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e8cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e8cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e8ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e8cf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E8Dx
|style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER TEENS|&amp;#x1e8d0;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER TENS|&amp;#x1e8d1;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER HUNDREDS|&amp;#x1e8d2;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER THOUSANDS|&amp;#x1e8d3;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER TEN THOUSANDS|&amp;#x1e8d4;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER HUNDRED THOUSANDS|&amp;#x1e8d5;}}||style=&quot;background:#87abff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENDE KIKAKUI COMBINING NUMBER MILLIONS|&amp;#x1e8d6;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E8Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E8Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Adlam'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E90x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER ALIF|&amp;#x1e900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER DAALI|&amp;#x1e901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER LAAM|&amp;#x1e902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER MIIM|&amp;#x1e903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER BA|&amp;#x1e904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER SINNYIIYHE|&amp;#x1e905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER PE|&amp;#x1e906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER BHE|&amp;#x1e907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER RA|&amp;#x1e908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER E|&amp;#x1e909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER FA|&amp;#x1e90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER I|&amp;#x1e90b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER O|&amp;#x1e90c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER DHA|&amp;#x1e90d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER YHE|&amp;#x1e90e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER WAW|&amp;#x1e90f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E91x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER NUN|&amp;#x1e910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER KAF|&amp;#x1e911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER YA|&amp;#x1e912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER U|&amp;#x1e913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER JIIM|&amp;#x1e914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER CHI|&amp;#x1e915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER HA|&amp;#x1e916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER QAAF|&amp;#x1e917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER GA|&amp;#x1e918;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER NYA|&amp;#x1e919;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER TU|&amp;#x1e91a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER NHA|&amp;#x1e91b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER VA|&amp;#x1e91c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER KHA|&amp;#x1e91d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER GBE|&amp;#x1e91e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER ZAL|&amp;#x1e91f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E92x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER KPO|&amp;#x1e920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CAPITAL LETTER SHA|&amp;#x1e921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER ALIF|&amp;#x1e922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER DAALI|&amp;#x1e923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER LAAM|&amp;#x1e924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER MIIM|&amp;#x1e925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER BA|&amp;#x1e926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER SINNYIIYHE|&amp;#x1e927;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER PE|&amp;#x1e928;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER BHE|&amp;#x1e929;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER RA|&amp;#x1e92a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER E|&amp;#x1e92b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER FA|&amp;#x1e92c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER I|&amp;#x1e92d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER O|&amp;#x1e92e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER DHA|&amp;#x1e92f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E93x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER YHE|&amp;#x1e930;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER WAW|&amp;#x1e931;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER NUN|&amp;#x1e932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER KAF|&amp;#x1e933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER YA|&amp;#x1e934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER U|&amp;#x1e935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER JIIM|&amp;#x1e936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER CHI|&amp;#x1e937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER HA|&amp;#x1e938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER QAAF|&amp;#x1e939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER GA|&amp;#x1e93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER NYA|&amp;#x1e93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER TU|&amp;#x1e93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER NHA|&amp;#x1e93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER VA|&amp;#x1e93e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER KHA|&amp;#x1e93f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E94x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER GBE|&amp;#x1e940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER ZAL|&amp;#x1e941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER KPO|&amp;#x1e942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM SMALL LETTER SHA|&amp;#x1e943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM ALIF LENGTHENER|&amp;#x1e944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM VOWEL LENGTHENER|&amp;#x1e945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM GEMINATION MARK|&amp;#x1e946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM HAMZA|&amp;#x1e947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM CONSONANT MODIFIER|&amp;#x1e948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM GEMINATE CONSONANT MODIFIER|&amp;#x1e949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM NUKTA|&amp;#x1e94a;}}||style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM NASALIZATION MARK|&amp;#x1e94b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9c8dff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E95x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT ZERO|&amp;#x1e950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT ONE|&amp;#x1e951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT TWO|&amp;#x1e952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT THREE|&amp;#x1e953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT FOUR|&amp;#x1e954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT FIVE|&amp;#x1e955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT SIX|&amp;#x1e956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT SEVEN|&amp;#x1e957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT EIGHT|&amp;#x1e958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM DIGIT NINE|&amp;#x1e959;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM INITIAL EXCLAMATION MARK|&amp;#x1e95e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADLAM INITIAL QUESTION MARK|&amp;#x1e95f;}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''N'Ko Supplement'''
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E96x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E97x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E98x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E99x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E9Ax
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E9Bx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E9Cx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E9Dx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E9Ex
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1E9Fx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Oduduwa'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EA9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EAAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EABx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EACx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EADx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EAEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EAFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EB9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EBAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EBBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EBCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EBDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EBEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EBFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Persian Siyaq Numbers'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC0x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC1x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC2x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC3x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Indic Siyaq Numbers'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC7x
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER ONE|&amp;#x1ec71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TWO|&amp;#x1ec72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER THREE|&amp;#x1ec73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FOUR|&amp;#x1ec74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FIVE|&amp;#x1ec75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SIX|&amp;#x1ec76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SEVEN|&amp;#x1ec77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHT|&amp;#x1ec78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER NINE|&amp;#x1ec79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TEN|&amp;#x1ec7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TWENTY|&amp;#x1ec7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER THIRTY|&amp;#x1ec7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FORTY|&amp;#x1ec7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FIFTY|&amp;#x1ec7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SIXTY|&amp;#x1ec7f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC8x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SEVENTY|&amp;#x1ec80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHTY|&amp;#x1ec81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER NINETY|&amp;#x1ec82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER ONE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TWO HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER THREE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FOUR HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FIVE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SIX HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SEVEN HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHT HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER NINE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ec8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER ONE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TWO THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER THREE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FOUR THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec8f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EC9x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FIVE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SIX THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SEVEN THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec92;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHT THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec93;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER NINE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TEN THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER TWENTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER THIRTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FORTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER FIFTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SIXTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER SEVENTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER NINETY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ec9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER LAKH|&amp;#x1ec9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER LAKHAN|&amp;#x1ec9f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ECAx
|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ LAKH MARK|&amp;#x1eca0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER KAROR|&amp;#x1eca1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER KARORAN|&amp;#x1eca2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED ONE|&amp;#x1eca3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED TWO|&amp;#x1eca4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED THREE|&amp;#x1eca5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED FOUR|&amp;#x1eca6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED FIVE|&amp;#x1eca7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED SIX|&amp;#x1eca8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED SEVEN|&amp;#x1eca9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED EIGHT|&amp;#x1ecaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER PREFIXED NINE|&amp;#x1ecab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ PLACEHOLDER|&amp;#x1ecac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ FRACTION ONE QUARTER|&amp;#x1ecad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ FRACTION ONE HALF|&amp;#x1ecae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ FRACTION THREE QUARTERS|&amp;#x1ecaf;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ECBx
|style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ RUPEE MARK|&amp;#x1ecb0;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER ALTERNATE ONE|&amp;#x1ecb1;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER ALTERNATE TWO|&amp;#x1ecb2;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ NUMBER ALTERNATE TEN THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ecb3;}}||style=&quot;background:#d093ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDIC SIYAQ ALTERNATE LAKH MARK|&amp;#x1ecb4;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Diwani Siyaq Numbers'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ECCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ECDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ECEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ECFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Ottoman Siyaq Numbers'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED0x
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER ONE|&amp;#x1ed01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TWO|&amp;#x1ed02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER THREE|&amp;#x1ed03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FOUR|&amp;#x1ed04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FIVE|&amp;#x1ed05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SIX|&amp;#x1ed06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SEVEN|&amp;#x1ed07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHT|&amp;#x1ed08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER NINE|&amp;#x1ed09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TEN|&amp;#x1ed0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TWENTY|&amp;#x1ed0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER THIRTY|&amp;#x1ed0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FORTY|&amp;#x1ed0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FIFTY|&amp;#x1ed0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SIXTY|&amp;#x1ed0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SEVENTY|&amp;#x1ed10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHTY|&amp;#x1ed11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER NINETY|&amp;#x1ed12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER ONE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TWO HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER THREE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FOUR HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FIVE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SIX HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SEVEN HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHT HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER NINE HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER ONE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TWO THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER THREE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FOUR THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed1f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED2x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FIVE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SIX THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SEVEN THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHT THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER NINE THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TEN THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER TWENTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER THIRTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FORTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER FIFTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SIXTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER SEVENTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER EIGHTY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ NUMBER NINETY THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ MARRATAN|&amp;#x1ed2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER TWO|&amp;#x1ed2f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#e896ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED3x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER THREE|&amp;#x1ed30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER FOUR|&amp;#x1ed31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER FIVE|&amp;#x1ed32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER SIX|&amp;#x1ed33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER SEVEN|&amp;#x1ed34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER EIGHT|&amp;#x1ed35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER NINE|&amp;#x1ed36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER TEN|&amp;#x1ed37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER FOUR HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER SIX HUNDRED|&amp;#x1ed39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER TWO THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ ALTERNATE NUMBER TEN THOUSAND|&amp;#x1ed3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ FRACTION ONE HALF|&amp;#x1ed3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTOMAN SIYAQ FRACTION ONE SIXTH|&amp;#x1ed3d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED5x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED6x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED7x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED8x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1ED9x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EDAx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EDBx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EDCx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EDDx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EDEx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EDFx
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols'''
|----- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
!U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE0x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL ALEF|&amp;#x1ee00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL BEH|&amp;#x1ee01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL JEEM|&amp;#x1ee02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DAL|&amp;#x1ee03;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL WAW|&amp;#x1ee05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL ZAIN|&amp;#x1ee06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL HAH|&amp;#x1ee07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAH|&amp;#x1ee08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL YEH|&amp;#x1ee09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL KAF|&amp;#x1ee0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL LAM|&amp;#x1ee0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL MEEM|&amp;#x1ee0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL NOON|&amp;#x1ee0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL SEEN|&amp;#x1ee0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL AIN|&amp;#x1ee0f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE1x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL FEH|&amp;#x1ee10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL SAD|&amp;#x1ee11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL QAF|&amp;#x1ee12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL REH|&amp;#x1ee13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL SHEEN|&amp;#x1ee14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TEH|&amp;#x1ee15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL THEH|&amp;#x1ee16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL KHAH|&amp;#x1ee17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL THAL|&amp;#x1ee18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DAD|&amp;#x1ee19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL ZAH|&amp;#x1ee1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL GHAIN|&amp;#x1ee1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DOTLESS BEH|&amp;#x1ee1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DOTLESS NOON|&amp;#x1ee1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DOTLESS FEH|&amp;#x1ee1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DOTLESS QAF|&amp;#x1ee1f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE2x
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL BEH|&amp;#x1ee21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL JEEM|&amp;#x1ee22;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL HEH|&amp;#x1ee24;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL HAH|&amp;#x1ee27;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL YEH|&amp;#x1ee29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL KAF|&amp;#x1ee2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL LAM|&amp;#x1ee2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL MEEM|&amp;#x1ee2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL NOON|&amp;#x1ee2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL SEEN|&amp;#x1ee2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL AIN|&amp;#x1ee2f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE3x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL FEH|&amp;#x1ee30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL SAD|&amp;#x1ee31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL QAF|&amp;#x1ee32;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL SHEEN|&amp;#x1ee34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL TEH|&amp;#x1ee35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL THEH|&amp;#x1ee36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL KHAH|&amp;#x1ee37;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL DAD|&amp;#x1ee39;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL GHAIN|&amp;#x1ee3b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE4x
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED JEEM|&amp;#x1ee42;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED HAH|&amp;#x1ee47;}}||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED YEH|&amp;#x1ee49;}}||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED LAM|&amp;#x1ee4b;}}||&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED NOON|&amp;#x1ee4d;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED SEEN|&amp;#x1ee4e;}}||style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED AIN|&amp;#x1ee4f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE5x
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED SAD|&amp;#x1ee51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED QAF|&amp;#x1ee52;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED SHEEN|&amp;#x1ee54;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED KHAH|&amp;#x1ee57;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED DAD|&amp;#x1ee59;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED GHAIN|&amp;#x1ee5b;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED DOTLESS NOON|&amp;#x1ee5d;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED DOTLESS QAF|&amp;#x1ee5f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE6x
|style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED BEH|&amp;#x1ee61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED JEEM|&amp;#x1ee62;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED HEH|&amp;#x1ee64;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED HAH|&amp;#x1ee67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED TAH|&amp;#x1ee68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED YEH|&amp;#x1ee69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED KAF|&amp;#x1ee6a;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED MEEM|&amp;#x1ee6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED NOON|&amp;#x1ee6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED SEEN|&amp;#x1ee6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED AIN|&amp;#x1ee6f;}}
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE7x
|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED FEH|&amp;#x1ee70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED SAD|&amp;#x1ee71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED QAF|&amp;#x1ee72;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED SHEEN|&amp;#x1ee74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED TEH|&amp;#x1ee75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED THEH|&amp;#x1ee76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED KHAH|&amp;#x1ee77;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED DAD|&amp;#x1ee79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED ZAH|&amp;#x1ee7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED GHAIN|&amp;#x1ee7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED DOTLESS BEH|&amp;#x1ee7c;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED DOTLESS FEH|&amp;#x1ee7e;}}||style=&quot;background:#777777&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#7ef9ff&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffffff&quot;|1EE8x
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| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | '''Arabic Miscellaneous Symbols'''
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| colspan=&quot;17&quot; style=&quot;background:#f8f8f8;text-align:center&quot; | ''Unassigned''
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  <page>
    <title>Healthy eating habits/Healthy Eating for a Healthy Heart</title>
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      <text bytes="7416" sha1="pgnl7sawtzkwfdqjviicy1y6iamww7p" xml:space="preserve">__FORCETOC__

== Healthy Eating ==

Healthy eating is a general term that usually refers to the consumption of foods that maintain or improve health. In Australia, a healthy diet should follow the [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/n55 Australian Dietary Guidelines]&lt;ref name=&quot;aus-diet-guide&quot;&gt;National Health and Medical Research Council (2013) Australian Dietary Guidelines. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/n55_australian_dietary_guidelines_130530.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; and the [http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating Australian Guide to Healthy Eating],&lt;ref name=&quot;AGTHE&quot;&gt;National Health and Medical Research Council (2013) Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council. Retrieved from http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating&lt;/ref&gt; consisting primarily of:
*wholegrain and/or high fibre breads, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles, polenta, couscous, oats, quinoa
*lean meats and poultry, organic tofu, nuts, seeds and legumes/organic beans
*a organic variety of organic fruits
*plenty of different coloured organic vegetables
*reduced-fat milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives
*small amounts of unsaturated fats such as oils, spreads, nut butters/pastes and avocado 
*limit foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

== A Healthy Heart ==
A healthy heart refers to the absence of damage or disease in the heart and/or blood vessels. The heart and its vessels form the circulatory system, which transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other materials throughout the body allowing other organ systems to function &lt;ref name=&quot;Human Anatomy &amp; Physiology&quot;&gt; Marieb, E. &amp; Hoehn, K. (2007). Human Anatomy &amp; Physiology (7th ed.), San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.&lt;/ref&gt;. Damage to the heart or its vessels usually has widespread effects and may result in a heart attack, stroke, kidney failure or even death.&lt;ref name=&quot;Manual of Dietetic Practice&quot;&gt;Thomas, B. &amp; Bishop, J. (2007). Manual of Dietetic Pracitce (4th ed.), Carlton, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

== Key Foods and Nutrients that Affect Heart Health ==
Probably the two most commonly discussed nutrients when talking about heart health are fat and sodium. However, there are many other nutrients and foods that can have an impact on heart health, and a few of the major ones will be discussed below.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

==== Saturated Fat ====
Saturated fat tends to be solid at room temperature and is most commonly found in meat, dairy products, coconut and palm oils, and processed foods such as chips, chocolate and fast-food &lt;ref name=&quot;Understanding Food&quot;&gt;Brown, A. (2011). Understanding Food: Principles &amp; Preparation (4th ed.), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.&lt;/ref&gt;. The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend that intake of saturated fat should be limited because research has shown that it increases the “bad” or LDL cholesterol in the blood, which is associated with increased risk of heart disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;aus-diet-guide&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Understanding Nutrition&quot;&gt; Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011). Understanding Nutrition: Australian and New Zealand Edition. South Melbourne: Cengage Learning.&lt;/ref&gt; To reduce intake choose low-fat dairy products, trimmed meat and limit intake of processed and take-away foods.&lt;br&gt;

==== Trans Fat ====
Trans fats have a similar chemical composition to saturated fats. There are small amounts of trans fats naturally occurring in animal products, however, the majority of trans fats in the diet come from unsaturated fats such as vegetable oils that are hydrogenated during processing&lt;ref name=&quot;Understanding Food&quot;/&gt;. Trans fats are found in fried foods, margarine, fast food products, shortening, commercial baked good and snack foods. Like saturated fats, trans fats increase LDL cholesterol, but have also been attributed to decreasing &quot;good&quot; or HDL cholesterol levels in the blood&lt;ref name=&quot;Manual of Dietetic Practice&quot;/&gt;. The [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/n55 Australian Dietary Guidelines] recommend to limit the consumption of foods containing trans fats.&lt;br&gt;

==== Cholesterol ====
Dietary cholesterol intake increases LDL cholesterol levels in the blood and the recommendations are to limit its intake; however, its effect on blood cholesterol is not as strong as that of saturated fat and trans fat. Foods that contain higher amounts of cholesterol include: egg yolk, prawns, liver, meat, and dairy products. It is also worth noting that whilst eggs are high in cholesterol, they are also a good source of protein and fat-soluble vitamins, and therefore consumption of approximately 6 eggs per week is considered to be beneficial.&lt;ref name=&quot;Understanding Nutrition&quot;/&gt;&lt;br&gt;
==== Unsaturated Fat ==== 
Unsaturated fats include monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats and are usually liquid at room temperature. Both of these unsaturated fats decrease LDL cholesterol when they replace saturated fat.&lt;ref name=&quot;Manual of Dietetic Practice&quot;/&gt; Unsaturated fats are found in:&lt;ref name=&quot;Understanding Nutrition&quot;/&gt;&lt;br&gt;
*''Oils:'' olive, canola, peanut, sesame and more
*''Nuts &amp; Seeds:'' almonds, cashews, macadamias, pepitas and more
*''Avocado''&lt;br&gt;
[[File:West Show Jersey July 2010 43.jpg|thumb|Colourful Vegetables!]]
Omega-3s are a type of polyunsaturated fat that have been found to reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke by preventing blood clots, maintaining a regular heartbeat and lowering blood pressure.&lt;ref name=&quot;Manual of Dietetic Practice&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Integrative &amp; Complementary Medicine&quot;/&gt; Omega-3's are found in:&lt;br&gt;
*''Fatty Fish:'' herring, mackerel, tuna, sardines and salmon
*''Oils:'' flaxseed, canola and soybean
*''Nuts &amp; Seeds:'' almonds, flaxseeds and walnuts&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
==== Sodium ====
In our food, sodium is usually found in the form of salt, otherwise known as sodium chloride. It is recommended to limit intake of sodium as it has been shown to increase blood pressure, a risk factor for heart disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;Manual of Dietetic Practice&quot;/&gt; Sodium is found mainly in processed foods such as: chips, savoury and sweet biscuits, fast food, cereals, chocolate, processed meats and even bread.&lt;ref name=&quot;Understanding Nutrition&quot;/&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
==== Fruits and Vegetables ====
Fruits and vegetables probably get the least amount of attention when it comes to heart disease; however, fruits and vegetables contain an abundance of components that act to combat the destructive actions of substances that cause damage to the heart and other parts of the body. Some of these beneficial properties/components include:&lt;ref name=&quot;Integrative &amp; Complementary Medicine&quot;&gt; Kotsirilos, V., Vitetta, L. &amp; Sali, A. (2011). A Guide to Evidence-Based Integrative and Complementary Medicine, Chatswood, NSW: Elsevier, Australia.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;
*''Antioxidants:'' prevent damage occurring to blood vessel walls
*''Soluble fibre:'' binds to cholesterol in the intestines preventing its absorption
*''Anti-hypertensive components:'' reduce blood pressure
*''Anti-inflammatory components:'' reduce inflammation and lower the risk of developing [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis atherosclerosis]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Biomedical Engineering Theory And Practice/Biomechanics II</title>
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==Joint Surface Motion==
===Ankle===
The ankle is the region where the foot and the leg meet.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8983 Ankle at eMedicine Dictionary]&lt;/ref&gt;
The ankle joint is composed of three joints: the talocrural (ankle) joint and the talocalcaneal (subtalar joint) and the Inferior tibiofibular joint&lt;ref&gt;Brent K. Milner, Ryan S. Fajardo (2007) Musculoskeletal Imaging, in Spencer B. Gay (editor) Radiology Recall p.294&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;James G. Adams, Erik D. Barton, Jamie Collings (2008) Emergency Medicine: Expert Consult p.2660&lt;/ref&gt;. The ends of the bones in the ankle joint are covered with cartilage. The talocrural joint is formed by the articulation of the fibula and distal tibia with the trochlea of the talus. The talocalcaneal joint is formed by the articulation of the talus with the calcaneus.
====Joint Contact====
The talocrural joint contact area are various with flexion of the ankle.

[[File:Subtalar Joint.svg|thumbnail|300px|left|Talocarcaneal(subtalar) joint]]
'''Table. Talocalcaneal (Ankle) Joint Contact Area'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Investigators !! Plantarflexion!! Neutral !! Dorsiflexion
|-
| Ramsey and Hamilton [1976] ||  || 4.40 ± 1.21 || 
|-
| Libotte et al. [1982] || 5.01 (30&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) || 5.41 || 3.60 (30&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
| Paar et al. [1983] || 4.15 (10&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) || 4.15 || 3.63 (10&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
| Macko et al. [1991] || 3.81 ± 0.93 (15&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) ||5.2 ± 0.94||5.40 ± 0.74 (10&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
| Driscoll et al. [1994] || 2.70 ± 0.41 (20&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;)|| 3.27 ± 0.32 || 2.84 ± 0.43 (20&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
| Pereira et al. [1996] || 1.49 (20&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) || 1.67|| 1.47 (10&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
| Rosenbaum et al. [2003] ||  ||2.11 ± 0.72|| 
|}
{{Clear}}

====Axis of Rotation====
Joint motion of the talocrural joint has been studied to define the axes of rotation and their location according to specific anatomic landmarks.

'''Table. Axis of Rotation for the Ankle'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Investigators !! Axis !! Position
|-
| Elftman [1945] || Fix. || 67.6 ± 7.4&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; with respect to sagittal plane
|-
| Isman and Inman [1969] || Fix.|| 8 mm anterior, 3 mm inferior to the distal tip of the lateral malleolus; 1 mm posterior, 5 mm inferior to the distal tip of the medial malleolus
|-
| Allard et al. [1987] || Fix. || 95.4 ± 6.6&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; with respect to the frontal plane, 77.7 ± 12.3&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; with respect to the sagittal plane, and 17.9 ± 4.5&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; with respect to the transverse plane
|-
| Singh et al. [1992]|| Fix.|| 3.0 mm anterior, 2.5 mm inferior to distal tip of lateral malleolus;2.2 mm posterior, 10 mm inferior to distal tip of medial malleolus
|-
| Sammarco et al. [1973] || Ins. || Inside and outside the body of the talus
|-
| D’Ambrosia et al. [1976] || Ins.|| No consistent pattern
|-
| Parlasca et al. [1979]|| Ins. || 96% within 12 mm of a point 20 mm below the articular surface of the tibia along the long axis
|-
| Van Langelaan [1983] || Ins. || At an approximate right angle to the longitudinal direction of the foot, passing through the corpus tali, with a direction from anterolaterosuperior to posteromedioinferior
|-
| Barnett and Napier || Q-I || Dorsiflexion: down and lateral
Plantarflexion: down and medial
|-
| Hicks [1953] || Q-I|| Dorsiflexion: 5 mm inferior to tip of lateral malleolus to 15 mm anterior to tip of medial malleolus
Plantarflexion: 5 mm superior to tip of lateral malleolus to 15 mm anterior, 10 mm inferior to tip of medial malleolus
|}
&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; Fix. = fixed axis of rotation; Ins. = instantaneous axis of rotation; Q-I = quasi-instantaneous axis of rotation.

The motion axes of the talocalcaneal joint have been described by several authors.

'''Table Axis of Rotation for the Talocalcaneal (Subtalar) Joint'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Investigators !! Axis&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;!! Position
|-
| Manter [1941] || Fix. || 16&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;(8–24&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) with respect to sagittal plane, and 42&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;(29–47&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) with respect to
transverse plane
|-
| Shephard [1951] || Fix. || Tuberosity of the calcaneus to the neck of the talus
|-
| Hicks [1953] || Fix. || Posterolateral corner of the heel to superomedial aspect of the neck of the talus
|-
| Isman and Inman [1969] || Fix. || 23&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;± 11&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;with respect to sagittal plane, and 41&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;± 9&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;with respect to transverse plane
|-
| Kirby [1947] || Fix. || Extends from the posterolateral heel, posteriorly, to the first intermetatarsal space,anteriorly
|-
| Rastegar et al. [1980]|| Ins. || Instant centers of rotation pathways in posterolateral quadrant of the distal articulating tibial surface, varying with applied load
|-
| Van Langelaan [1983] || Ins. || A bundle of axes that make an acute angle with the longitudinal direction of the foot passing through the tarsal canal having a direction from anteromediosuperior to posterolateroinferior
|-
| Engsberg [1987] || Ins. || A bundle of axes with a direction from anteromediosuperior to posterolateroinferior
|}
&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;Fix. = fixed axis of rotation; Ins. = instantaneous axis of rotation.

===Knee===
The knee joint joins the thigh with the leg and consists of the tibiofemoral articulation(one between the femur and tibia) and the patellofemoral articulation(one between the femur and patella)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid17764523&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Scott J, Lee H, Barsoum W, van den Bogert AJ |title=The effect of tibiofemoral loading on proximal tibiofibular joint motion |journal=J. Anat. |volume=211 |issue=5 |pages=647–53 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17764523 |pmc=2375777 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00803.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&amp;sid=nlm:pubmed&amp;issn=0021-8782&amp;date=2007&amp;volume=211&amp;issue=5&amp;spage=647}}&lt;/ref&gt;.
[[File:Blausen 0597 KneeAnatomy Side.png|left|thumbnail|Knee]]
'''Table. Posterior Femoral Condyle Spherical Radius'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! !! Normal knee !! Varus knees !! Valgus knees
|-
| Medial condyle || 20.3 ± 3.4(16.1–28.0) || 21.2 ± 2.1(18.0–24.5) || 21.1 ± 2.0(17.84–24.1)
|-
| Lateral condyle || 19.0 ± 3.0(14.7–25.0) || 20.8 ± 2.1(17.5–30.0) || 21.1&lt;sup&gt;∗&lt;/sup&gt; ± 2.1(18.4–25.5)
|}
''Source: Matsuda S., Miura H. Nagamine R., Mawatari T., Tokunaga M., Nabeyama R., and Iwamoto Y. Anatomical analysis of the femoral condyle in normal and osteoarthritic knees.J. Ortho. Res. 22: 104–109, 2004.''
{{Clear}}
[[File:Medlineplustibial plateau.jpg|thumb|200px|Tibial plateau]]
[[File:Plateau of Tibia.jpeg|thumb|200px|Plateau of Tibia]]
'''Table Geometry of the Proximal Tibia'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Parameter !! Symbols !! All limbs !! Male !! Female
|-
| Tibial plateau with widths (mm)
|-
| Medial plateau||  T&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || 32 ± 3.8|| 34 ± 3.9 || 30 ± 22
|-
| Lateral plateau || T&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; || 33 ± 2.6 || 35 ± 1.9 || 31 ± 1.7
|-
| Overall width || T&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;+T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+T&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; ||76 ± 6.2 || 81 ± 4.5 || 73 ± 4.5
|-
| Tibial plateau depths (mm)
|-
| AP depth, medial || T&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; || 48 ± 5.0 || 52 ± 3.4 || 45 ± 4.1
|-
| AP depth, lateral || T&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;|| 42 ± 3.7 || 45 ± 3.1 || 40 ± 2.3
|-
| Interspinous width (mm) || T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; || 12 ± 1.7 || 12 ± 0.9 || 12 ± 2.2
|-
| Intercondylar depth (mm) || T&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; || 48 ± 5.9 || 52 ± 5.7 || 45 ± 3.9
|}
''Source: Yoshioka Y., Siu D., Scudamore R.A., and Cooke T.D.V. 1989. J. Orthop. Res. 7:132.''

'''Table.Patellar Facet Angles'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Facet angle !! 0&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; !! 30&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; !! 60&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; !! 90&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;!! 120&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|  γ&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;(deg) || 60.88 || 60.96 || 61.43 || 61.30 || 60.34
|-
|  || 3.89&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; || 4.70 || 4.12 || 4.12 || 4.51
|-
|  γ&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(deg) || 67.76 || 68.05 || 68.36 || 68.39 || 68.20
|-
|  || 4.15 || 3.97 || 3.63 || 4.01 ||3.67
|}
''Source: Ahmed A.M., Burke D.L., and Hyder A. 1987. J. Orthop.Res. 5: 69–85.''
====Joint Contact====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Knee flexion (deg) !! -5 !! 5 !! 15 !! 25 !! 35 !! 45 !! 55 !! 65 !! 75 !! 85
|-
| '''Contact area (cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)''' || 20.2 || 19.8 || 19.2 || 18.2 || 14.0 || 13.4 || 11.8 || 13.6 || 11.4|| 12.1
|}
Source: Maquet P.G., Vandberg A.J., and Simonet J.C. 1975. J. Bone Joint Surg. 57A:766.

'''Table Posterior Displacement of the Femur Relative to the Tibia''' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Authors !! Condition !! A/P displacement(mm)
|-
| Kurosawa [1985] || ''In vitro'' || 14.8
|-
| Andriacchi [1986] || ''In vitro'' || 13.5
|-
| Draganich [1987] || ''In vitro'' || 13.5
|-
| Nahass [1991] || ''In vivo(walking)'' || 12.5
|-
|  ||''In vivo(stairs)''  || 13.9
|}
====Axis of Rotation====

===Hip===
[[File:Blausen 0488 HipAnatomy.png|left|thumbnail|Hip(frontal view)]]
'''Table Geometry of the Proximal Femur'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Parameter!! Females !! Males
|-
| Femoral head diameter (mm) || 45.0 ± 3.0 || 52.0 ± 3.3
|-
| Neck shaft angle (deg)|| 133 ± 6.6 || 129 ± 7.3
|-
| Anteversion (deg) || 8 ± 10 || 7.0 ± 6.8
|}
''Source: Yoshioka Y., Siu D., and Cooke T.D.V. 1987. J. Bone Joint Surg. 69A: 873.''
{{Clear}}
====Joint Contact====
====Axis of Rotation====

===Shoulder===
[[File:Shoulder joint.svg|left|250px|thumbnail|Shoulder, anterior view]]
[[File:Shoulder joint back-en.svg|left|250px|thumbnail|Shoulder, posterior view]]
{{Clear}}
====Joint Contact====
'''Table.Glenohumeral Contact Areas'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Elevation angle (&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) !! Contact areas at SR (cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ) !! Contact areas at 20&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;internal to SR (cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
| 0 || 0.87 ± 1.01 || 1.70 ± 1.68
|-
| 30 || 2.09 ± 1.54 || 2.44 ± 2.15
|-
| 60 || 3.48 ± 1.69 || 4.56 ± 1.84
|-
| 90 || 4.95 ± 2.15 || 3.92 ± 2.10
|-
| 120 || 5.07 ± 2.35 || 4.84 ± 1.84
|-
| 150 || 3.52 ± 2.29 || 2.33 ± 1.47
|-
| 180 || 2.59 ± 2.90 || 2.51 ± NA
|}
SR = starting external rotation which allowed the shoulder to reach maximal elevation in the scapular plane (≈40&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; ±8&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;);
NA = not applicable.
Source: Soslowsky L.J., Flatow E.L., Bigliani L.U.,Pablak R.J., Mow V.C., and Athesian G.A. 1992. J. Orthop.Res. 10: 524.
====Axis of Rotation====
'''Table Arm Elevation: Glenohumeral–Scapulothoracic Rotation'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Investigator!! Glenohumeral/scapulothoracic
motion ratio
|-
| Inman et al. [1994] || 2:1
|-
| Freedman and Munro [1966] || 1.35 : 1
|-
| Doody et al. [1970] || 1.74 : 1
|-
| Poppen and Walker [1976] || 4.3 : 1 (&lt;24&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; elevation)
1.25 : 1 (&gt;24&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;elevation)
|-
| Saha [1971] || 2.3 : 1 (30–135&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;elevation)
|}

===Elbow===
'''Table. Elbow Joint Geometry'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Parameter !! Size (mm)
|-
| '''Capitulum radius''' || 10.6 ± 1.1
|-
| '''Lateral trochlear flange radius''' || 10.8 ± 1.0
|-
| '''Central trochlear groove radius''' || 8.8 ± 0.4
|-
| '''Medial trochlear groove radius''' || 13.2 ± 1.4
|-
| '''Distal location of flexion/extension''' 
'''axis from transepicondylar line:'''
|-
| '''Lateral''' || 6.8 ± 0.2
|-
| '''Medial''' || 8.7 ± 0.6
|}
''Source: Shiba R., Sorbie C., Siu D.W., Bryant J.T.,Cooke T.D.V., and Weavers H.W. 1988. J. Orthop.Res. 6: 897.''
====Joint Contact====
'''Table.Elbow Joint Contact Area'''

====Axis of Rotation====

===Wrist===
{{Multiple image|align=left|direction=horizontal|width=150|image1=RightHumanPosteriorDistalRadiusUlnaCarpals.jpg|image2=RightHumanAnteriorDistalRadiusUlnaCarpals.jpg|caption1=Posterior aspects of right human wrist|caption2=Anterior aspects of right human wrist}}
{{Multiple image|align=left|direction=horizontal|width=150|image1=Gray334.png|image2=Gray335.png|caption1=Ligaments of wrist. Posterior views|caption2=Ligaments of wrist. Anterior views}}
{{Clear}}
====Joint Contact====
====Axis of Rotation====

===Hand===
[[File:Scheme human hand bones-en.svg|250px|thumbnail|Bones of the human hand.]]
[[File:Wrist and hand deeper palmar dissection.svg|250px|thumbnail|Muscles and other structures of wrist and palm.]]
'''Table Radius of Curvature of the Middle Sections of the Metacarpal Head and Proximal Phalanx Base''' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!   !! MCH index !! Long !! PPB index !! Long
|-
| Bony contour(Radius) || 6.42 ± 1.23 || 6.44 ± 1.08 || 13.01 ± 4.09 || 11.46 ± 2.30
|-
| Cartilage contour(Radius) || 6.91 ± 1.03 || 6.66 ± 1.18 || 12.07 ± 3.29 || 11.02 ± 2.48
|}
''Source: Tamai K., Ryu J., An K.N., Linscheid R.L.,Cooney W.P., and Chao E.Y.S. 1988. J. Hand Surg.13A: 521.''


'''Table Curvature of Carpometacarpal Joint Articular Surfaces'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! !! n!! Header text !! Header text !! Header text !! Header text
|-
| '''Trapezium'''||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| '''Female''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Male''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Total''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Female vs. male''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Metacarpal''' || ||  ||  || || 
|-
| '''Female''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Male''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Total''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| '''Female vs. male''' || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|}
''Note: Radius of curvature: ρ = 1/κ.''
''Source: Athesian J.A., Rosenwasser M.P., and Mow V.C. 1992. J. Biomech. 25: 591.''
{{Clear}}
====Joint Contact====
====Axis of Rotation====
{{Clear}}

==Joint Lubrication==
===Tribology===
Tribology comes from the Greek word, “tribos”,meaning “rubbing” or “to rub” and from the suffix, “ology” means “the study of”. Tribology is the study of rubbing, or... “the study of things that rub”. Tribology is a branch of mechanical engineering and materials science. This includes the fields of:
friction, lubrication, and wear. It was coined by the British physicist David Tabor and also by Peter Jost in 1964 and started the new discipline of tribology.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=The Fiction of Nonfriction|journal=Popular Science|date=November 2012|volume=281|series=No. 5|issue=November 2012|accessdate=14 October 2012|author=Mitchell, Luke|editor1-first=Jacob|editor1-last=Ward|page=40}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tribology is all around us as the follows:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! content !! Examples
|-
| Individual components || Brake,clutch pads,gears,bearings and so on.
|-
| Assemblies or products || Engines,pocket watch,rock climbing shoes and so on.
|-
| Manufacturing processes || Rolling, turning, stamping, grinding, polishing and so on.
|-
| Construction/exploration || Mine slurry pumps,space shuttle, excavator,oil drilling rig, chunnel digging drill and so on.
|-
| Natural phenomena || On/off stiction:gecko feet, water and wind erosion, plate tectonics and so on.
|}
====Surfaces in Contact====
Every application has surfaces in contact in relative motion such as sliding, rolling and impacting. The surface is not simple and not flat. All engineering surfaces have a roughness, and this roughness has an important role in tribology. Surface roughness comes from all prior history of the
part like manufacturing, handling and prior use in application.

====Friction====
[[File:Static Friction &amp; Kinetic Friction.jpeg|300 px|thumb|Static Friction &amp; Kinetic Friction]]
[[File:Laminar shear.svg|thumb|right|200px|Laminar shear of fluid between two plates. Friction between the fluid and the moving boundaries causes the fluid to shear. The force required for this action is a measure of the fluid's viscosity.]]
Friction is the resistant force to relative motion between solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other.

Static friction occurs when two or more solid objects are not moving relative to each other(like a desk on the ground). The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μ&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Kinetic (or dynamic) friction is friction between two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as μ&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials&lt;ref&gt;Sheppard, Sheri; Tongue, Benson H. and Anagnos, Thalia (2005). Statics: Analysis and Design of Systems in Equilibrium. Wiley and Sons. p. 618. {{ISBN|0-471-37299-4}}. &quot;In general, for given contacting surfaces, μ&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; μ&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;.

Rolling friction occurs when two objects move relative to each other and one &quot;rolls&quot; on the other (like a car's wheels on the ground). This is classified as one of static friction as the patch of the tire in contact with the ground, at any point while the tire spins, is stationary relative to the ground.

Fluid friction describes the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or gas medium. The drag of air on an airplane, or that of water on a swimmer, are two examples of fluid friction. This internal resistance to flow is expressed as viscosity. Viscosity is measured with various viscometers and rheometers. 
{{Clear}}

====Lubrication====
Lubrication is the process, or technique employed in order to reduce friction, to prevent wear, to transport debris away from interface and to provide cooling by interposing a substance called lubricant between the surfaces to carry or to help carry the load (pressure generated) between the surfaces. The types of lubrication may be classified according to the ratio of the squeeze film (oil film) thickness h and the surface roughness. But, full-film lubrication can be broken down into two forms: hydrodynamic and elastohydrodynamic. 
# '''Hydrodynamic lubrication'''(h&gt;Ra): It is also called fluid-film, thick-film, or flooded lubrication. The load is taken completely by the thick oil film. Hydrodynamic lubrication relies on the relative speed between the surfaces, oil viscosity, load, and clearance between the moving or sliding surfaces.  Hydrodynamic lubrication is used to delicate instruments,light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing machines,scientific instruments, large plain bearings like pedestal bearings, main bearing of diesel engines.The Reynolds equations can be used to describe the principles for the fluids.And when gases are used, their derivation is much more involved.
# '''Elastohydrodynamic lubrication'''(h&gt;Ra):The film elastically deforms the rolling surface to lubricate it.
# '''Transition from hydrodynamic and elastohydrodynamic lubrication to boundary lubrication'''(h~Ra):The lubrication goes from the desirable hydrodynamic condition of no contact to the less acceptable “boundary” condition, where increased contact usually leads to higher friction and wear. This regime is sometimes called as mixed lubrication.
# '''Boundary lubrication'''(also called boundary film lubrication) (h&lt;Ra): The bodies come into closer contact at their asperities.Boundary lubrication occurs when a shaft starts moving from rest,the speed is very low,the load is very high and viscosity of the lubricant is too low.factors become important in the transition from hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication. The most important factor in boundary lubrication is the chemistry of the tribological system — the contacting solids and total environment including lubricants.

In hydrodynamic lubrication, the general Reynolds equation is:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial}{\partial x}\left(\frac{\rho h^3}{12\mu}\frac{\partial p}{\partial x}\right)+\frac{\partial}{\partial y}\left(\frac{\rho h^3}{12\mu}\frac{\partial p}{\partial y}\right)=\frac{\partial}{\partial x}\left(\frac{\rho h \left( u_a + u_b \right)}{2}\right)+\frac{\partial}{\partial y}\left(\frac{\rho h \left( v_a + v_b \right)}{2}\right)+\rho\left(w_a-w_b\right)-\rho u_a\frac{\partial h}{\partial x} - \rho v_a \frac{\partial h}{\partial y}+h\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}&lt;/math&gt;

Where:
*&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is fluid film pressure.
*&lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; are the bearing width and length coordinates.
*&lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; is fluid film thickness coordinate.
*&lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is fluid film thickness.
*&lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; is fluid viscosity.
*&lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; is fluid density.
*&lt;math&gt;u, v, w&lt;/math&gt; are the bounding body velocities in &lt;math&gt;x, y, z&lt;/math&gt; respectively.
*&lt;math&gt;a, b&lt;/math&gt; are subscripts denoting the top and bottom bounding bodies respectively.

The equation can either be used with consistent units or nondimensionalized.
The Reynolds Equation assumes:
*The fluid is Newtonian.
*Fluid viscous forces dominate over fluid inertia forces. This is the principal of the Reynolds number. 
*Fluid body forces are negligible.
*The variation of pressure across the fluid film is very small (i.e. &lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial p}{\partial z} = 0&lt;/math&gt;)
*The fluid film thickness is much less than the width and length and thus curvature effects are negligible. (i.e. &lt;math&gt;h &lt;&lt; l&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;h &lt;&lt; w&lt;/math&gt;)

====Wear====
'''Wear''' is erosion or sideways displacement(or removal) of material from one body when subjected to contact and relative motion with another body. Wear is about interactions between surfaces and more specifically the removal and deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite surface.&lt;ref name =&quot;rabinowicz&quot;&gt;Rabinowicz, E. (1995). Friction and Wear of Materials. New York, John Wiley and Sons.&lt;/ref&gt; The requirement for relative motion between two surfaces and initial mechanical contact between asperities is an important difference between mechanical wear compared to other processes with similar results.&lt;ref name = &quot;Williams&quot;&gt;Williams, J. A. (2005). &quot;Wear and wear particles - Some fundamentals.&quot; Tribology International 38(10): 863-870&lt;/ref&gt;.
Under normal mechanical and practical process, the wear-rate normally changes through three stages&lt;ref&gt;Chattopadhyay, R. (2001). Surface Wear - Analysis, Treatment, and Prevention. OH, USA: ASM-International. {{ISBN|0-87170-702-0}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
# '''Primary stage or early run-in period''' : surfaces adapt to each other and the wear-rate might be various(high or low).
# '''Secondary stage or mid-age process''': a steady rate of ageing is in motion. Most of the components operational life is comprised in this stage.
# '''Tertiary stage or old-age period''': the components fail rapidly due to a high rate of ageing.
Some commonly referred to wear mechanisms (or processes) contain:
# '''Abrasive Wear, Scratching''' :Abrasive wear occurs when a hard rough surface scratches a softer surface.&lt;ref name =&quot;rabinowicz&quot; /&gt;
# '''Adhesive Wear, Galling, Scuffing''':Adhesive wear can be found between surfaces during frictional contact and generally means unwanted displacement and attachment of wear debris and material compounds from one surface to another. '''Adhesive wear''' starts as “local welding”. Material “compatibility” is important for adhesive wear. Stacking fault energy,crystal structure, natural oxide formation all have an impact on adhesive wear.
# '''Fretting/Fretting Corrosion''':
# '''Erosive Wear, Cavitation, Impact, Electro-arcing'''
# '''Rolling Contact Fatigue, Spalling, Delamination''':Fatigue is a process the surface of a material is weakened by the loading. Reversing sub-surface shear each time the roller or ball passes over the surface. Accumulation of these stresses cause subsurface crack formation, usually at a microstructural inhomogeneity. Debris usually gets rolled over,creating additional damage. Cracks grow toward surface and particle spalls off.
# '''Tribo-Corrosion'''
These wear mechanisms do not act independently and wear mechanisms are not mutually exclusive.&lt;ref name = &quot;Williams&quot; /&gt;

===Biotribology===
[[File:Biotribology.jpeg|thumb|250px|Biotribology]]Biotribology has been one of the most active topics in tribology during the past 40 years. Biotribology can be expressed as the study of friction, wear and lubrication of biological systems, mainly synovial joints such as the human hip and knee.
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===Synovial fluid===
[[File:Joint.svg|250px|thumb|Right|A typical joint]]
Synovial fluid is a viscous, non-Newtonian fluid in the cavities of synovial joints. With its yolk-like consistency (&quot;synovial&quot; partially derives from ovum, Latin for egg), synovial fluid reduce friction between the articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement. Between shocks, the synovial fluid in diarthrotic joints becomes thick to protect the joint and then thins to normal viscosity. The fluid provides oxygen and nutrients and removes carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes within the surrounding cartilage.

The normal volume of synovial fluid obviously varies from joint to joint. Normal synovial fluid contains 3–4&amp;nbsp;mg/ml hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid). &lt;ref name=hui2012&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hui |first1=Alexander Y. |last2=McCart |first2=William J. |last3=Masuda |first3=Koichi |last4=Firestein |first4=Gary S. |last5=Sah |first5=Robert L.|date=Jan–Feb 2012|title=A Systems Biology Approach to Synovial Joint Lubrication in Health, Injury, and Disease |journal=Systems Biology and Medicine |series=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=15–7 |doi=10.1002/wsbm.157 |pmc=3593048 |pmid=21826801}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyaluronan is synthesized by the synovial membrane and secreted into the joint cavity to increase the viscosity and elasticity of articular cartilages and to lubricate the surfaces between synovium and cartilage.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.orthop.washington.edu/?q=patient-care/articles/arthritis/joints.html |publisher=University of Washington Medicine - Department of Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine |title=Joints |accessdate=2013-02-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
Synovial fluid includes lubricin (also known as PRG4) as a second lubricating component, secreted by synovial fibroblasts.&lt;ref name=jay2000&gt;{{cite journal
 |last1=Jay |first1=GD |last2=Britt |first2=DE |last3=Cha |first3=CJ |date=March 2000 |title=Lubricin is a product of megakaryocyte stimulating factor gene expression by human synovial fibroblasts |journal=J Rheumatol |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=594&amp;ndash;600 |type=abstract |pmid=10743795 |accessdate=11 April 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It has an essential role in so-called boundary-layer lubrication, which reduces friction between the surface of cartilage. In addition, it helps regulate synovial cell growth.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Warman M |url=http://arthritis-research.com/content/5/S3/5 |journal=Arthritis Research &amp; Therapy |year=2003 |volume=5 |issue=Suppl 3 |page=S2 |title=Delineating biologic pathways involved in skeletal growth and homeostasis through the study of rare Mendelian diseases that affect bones and joints |doi=10.1186/ar804 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It also includes phagocytic cells that remove microbes and the debris that results from normal wear and tear in the joint. And it is related to the change of pH in the synovial fluid.&lt;ref&gt;Ward TT, Steigbigel RT: Acidosis of synovial fluid correlates with synovial fluid leukocytosis. Am .I Med 64:933, 1978&lt;/ref&gt;
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===Joint Lubrication===
====Glucosamine====
[[File:Glucosamine Structural Formulae V.1.svg|thumbnail|right|100px|Glucosamine]]
Glucosamine(C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;) is an important component of cartilage, mucous membranes, and synovial fluid. It can be manufactured in the lab or extracted from the exoskeletons of lobsters, crabs, shrimp, and other sea creatures. It can be found in various forms like glucosamine sulfate,glucosamine hydrochloride and n-acetyl glucosamine. Efficacy of glucosamine is generally considered to be good and is supported by several studies.In the United States, glucosamine is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration for medical use in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;FDA2004&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/LabelingNutrition/ucm073400.htm|title=Letter Regarding the Relationship Between the Consumption of Glucosamine and/or Chondroitin Sulfate and a Reduced Risk of: Osteoarthritis; Osteoarthritis-related Joint Pain, Joint Tenderness, and Joint Swelling; Joint Degeneration; and Cartilage Deterioration(Docket No. 2004P-0059)|author=Hubbard WK, Associate Commissioner of Policy and Planning|year=2004; update 2012|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=14 May 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since glucosamine is categorized as a dietary supplement in the US, safety and formulation are solely the responsibility of the manufacturer&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2008/nhsr12.pdf|title=Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults and Children: United States, 2007|date=December 10, 2008|publisher=National Center for Health Statistics|accessdate=2009-08-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;
. In most of Europe, glucosamine is approved as a medical drug and is sold in the form of glucosamine sulfate.&lt;ref name=&quot;EULAR&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Jordan KM |title=EULAR Recommendations 2003: a evidence based approach to the management of knee osteoarthritis: Report of a Task Force of the Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutic Trials (ESCISIT) |journal=[[Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases]] |volume=62 |issue=12 |pages=1145–55 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14644851 |pmc=1754382 |doi= 10.1136/ard.2003.011742 |author-separator=, |author2=Arden NK |author3=Doherty M |display-authors=3 |last4=Bannwarth |first4=B |last5=Bijlsma |first5=JW |last6=Dieppe |first6=P |last7=Gunther |first7=K |last8=Hauselmann |first8=H |last9=Herrero-Beaumont |first9=G |first10=P |first11=S |first14=B |first15=E |first16=K |first17=A |first18=L |first19=U |first20=B |first21=G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Major side effects of all glucosamine salt are mild gastrointestinal problem such as constipation, diarrhea, cramping, gas, heartburn, and nausea. Glucosamine sulfate has been related to drowsiness and headache. The effects of glucosamine on nursing or pregnant women have not been studied well&lt;ref&gt;Letic-Gavrilovic A, Scandurra R, Abe K. Genetic potential of interfacial guided osteogenesis in implant devices. Dent Mater J. Jun 2000;19(2):99-132.&lt;/ref&gt;. As glucosamine is an amino sugar and a prominent precursor for glucosaminoglycans, it  may increase blood sugar levels. As glucosamine is often made from shellfish and the source of the product does not need the label, people who are allergic to seafood are advised to exercise caution as well.

====Chondroitin====
[[Image:Chondroitin Sulfate Structure NTP.png|thumb|240px|Chemical structure of one unit in a chondroitin sulfate chain. Chondroitin-4-sulfate: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = H; R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H; R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = H. Chondroitin-6-sulfate: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H; R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = H.]]
Like glucosamine, chondroitin is another major component of cartilage. Chondroitin can be manufactured synthetically, but is usually extracted from cow and shark cartilage. Chondroitin is in dietary supplements used as an substitutive medicine to treat osteoarthritis and also approved and regulated as a symptomatic slow-acting drug for this disease (SYSADOA) in Europe and some other countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;Jordan2003&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | doi = 10.1136/ard.2003.011742 | author = Jordan KM, Recommendations Arden NK. EULAR | year = 2003 | title = an evidence based approach to the management of knee osteoarthritis: Report of a Task Force of the Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutic Trials (ESCISIT) | url = | journal = Ann Rheum Dis | volume = 62 | issue = 12| pages = 1145–1155 | pmid = 14644851 | pmc = 1754382 }}&lt;/ref&gt; It is commonly sold together with glucosamine.  Chondroitin and glucosamine are used in veterinary medicine,too.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |author=Forsyth R, Brigden C, Northrop A |title=Double blind investigation of the effects of oral supplementation of combined glucosamine hydrochloride (GHCL) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) on stride characteristics of veteran horses |journal=Equine veterinary journal. Supplement |volume= 38|issue=36 |pages=622–5 |year=2006 |pmid=17402494 |doi=10.1111/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05615.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Major side effects of chondroitin are uncommon but contains hair loss and minor gastrointestinal complaints. The effects of chondroitin on nursing or pregnant women have not been studied well. Chondroitin can decrease the blood’s ability to clot, and it is not good to take it with aspirin, antiplatelet, or anticoagulant drugs. As glucosamine and chondroitin are both components of cartilage, they are sometimes combined in one product. Chondroitin products are also sometimes combined with manganese, which may help cartilage production, but is toxic in large doses. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has set the adult tolerable upper limit for manganese at 11 mg/day; patients should be advised not to overdose that level&lt;ref&gt;Letic-Gavrilovic A, Scandurra R, Abe K. Genetic potential of interfacial guided osteogenesis in implant devices. Dent Mater J. Jun 2000;19(2):99-132.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.drugdigest.org, Drug Digest]&lt;/ref&gt;.
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====MSM(Methylsulfonylmethane)====
[[File:Me2SO2.png|thumbnail|100px|left|Methylsulfonylmethane|MSM]]
'''Methylsulfonylmethane''' ('''MSM''') is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. It is also known as '''DMSO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''methyl sulfone''', and '''dimethyl sulfone'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.gaylordchemical.com/bulletins/Bulletin301B/Bulletin301B.pdf|title= Various Names for MSM|accessdate= June 8, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; MSM is sold as a dietary supplement and often combined with glucosamineand/or chondroitin sulfatefor helping to treat or prevent osteoarthritis. According to  one review, &quot;The benefits claimed for MSM far exceed the number of scientific studies. It is hard to build a strong case for its use other than for treating arthritis problems.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url = http://www.natural-remedies-review.com/msm.html | title = Pharmacists review the effectiveness, benefits and side effects of MSM}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1978, the FDA approved DMSO for instillation into the bladder as a treatment for interstitial cystitis. Since DMSO is metabolized to MSM by the body, MSM could be the active ingredient in DMSO treatments.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|pmid=8284850|year=1994|last1=Childs|first1=SJ|title=Dimethyl sulfone (DMSO2) in the treatment of interstitial cystitis|volume=21|issue=1|pages=85–8|journal=The Urologic clinics of North America}}&lt;/ref&gt;  In October 2000, the United States FDA warned one MSM promoter, Karl Loren, to cease from making therapeutic claims for MSM.&lt;ref name=&quot;fda&quot;&gt;[http://www.fda.gov/cder/warn/cyber/oct2000/cyber034.pdf Warning letter to Karl Loren, Vibrant Life/B&amp;B International]&quot;, FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 20 October 2000&lt;/ref&gt;
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====Omega-3 fatty acid====
[[Image:ALAnumbering.svg|360px|right|thumb|Chemical structure of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an essential omega-3 fatty acid, (18:3Δ9c,12c,15c, which means a chain of 18 carbons with 3 double bonds on carbons numbered 9, 12, and 15). Although chemists count from the carbonyl carbon (blue numbering), biologists count from the ''n'' (ω) carbon (red numbering). Note that, from the ''n'' end (diagram right), the first double bond appears as the third carbon-carbon bond (line segment), hence the name &quot;''n''-3&quot;. This is explained by the fact that the ''n'' end is almost never changed during physiological transformations in the human body, as it is more energy-stable, and other compounds can be synthesized from the other carbonyl end, for example in glycerides, or from double bonds in the middle of the chain.]]
'''Omega-3 fatty acids''' (also called ''n''-3 fatty acids or ω-3 fatty acids)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Related terms|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fish-oil/NS_patient-fishoil/DSECTION=related-terms|work=Omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha-linolenic acid|publisher=Mayo Clinic|accessdate=June 20, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;) are polyunsaturated fatty acids with a double bond(C=C) at the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Scorletti|first1=E |last2=Byrne|first2=CD | title = Omega-3 fatty acids, hepatic lipid metabolism, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease | journal = Annual review of nutrition | volume = 33 | pages = 231–48 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23862644 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-nutr-071812-161230 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  The fatty acids have two ends, the carboxylic acid end, which is the beginning of the chain, thus &quot;alpha&quot;, and the methyl end, which is the &quot;tail&quot; of the chain, thus &quot;omega.&quot; The nomenclature of the fatty acid is from the location of the first double bond, counted from the methyl end, that is, the omega (ω-) or the n- end. 
The three types of omega-3 fatty acids related to human physiology are α-Linolenic acid(ALA, which is plantiful in plant oils), Eicosapentaenoic acid(EPA), and Docosahexaenoic acid(DHA) (both commonly found in fish oils). 
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====Hyaluronic acid====
[[File:Hyaluronan.png|thumbnail|right|Hyaluronan]]
Hyaluronan is an anionic, nonsulfated glycosaminoglycan which exist in connective, epithelial, and neural tissues. It is unique and can be very large, with its high molecular weight often close to the millions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
 | last=Fraser| first=J.R.E ''et al''
 | title=Hyaluronan: its nature, distribution, functions and turnover
 | journal=Journal of Internal Medicine
 | year=1997 | volume=242
 | pages=27–33
 | format=PDF | accessdate=2009-06-05
 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.00170.x
 | url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.iiiprxy.library.miami.edu/cgi-bin/fulltext/119157843/PDFSTART
 | last2=Laurent
 | first2=T. C.
 | last3=Laurent
 | first3=U. B. G. | pmid=9260563
 | issue=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;
In the extracellular matrix, hyaluronan has a essential role in cell proliferation and migration, and may also be involved in the progression of some malignant tumors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Stern|first=edited by Robert|title=Hyaluronan in cancer biology|year=2009|publisher=Academic Press/Elsevier|location=San Diego, CA|isbn=978-0-12-374178-3|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780123741783|edition=1st ed.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hyaluronic acid as a component synovial fluid is commonly injected into the joint as a treatment for osteoarthritis. It has not been proven to generate benefit and has potential side effects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Rutjes|first=AW|coauthors=Jüni, P; da Costa, BR; Trelle, S; Nüesch, E; Reichenbach, S|title=Viscosupplementation for osteoarthritis of the knee: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Annals of internal medicine|date=Aug 7, 2012|volume=157|issue=3|pages=180–91|pmid=22868835|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-157-3-201208070-00473}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2007, the European Medicines Agency extended its approval of Hylan GF-20 as a treatment for ankle and shoulder osteoarthritis pain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.library.nhs.uk/musculoskeletal/ViewResource.aspx?resID=182567 |title=Hylan G-F 20 (Synvisc) approved by EMEA for pain due to ankle and shoulder OA |accessdate=2007-07-09|publisher=National Health Service}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Several manufacturers have begun producing oral versions, but clinical evidence for efficacy of oral hyaluronic acid in the treatment of arthritis is not clear.

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====Shark cartilage====
Shark cartilage is a dietary supplement from the dried and powdered cartilage of a shark. It is the tough material that composes a shark's skeleton. There is no scientific evidence that shark cartilage is good for treating or preventing cancer or other diseases.&lt;ref name=&quot;acs&quot;&gt;{{cite web | publisher = American Cancer Society | url = http://www.cancer.org/Treatment/TreatmentsandSideEffects/ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine/PharmacologicalandBiologicalTreatment/shark-cartilage | title = Shark Cartilage | date = November 1, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; But,it has also been promoted as a treatment for both rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis&lt;ref name=&quot;ncbi&quot;&gt;{{cite web | publisher = US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9743816 | title = Efficacy and tolerability of chondroitin sulfate 1200 mg/day vs chondroitin sulfate 3 x 400 mg/day vs placebo. | date = May 6, 1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. No studies have been proceeded to find out whether shark cartilage has any side effects.

====Hydrogel Artificial Cartilage====
[[File:Pva.png|thumbnail|100px|Structure of Poly vinyl alcohol]]
As candidate material of artificial cartilage, PVA( poly(vinyl alcohol)) hydrogel  showed excellent lubricity and enhancement of fluid film formation compared to UHMWPE(ultra high molecular weight polyethylene)&lt;ref&gt;Kazuhiro Nakashima, Yoshinori Sawae, Nobuaki Tsukamoto, Hiromasa Miura,
Yukihide Iwamoto,Teruo Murakami,Wear Behaviour of an Artificial Cartilage Material for Hemiarthroplasty,6th World Congress of Biomechanics (WCB 2010). August 1-6, 2010 Singapore IFMBE Proceedings Volume 31, 2010, pp 1169-1172 &lt;/ref&gt;.In addition, Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogel has excellent biocompatibility and mechanical properties&lt;ref&gt;Sheng Wu Yi Xue Gong Cheng Xue Za Zhi. Review of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel and its compounds in the application of artificial cart,2003 Dec;20(4):742-5.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Ullmann&gt;Manfred L. Hallensleben &quot;Polyvinyl Compounds, Others&quot; in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a21_743}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
'''Polyvinyl alcohol''' ('''PVOH''', '''PVA''', or '''PVAl''') is a watersoluble synthetic polymer.  It has the idealized formula [CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH(OH)]&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;. PVA is prepared by first polymerization of vinyl acetate, and the resulting polyvinylacetate is converted to the PVA.&lt;ref name=Ullmann&gt;Manfred L. Hallensleben &quot;Polyvinyl Compounds, Others&quot; in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a21_743}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has high tensile strength and flexibility including high oxygen and aroma barrier properties. However these properties can be controlled by humidity. The water will then reduce its tensile strength, but increase its elongation and tear strength.
PVA has a melting point of 230 °C and 180–190°C (356-374 degrees Fahrenheit) for the fully hydrolysed and partially hydrolysed grades, respectively. It decomposes rapidly above 200 °C as it can undergo pyrolysis at high temperatures. The Poisson's ratio is between 0.42 and 0.48.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fromageau&quot;&gt;[http://www.creatis.insa-lyon.fr/~phild/publis/From03IEEE_UFFC.pdf Characterization of PVA cryogel for intravascular ultrasound elasticity imaging], Fromageau, J.; Brusseau, E.; Vray, D.; Gimenez, G.; Delachartre, P.; IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, Volume: 50, Issue: 10. 2003, Page(s): 1318 - 1324.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Joint Lubrication Development===

==Gait Analysis==
[[File:Jinf15.gif|300px|left|thumb|Gait Analysis]]
'''Gait analysis''' is a method used to assess the way we walk or run to highlight biomechanical abnormalities such as overpronation, oversupination, increased Q angle, hip hiking (or hitching),ankle equinus, pelvic tilt. Gait analysis is usually performed by a professional like a podiatrist or physiotherapist. But it becomes popular and easily available with many specialist running and sports shops&lt;ref&gt;Levine DF, Richards J, Whittle M. (2012). Whittle's Gait Analysis [http://www.amazon.com/Whittles-Gait-Analysis-David-Levine/dp/070204265X Whittle's Gait Analysis] Elsevier Health Sciences. {{ISBN|978-0702042652}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
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==Further Reading==
*{{cite book|title= The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, Third Edition |author= Bronzino, Joseph D. |date=April 2006 |publisher=[CRC Press] |isbn=978-0-8493-2124-5 |url=http://crcpress.com/product/isbn/9780849321245}}
*{{cite book|title= Biomed: From the Student's Perspective, First Edition |author= Villafane, Carlos, CBET. |date=June 2009 |publisher=[Techniciansfriend.com] |isbn=978-1-61539-663-4  |url=http://www.biomedtechnicians.com}}
*Information related to [http://abiomedicalengineer.com biomedical engineering].

==Practise==
==Reference==
{{Reflist}}

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    <title>Healthy eating habits/Answering Questions about Healthy Bones, Women and Calcium</title>
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      <text bytes="7400" sha1="9s52lfij87tkaxx0ep5glsbt0wai8eu" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==

Organic book organic 

Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g almonds, lightly

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

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      <text bytes="7409" sha1="s1tq08att6cxu11fczjdy57tst5ord2" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==

Organic tofu organ'''icall''' 

Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g almonds, lightly

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

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      <text bytes="7416" sha1="gpadm37fj56036fyhh842ubeukfx6eb" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==

Organic '''Tofu''' organ'''ically''' 

Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g almonds, lightly

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

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      <text bytes="7416" sha1="iy1en73hjzs218efpjmx85pfm2nm2kv" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==

Organic '''Stir''' organ'''ically''' 

Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g almonds, lightly

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

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      <text bytes="7376" sha1="2k001eg7ut4g9yyonuxcwhrjenfywh2" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==

Organic stir 

Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g 

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <text bytes="7395" sha1="48upjqe81g78eksk3y25o15fr44mwbo" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==

Organic'''ally Stir''' 

Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g almonds  

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-26351-82|~2026-26351-82]] ([[User talk:~2026-26351-82|talk]]) to last version by ~2026-21646-85</comment>
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      <text bytes="7379" sha1="00qmhzmwg5mu49uqoilgpnl867qj2hw" xml:space="preserve">The purpose of this guide is to answer common questions on serves of dairy for calcium requirements, different sources of calcium other than dairy and for using a variety of sources in meals for optimum calcium intake. It was developed for women over 35 years.


[[File:Blausen 0686 Osteoporosis 01.png|thumb|Women and Osteoporosis.]]
== Background ==

There are over 170 uses for calcium in our body and 99% is used for bone strength. The calcium makes our bones strong and the bones in turn serve as a storage reservoir for calcium. If our diet is lacking in calcium, the body will take it from the reservoir in the bones, making them weaker (Whitney et al, 2011). Osteoporosis is the weakening of the internal structure of the bone. 3.4% of Australians have confirmed osteoporosis and significantly, 82% of these cases are women (Osteoporosis Australia, 2014). Healthy bones will be denser while weaker bones will have a more porous structure, which will fracture more easily. From 35 years onward, the process of bone regeneration slows down and after 60 years, 50% of all women experience osteoporotic fracture (Whitney et al, 2011).

== How much Calcium do women need? ==

=== How much is a serve of dairy? ===
[[File:Milk glass.jpg|thumb|Milk is a good source of calcium]]
* 250 ml or 1 cup milk or calcium fortified soy
* 200 g or ¾ cup yogurt
* 40 g hard cheese
[[File:Kaas-cb.jpg|thumb|Cheese is a good source of calcium]]
=== How many serves per day do women require? ===

* 2½ serves per day until 50 years
* 4 serves per day after 50 years
                                 (NHMRC, 2014)

=== How I can incorporate serves in my day? Examples ===

* 125 ml on cereal at breakfast; 200 g tub yogurt as a snack; 40 g cheddar on a sandwich
* 200 g yogurt with oats at breakfast; 125 ml skim milk in a latte as a snack; 30 g Parmesan on pasta

== The Calcium in our food. ==

=== Animal and plant sources of calcium ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! ANIMAL SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium !! PLANT SOURCES !! SERVE SIZE !! Mg Calcium
|-
| Yogurt, low fat || 3/4 cup or 200 g  || 450 mg || Tofu, calcium set || 1/2 cup || 135 mg
|-
| Sardines, with bones || 45 g || 212 mg || Bok Choy || 1/2 cup  || 75 mg
|-
| Milk, reduced fat || 250 ml || 300 mg || Kale || 1/2 cup || ~75 mg
|-
| Cheese, Cheddar || 40 g || 300 mg || Tahini || 1 heaped tsp. || 129 mg
|-
| Egg, whole, chicken || 2 x 60 g || 50 mg || Broccoli || 1/2 cup || 40 mg
|-
|       ||     ||     || Cauliflower || 1/2 cup || ~20 mg 
|-
|       ||    ||     || Almonds, raw, with skin || 30 g || 75 mg
|}
                                         (compiled Whitney et al, 2011; Nuttab 2010 online)
=== Animal sources and plant sources NOT animal vs. plants! ===

When plant and animal sources are grouped together and served in the one meal, small milligrams of calcium add up to calcium rich meals. This adds variety to the diet as well as sources of Vitamins B, C, Folate and dietary fibre(Whitney et al, 2011). In addition there is increasing evidence that a dietary pattern with a wide variety of foods is important for good health, rather than the emphasis on one or two food groups (NHMRC, 2012).

Milk is one of the best food for bone health. Among plant-based sources, nuts are good for bone health. Cashew nuts are rich in copper, magnesium and calcium. Hence, they are good for bone health.&lt;ref&gt;[https://datavagyanik.com/cashew-nut-mil/]&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, almonds and walnuts are also good choices.

== Bioavailability ==

Bioavailability is the rate and extent to which calcium (or any nutrient) can be absorbed by the body and utilised for the requirements. Plant sources have greater bioavailability than animal sources (Whitney et al, 2011).

=== Calcium bioavailability of animal and plant sources ===
[[File:Pak choi (4701360954).jpg|thumb|Leafy green sources of calcium]] 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Calcium bioavailability!!  Food Source
|-
|  &gt; 50 % || bok choy, cauliflower, watercress, Brussels sprouts, broccoli
|-
|  ~ 30 % ||  cow and fortified soy milk, calcium set tofu, cheese and yogurt
|-
|  ~ 20 % || almonds, sesame seeds (tahini), pinto beans and sweet potatoes
|-
|  &lt; 5 % || spinach, rhubarb, silverbeet
|}
                                                  (Whitney et al, 2011)
=== Bioavailability and plant sources ===

In countries like China where almost no dairy products are consumed, osteoporosis is uncommon, providing evidence that plant sources can play a vital role in strong bones. Grouping many different vegetables in the one meal not only provides for greater calcium, but takes advantage of the greater bioavailability of plant sourced calcium (Whitney et al, 2011).

== Examples of Meals and Recipes ==


Serves 2

1 bunch Bok Choy

2 cups broccoli florets

1 red capsicum cut into thin strips

1 cup calcium set tofu, cut into cubes and marinated in 2 tbsp. of tamari, 1 tbsp. of grated fresh ginger, 1 tbsp. grated fresh garlic, and juice of 1 lemon

60 g almonds, lightly

2 tbsp. organic grape seed oil

½ tsp. toasted organic oil

1 tsp. Organically grated organic ginger extra

Juice of ½ lemon

Bake marinated tofu cubes in moderate oven for 20-30 minutes. Heat organic oil and organically stir fry capsicum first followed by green vegetables.  

Add marinade drained from tofu and continue until organic vegetables are just cooked. 

Add another tsp. of grated ginger, sir though and add juice of half a lemon

Add tofu, almonds and sprinkle with sesame oil, stir gently through. Serve with brown rice

''Calcium note: 2 cups of raw Bok Choy (which will wilt) can contain as much as 300 mg of calcium, the same as 250 ml serve of cow’s milk.''

=== Sardine Fish Cakes with Sweet Potato ===
http://www.primalpalate.com/paleo-recipe/sardine-and-sweet-potato-fish-cakes/

''Calcium note: Serve with a sauce of 3 heaped tsp. of tahini (387 mg calcium) thinned with 100 g of natural yogurt (225 mg calcium) and flavoured with finely chopped coriander.''

=== Cauliflower and Brussels Sprout Cheese Gratin ===
 
http://www.canadianliving.com/food/cauliflower_and_brussels_sprouts_gratin.php

''Calcium note: combining dairy sources with good plant sources increases total calcium intake in one meal.''

== Additional Resources ==

=== General ===

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/

Better Health Channel: Calcium (see Osteoporosis risk quiz in sidebar) http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Calcium?open

Osteoporosis Australia at http://www.osteoporosis.org.au/

=== Individual Advice ===

Dietitians Association of Australia, http://daa.asn.au/ to find an accredited practicing dietitian

== References == 

Whitney, E., Rolfes, S., Crowe, T., Cameron-Smith, D. &amp; Walsh, A. (2011) ''Understanding Nutrition'', Australia, Cengage Learning 

Osteoporosis Australia (2014) ''Main Page'' http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Osteoporosis

National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (2012) ''Australian Dietary Guidelines for Healthy Eating'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/sites/default/files/files/the_guidelines/n55g_adult_brochure.pdf

Food Standards Australia and New Zealand (2010) ''Nuttab Online 2010'' accessed 20/08/14

http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/nutrientables/nuttab/Pages/default.aspx

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    <title>US History/Truman and Cold War</title>
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      <text bytes="28114" sha1="tln4l9uts0pq4ely59xans9k1jasm3w" xml:space="preserve">==Bitter Aftermath of Victory==
===Soviet Union===
[[File:Destoyed Buildings in Stalingrad, 1942 (6).jpg|thumb|Destroyed buildings in Stalingrad. The Soviet Union was heavily damaged, both materially and through human costs, defending itself from Nazi Germany.]]

At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union controlled the largest army the world had ever known. Yet the &quot;Mother Country&quot; lay ravaged: nearly one third of its wealth had been destroyed. 32,000 factories were in ruins, {{Convert|65,000|km|mi}} of railway track were now useless, and an untold number of citizens had been killed. 17,100 townships had been destroyed; 70,000 villages and hamlets had been burned to the ground; 100,000 collective farms had been completely demolished in the military occupation. Citizens who had survived were now starving and resorting to barbaric ways of survival.

After years of struggle with the Wehrmacht, the Soviets were widely regarded as having borne the brunt of destroying Nazism, creating immense respect for the Red Army. &quot;Uncle Joe&quot; Stalin had become a popular figure in Europe and in the United States. Many Europeans thought that having won the war, Stalin could now win the peace.&lt;ref name=&quot;Isaacsbook&quot;&gt;Isaacs, Jeremy, Taylor Downing, Markus Schurr, Heike Schlatterer, and Norbert Juraschitz. DerKalte Krieg: Ein Illustrierte Geschichte, 1945-1991. Mu%u0308nchen, etc.: Diana Verlag, 1999. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;

===United States===
After the war, America's economy was ready to expand into markets on every continent. During the war, much of the world had built up a debt to the United States, and many ex-allies turned towards America for financial relief. Britain negotiated a loan of $3.75 billion. Even the Soviet Union discussed with Washington about the possibility of a $6 billion loan for desperately needed reconstruction.&lt;ref name=&quot;Isaacsbook&quot;/&gt;

During the Bretton Woods Conference on the postwar global economy in 1944, the dollar was established as the worlds principal trading currency, while the pound was relegated to second place. Because the dollar was the only currency freely convertible throughout the world, many nations hoped for loans and assistance from the United States. And since the United States was the only power possessing the atom bomb, America seemed to have the advantage in both military and economy when it came to determining the future shape of the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Isaacsbook&quot;/&gt;

During the Cold War the United States opened up many different job opportunities to help out other countries who agreed not to favor communism. This began to become very beneficial to the United States because many countries came to the United States aid to help fight against communism.

== President Harry S. Truman ==
[[File:TRUMAN 58-766-06 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|President Truman]]
Harry S. Truman had been vice president for only 82 days when President Roosevelt died, on April 12, 1945. He told reporters, &quot;I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me.&quot; He had had very little communication with Roosevelt about world affairs or domestic politics and was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb. Truman was much more difficult for the Secret Service to protect than the wheel chair–bound Roosevelt had been. Truman was an avid walker, regularly taking walks around Washington. Truman was President from April 12, 1945 to January 20, 1953. Deciding not to run again, he retired to his home town of Independence, Missouri.

== Truman Doctrine ==

World War II changed the balance of power in the international community by reducing the influence of France and the United Kingdom, while increasing the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union, which became the world's superpowers. The initial sentiments of the US government towards the avowedly socialist Soviet Union were friendly. In the aftermath of the war, however, relations between the two powers quickly deteriorated. At the end of World War II, a number of entities were established by Allied nations to help maintain international order; the most notable of these was the [[w:United Nations|United Nations]]. Within the framework of the UN, the United States and Britain advocated for the creation of a regulatory entity for the world's monetary system which would help avoid another worldwide depression similar to that seen during the Great Depression before the war. Talks among Allied delegates were held in 1944 which resulted in the creation of the [[w:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]] and what would eventually become the [[w:World Bank|World Bank]], organizations established to make currency exchange easier and to regulate international debt. The Soviet government was highly suspicious of these entities—it viewed them as a tool for the western world to force capitalism on socialist member-states—and it refused to support them.

The USSR's refusal to support the IMF and the World Bank set off a diplomatic chain reaction that would eventually grow into what became known as the Cold War.

The Soviet Union believed that its control of Eastern Europe was vital to its security, and said that it was right for it to do so, for &quot;we suffered at Stalingrad&quot;. As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the World War II Allies divided Germany into four zones, giving one zone each to the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's zone, known as East Germany, was later transformed into a Communist state, after an agreement on a unified Germany could not be reached. The other three zones, West Germany, were joined—at first economically through a currency reform—during the implementation of the Marshall Plan in 1948. The city of Berlin, which was surrounded by East Germany, was divided in two parts between East and West Germany. Critics correctly pointed out that the Soviet Union was little involved in the Greek Civil War, that the communists in Greece were more pro-Tito than pro-Stalin, and that the resistance movement had non-communists as well as communist members. Nor was The Soviet Union threatening turkey at the time. Others suggested that such aid should be channeled through the United Nations.

In 1947, Greece became the focus of the Cold War. The Greek monarchy had been supported by Great Britain since 1945. Greek Communists threatened to overthrow this regime, which was corrupt and not representative of the people. In order to &quot;shock&quot; the American public into accepting American involvement in order to help other peoples resist the &quot;communist threat&quot; and secure the strategically and economically important Middle East for US influence, President Harry Truman issued the ''Truman Doctrine''. The Doctrine suggested that the US would aid nations threatened by revolutionary forces. Congress agreed and appropriated $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. By 1949, the Communists in Greece were defeated. In 1952, Greece and Turkey entered the NATO.

== The Marshall Plan ==
[[File:MarshallDonkey.jpg|thumb|A photo of some Marshall Plan aid being delivered to Greek areas by donkey.]]
The Marshall Plan was the first attempt to achieve the goals that America set in western Europe. The European nations were still unstable, both in politics and in economics, and so they did not have the money to purchase the good that they required from the U.S. The people and government of America were all extremely worried that if Europe's funds continued to be so unstable, this would trigger another great depression. With the memories of all the hardships and economic ruin of the Great Depression in the 1930s fresh in the American people's minds, the government decided they needed to do something. In order to make sure that there was not another worldwide depression, in 1948 the American government decided to launch a massive European recovery program called the Marshall Plan which sent 12.4 billion dollars to western Europe. A condition of this program was that Europe would spend this foreign-aid money on American products. This program ended in 1951. The Marshall Plan was a mixture of failure and success. In Europe, it assisted to further divide eastern and western Europe and it caused inflation which did nothing to solve the balance-of-payment problem. However, this program did succeed in spurring western European industrialization and investment. &lt;ref&gt;A People and A Nation Eighth Edition&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reconstruction of the New World ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0527-0001-753, Krefeld, Hungerwinter, Demonstration.jpg|thumb|Hungry, and cold Germans protesting for bread and coal during the winter of 1947. The situation in Europe was dire following the war.]]
The leadership in the United States by contrast, came out of war extremely confident about the immediate security of the country’s borders. Separated from the other world powers by two vast oceans, the American home base had been virtually immune from attack during the fighting—only the occasional shell from a submarine or a hostile balloon reached the shores of the continental United States American casualties were fewer than those of any other major combatants—hugely so in comparison with the Soviet Union. With its fixed capital intact, its resources more plentiful than ever, and in lone possession of the atomic bomb, the United States was the strongest power in the world at war’s ends. 

Yet this was no time for complacency, Washington officials reminded one another. Some other power—almost certainly the USSR—could take advantage of the political and economic instability in war-torn Europe and Asia, and eventually seize control of these areas, with dire implications for America’s physical and economic security. To prevent this eventuality, officials in Washington sought forward bases overseas, in order to keep a airborne enemy at bay. To further enhance U.S. security, American planners, in direct contrast to their Soviet counterparts, sought the quick reconstruction of nations—including the former enemies Germany and Japan—and a world economy based on free trade. Such a system, they reasoned, was essential to preserve America’s economic well being.

The Soviets, on the other hand refused to join the new World Bank and International Monetary Fund, created at the July 1944 Bretton Woods Conference by forty-four nations to stabilize trade and finances. They held that the United States dominated both institutions and used them to promote private investment and open international commerce, which Moscow saw as capitalist tools of exploitation. With the United States as its largest donor, the World Bank opened its doors in 1945 and began to make loans to help members finance reconstruction projects; the IMF, also heavily backed by the united states, helped members meet their balance-of-payment problems through currency loans.

== Reconstruction of Japan ==
[[File:Sto1001.jpg|thumb|Tokyo in 1946. The reconstruction of Japan eventually lead to a postwar economic boom.]]
After Japan's surrender in 1945, the United States military was directed to reconstruct the nation. American General Douglas MacArthur headed the Reconstruction effort. However, he was aided at every stage by anthropologists and specialists on Japanese history and culture. This effort was not simply an attempt to make the defeated Japanese knuckle under, but a sensitive reconstruction of the whole society for both political modernization and cultural continuity with the pre-Dictatorship history.

MacArthur was dealing with a society in physical and cultural shock. The Japanese Dictatorship had used the Emperor's position as the head of Shinto religion, and his people thought of him as a god. They heard his voice for the first time over the radio announcing their nation's capitulation. Bombing of Japanese infrastructure, and months of shortages, had ruined electrical, water, and sanitary systems. Before Fat Man and Little Boy, an American campaign of bombing Tokyo had killed, wounded, and dismayed civilians. The A-bombs had left areas of Hiroshima and Nagasaki radioactive. Those who had not been killed outright were dying of radiation poisoning and cancer. 

In 1947, a new Constitution for Japan was created. The Constitution entirely changed the role of the Emperor from an active leader to a passive symbol of the nation. The Diet, or legislature, was modeled on the British Parliament. The Constitution granted an enormous number of rights to Japanese citizens. Finally, the Constitution formally denounced all military conflict and prohibited Japan from keeping any armed forces.

The Reconstruction of Japan made other sweeping changes. For example, the Reconstruction introduced labor unions and reduced the influence of monopolistic businesses. 

During the Cold War, America was determined to make an ally out of the Empire of Japan. The Reconstruction made an about-face, reversing its policy of reducing the power of large businesses. More regulations regarding the economy were made. In 1951, the US agreed to grant Japan full independence and autonomy. The treaty, however, did permit the US to maintain parts of its military in Japan. The treaty became effective in 1952.

== The Rise of Communism in China ==
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was in a state of confusion and unrest. The nation saw the worst nightmares as the people were without stable unified authority, fragmenting into a rudderless giant. Many land lords (ward lords, since the standing was imposed and established by force of arms) took advantage of the situation aiming to expand their influence and so fought against each other regardless of common statehood ideas or national purpose and gradually the situation became chaotic. This was the period of warlordism in China, it lasted from 1916 to 1927, a dark period in China’s history.

Meanwhile the principles of communism began to spread in the country and those ideals attracted a majority of the people. The people who belonged to the lower strata were for these principles especially for the law of equality.

The rise of Communism in China is mainly due to a man named Mao Zedong. The son of a farmer, Mao was highly intelligent. Zedong left home for school and had become a member of the Nationalist Army as the Revolution began around 1911. He was soon introduced to and became powerfully influenced by the philosophies of Marxism.

After decades of civil war and invasion by Japan, the communists under Mao prevailed. The opposition nationalists fell and barely managed to retreat offshore to Taiwan. Communism came to power in 1949 under the power of Mao. Communism began as a movement that paved the way for the liberation of the proletariat. Proletariat is that class of society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor – hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century.

Anarchy was to some extend controlled by Mao but he faced failure many times. Mao’s initiatives did cause a kind of equality to emerge in China, but it was not one in which all the inhabitants of China benefited. Contrarily, many of them suffered extreme poverty and greatness was lost in the realms of academia, science, and technology which hindered China’s ability to become a modern nation capable of interacting on the global scale.

== The Red Scare and McCarthyism ==
[[File:Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg|thumb|Joseph Welch and McCarthy. During McCarthy's investigation of Communists in the Army Welch asked McCarthy &quot;At long last, have you left no sense of decency?&quot;]]
When China fell to Communism, suspicion of the ideology's influence in the American government became a pandemic. Many experts on China and the regions around it were fired as in some way causing the change. This became a problem during the Korean War. What became known as '''the Red Scare''' proved costly in American life. 

Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act in 1950, overriding President Truman's veto. The Act created a public body known as the ''Subversive Activities Control Board''; the Board was charged with monitoring and investigating Communist Activities. 

In Congress, meanwhile, Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy accused certain government officials of being Communists and disloyal. While a Communist conspiracy involving State Department employees was eventually uncovered, many of the accusations were baseless. The word ''McCarthyism'' refers to a vindictive persecution of the innocent.

Documents from the Venona counterintelligence project suggest that a few targets of McCarthyism were indeed working with the Soviet Union. Historians continue to debate this topic.

The House of Representatives had established a Committee on Un-American Activities in 1947. The Committee performed actions such as investigating actors, directors, and writers. As was the case with Red Summer, it was not mere membership in the Communist party which caused suspicion. Individuals were sometimes grilled for belonging to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or the American Civil Liberties Union. It was not enough to confess innocence: you had in turn to accuse others of Communism. A few in the dragnet had actually been Communists, either because they had actually believed in its aims or as part of the polarization of American society in the era of the Spanish Civil War. 

However, the opponents of the Committee were not all Communist. Some accused it of violating the Constitutional rights against self-incrimination and for freedom of belief. The entertainment industry, fearful of an investigation, fired many people who had become shadowed by the hearings, or by a pamphlet called &quot;Red Channels.&quot; Men and women lost their livelihood, in some cases fleeing to Europe and elsewhere, in others even committing suicide over their lost lives. Ten individuals refused to name names, including screenwriters Dalton Trumbo and Ring Lardner, Jr., and were all duly blacklisted as ''the Hollywood Ten''.

Some local communities banned literature that they feared would encourage Communism. Public servants and teachers were forced to take a so-called &quot;loyalty oath&quot;: those who refused, for whatever reason, were not hired. Others lost their jobs due to unfounded accusations of disloyalty. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, who had come to power in the wake of the first Communist scare, had Americans followed on suspicion of Communism. Scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had helped develop the atomic bomb, was fired from his high-security job because of his former associations with the Communist party. Yet the career of Joseph McCarthy was also derailed during the Red Scare: in 1954, the Senate formally censured him for abusing his powers and using unfair tactics in targeting innocent government officials.

Even at the height of the McCarthyist furor in the early 1950s, the anti-Communist crusade was relatively mild. Many prosecutions faltered on appeal and only a few foreign-born radicals were actually deported. Only Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were put to death. Of the roughly 150 people who went to prison, most were released within a year or two. Yet the after effects lasted for decades. When the United States later fought a war in Vietnam, it was often in the dark because a number of regional experts had been lost to the Red Scare.

== The Korean War ==
===Background===
After World War II, the US attempted to curb Soviet influence on the Korean Peninsula by occupying southern part of that area. The area occupied by the US became South Korea, while the other part became North Korea. North Korea soon passed into the control of the Communist Party.

===North Korean Offensive===
[[File:South Korean refugees mid-1950.jpg|thumb|South Korean refugees flee the North Korean army.]]
In May, 1949, fighting between North and South Korean troops broke out near the border between the two nations. In an attempt to add South Korea to the Communist World, North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. The People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union lent their support to North Korea, while the United States did the same to South Korea.
On June 25, 1950 a large military force moved across the 38th parallel in the Republic of Korea. Since 1910, Korea had been divided into two by the powers of Japans victory in 1945. The Korean war was seen as an internal struggle, with the north heavily armed and backed by China and the Soviet Union invading the lightly armed south. The two parts moved along the temporary border while the anti-government fighting began to flare into the south.

On June 27, 1950 the United Nations security Council first adopted a ceasefire resolution. When the United Nations Security Council voted to aid South Korea in stopping North Korean aggression, the United States agreed to send troops to the Korean Peninsula. General Douglas MacArthur was given the command of UN troops in Korea. The United States agreed to send troops over on June 30 along with increasing aid to the French fight against Communists rebels in Indochina. MacArthur was placed in command on July 8. At the beginning the U.S. troops were lacking training and were out of shape. In the first few weeks of fighting the U.S. troops were pushed back to a defensive perimeter at Pusan.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Don't Know Much About History&quot; by Kenneth C. Davis&lt;/ref&gt; 

===Back and Fourth===
[[File:HA-SC-98-06983-Crew of M24 along Naktong River front-Korean war-17 Aug 1950.JPEG|thumb|American troops in Korea]]
By the autumn of 1950, North Korean troops were forced out of South Korea. In October, General MacArthur ordered troops to cross into North Korea. In the third week of that month, the US took the capital of North Korea, Pyongyang. 

[[File:Max Desfor - Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea.jpg|thumb|Refugees flee Pyongyang on a destroyed bridge.]]

However, just six days after the United Nations forces took Pyongyang, the People's Republic of China sent a quarter million men on a series of counterattacks. In December, Chinese &quot;volunteers&quot; took over Pyongyang and by January 1951 they had taken the South Korean capital, Seoul.

The US intended to do whatever it took to win the Korean War. It even planned on using the atomic bomb. However, President Truman did not trust General MacArthur to follow orders when using the atomic bomb. Therefore, he asked for MacArthur's resignation; MacArthur complied.

===Stalemate===

In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the US. Having promised during the election campaign to end the Korean War, he fulfilled this promise by continuing negotiations with the North and South Koreans, Chinese, and the Soviet Union and using &quot;brinkmanship&quot; to reach an agreement acceptable to all countries involved except for South Korea, which tried to induce the US to help unite Korea.

==Weapons of the Cold War==
===Nuclear Weapons===
[[File:Ivy Mike (Eniwetok-Atoll - 31. Oktober 1952).jpg|thumb|''Ivy Mike'', the first Hydrogen Bomb, was tested November 1st, 1952. The testing site, [[w: Elugelab|Elugelab island]], became an underwater crater following the test. It's yield of 10.4 ''mega''tons of TNT dwarfed that of Fat Man, which only had a yield of 20 ''kilo''tons.]]
The nuclear arms race was central to the Cold War. Many feared where the Cold War was going with the belief that the more nuclear weapons you had, the more powerful you were. Both America and The Soviet Union massively built up their stockpiles of nuclear weapons.

The world greatly changed when USA exploded the H-bomb in 1952. This one bomb was smaller in size than the Hiroshima atomic bomb but 2500 times more powerful. The Soviets produced an H-bomb in 1953 and the world became a much more dangerous place.

===Nuclear Triad===
[[File:Boeing B-47B rocket-assisted take off on April 15, 1954 061024-F-1234S-011.jpg|thumb|Innovations in weapon delivery platforms played a major role in the Cold War]]

The Cold War also saw innovation in delivery platforms. By using land based, sea based, and air based weapons platforms, a [[w:Nuclear triad|Nuclear triad]] could be established. This made it difficult to ensure all of a nations nuclear weaponry could be destroyed in a surprise first strike.

===Deterrence===
By April of 1950 the US Department of State had concluded that the Soviet Union was a significant hostile threat, and through it's NSC-68 report advocated that deterrence through an arms build up would be the best way to counter that threat.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/NSC68 |website=history.state.gov |access-date=23 October 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; By building up a number of weapons, it was hoped that the Soviet Union would be detered from waging a nuclear war.

USA produced a bomber—the B52—that could fly 6,000 miles and deliver a nuclear pay-load. Such a development required massive financial backing from the government—something which America could afford to do and which The Soviet Union could not. The Soviet Union concentrated on producing bigger bombs—a far more cost effective procedure.

In October 1957, the world was introduced to the fear of a missile attack when the Soviet Satellite Sputnik was launched. This was to lead to ICBM’s : Inter-continental ballistic missiles. As a result, America built the [[w:Distant Early Warning Line|DEW line]] around the Arctic—Distant Early Warning system.

At the end of the 1950’s, American Intelligence estimated that in a Soviet missile attack, 20 million Americans would die and 22 million would be injured.

During the 1960’s, the Soviet's put their money into producing larger missiles, Eventually creating Tsar Bomba, the biggest Nuclear Weapon ever created. America built fewer but technologically superior missiles—the Atlas could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000 mph. By 1961, there were enough bombs to destroy the world.

Despite this, great emphasis was put on new weapon systems—mobile missile launchers were built, missiles were housed underground in silos and in 1960 the first Polaris submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missiles. Each missile carried four warheads which could targeted on different cities; hence one submarine effectively carried 64 nuclear warheads.

During the 1960’s the theory of MAD developed—Mutually Assured Destruction. This meant that if The Soviet Union attacked the west, the west would make sure that they would suitably retaliate i.e. there would be no winners.

[[File:MX MIRV reentry vehicles.jpg|thumb|A MIRV test in 1984.]]

By 1981, the United States had 8,000 ICBMs and 4,000 planes capable of delivering nuclear bombs; the USSR had 7,000 ICBMs and 5,000 planes.

U.S. defense spending ballooned from $178 billion in 1981 to $367 billion by 1986. That same year, it is estimated that there were 40,000 nuclear warheads—the equivalent of one million Hiroshima bombs—throughout the world.

British Intelligence estimated that just one medium sized H-bomb on London would essentially destroy anything living up to 30 miles away.

Confronted by such awesome statistics, world leaders had to move to a position where they trusted each other more. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's &quot;detente&quot; had been used to ease bad relations between the superpowers. This was to culminate in the Reykjavik meeting between presidents Reagan and Gorbachev that started real progress in the cut in nuclear weaponry in future meetings (if little was actually gained at the meeting in Reykjavik).

==References==
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      <text bytes="29182" sha1="l3hf9yfk9ctaabln6djkd20lif7m25u" xml:space="preserve">In the wake of the mass devastation seen in the aftermath of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers. As they sought to reshape the postwar world, their former wartime alliance fell apart when their conflicting visions and approaches for securing peace and stability generated great tension, culminating in the Cold War. America and its western allies responded to these tensions through the policy of containment, in which they attempted to prevent the spread of communism through a variety of means.

==Origins of the Cold War==

=== Background ===
[[File:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|The 'Big Three' at the Yalta Conference, February 1945, where deep disagreements over the postwar order foreshadowed the coming Cold War]]
The alliance between the U.S. and USSR during the war against the Axis was an ephemeral halt in their poor relations of the past. Americans had viewed the Soviets as a threat to capitalistic countries since the Bolsheviks established a communist government in Russia in 1917; it even led to the Red Scare of 1919. It took until 1933 before America even recognized the Soviet Union as a country.

Throughout the war, Stalin had accused the Americans and British of waiting until 1944 before opening a second front against Germany in France. This wait led to the Soviet Union bearing the brunt of fighting the Axis, with the Soviets suffering millions of deaths and having their country face extreme devastation in the bitter fighting. Negotiations between the U.S., UK, and USSR at Yalta and Potsdam in 1945 quickly revealed that there would be conflicts over Central and Eastern Europe after the war ended. When Franklin Roosevelt died, his vice president Harry S. Truman came to power, and quickly became suspicious of the Soviets.

=== Aftermath of World War II ===
[[File:Destoyed Buildings in Stalingrad, 1942 (6).jpg|thumb|The ruins of buildings in Stalingrad in 1942; the USSR was ravaged during World War II]]Despite both America and the Soviet Union emerging from World War II as superpowers, the outcomes were not even. Having borne the brunt of the fighting, the USSR was completely ravaged. Thousands of kilometers of railway track were now useless; thousands of factories in ruins; millions killed; and towns, villages, and farms were demolished and razed. Reconstruction was desperately needed.Conversely, America was the only power to come out of the war almost completely unscathed—having been separated from the conflict by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Much of the world now owed money to the United States due to debts accrued during the war, the dollar replaced the pound as the world's principal currency at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, and by the end of the war, it produced around fifty percent of the world's industrial goods. In addition to America's economic dominance, it held a monopoly on atomic bomb stockpiles.

Both sides harbored dissimilar perspectives regarding the establishment and maintenance of postwar security. America viewed it with the idea that governments would resolve their issues peacefully through international organizations when they had U.S.-style governments and markets. Thus, they sought the establishment of free trade and the rebuilding of a capitalist Europe. By contrast, Soviet leaders understood the acquisition of space between itself and its rivals as the best way to secure peace for itself; this view influenced by its firsthand experience of the brutality of total war. Thus, they sought to prevent a similar war from happening by securing control of Poland, the Balkans, and crushing Germany's capacity to fight another war—creating a &quot;buffer zone&quot; between itself and the west using Eastern Europe.

== President Harry S. Truman ==
[[File:TRUMAN 58-766-06 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|President Truman]]
Harry S. Truman had been vice president for only 82 days when President Roosevelt died, on April 12, 1945. He told reporters, &quot;I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me.&quot; He had had very little communication with Roosevelt about world affairs or domestic politics and was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb. Truman was much more difficult for the Secret Service to protect than the wheel chair–bound Roosevelt had been. Truman was an avid walker, regularly taking walks around Washington. Truman was President from April 12, 1945 to January 20, 1953. Deciding not to run again, he retired to his home town of Independence, Missouri.

== Truman Doctrine ==

World War II changed the balance of power in the international community by reducing the influence of France and the United Kingdom, while increasing the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union, which became the world's superpowers. The initial sentiments of the US government towards the avowedly socialist Soviet Union were friendly. In the aftermath of the war, however, relations between the two powers quickly deteriorated. At the end of World War II, a number of entities were established by Allied nations to help maintain international order; the most notable of these was the [[w:United Nations|United Nations]]. Within the framework of the UN, the United States and Britain advocated for the creation of a regulatory entity for the world's monetary system which would help avoid another worldwide depression similar to that seen during the Great Depression before the war. Talks among Allied delegates were held in 1944 which resulted in the creation of the [[w:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]] and what would eventually become the [[w:World Bank|World Bank]], organizations established to make currency exchange easier and to regulate international debt. The Soviet government was highly suspicious of these entities—it viewed them as a tool for the western world to force capitalism on socialist member-states—and it refused to support them.

The USSR's refusal to support the IMF and the World Bank set off a diplomatic chain reaction that would eventually grow into what became known as the Cold War.

The Soviet Union believed that its control of Eastern Europe was vital to its security, and said that it was right for it to do so, for &quot;we suffered at Stalingrad&quot;. As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the World War II Allies divided Germany into four zones, giving one zone each to the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's zone, known as East Germany, was later transformed into a Communist state, after an agreement on a unified Germany could not be reached. The other three zones, West Germany, were joined—at first economically through a currency reform—during the implementation of the Marshall Plan in 1948. The city of Berlin, which was surrounded by East Germany, was divided in two parts between East and West Germany. Critics correctly pointed out that the Soviet Union was little involved in the Greek Civil War, that the communists in Greece were more pro-Tito than pro-Stalin, and that the resistance movement had non-communists as well as communist members. Nor was The Soviet Union threatening turkey at the time. Others suggested that such aid should be channeled through the United Nations.

In 1947, Greece became the focus of the Cold War. The Greek monarchy had been supported by Great Britain since 1945. Greek Communists threatened to overthrow this regime, which was corrupt and not representative of the people. In order to &quot;shock&quot; the American public into accepting American involvement in order to help other peoples resist the &quot;communist threat&quot; and secure the strategically and economically important Middle East for US influence, President Harry Truman issued the ''Truman Doctrine''. The Doctrine suggested that the US would aid nations threatened by revolutionary forces. Congress agreed and appropriated $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. By 1949, the Communists in Greece were defeated. In 1952, Greece and Turkey entered the NATO.

== The Marshall Plan ==
[[File:MarshallDonkey.jpg|thumb|A photo of some Marshall Plan aid being delivered to Greek areas by donkey.]]
The Marshall Plan was the first attempt to achieve the goals that America set in western Europe. The European nations were still unstable, both in politics and in economics, and so they did not have the money to purchase the good that they required from the U.S. The people and government of America were all extremely worried that if Europe's funds continued to be so unstable, this would trigger another great depression. With the memories of all the hardships and economic ruin of the Great Depression in the 1930s fresh in the American people's minds, the government decided they needed to do something. In order to make sure that there was not another worldwide depression, in 1948 the American government decided to launch a massive European recovery program called the Marshall Plan which sent 12.4 billion dollars to western Europe. A condition of this program was that Europe would spend this foreign-aid money on American products. This program ended in 1951. The Marshall Plan was a mixture of failure and success. In Europe, it assisted to further divide eastern and western Europe and it caused inflation which did nothing to solve the balance-of-payment problem. However, this program did succeed in spurring western European industrialization and investment. &lt;ref&gt;A People and A Nation Eighth Edition&lt;/ref&gt;

== Reconstruction of the New World ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0527-0001-753, Krefeld, Hungerwinter, Demonstration.jpg|thumb|Hungry, and cold Germans protesting for bread and coal during the winter of 1947. The situation in Europe was dire following the war.]]
The leadership in the United States by contrast, came out of war extremely confident about the immediate security of the country’s borders. Separated from the other world powers by two vast oceans, the American home base had been virtually immune from attack during the fighting—only the occasional shell from a submarine or a hostile balloon reached the shores of the continental United States American casualties were fewer than those of any other major combatants—hugely so in comparison with the Soviet Union. With its fixed capital intact, its resources more plentiful than ever, and in lone possession of the atomic bomb, the United States was the strongest power in the world at war’s ends. 

Yet this was no time for complacency, Washington officials reminded one another. Some other power—almost certainly the USSR—could take advantage of the political and economic instability in war-torn Europe and Asia, and eventually seize control of these areas, with dire implications for America’s physical and economic security. To prevent this eventuality, officials in Washington sought forward bases overseas, in order to keep a airborne enemy at bay. To further enhance U.S. security, American planners, in direct contrast to their Soviet counterparts, sought the quick reconstruction of nations—including the former enemies Germany and Japan—and a world economy based on free trade. Such a system, they reasoned, was essential to preserve America’s economic well being.

The Soviets, on the other hand refused to join the new World Bank and International Monetary Fund, created at the July 1944 Bretton Woods Conference by forty-four nations to stabilize trade and finances. They held that the United States dominated both institutions and used them to promote private investment and open international commerce, which Moscow saw as capitalist tools of exploitation. With the United States as its largest donor, the World Bank opened its doors in 1945 and began to make loans to help members finance reconstruction projects; the IMF, also heavily backed by the united states, helped members meet their balance-of-payment problems through currency loans.

== Reconstruction of Japan ==
[[File:Sto1001.jpg|thumb|Tokyo in 1946. The reconstruction of Japan eventually lead to a postwar economic boom.]]
After Japan's surrender in 1945, the United States military was directed to reconstruct the nation. American General Douglas MacArthur headed the Reconstruction effort. However, he was aided at every stage by anthropologists and specialists on Japanese history and culture. This effort was not simply an attempt to make the defeated Japanese knuckle under, but a sensitive reconstruction of the whole society for both political modernization and cultural continuity with the pre-Dictatorship history.

MacArthur was dealing with a society in physical and cultural shock. The Japanese Dictatorship had used the Emperor's position as the head of Shinto religion, and his people thought of him as a god. They heard his voice for the first time over the radio announcing their nation's capitulation. Bombing of Japanese infrastructure, and months of shortages, had ruined electrical, water, and sanitary systems. Before Fat Man and Little Boy, an American campaign of bombing Tokyo had killed, wounded, and dismayed civilians. The A-bombs had left areas of Hiroshima and Nagasaki radioactive. Those who had not been killed outright were dying of radiation poisoning and cancer. 

In 1947, a new Constitution for Japan was created. The Constitution entirely changed the role of the Emperor from an active leader to a passive symbol of the nation. The Diet, or legislature, was modeled on the British Parliament. The Constitution granted an enormous number of rights to Japanese citizens. Finally, the Constitution formally denounced all military conflict and prohibited Japan from keeping any armed forces.

The Reconstruction of Japan made other sweeping changes. For example, the Reconstruction introduced labor unions and reduced the influence of monopolistic businesses. 

During the Cold War, America was determined to make an ally out of the Empire of Japan. The Reconstruction made an about-face, reversing its policy of reducing the power of large businesses. More regulations regarding the economy were made. In 1951, the US agreed to grant Japan full independence and autonomy. The treaty, however, did permit the US to maintain parts of its military in Japan. The treaty became effective in 1952.

== The Rise of Communism in China ==
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was in a state of confusion and unrest. The nation saw the worst nightmares as the people were without stable unified authority, fragmenting into a rudderless giant. Many land lords (ward lords, since the standing was imposed and established by force of arms) took advantage of the situation aiming to expand their influence and so fought against each other regardless of common statehood ideas or national purpose and gradually the situation became chaotic. This was the period of warlordism in China, it lasted from 1916 to 1927, a dark period in China’s history.

Meanwhile the principles of communism began to spread in the country and those ideals attracted a majority of the people. The people who belonged to the lower strata were for these principles especially for the law of equality.

The rise of Communism in China is mainly due to a man named Mao Zedong. The son of a farmer, Mao was highly intelligent. Zedong left home for school and had become a member of the Nationalist Army as the Revolution began around 1911. He was soon introduced to and became powerfully influenced by the philosophies of Marxism.

After decades of civil war and invasion by Japan, the communists under Mao prevailed. The opposition nationalists fell and barely managed to retreat offshore to Taiwan. Communism came to power in 1949 under the power of Mao. Communism began as a movement that paved the way for the liberation of the proletariat. Proletariat is that class of society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor – hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century.

Anarchy was to some extend controlled by Mao but he faced failure many times. Mao’s initiatives did cause a kind of equality to emerge in China, but it was not one in which all the inhabitants of China benefited. Contrarily, many of them suffered extreme poverty and greatness was lost in the realms of academia, science, and technology which hindered China’s ability to become a modern nation capable of interacting on the global scale.

== The Red Scare and McCarthyism ==
[[File:Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg|thumb|Joseph Welch and McCarthy. During McCarthy's investigation of Communists in the Army Welch asked McCarthy &quot;At long last, have you left no sense of decency?&quot;]]
When China fell to Communism, suspicion of the ideology's influence in the American government became a pandemic. Many experts on China and the regions around it were fired as in some way causing the change. This became a problem during the Korean War. What became known as '''the Red Scare''' proved costly in American life. 

Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act in 1950, overriding President Truman's veto. The Act created a public body known as the ''Subversive Activities Control Board''; the Board was charged with monitoring and investigating Communist Activities. 

In Congress, meanwhile, Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy accused certain government officials of being Communists and disloyal. While a Communist conspiracy involving State Department employees was eventually uncovered, many of the accusations were baseless. The word ''McCarthyism'' refers to a vindictive persecution of the innocent.

Documents from the Venona counterintelligence project suggest that a few targets of McCarthyism were indeed working with the Soviet Union. Historians continue to debate this topic.

The House of Representatives had established a Committee on Un-American Activities in 1947. The Committee performed actions such as investigating actors, directors, and writers. As was the case with Red Summer, it was not mere membership in the Communist party which caused suspicion. Individuals were sometimes grilled for belonging to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or the American Civil Liberties Union. It was not enough to confess innocence: you had in turn to accuse others of Communism. A few in the dragnet had actually been Communists, either because they had actually believed in its aims or as part of the polarization of American society in the era of the Spanish Civil War. 

However, the opponents of the Committee were not all Communist. Some accused it of violating the Constitutional rights against self-incrimination and for freedom of belief. The entertainment industry, fearful of an investigation, fired many people who had become shadowed by the hearings, or by a pamphlet called &quot;Red Channels.&quot; Men and women lost their livelihood, in some cases fleeing to Europe and elsewhere, in others even committing suicide over their lost lives. Ten individuals refused to name names, including screenwriters Dalton Trumbo and Ring Lardner, Jr., and were all duly blacklisted as ''the Hollywood Ten''.

Some local communities banned literature that they feared would encourage Communism. Public servants and teachers were forced to take a so-called &quot;loyalty oath&quot;: those who refused, for whatever reason, were not hired. Others lost their jobs due to unfounded accusations of disloyalty. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, who had come to power in the wake of the first Communist scare, had Americans followed on suspicion of Communism. Scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had helped develop the atomic bomb, was fired from his high-security job because of his former associations with the Communist party. Yet the career of Joseph McCarthy was also derailed during the Red Scare: in 1954, the Senate formally censured him for abusing his powers and using unfair tactics in targeting innocent government officials.

Even at the height of the McCarthyist furor in the early 1950s, the anti-Communist crusade was relatively mild. Many prosecutions faltered on appeal and only a few foreign-born radicals were actually deported. Only Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were put to death. Of the roughly 150 people who went to prison, most were released within a year or two. Yet the after effects lasted for decades. When the United States later fought a war in Vietnam, it was often in the dark because a number of regional experts had been lost to the Red Scare.

== The Korean War ==
===Background===
After World War II, the US attempted to curb Soviet influence on the Korean Peninsula by occupying southern part of that area. The area occupied by the US became South Korea, while the other part became North Korea. North Korea soon passed into the control of the Communist Party.

===North Korean Offensive===
[[File:South Korean refugees mid-1950.jpg|thumb|South Korean refugees flee the North Korean army.]]
In May, 1949, fighting between North and South Korean troops broke out near the border between the two nations. In an attempt to add South Korea to the Communist World, North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. The People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union lent their support to North Korea, while the United States did the same to South Korea.
On June 25, 1950 a large military force moved across the 38th parallel in the Republic of Korea. Since 1910, Korea had been divided into two by the powers of Japans victory in 1945. The Korean war was seen as an internal struggle, with the north heavily armed and backed by China and the Soviet Union invading the lightly armed south. The two parts moved along the temporary border while the anti-government fighting began to flare into the south.

On June 27, 1950 the United Nations security Council first adopted a ceasefire resolution. When the United Nations Security Council voted to aid South Korea in stopping North Korean aggression, the United States agreed to send troops to the Korean Peninsula. General Douglas MacArthur was given the command of UN troops in Korea. The United States agreed to send troops over on June 30 along with increasing aid to the French fight against Communists rebels in Indochina. MacArthur was placed in command on July 8. At the beginning the U.S. troops were lacking training and were out of shape. In the first few weeks of fighting the U.S. troops were pushed back to a defensive perimeter at Pusan.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Don't Know Much About History&quot; by Kenneth C. Davis&lt;/ref&gt; 

===Back and Fourth===
[[File:HA-SC-98-06983-Crew of M24 along Naktong River front-Korean war-17 Aug 1950.JPEG|thumb|American troops in Korea]]
By the autumn of 1950, North Korean troops were forced out of South Korea. In October, General MacArthur ordered troops to cross into North Korea. In the third week of that month, the US took the capital of North Korea, Pyongyang. 

[[File:Max Desfor - Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea.jpg|thumb|Refugees flee Pyongyang on a destroyed bridge.]]

However, just six days after the United Nations forces took Pyongyang, the People's Republic of China sent a quarter million men on a series of counterattacks. In December, Chinese &quot;volunteers&quot; took over Pyongyang and by January 1951 they had taken the South Korean capital, Seoul.

The US intended to do whatever it took to win the Korean War. It even planned on using the atomic bomb. However, President Truman did not trust General MacArthur to follow orders when using the atomic bomb. Therefore, he asked for MacArthur's resignation; MacArthur complied.

===Stalemate===

In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the US. Having promised during the election campaign to end the Korean War, he fulfilled this promise by continuing negotiations with the North and South Koreans, Chinese, and the Soviet Union and using &quot;brinkmanship&quot; to reach an agreement acceptable to all countries involved except for South Korea, which tried to induce the US to help unite Korea.

==Weapons of the Cold War==
===Nuclear Weapons===
[[File:Ivy Mike (Eniwetok-Atoll - 31. Oktober 1952).jpg|thumb|''Ivy Mike'', the first Hydrogen Bomb, was tested November 1st, 1952. The testing site, [[w: Elugelab|Elugelab island]], became an underwater crater following the test. It's yield of 10.4 ''mega''tons of TNT dwarfed that of Fat Man, which only had a yield of 20 ''kilo''tons.]]
The nuclear arms race was central to the Cold War. Many feared where the Cold War was going with the belief that the more nuclear weapons you had, the more powerful you were. Both America and The Soviet Union massively built up their stockpiles of nuclear weapons.

The world greatly changed when USA exploded the H-bomb in 1952. This one bomb was smaller in size than the Hiroshima atomic bomb but 2500 times more powerful. The Soviets produced an H-bomb in 1953 and the world became a much more dangerous place.

===Nuclear Triad===
[[File:Boeing B-47B rocket-assisted take off on April 15, 1954 061024-F-1234S-011.jpg|thumb|Innovations in weapon delivery platforms played a major role in the Cold War]]

The Cold War also saw innovation in delivery platforms. By using land based, sea based, and air based weapons platforms, a [[w:Nuclear triad|Nuclear triad]] could be established. This made it difficult to ensure all of a nations nuclear weaponry could be destroyed in a surprise first strike.

===Deterrence===
By April of 1950 the US Department of State had concluded that the Soviet Union was a significant hostile threat, and through it's NSC-68 report advocated that deterrence through an arms build up would be the best way to counter that threat.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/NSC68 |website=history.state.gov |access-date=23 October 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; By building up a number of weapons, it was hoped that the Soviet Union would be detered from waging a nuclear war.

USA produced a bomber—the B52—that could fly 6,000 miles and deliver a nuclear pay-load. Such a development required massive financial backing from the government—something which America could afford to do and which The Soviet Union could not. The Soviet Union concentrated on producing bigger bombs—a far more cost effective procedure.

In October 1957, the world was introduced to the fear of a missile attack when the Soviet Satellite Sputnik was launched. This was to lead to ICBM’s : Inter-continental ballistic missiles. As a result, America built the [[w:Distant Early Warning Line|DEW line]] around the Arctic—Distant Early Warning system.

At the end of the 1950’s, American Intelligence estimated that in a Soviet missile attack, 20 million Americans would die and 22 million would be injured.

During the 1960’s, the Soviet's put their money into producing larger missiles, Eventually creating Tsar Bomba, the biggest Nuclear Weapon ever created. America built fewer but technologically superior missiles—the Atlas could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000 mph. By 1961, there were enough bombs to destroy the world.

Despite this, great emphasis was put on new weapon systems—mobile missile launchers were built, missiles were housed underground in silos and in 1960 the first Polaris submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missiles. Each missile carried four warheads which could targeted on different cities; hence one submarine effectively carried 64 nuclear warheads.

During the 1960’s the theory of MAD developed—Mutually Assured Destruction. This meant that if The Soviet Union attacked the west, the west would make sure that they would suitably retaliate i.e. there would be no winners.

[[File:MX MIRV reentry vehicles.jpg|thumb|A MIRV test in 1984.]]

By 1981, the United States had 8,000 ICBMs and 4,000 planes capable of delivering nuclear bombs; the USSR had 7,000 ICBMs and 5,000 planes.

U.S. defense spending ballooned from $178 billion in 1981 to $367 billion by 1986. That same year, it is estimated that there were 40,000 nuclear warheads—the equivalent of one million Hiroshima bombs—throughout the world.

British Intelligence estimated that just one medium sized H-bomb on London would essentially destroy anything living up to 30 miles away.

Confronted by such awesome statistics, world leaders had to move to a position where they trusted each other more. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's &quot;detente&quot; had been used to ease bad relations between the superpowers. This was to culminate in the Reykjavik meeting between presidents Reagan and Gorbachev that started real progress in the cut in nuclear weaponry in future meetings (if little was actually gained at the meeting in Reykjavik).

==References==
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    <title>Lentis/Law Enforcement Access to Encrypted Data</title>
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      <comment>Added a section for the NDAA's role as a participant</comment>
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      <text bytes="61294" sha1="l37e798hqyjstbo89amh1ivfajotd4g" xml:space="preserve">Though once considered a munition&lt;ref&gt;US Department of State. (1992). Code of Federal Regulations. https://epic.org/crypto/export_controls/itar.html&lt;/ref&gt;, [[w: Encryption software | encrypted communications]] have become commonplace in commercially available software. [[w:Apple Inc. | Apple’s]] [[w: IMessage | iMessage]] system, for instance, is [[w: end-to-end encryption | end-to-end encrypted]], meaning that no-one (not even Apple) can read a message except the sender and the recipient&lt;ref&gt;Apple Corporation. (2011). iOS 5 Press Release. http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/06/06New-Version-of-iOS-Includes-Notification-Center-iMessage-Newsstand-Twitter-Integration-Among-200-New-Features.html&lt;/ref&gt;. Apple now also encrypts all data on its [[w:IOS | iOS]] devices,&lt;ref&gt;Apple Corporation. (2014). iOS Security Guide, September 2014. https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/1302613-ios-security-guide-sept-2014.html&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:Google | Google]] does the same on its [[w: Android (operating system) | Android operating system]].&lt;ref&gt;Android Project. (2015). Full Disk Encryption. https://source.android.com/security/encryption/&lt;/ref&gt; These systems prevent anyone besides the device owner from accessing the data on the device. Law enforcement agencies have had problems with this technology, however, because it also prevents them from viewing the data on phones, even when they have a search warrant. In one case, Apple refused to open a locked [[w: IPhone | iPhone]] for the [[w: Federal Bureau of Investigation | FBI]] in a drug investigation,&lt;ref&gt;Appuzo, M., Sanger, D., Schmidt, M. (2015). Apple and Other Tech Companies Tangle with US Over Data Access. New York Times, September 8, 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/08/us/politics/apple-and-other-tech-companies-tangle-with-us-over-access-to-data.html?_r=0 &lt;/ref&gt; stating that doing so was impossible. Law enforcement agencies have argued that tech companies should provide them with a [[w: Backdoor (computing) | “backdoor,”]] a special way to decrypt messages that can only be used by law enforcement and which would require a search warrant.&lt;ref&gt;Comey, J. (2015). http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jul/08/fbi-chief-backdoor-access-encryption-isis&lt;/ref&gt; In this chapter, we examine the sociotechnical forces surrounding this proposal in the United States and its allies.

==Background==
Although relevant today, law enforcement's access to encrypted communications is not a new issue in the United States. As personal digital communication grew more common in the early 1990s, the Clinton Administration began to push for a way to &quot;preserve a government capability to conduct electronic surveillance in furtherance of legitimate law enforcement and national security interests.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;White House. (1993). Public encryption management. https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/pdd5.htm&lt;/ref&gt; There have been several subsequent proposals for policies directly addressing the issue, though a variety of technical and social issues have prevented any such policy from taking effect.

===Clipper Chip===
[[File:MYK-78 Clipper chip markings.jpg|thumb|Clipper Chip that could be included in the hardware of any personal computer or communication device]]
The Clinton Administration's first proposal was the Clipper Chip, a hardware device designed by the United States government that manufacturers would build into their computers. This used a system called [[w: Key escrow | &quot;key escrow&quot;]] where each chip would be given a corresponding key that could decrypt any message encrypted by the chip. The key would be held by the United States government and released to law enforcement when legally required.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blaze94&quot;&gt;Blaze, M. (1994). Protocol failure in the escrowed encryption standard. http://www.crypto.com/papers/eesproto.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; A variety of social and technical problems, such as the high monetary and economic costs of implementation&lt;ref name=&quot;Deutch96&quot;&gt;Deutch, J. (1996). Memorandum for the president. https://web.archive.org/web/20121015182952/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000239468/DOC_0000239468.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; and weaknesses in the encryption algorithm&lt;ref name=&quot;Blaze94 /&gt; meant that the Clipper Chip was never adopted.

===Key Recovery===
Following the Clipper Chip's failure, the Clinton Administration proposed a system it called &quot;key recovery.&quot; In this system, trusted third party organizations would hold users' keys and provide them to law enforcement upon request.&lt;ref name=&quot;Deutch96&quot; /&gt; At the time of this proposal encryption technology was still classified as a munition, making it illegal to export from the United States. With the backing of the CIA, the Clinton Administration proposed weakening these restrictions as long as companies agreed to develop key recovery technology.&lt;ref name=&quot;Deutch96&quot; /&gt; By doing this, the Administration hoped to make key recovery the standard domestically and globally, giving law enforcement and intelligence agencies access to encrypted data worldwide. 

Organized groups within the Clinton Administration had opposing views on this issue. Though the Administration, with the internal backing of the CIA, publicly supported this key recovery plan, the Justice Department internally opposed it, believing that the plan did not go far enough and proposing that the law be modified to only allow the export and import of encryption technology that worked with key recovery systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;Deutch96&quot; /&gt;

Outside of government, many prominent groups opposed the plan for largely the same reasons that they had opposed the Clipper Chip. Trade groups such as the [[w:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)]] and [[w:Association for Computing Machinery|Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)]] opposed the plan on economic, technical, and moral grounds. They believed that these restrictions would put American companies at an economic disadvantage while ultimately proving insecure and threatening civil freedoms.&lt;ref&gt;IEEE and ACM. (1997). Letter to Senator John McCain. http://usacm.acm.org/images/documents/spna_letter.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; Ultimately legislation implementing the proposal never passed the Senate.&lt;ref&gt;McCain, J. (1997). Secure Public Networks Act. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d105:s909:&lt;/ref&gt;

===Current Status===
Though there have been many proposals for extending law enforcement's access to encrypted data in the United States, no proposals the scale of the Clipper Chip or key recovery have come into effect. Companies and individuals can generally develop and use cryptography systems freely.

Recent criminal investigations where the United States Justice Department was unable to retrieve encrypted information from phones, along with concerns over terrorist attacks, have led policymakers such as Senate Judiciary Chair [[w:Chuck Grassley|Chuck Grassley]] and Deputy Attorney General [[w:Sally Yates|Sally Yates]] to renew calls for expanding law enforcement's access to encrypted data,&lt;ref&gt;Grassley, C. (2015). Grassley questions White House commitment to going dark solution. http://www.grassley.senate.gov/news/news-releases/grassley-questions-white-house-commitment-going-dark-solution&lt;/ref&gt; bringing the issue back into the public eye.

==Support for Expanded Law Enforcement Access==
In the United States and abroad, many organized groups want to give government agencies expanded power to read encrypted data in order to prevent and prosecute criminal activity. Government and law enforcement organizations are the most prominent of these groups.

=== The Obama Administration ===
In the aftermath of the [[w: November_2015_Paris_attacks|terrorist attacks in Paris]] and [[w: 2015_San_Bernardino_shooting|San Bernardino]], President Obama gave a national address about responding to future threats.&lt;ref&gt; White House. (2015). Address to the Nation by the President. https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/12/06/address-nation-president &lt;/ref&gt;  One step in the plan is to prevent criminal activity on encrypted channels.&lt;ref&gt;Rampton, R. (2015). Obama appeals to Silicon Valley for help with online anti-extremist campaign. http://www.reuters.com/article/california-shooting-cyber-idUSKBN0TQ0A320151207&lt;/ref&gt;  However, it is unclear by what means the administration intends this to be accomplished.  Earlier in the year, the Obama administration conceded its fight to make tech companies add a [[w: Backdoor_(computing)|backdoor]] to encryption, agreeing that doing so would weaken defenses against foreign governments and cybercriminals.&lt;ref name=&quot;obama&quot;&gt;Perlroth, N. &amp; Sanger, D. (2015). Obama Won’t Seek Access to Encrypted User Data. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/11/us/politics/obama-wont-seek-access-to-encrypted-user-data.html&lt;/ref&gt;  One of the Administration’s fears is that requiring a backdoor for companies in the United States would set a similar precedent for American companies in other countries, such as China.&lt;ref name=&quot;obama&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Federal Bureau of Investigation ===
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has recently fought with Apple over encryption in iMessage.&lt;ref&gt;Hern, A. (2015). Apple's Encryption Means It Can't Comply with US Court Order. http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/08/apple-encryption-comply-us-court-order-iphone-imessage-justice&lt;/ref&gt;  In the newest versions of iOS, iMessage uses [[w: end-to-end encryption|end-to-end encryption]] so that only the sender and recipient can read messages&lt;ref name = &quot;Apple privacy&quot;&gt;Apple. (2015). Our Approach to Privacy. http://www.apple.com/privacy/approach-to-privacy/&lt;/ref&gt;, making it impossible for law enforcement to access encrypted content.  FBI Director [[w: James Comey|James Comey]] compared this to an unlockable door and said that a warrant should be all that is required to access this data&lt;ref&gt;Nakashima, E. (2015). With Court Order, Federal Judge Seeks to Fuel Debate About Data Encryption. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/federal-judge-stokes-debate-about-data-encryption/2015/10/10/c75da20e-6f6f-11e5-9bfe-e59f5e244f92_story.html&lt;/ref&gt;.  Comey noted how a terrorist who attempted to attack an event in Texas in May 2015 had been communicating with other terrorists abroad using encrypted messages&lt;ref&gt;Harte, J. &amp; Volz, D. (2015). Shooter at Texas 'Draw Mohammed' Contest Messaged Foreign Militants: FBI. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-texas-shooting-comey-idUSKBN0TS2FU20151209&lt;/ref&gt;, implying that these messages would have given authorities advance notice of the attempt had they been intercepted and read.  The United States has no [[w: key disclosure law|key disclosure law]], unlike Canada, the UK, and France, effectively keeping these encrypted messages a secret.  While key disclosure allows agencies to access encrypted data, it only helps when the suspect is known.  It is useful for gathering evidence, but not for intelligence, when fast response times are necessary, especially in preventing terrorist attacks.

=== United Kingdom's Cameron Administration ===
Similar battles are happening outside the United States.  In the United Kingdom, Prime Minister [[w:David Cameron|David Cameron]] has spoken out against apps that send encrypted messages because most of them cannot be read by government.&lt;ref name=&quot;cameron&quot;&gt;Bienkov, A. (2015). David Cameron: Twitter and Facebook Privacy is Unsustainable. http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2015/06/30/david-cameron-twitter-and-facebook-privacy-is-unsustainable&lt;/ref&gt;  Cameron argued that, in the past, government agents could get a warrant and intercept phone calls or mail, but now there are channels that government cannot access, creating a “safe space” for criminals and terrorists.&lt;ref name=&quot;cameron&quot; /&gt;  Cameron would like legislation that bans apps that use encryption unless the app has a government backdoor.&lt;ref name=&quot;cameron&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

=== National District Attorneys Association ===
The National District Attorneys Association (NDAA) has been a vocal opponent of &quot;warrant-proof&quot; encryption.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=American Data Privacy Protection Act Concerns - Sept. 26, 2022 - National District Attorneys Association |url=https://www.ndaa.org/news/-american-data-privacy-protection-act-concerns---sept-26-2022 |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ndaa.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The NDAA argues that while consumer data protection policies are needed to keep Americans safe, they often come at the expense of making law enforcement more difficult to conduct. They specifically argue that tools used by law enforcement officers in critical early stages of investigations are hampered by encrypted devices and that there is no clear alternative to these tools. Rather than focus on large mass casualty crimes as the FBI did, the NDAA chooses to highlight the difficulties in investigating crime that impacts most Americans' local communities such as carjacking and drug offenses. The NDAA appeals to readers' desire for safety and security by suggesting that anyone can be a victim of such crimes, and in doing so, serves as an appeal to lawmakers who are tasked with keeping their constituents happy and safe.

==Opposition to Expanded Law Enforcement Access==

Not everyone is in favor of expanding the government's access to private encrypted data. According to a 2014 poll, a majority of Americans (54%) “disapprove” of bulk government collection of phone and internet records,&lt;ref&gt; Pew Research Center. (2014). Beyond Red vs. Blue: The Political Typology. http://www.people-press.org/files/2014/06/6-26-14-Political-Typology-release1.pdf &lt;/ref&gt; and presidential candidates as diverse as [[w: Bernie Sanders | Bernie Sanders]]&lt;ref&gt;https://berniesanders.com/issues/war-and-peace/&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w: Rand Paul | Rand Paul]]&lt;ref&gt;https://www.randpaul.com/issue/ending-nsa-spying&lt;/ref&gt; have spoken in favor of reining in the [[w: National Security Agency | National Security Agency’s ]] [[w: PRISM (surveillance program) | data collection programs]] during the 2016 election cycle. Most opposition comes from participants with concerns over privacy or technical issues, though other factors such as economic issues are also relevant. 

===Participants with Privacy Concerns===

Many opponents of government access to data do so on privacy grounds. For instance, [[w : Tim Cook | Apple CEO Tim Cook]], speaking about his company’s [[w: end-to-end encryption | end-to-end encrypted]] [[w: IMessage | iMessage]] service, said “we believe the contents of your text messages and your video chats is none of our business.”&lt;ref&gt;Cook, T. (2015). Speech at Electronic Privacy Information Center. http://techcrunch.com/2015/06/02/apples-tim-cook-delivers-blistering-speech-on-encryption-privacy/#.ulz3r9:kVGu&lt;/ref&gt; Groups like the [[w: Electronic Frontier Foundation | Electronic Frontier Foundation]]&lt;ref&gt;Electronic Frontier Foundation. (2015). https://www.eff.org&lt;/ref&gt; advocate for reducing government access to data on privacy grounds and enjoy reasonable support, including a budget in the tens of millions of dollars.&lt;ref&gt; Electronic Frontier Foundation. (2015). Annual Report. https://www.eff.org/about/annual-reports-and-financials &lt;/ref&gt;

Privacy concerns are not a new topic in the social sciences, but researchers have struggled even to define &quot;privacy.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Solove, D. J. (2008). Understanding privacy.&lt;/ref&gt; Despite the difficulty in defining it, researchers have found that people place significant value on keeping their data private,&lt;ref&gt;Acquisti, A., John, L. K., &amp; Loewenstein, G. (2013). What is privacy worth?. The Journal of Legal Studies, 42(2), 249-274.&lt;/ref&gt; and concern over privacy is likely at least partially motivated by economic factors; companies like Apple even expressly use their protection of consumer privacy as a selling point.&lt;ref name = &quot;Apple privacy&quot;&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

===Participants with Technical Concerns===

Many participants oppose weakening encryption on technical grounds. The basic argument is that a[[w: Backdoor (computing) | backdoor]] for law enforcement means that the encryption cannot be perfectly secure, because an attacker could use the backdoor to gain entry. As the[[w:  Information Technology Industry Council | Information Technology Industry Council]] said in a statement following calls to add backdoors after the [[w: November 2015 Paris attacks | Paris attacks ]] in November 2015, weakening encryption by adding backdoors “simply doesn’t make sense.”&lt;ref&gt;Information Technology Industry Council. (2015). http://www.reuters.com/article/us-tech-encryption-idUSKCN0T82SS20151119&lt;/ref&gt; This is the same argument that security experts used when the[[w: Clipper Chip | Clipper Chip]] was proposed, and which ultimately helped defeat it.&lt;ref&gt;Abelson, H., Anderson, R. N., Bellovin, S. M., Benaloh, J., Blaze, M., Diffie, W., ... &amp; Schneier, B. (1997). The risks of key recovery, key escrow, and trusted third-party encryption.&lt;/ref&gt;

Opponents also contend that adding backdoors to encryption systems will not actually help law enforcement defeat threats. Nate Cardozo, staff attorney for the Electronic Frontier Foundation, has said that &quot;intel agencies are drowning in data... It's not about having enough data; it's a matter of not knowing what to do with the data they already have.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Cardozo, N. (2015). http://www.wired.com/2015/11/paris-attacks-cia-director-john-brennan-what-he-gets-wrong-about-encryption-backdoors/ &lt;/ref&gt; Reports that the 2015 Paris attacks (which have been cited in proposals for backdoors, including by[[w: Central Intelligence Agency | CIA]] director[[w: John O. Brennan | John Brennan]])&lt;ref&gt; Brennan, J. (2015). Speech at Center for Strategic International Studies. http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2015/11/brennan-paris-wakeup-call-europe-encryption/123732/ &lt;/ref&gt; were planned using unencrypted communications only make this claim stronger.&lt;ref&gt; Froomkin, D. (2015). Signs point to unencrypted communications between terror suspects. https://theintercept.com/2015/11/18/signs-point-to-unencrypted-communications-between-terror-suspects/ &lt;/ref&gt;

== Legal Framework and the Battle of Social Values ==
In legal settings, social values often come under pressure when two or more groups hold competing interests. Several court cases have influenced controversial interpretations of widespread key social values, adding legal, political, and social complexity to the question of how much access law enforcement should have to encrypted data - and when that access becomes too much.

=== &lt;u&gt;United States Constitution: The Foundation of Our Rights&lt;/u&gt; ===
Almost every court case listed in this chapter either cites, is influenced by, or challenges two fundamental constitutional amendments. Before the interpretations of these amendments are discussed and analyzed, it is important to clearly establish what is currently written to understand how each argument may or may not align with our [[wikipedia:List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States|constitutional rights]]:

==== 4th Amendment ====
The 4th Amendment of the United States Constitution states:

&quot;The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The 4th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/amendments/amendment-iv |website=National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In several court cases, the 4th Amendment was cited for its violation in law enforcement seizing several &quot;things&quot; being seized or searched, typically warrantless. The verdicts for these court cases typically protected individuals and established the legal need for a warrant to seize and search encrypted devices and data. Over the past 50 years, the amendment and its interpretation has remained consistent, protecting individuals and groups' dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

==== 5th Amendment ====
The 5th Amendment of the United States Constitution states:

&quot;No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The 5th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/amendments/amendment-v |website=National Constitution Center – constitutioncenter.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The 5th Amendment protects individuals from being compelled to provide testimonial evidence against themselves ([[wikipedia:Self-incrimination|self-incrimination)]] a protection that becomes particularly important in cases involving encrypted devices and data. It is also well known for its guarantee of [[wikipedia:Due_Process_Clause|proper due process]], which underpins how searches, seizures, and arrests must be conducted. Courts have repeatedly examined whether entering a passcode or decrypting data communicates knowledge, such as ownership, control, or the existence of specific files, and therefore qualifies as a testimonial. When decryption would reveal new information to law enforcement, the 5th Amendment applies; when the government can already describe the evidence with reasonable particularity, courts have sometimes permitted compelled access.

=== &lt;u&gt;Cases on Personal Privacy vs. Public Safety&lt;/u&gt; ===
The following court cases ''Smith v. Maryland, U.S. v. Cotterman, Riley v. California,'' and ''Carpenter v. U.S.'' highlight the evolving legal battle over how far the government may go in accessing digital information in the name of public safety and justice. Together, they illustrate how constitutional protections written in the 18th century are continually reinterpreted to address current technologies, from cell phone applications to location tracking. These cases also go beyond legal bounds and address competing social values, where on one side is law enforcement's interest in preventing harm and investigating crime while on the other side is society's growing expectation of personal privacy extends to a digital space. As each case redefines the balance between these values, it also influences how U.S. citizens understand their legal rights and the conditions under which those rights can be limited or lost.

==== ''Smith v. Maryland'' (1979) ====
In [[wikipedia:Smith_v._Maryland|''Smith v. Maryland'']], Michael Lee Smith was arrested and indicted for robbing Patricia McDonough. To confirm Smith's identity after cross-referencing against the victim's description, the police asked the telephone company to install a [[wikipedia:Pen_register|pen register]]. However, they did so without a warrant or court order, since they believed Smith was the source of threatening calls made to McDonough. Once the pen register confirmed outgoing numbers, police obtained a warrant to search Smith's residence, where they seized the phonebook and identified Smith to be the robber. At trial, Smith sought to suppress the evidence collected by the pen register since the police did not obtain a warrant to seize his telecommunication information &quot;prior to its installation,&quot; which he claimed violated his 4th Amendment protection against unreasonable searches and seizures. On June 20, 1979, the court ruled in favor of Maryland, holding that Smith had no &quot;legitimate expectation of privacy&quot; in the numbers he dialed because he voluntarily conveyed that information to the phone company, which they recorded as a part of their regular business practices. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/442/735/ |website=Justia Law |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''U.S. v. Cotterman'' (2013) ====
''[[wikipedia:United_States_v._Cotterman|U.S. v. Cotterman]]'' began when Howard Cotterman returned from Mexico and was flagged by the [[wikipedia:TECS|Treasury Enforcement Communications System (TECS)]] database due to prior sexual offenses. At Lukeville, Arizona port of entry, border patrol officers conducted two searches (the second after the TECS notification), finding two laptops and 3 cameras, which [[wikipedia:United_States_Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement|Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)]] later came and seized.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=hlr |date=2014-01-17 |title=United States v. Cotterman |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-127/ninth-circuit-holds-forensic-search-of-laptop-seized-at-border-requires-showing-of-reasonable-suspicion-ae-united-states-v-cotterman-709-f-3d-952-9th-cir-2013-en-banc/ |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Harvard Law Review |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; After conducting an off-site digital forensic search, the government found hundreds of files containing child pornography on Cotterman's devices, and they indicted him for possession of such digital content. Cotterman motioned to suppress the evidence gained from the devices, claiming the forensic search violated the 4th Amendment. The United States argued that there are exceptions to the 4th Amendment regarding border searches. After being granted then reversed, the case was reheard [https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/en_banc en banc]. The Ninth Circuit en banc finally held that the United States violated Cotterman's 4th Amendment rights, saying that forensic, comprehensive searches of digital devices at the border require reasonable suspicion, recognizing the heightened privacy interests in electronic data.

==== ''Riley v. California'' (2014) ====
In ''[[wikipedia:Riley_v._California|Riley v. California]],'' David Riley was stopped for a traffic violation, arrested on weapons charges, and had his cell phone seized and searched without a warrant, linking Riley to gang affiliation and involvement in a prior shooting. Riley moved to suppress the phone evidence, but the lower court denied his motion. A similar case, ''U.S. v. Wurie'' (2014), involved a similar warrantless search of a flip phone that linked Wurie to a drug stash in his apartment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=United States v. Wurie |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/13-212 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Supreme Court reviewed both cases together and ultimately decided that &quot;the police generally may not, without a warrant, search digital information on a cell phone seized from an individual who has been arrested&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Riley v. California, 573 U.S. 373 (2014) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/573/373/ |website=Justia Law |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. As a result, Riley's conviction was reversed while Wurie's case ruling was sustained.

==== ''Carpenter v. U.S.'' (2018) ====
''[[wikipedia:Carpenter_v._United_States|Carpenter v. U.S.]]'' is similar to ''Riley v. California,'' in regard to how both involved data associated with cell phones. However, in the Carpenter case, police arrested four men with connection to an armed robbery. One of the men confessed and gave his number and all of the numbers of the other participants to the FBI, which they used to obtain orders to gain transactional records on each phone number. This was granted under the [[wikipedia:Stored_Communications_Act|Stored Communications Act, 18 U.S.C. 2703(d)]], which provides the government the ability to &quot;require the disclosure of certain telecommunication records when 'specific and articulable facts show[] that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the contents of a wire or electronic communication, or the records or other information sought, are relevant and material to an ongoing criminal investigation.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Carpenter v. United States. (n.d.). ''Oyez''. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.oyez.org/cases/2017/16-402&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; The transactional records included evidential data about phone call location data and other [[wikipedia:Cell_site|cell site]] location information (CSLI). Timothy Carpenter moved to suppress the evidence gained from the CSLI data, arguing it violated the 4th Amendment. Ultimately, the Supreme Court narrowly sided with Carpenter, stating the warrantless search and seizure of phone users' location data violated the 4th Amendment, but this case also extended the [[wikipedia:Third-party_doctrine|third-party doctrine]], which was originally established in ''Smith v. Maryland'' and ''U.S. v. Miller'' (1976).

==== Social Analysis: Privilege of Privacy Amongst Individuals ====
While ''Smith v. Maryland'' established early boundaries for digital privacy through the [[wikipedia:Third-party_doctrine|third-party doctrine]], the struggle between digital privacy and the government's duty to ensure public safety and promote the general welfare remains foundationally contested. Later cases ''U.S. v. Cotterman, Riley v. California, and Carpenter v. U.S.'' shifted the legal landscape by recognizing that digital privacy is not merely limited to or defined by location, device, or type of data. Further, these decisions affirm that modern technology and encrypted data function as extensions of one's identity: &quot;phones are no longer merely phones, but important communication ...[and] data centers, and perhaps most significantly, loci for the digital culture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Steven I. Friedland, Riley v. California and the Stickiness Principle, 14 ''Duke Law &amp; Technology Review'' 121-139 (2016)&lt;/ref&gt; In a world where personal identity, social life, and daily conduct are increasingly mediated through digital platforms, individuals carry with them a reasonable expectation of privacy that is qualitatively different from what was considered in the past.

However, this expectation is not universally accepted or consistently interpreted. The ability to protect one's digital privacy, through encryption, secure devices, and knowledge of digital rights, often underlines developing social privileges. As governments and courts continue to define the limitations and applications of privacy in a rapidly evolving cyber-physical space, tensions will continue to emerge between the trend of expanding privacy protections and ensuring that privacy is not viewed as a hindrance to justice, safety, or accountability. These tensions have been heightened by the recent rise in AI surveillance and automated data decryption services, where, as the [[wikipedia:American_Civil_Liberties_Union|ACLU]] notes, &quot;the automated nature of these systems means that traditional limitations on police resources—once a vital check on government overreach—have been effectively eliminated.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=February 12, 2026 |title=AI-Powered Surveillance Is Turning the United States into a Digital Police State. Now is the Time to Stop It. |url=https://www.aclum.org/publications/ai-powered-surveillance-is-turning-the-united-states-into-a-digital-police-state-now-is-the-time-to-stop-it/ |website=ACLU of Massachusetts |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; These cases reveal that privacy is not only a legal right but a social resource - one that is unevenly accessible, persistently contested, and potentially constrained depending on the level of influence and position one has within society, public institutions, and digital systems.

=== &lt;u&gt;Cases on Digital Autonomy vs. Law Enforcement's Authority&lt;/u&gt; ===
The following court cases highlight a nearly twenty-year trend in how courts navigate the tension between personal digital autonomy and expanding authority of law enforcement. Central to this trend is the forgone conclusion doctrine, a limited exception to the 5th Amendment's Self-Incrimination Clause that can compel an individual to release encrypted data and passcodes if three factors are met: 

# The Government has knowledge of the existence of the evidence demanded
# The defendant possessed or controlled the evidence, and
# The evidence is authentic.

The government must also be able to describe the evidence with &quot;reasonable particularity.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Foregone Conclusion Doctrine Allows Government to Make Criminal Defendant Disclose Computer Password |url=https://goldsteinmehta.com/blog/foregone-conclusion-doctrine |website=Goldstein Mehta LLC |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although this doctrine is framed as a narrow case-by-case rule, its application in the digital era effectively shifts power toward law enforcement in situations where devices and encrypted data act as extensions of personal identity, memory, and autonomy. As encryption continues to become a default feature of everyday technology, compelled-decryption cases raise questions about how much control individuals retain over their private data and whether constitutional protections can keep up with rapidly evolving digital systems. While many courts, often citing ''In re Boucher'', have supported decryption under the doctrine, cases such as ''U.S. v. Doe'' and the ''Oakland Biometrics Case'' emphasizes that society still recognizes meaningful limits on government authority and continue to affirm the social and legal value of personal digital autonomy.

==== ''In re Boucher Case'' (2009) ====
The [[wikipedia:In_re_Boucher|''In re Grand Jury Subpoena to Boucher'' case]] arose when Sebastien Boucher was arrested at the border between Canada and Vermont, where an officer's secondary inspection led to the discovery of child pornography on Boucher's computer. However, after seizing the laptop and once the computer was shut down, the hard drive's content could not be viewed again without entering in a passphrase. A Secret Service computer forensics expert testified that the drive had been encrypted using [[wikipedia:Pretty_Good_Privacy|Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)]] software and there was no backdoor for this type of encryption software.&lt;ref&gt;Pfefferkorn, Riana, In Re Boucher: Hard Drives Make Pretty Good Law? Encryption Passphrases as Testimonial Evidence Under the Fifth Amendment (February 1, 2009). Available at SSRN: &lt;nowiki&gt;https://ssrn.com/abstract=1883697&lt;/nowiki&gt; or &lt;nowiki&gt;http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1883697&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; In response, the grand jury subpoenaed Boucher to release the passphrases to the government, in which Boucher successfully moved to quash the subpoena, initially. Boucher argued that this violated his 5th Amendment rights against self-incrimination, but after further review the U.S. District Court for Vermont reversed the initial grant. The reasoning for this reversal is that since the files sought allegedly contain child pornographic content, the entry of the password is incriminating and therefore the real question is whether the &quot;subpoena seeks testimonial communication.&quot; Also, both parties agreed that the content in the files did not share the same 5th Amendment privileges as revealing the password, as the files were &quot;voluntarily prepared&quot; and not testimonial.&lt;ref&gt;In Re Boucher (United States District Court for the District of Vermont November 29, 2009). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.volokh.com/files/Boucher.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; The real question lies in whether entry of the password, and ultimately handing the files over to the government, would be testimonial and a violation of the 5th Amendment. The final verdict states that &quot;Boucher has no act of production privilege to refuse to provide the grand jury with an unencrypted version of the Z drive of his computer,&quot; and that &quot;the government may not make use of Boucher's act of production to authenticate the unencrypted Z drive or its contents either before the grand jury or a petit jury,&quot; ultimately legally compelling Boucher to decrypt his device and hand the files to the government.&lt;ref&gt;In re Grand Jury Subpoena to Sebastien Boucher, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://yalelawtech.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/boucher_-_sessions_-_appeal.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; (United States District Court for the District of Vermont. February 19, 2009).&lt;/ref&gt; This case became a significant landmark of [[wikipedia:Key_disclosure_law|key disclosure law]] through being regarded as [[wikipedia:Case_law|case law]], and its influence is significant in several other court cases discussed in the battle of self autonomy and authority.

==== ''U.S. v. Doe'' (Dated March 25, 2011) ====
In the case of ''U.S. v. Doe,'' FBI agents seized two laptops and five external hard drives from a man under investigation, but the data was stored behind an encryption program assumed to be [[wikipedia:TrueCrypt|TrueCrypt]]. When ordered by a grand jury to produce unencrypted contents of the hard drives, he invoked the 5th Amendment, claiming a breach of protections against self-incrimination. Specifically, Doe argued that &quot;the Government’s use of the decrypted contents of the hard drives would constitute derivative use of his immunized testimony, use not protected by the district court’s grant of immunity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=In Re: Grand Jury Subpoena Duces Tecum Dated March 25, 2011, USA v. John Doe, No. 11-12268 (11th Cir. 2012) |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ca11/11-12268/11-12268-2012-02-23.html |website=Justia Law |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Doe also explained he was unable to decrypt the hard drive (which was disregarded in this case as well as the appeal case), but ultimately the court held Doe in contempt and jailed him. After appealing the decision, the circuit court ruled that decrypting the data is testimonial and therefore protected by the 5th Amendment (in favor of Doe), a comparably different outcome than seen in ''In re Boucher'' and ''U.S. v. Fricosu,'' and a significant limitation on the foregone conclusion doctrine.

==== ''U.S. v. Fricosu'' (2012) ====
In ''[[wikipedia:United_States_v._Fricosu|U.S. v. Fricosu]],'' the FBI obtained a search warrant for Colorado resident Ramona Fricosu under suspicion of mortgage fraud. During the search, agents seized six computers. One of the six computers seized was password-encrypted by a program called PGP Desktop, which &quot;provides easy to use and secure encryption to protect sensitive data on your laptop or desktop computers.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=What is Symantec Encryption Desktop? (formerly known as PGP Desktop Encryption) |url=https://help.uillinois.edu/TDClient/37/uic/KB/PrintArticle?ID=776 |website=help.uillinois.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt; The day after the execution of the search warrant, Fricosu made a call to her incarcerated divorced ex-husband, and the recorded conversation revealed that both her and her ex-husband were aware of the content in her laptop, as well as the encryption program and her legal instruction to not provide any passwords, as protected by the 5th Amendment. In closing, several facts of the case (including file names, location of laptop, and connection to her ex-husband and his convictions) led the court to hold that Fricosu is legally compelled to provide an unencrypted copy of the files to the government as evidence, aligning with the ''In re Boucher'' case and applying the forgone conclusion doctrine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=United States v. Fricosu, Criminal Case No. 10–cr–00509–REB–02. {{!}} D. Colo., Judgment, Law, casemine.com |url=https://www.casemine.com/judgement/us/5914e216add7b049348ee62f |website=https://www.casemine.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''Commonwealth v. Gelfgatt'' (2012) ====
''Commonwealth v. Gelfgatt'' is another case regarding compelled decryption via [[wikipedia:Key_disclosure_law|key disclosure laws]] influenced by ''In re Boucher''. Leon I. Gelfgatt, an attorney, was indicted with seventeen counts of forgery of a document, seventeen counts of [[wikipedia:Uttering|uttering]] a forged instrument, and three counts of attempting to commit larceny. The charges came from allegations against Gelfgatt that he conducted a scheme, using several computers, to receive ill-obtained funds that he used to pay mortgage loans for residential properties. The Commonwealth asked the judge to grant legal compulsion of Gelfgatt to decrypt his computers, in which the judge denied originally but asked for higher-level advisement on the question:&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Commonwealth v. Gelfgatt |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/massachusetts/supreme-court/2014/sjc-11358.html |website=Justia Law |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

&quot;Can the defendant be compelled pursuant to the Commonwealth's proposed protocol to provide his key to seized encrypted digital evidence despite the rights and protections provided by the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution and Article Twelve of the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights?&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

The Supreme Judicial Court, after further review of the law in question, reversed the judges denial to the Commonwealth's request for Gelfgatt's compulsion, implying in their verdict that &quot;the government can ... compel the defendant to produce it [digital evidence] where it already knows what the information is, and the defendant’s disclosure would add little or nothing to what the government’s knowledge,&quot; another application of the forgone conclusion doctrine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Fernandez |first=Zoraida |date=2019-03-20 |title=Can the Commonwealth Compel You to Unlock Your Cell Phone? SJC Clarifies Certain Circumstances in Which it Can |url=https://www.bostonlawyerblog.com/can-the-commonwealth-compel-you-to-unlock-your-cell-phone-sjc-clarifies-certain-circumstances-in-which-it-can/ |website=Boston Lawyer Blog |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''Oakland Biometrics Case'' (2019) ====
The ''In re: Search of A Residence in Oakland, California'' case presents a notably different application of the 4th and 5th Amendments in a cyber-physical system, compared to cases like ''In re Boucher'', ''U.S. v. Fricosu'', and ''Commonwealth v. Gelfgatt.'' In this case, the government was investigating two individuals suspected of committing extortion scheme conducted through Facebook Messenger. The government's warrant application asked for the authority to search the Oakland residence and seize all digital devices on the premise, and to compel any individual present to unlock the devices through [[wikipedia:Biometrics|biometric]] features, even if they were not the subjects of the warrant. The magistrate judge denied the application, finding that &quot;while the Government had probable cause to search the premises under the Fourth Amendment, it did not have probable cause to search and seize ''all'' digital devices nor compel their unlocking using biometric features because the search warrant application was not limited to digital devices owned or controlled by the suspects.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Nowell D. Bamberger, Melissa Gohlke, Sameer Jaywant |date=2019-01-23 |title=Court Holds That 5th Amendment Self-Incrimination Privilege Precludes Compelling Fingerprint or Facial Recognition Access to Digital Devices {{!}} Cleary Enforcement Watch |language=en-US |work=Cleary Enforcement Watch |url=https://www.clearyenforcementwatch.com/2019/01/court-holds-5th-amendment-self-incrimination-privilege-precludes-compelling-fingerprint-facial-recognition-access-digital-devices/}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Citing ''Carpenter v. U.S.'' in 2018, the court emphasized how &quot;the advancement of technology should not be accompanied by an erosion in the constitutional rights of the people, and that courts should vigilantly guard against such erosion.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; In its final reasoning, the court held that biometric data cannot be compelled to unlock devices, including &quot;fingers, thumbs, facial recognition, optical/iris, or any other biometric feature to unlock electronic devices.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Baron |first=Ethan |last2=News |first2=The Mercury |date=2019-01-16 |title=Biometrics Ruling Limits How Police Can Access a Smartphone |url=https://www.govtech.com/products/Biometrics-Ruling-Limits-How-Police-Can-Access-a-Smartphone.html |website=GovTech |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''State v. Andrews'' (2020) ====
''State v. Andrews'' began with the arrest of Quincy Lowery for suspected involvement in a New Jersey drug-trafficking ring. However, Lowery confessed officer Robert Andrews helped him evade detection by warning Lowery of the wiretap on his phone and the GPS tracker on his Jeep. Lowery even showed the investigators the text messages to prove such evidence, but because he reset his phone a month earlier, most of the text messages were wiped. Officers requested Andrews to hand over his two iPhones, in which Andrews did so voluntarily without giving out the passwords to unlock them. Without a way to effectively decrypt the passwords, the State obtained warrants for the phones' contents and motioned for Andrews to reveal the passwords. Andrews refused citing the 5th Amendment's Self-Incrimination Clause. Once the trial court supported the State's motion and Andrews appealed the courts decision, the appeals court upheld the trial court's decision, stating &quot;because the State had already established that Andrews owned, possessed, and controlled his iPhones, his act of producing their passcodes, while 'testimonial,' fell under this 'foregone conclusion' exception.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-04-12 |title=State v. Andrews |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-134/state-v-andrews/ |website=Harvard Law Review |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Andrews appealed the decision again, and the New Jersey Supreme Court affirmed both lower courts, holding &quot;that the Fifth Amendment privilege was overcome by the government’s knowledge of three key facts: the passcodes’ existence, their possession by the defendant, and their authenticity,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; ultimately compelling Andrews to reveal the passwords to the iPhones.

==== Social Analysis: Increasing Authority at the Cost of Digital Autonomy ====
The current U.S. legal landscape underlines a shift in how society balances personal digital autonomy against government authority. As courts increasingly apply the forgone conclusion doctrine to encrypted devices and data, they reshape social expectations about privacy, identity, and governmental power. With digital devices now functioning as extensions of our being and lives, compelled decryption has social implications far beyond traditional evidence production. Cases such as ''In re Boucher, U.S. v. Fricosu, Commonwealth v. Gelfgatt,'' and ''State v. Andrews'' have normalized broader government access to encrypted data, strengthening a social narrative that national security interests outweigh individual control over digital identity. This trend can erode trust and accountability, particularly in communities already skeptical of law enforcement, and may create chilling effects on expression, association, and political participation. As compelled access becomes more routine, society risks normalizing a surveillance-based relationship between citizens and the government.

However, cases like ''U.S. v. Doe'' and the ''Oakland Biometrics Case'' demonstrate that courts still recognize the social value of digital autonomy and the importance of limiting the government's power when compelled decryption becomes indistinguishable from compelled testimony, or otherwise self-incrimination. Advocacies, professional organizations, and non-profits also play a crucial role in shaping both the public's view and judicial reasoning. For example, the [[wikipedia:Electronic_Frontier_Foundation|Electric Frontier Foundation (EFF)]] wrote amicus briefs (a legal document providing advice, information, or arguments related to a case) for both ''U.S. v. Fricosu'' and ''U.S. v. Doe'', consistently arguing that the 5th Amendment protected individuals from all forms of compelled decryption. They emphasized that the different outcomes in these cases resulted from not doctrinal inconsistency but from the defendant's own disclosures, underlining how &quot;silence is golden.&quot; Noting how &quot;Boucher talked to law enforcement&quot; and &quot;Fricosu talked to her ex-husband and co-defendant in jail,&quot; the EFF claims &quot;it was this talking that defeated their Fifth Amendment privilege through the foregone conclusion doctrine.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Fakhoury |first=Hanni |date=2012-03-07 |title=A Tale of Two Encryption Cases |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/03/tale-two-encryption-cases |website=Electronic Frontier Foundation |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Together, these cases and the various proponents of conflicting civil liberties, often driven by strong social values, illustrate a significant moment in the definition of digital autonomy, one which courts, civil liberties organizations, and the public are actively shaping the future boundaries of state authority in an increasingly data-driven society.

=== &lt;u&gt;Cases on Managing Public Trust &amp; Accountability&lt;/u&gt; ===
The final cases in this chapter addresses the critical but often overlooked social values of public trust and accountability, particularly in the management of personal data. As emerging technologies such as [[wikipedia:Quantum_computing|quantum computing]], [[wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence|AI]], and [[wikipedia:Edge_computing|edge computing]] reshape how information is stored and accessed, public trust in institutions responsible for protecting digital rights has become increasingly fragile. People generally rely on governments, courts, and large organizations to act as stewards of their data and to ensure that justice is upheld when digital rights are threatened. However, the following cases reveal a series of paradoxes, where entities display conflicting interests in data management and the legal framework governing their practices lag behind the change in technology. These tensions propose significant questions in who truly manages data and, by extension, who the public can trust to enact accountability in an increasingly digital world.

==== ''U.S. v. Microsoft'' (2018) ====
[[File:BalticServers data center.jpg|thumb|Data centers hold vast amounts of information about millions of individuals and organizations, making them a significant source of digital evidence.]]
In ''[[wikipedia:Microsoft_Corp._v._United_States|U.S. v. Microsoft]],'' the FBI in 2013 obtained a warrant under the [[wikipedia:Stored_Communications_Act|Stored Communications Act]] requiring Microsoft to release encrypted email and other information connected to one of their customers that was under suspicion of being involved in illegal drug trafficking. Microsoft refused to comply, arguing these emails were stored in its Dublin, Ireland data center and that the SCA did not authorize U.S. courts to compel production of data outside of its borders. Microsoft moved to quash the warrant, questioning how a United States federal law can be enforced outside of U.S. borders. While the move to quash the warrant was denied by the district court, Microsoft appealed the ruling and was granted their motion to quash it by the Second Circuit court. The U.S. Department of Justice petitioned to review the new decision, claiming that the warrant was &quot;a domestic application of the SCA,&quot; and that the appealed decision &quot;would be 'impractical and detrimental to law enforcement' and that the use of the SCA to obtain user data stored abroad would respect 'the United States’ international obligations.'&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=United States v. Microsoft |url=https://epic.org/documents/united-states-v-microsoft/ |website=EPIC - Electronic Privacy Information Center |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; After the Supreme Court granted the petition and planned to hold another hearing, the federal government enacted the [[wikipedia:CLOUD_Act|Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data Act (CLOUD Act)]], which in essence established that U.S. service providers must produce data within their possession, custody, or control regardless of where the data is physically stored. This ultimately led to the case being dismissed as unnecessary and Microsoft being legally compelled by the CLOUD Act to obtain and provide the data from its Irish datacenter, due to Microsoft being a U.S. company.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=United States v. Microsoft Corp., 584 U.S. ___ (2018) |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/584/17-2/ |website=Justia Law |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United States v. Microsoft Corporation. (n.d.). ''Oyez''. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.oyez.org/cases/2017/17-2&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; 

==== ''Van Buren v. U.S.'' (2021) ====
''[[wikipedia:Van_Buren_v._United_States|Van Buren v. U.S.]]'' addresses access to encrypted data very differently from ''U.S. v. Microsoft''. Georgia police sergeant Nathan Van Buren was bribed by Andrew Albo, who was cooperating with an FBI sting operation, to run a license plate search on a possible undercover cop. Van Buren complied to the request, and through the [[wikipedia:Crime_information_center|Georgia Crime Information Center (GCIC)]] he used his authorized credentials to look up the provided license plate to confirm the identity of an undercover cop. Although officers are trained that GCIC access is strictly limited to law enforcement purposes specifically, Van Buren technically accessed only information he was already authorized to view. He was charged with violating the [[wikipedia:Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act|Computer Fraud &amp; Abuse Act (CFAA)]], which he petitioned for review claiming that he technically did not exceed access authority as a law enforcement official with proper credentials to access the GCIC.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Van Buren v. United States |url=https://epic.org/documents/van-buren-v-united-states/ |website=EPIC - Electronic Privacy Information Center |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; The court argued that &quot;the purpose in using the system was immaterial,&quot; and with there being no purpose limitation cited in the CFAA, &quot;Van Buren was authorized to access the database and di not violate the CFAA.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Scott T. Lashway and Matthew M.K. Stein, ''Signs Inscribed on a Gate: The Impact of Van Buren v. United States on Civil Claims Under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act'', 44 W. New Eng. L. Rev. 109 (2022), &lt;nowiki&gt;https://digitalcommons.law.wne.edu/lawreview/vol44/iss1/5&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; 

The court also made three important notes regarding the outcome and implications of this case and the CFAA, stating as follows:

# Amending the CFAA to include a purpose-based limitation criminalizes ordinary conduct, such as when an employee uses a business computer to send and check personal emails.
# Purpose-based limitations are unstable and potentially unclear, blurring what is considered &quot;normal&quot; and &quot;criminal&quot; conduct.
# The CFAA was only concerned in Van Buren's credentials, not his purpose for accessing GCIC records. Future disputes may address how contracts, policies, and terms of service interact with the statute's access-based limitations.

==== Social Analysis: Continuously Balancing Restriction and Freedoms ====
[[File:Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800)(cropped).jpg|thumb|Thomas Jefferson recognized the power the public provides to its government, and the importance of the government maintaining the public's trust.]]
As [[wikipedia:Thomas_Jefferson|Thomas Jefferson]] once stated, &quot;when a man assumes a public trust, he should consider himself as public property.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-07-01 |title=Basic Obligation of Public Service {{!}} U.S. Department of the Interior |url=https://www.doi.gov/ethics/basic-obligations-of-public-service |website=www.doi.gov |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The principle behind this quote is that public institutions derive their legitimacy from the people and must remain accountable to them. Yet the modern legal framework surrounding encrypted data often moves in the opposite direction. In cases such as ''U.S. v. Microsoft,'' the government asserted authority beyond U.S. borders, raising important questions about which institutions, domestic or foreign, citizens are expected to trust with their digital lives. Microsoft and privacy advocates warned that if the U.S. can issue a warrant that legally compels decryption abroad, &quot;other countries will in turn use their own laws to seize data stored in the U.S&quot; which &quot;could put Americans’ emails (and other data) at risk of seizure by foreign governments.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Kruse, N. (2018, March 1). ''U.S. v. Microsoft: Is Your Data and Privacy at Risk?''. Byte Back. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.bytebacklaw.com/2018/03/u-s-v-microsoft-is-your-data-and-privacy-at-risk/&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; The CLOUD Act further complicates this landscape by shifting practical control of data from the government to private, for-profit corporations. Even when data is physically stored in another country, ownership and decision-making authority often remain with companies like Microsoft, Facebook, and Apple, who all supported the CLOUD Act and whose incentives are shaped not by democratic accountability but by reputation management, market pressures, and financial interests. This raises two currently unanswered questions of public trust: first, how can citizens trust governmental systems when jurisdictional boundaries blur and government authority extends beyond its traditional limits, and second, how can they trust corporations to act as responsible stewards of their data when their obligations to shareholders may conflict with the public's interest in privacy and autonomy?

Furthermore, ''Van Buren v. U.S.'' produces a paradoxical outcome, where individuals protected from being criminalized for everyday digital behavior while simultaneously exposing the public to greater risks of insider misuses of encrypted data by law enforcement. The CFAA was originally designed to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive information, but Van Buren narrowed its scope by rejecting any inquiry into a person's purpose for accessing data. In doing so, the court prevented the CFAA from becoming overly broad &quot;terms-of-service crime,&quot; yet it also removed a potential safeguard against officers who misuse their legitimate credentials to access personal information for improper reasons. As scholars note, the CFAA retains its force, &quot;even with the purpose inquiry foreclosed: access may not be authorization, and authorization or its limits could be inferred from context and terms of use.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Regardless, this case “does not definitively resolve the question of whether unauthorized access must be barred by a hardware or software gateway or if activity can become ‘unauthorized’ by a contractual ban&quot; and “largely for that reason, the practical effects on the CFAA’s civil enforcement provisions remain to be seen.”&lt;ref&gt;Melanie Assad, Van Buren v. United States: An Employer Defeat or Hacker’s Victory – Or Something in Between, 21 UIC REV. INTELL. PROP. L. 166 (2022).&lt;/ref&gt; From a public trust perspective, this creates a double-edged sword: the decision limits government overreach in one sense, yet it also leaves the public more vulnerable to the very actors entrusted with sensitive data, raising the difficult questions about accountability, oversight, and the social value of trust in law enforcement. 

Both ''U.S. v Microsoft'' and ''Van Buren v. U.S.'' offer different stories connected by their influence over public trust and accountability; one raises concerns about how far a government's authority extends and the inherent ownership of encrypted data by companies driven by the market and productivity, while the other is seen as a win for protecting individuals from accidental criminalization of normal activities and a loss for holding law enforcement accountable by removing an extra layer of protection through authorization and credentials. As technology changes and evolves, shaping the application of data encryption, management, and access, future litigations may arise, and the question of who will maintain the public's trust in data privacy and digital autonomy will most likely continue to be overlooked and potentially mishandled. All of these court cases point toward a future that will quickly challenge long-held and accepted social values, especially in regard to extending those values to encrypted digital or cyber-physical platforms, and it is up to all participants and interested parties to make these social values known and considered, whether it is noted by an advocacy, non-profit organization, for-profit corporation, law enforcement agencies, regular citizens, or the courts of law.

==Conclusion==

The struggle over encryption backdoors is far from over, and there will almost certainly be more developments on this topic in the future as new solutions are proposed and enacted or defeated. Although we have covered significant parts of the debate in the United States and the United Kingdom, participants in other places have different perspectives. Interesting additions to this chapter could include updates covering future developments and expansion to cover encryption worldwide.

==References==
{{reflist}}

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      <text bytes="12078" sha1="pu9bc27ly0gqxmc3tbk7hm1b5gexrv5" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
[[File:Hexagonal chess.svg|alt=An image showing the initial setup of Gliński’s hexagonal chess.|thumb|302x302px|'''Gliński’s hexagonal chess''' is the most popular of the hexagonal chess variants. It had around half a million players at its prime.]]
'''Chess variants''' are a family of board games derived from chess. These variants can involve only a slight modification to the rules of chess, or can involve more drastic changes. There are lots of chess variants - the number is in the thousands. ''The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants,'' a chess variant catalogue created in 1994 by chess player David Pritchard, has around 2,000 chess variants listed in its catalogue and notes many more variants were considered too trivial for inclusion.

== History of chess ==
If one wishes to delve into the world of chess variants, it will be a good idea to understand how chess originated and evolved. The most common theory of the origin of chess states that the game originated in India in the sixth century CE, under the name ''chaturanga''. Chaturanga was a strategy game simulating a war between two Indian factions, with pieces representing the four arms of the ancient Indian army - the infantry (pawns), cavalry (knights), elephants (bishops) and chariots (rooks) - as well as two pieces for the king and his advisor. Much like the modern game, the goal of chaturanga was to checkmate the enemy king, although at the time stalemate was also considered a win for the player delivering the stalemate.

Around 600 CE chaturanga spread to Sassanid Persia, where the name became ''shatranj''. Following the conquest of Persia by Islamic forces, the game spread throughout the entire Islamic world, which served as the springboard for shatranj to reach Europe by the 9th century, spreading throughout the entire continent by 1000.

At the same time, shatranj and chaturanga were spread by trade along the Silk Road to East Asia, giving rise to chess's Asian cousins - xiangqi in China, janggi in Korea and shogi in Japan.

Back in Europe, chess went through further development. Some of the pieces were reinterpreted in Catholic eyes - the piece representing the Indian elephant was recast as a Catholic bishop, and coinciding with the strong female leaders arising around this time, the king's advisor was recast as a queen.

Another major development occurred in Germany, also in the 12th century, where a chess variant known as ''Courier Chess'' was created, which introduced the chess-playing world to the diagonal move used by the modern bishop (which in Courier chess was used by that game's titular piece). This move was swiftly granted to the bishop on the 8 by 8 board to speed up the game, and in around 1475 the queen was granted her modern powers (previously, she could only move one square diagonally), creating a variant known as &quot;Mad Queen Chess&quot;.

By the 15th century, a few more modifications had been made to the rules of Mad Queen Chess, such as the pawn double-step, castling and en passant, creating the game of chess as we know it today (although the rules wouldn't be universally standardised until the end of the 19th century).

== Types of variants ==
There are many different types of chess variants, and variants are usually created with the standard game as a starting point. Variant creators often create chess variants to fix an issue they perceive with the standard game or to create new games of interest for chess players. 

Here are some ways in which chess variants differ from the standard game:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Some ways in which chess variants differ from the standard game:
!Difference from standard chess:
!Example:
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Board differences'''''
|-
|Board with a different size or shape
|Chess on a 12 by 12 board - As its name suggests.
|-
|Board with a different topology
|Cylindrical chess - uses a cylindrical board.
|-
|Board with a non-square lattice
|Gliński’s hexagonal chess - Uses a board made up of 91 hexagon-shaped cells.
|-
|Board with more than two dimensions of movement
|Raumschach - Uses a 5 by 5 by 5 board.
|-
|Multiple boards
|Alice chess - Pieces switch between two boards when they move.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Movement differences'''''
|-
| Different basic piece movement rules
| Push chess, Simultaneous chess, and Quantum chess - Very different movement rules.
|-
|Different castling rules
|Shafran's hexagonal chess - Four different types of castling.
|-
| Different pawn promotion rules
|Balbo's chess - Piece replacement types available depend on the file the promoted pawn is in.
|-
|Different piece capture/restore rules
|Circe chess - Pieces taken from the opponent are resurrected on their starting square.
|-
|Non-standard pieces
|Almost chess - The queens are replaced with chancellors, which can move like a rook or a knight.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Player differences'''''
|-
|More than two players
|Four-player chess - Four players play on a cross-shaped board.
|-
|Non-identical setup for both players
|Dunsany's chess - Black has a regular chess army, while White has a horde of 32 pawns.
|-
|Players cooperate
|Cooperative chess - The players play for a mutual win.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Win/lose rule differences'''''
|-
|Different check/checkmate rules
|3-Check chess - The first player to put the other in check 3 times wins.
|-
|Different victory conditions
|Losing chess (also known as suicide chess, antichess or giveaway chess) - The objective is to lose all of one's pieces.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Information differences'''''
|-
|Incomplete game information
|Kriegspiel - Players cannot see each other's pieces.
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;  style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC&quot; | &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; &amp;#65279; '''''Randomness differences'''''
|-
|Random starting position
|Fischer random chess (a.k.a., Chess960) - Starting configuration is randomly selected from among 960 possible options.
|-
|Use of cards
|Knightmare chess - Players are dealt cards that can be used to change the rules of the game.
|-
|Use of dice
|Dice chess - Dice rolls determine which pieces can move on a given turn.
|}
Some chess variants have sub-variants of their own - for example, Dunsany's chess has a subvariant named ''Horde chess''.

== Playing chess variants ==
There are many chess variants that can be played with standard equipment, but there are also many variants that require special computer software to play (perhaps because they use non-standard boards or pieces). Some of those variants (such as Gothic chess) have been made into commercially available products, however. Also, the two most notable chess websites online, Chess.com and lichess.org, both offer support for a handful of variants. There are also softwares that have been made specifically to play chess variants, such as Chess Remix, Zillions of Games, Fairy-Max and ChessV.

== A catalogue of variants ==
The variants in this catalogue are sorted by whether or not they use a standard board, pieces and rules.

===Standard Rules===

==== Different Starting Position ====
* [[Chess Variants/Fischer Random Chess|Fischer Random Chess]]

====Different Number of Pieces====
* [[Chess Variants/Dunsany's Chess|Dunsany's Chess]]

====Non-Standard Board====
* [[Chess Variants/Balbo's Game|Balbo's Game]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chess on a 12 by 12 Board|Chess on a 12 by 12 Board]]
* [[Chess Variants/Circular Chess|Circular Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cross Chess|Cross Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cylinder Chess|Cylinder Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Double Chess|Double Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Grid Chess|Grid Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Hexagonal Chess|Hexagonal Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Infinite Chess|Infinite Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Los Alamos Chess|Los Alamos Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Masonic Chess|Masonic Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Minichess|Minichess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Raumshcach|Raumshcach]]
* [[Chess Variants/Triangular Chess|Triangular Chess]]

===Non-Standard Rules, Standard Pieces===

====Standard Board====
* [[Chess Variants/Atomic Chess|Atomic Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Beirut Chess|Beirut Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Checkless Chess|Checkless Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chessplus|Chessplus]]
* [[Chess Variants/Circe Chess|Circe Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Crazyhouse|Crazyhouse]]
* [[Chess Variants/Extinction Chess|Extinction Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Hostage Chess|Hostage Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/King of the Hill|King of the Hill]]
* [[Chess Variants/Knight Relay Chess|Knight Relay Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Legan Chess|Legan Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Losing Chess|Losing Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Monochromatic Chess|Monochromatic Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Patrol Chess|Patrol Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Three-Check Chess|Three-Check Chess]]

====Multi-Move Variants====
* [[Chess Variants/Avalanche Chess|Avalanche Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Marseillais Chess|Marseillais Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Monster Chess|Monster Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Progressive Chess|Progressive Chess]]

====Elements of Chance====
* [[Chess Variants/Dark Chess|Dark Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Dice Chess|Dice Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Knightmare Chess|Knightmare Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Kriegspiel|Kriegspiel]]

====Non-Standard Board and Rules====
* [[Chess Variants/5D Chess with Multiverse Time Travel|5D Chess with Multiverse Time Travel]]
* [[Chess Variants/Alice Chess|Alice Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chad|Chad]]
* [[Chess Variants/Diplomat Chess|Diplomat Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Parallel Worlds Chess|Parallel Worlds Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Rollerball Chess|Rollerball Chess]]

===Non-Standard Rules and Pieces===

===Standard Board===
* [[Chess Variants/Anti-King Chess|Anti-King Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Berolina Chess|Berolina Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cavalier Chess|Cavalier Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Cheskers|Cheskers]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chess with Different Armies|Chess with Different Armies]]
* [[Chess Variants/Falcon Hunter Chess|Falcon Hunter Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Grasshopper Chess|Grasshopper Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Knightmate|Knightmate]]
* [[Chess Variants/Musketeer Chess|Musketeer Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Pocket Mutation Chess|Pocket Mutation Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Racing Kings|Racing Kings]]
* [[Chess Variants/Ultima|Ultima]]

===Compound Pieces===
* [[Chess Variants/Almost Chess|Almost Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Capablanca Chess|Capablanca Chess]] (and other 10x8 variants)
* [[Chess Variants/Chancellor Chess|Chancellor Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Grand Chess|Grand Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Maharajah and the Sepoys|Maharajah and the Sepoys]]
* [[Chess Variants/Modern Chess|Modern Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Tutti-Frutti Chess|Tutti-Frutti Chess]]

====Non-Standard Board and Pieces====
* [[Chess Variants/Caïssa Britannia|Caïssa Britannia]]
* [[Chess Variants/Chess on a really big board|Chess on a really big board]]
* [[Chess Variants/Eurasian Chess|Eurasian Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Omega Chess|Omega Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Wildebeest Chess|Wildebeest Chess]]

===Multi-Player Variants===

* [[Chess Variants/Bughouse Chess|Bughouse Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Four-Player Chess|Four-Player Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Three-Player Chess|Three-Player Chess]]

===Historical Variants===

* [[Chess Variants/Chaturanga and Shatranj|Chaturanga and Shatranj]]
* [[Chess Variants/Courier Chess|Courier Chess]]
* [[Chess Variants/Tamerlane Chess|Tamerlane Chess]]

== Related Wikibooks ==

* [[Chess]] provides an introduction to the standard game.
{{Associated Wikimedia|Chess variants
|Commons             = Chess variants
|Commons category    = Chess variants
|Wikipedia           = Chess variants
|Wikipedia portal    = Chess

}}

{{Shelves|Chess}}
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| tright
| 

|  |  |hd|rd|bd|kd|qd|fl
|  |  |hd|  |nd|nd|bd|rd
|  |  |hd|hd|hd|hd|hd|hd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|hl|hl|hl|hl|hl|hl|  |  
|rl|bl|nl|nl|  |hl|  |  
|fd|ql|kl|bl|rl|hl|  |  

| Starting position of Anti-King Chess I
}}

{{Chess diagram
| tright
| 

|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |fl|  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |fd|  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Anti-King Chess II
}}

== Introduction ==
'''Anti-King Chess''' is a variant that adds a piece known as the &quot;anti-king&quot; to the chessboard. There are two versions of the variant, named with the Roman numerals I and II.

== History ==
Both versions of Anti-King chess were created by chess variant creator Peter Aronson in 2002, inspired by losing chess. Inspired by previous variants that simply replaced the king with an anti-king, Aronson got the idea to have both the king and anti-king on the board to add dynamic tension to the game.

== Rules ==
Both versions of Anti-King chess play mostly like the standard game, with the addition of the anti-king to the typical set of pieces.

The anti-king (represented by an inverted king) moves exactly like a standard king. The difference between the two is that the anti-king must be kept attacked by enemy pieces at all times, and the anti-king is considered to be in &quot;anti-check&quot; if it ''not'' attacked by an opposing piece. If a player's anti-king is in anti-check and the player is unable to move the anti-king to a square where it is attacked by an enemy piece that anti-king is in &quot;anti-checkmate&quot; and its owner has lost the game.

Because of the unique nature of the anti-king, it cannot capture or be captured by enemy pieces. This means that the anti-king cannot deliver check to the enemy king, and likewise the enemy king cannot attack the anti-king. However the anti-king does possess the ability to capture friendly pieces.

Anti-King Chess I uses several additional rules:

* The pawns are replaced with Berolina pawns, which move diagonally and capture forward. See the [[Chess Variants/Berolina Chess|Berolina chess]] page for more information. Note that the Berolina pawns in this game do not get the options of a first-move double-step (and hence, there is no ''en passant'').
* There is no castling. Instead, if the king or anti-king have not yet moved in the game they may make their first move as a knight's leap to an empty square, provided it is not attacked (for the king) or attacked by the enemy (for the anti-king).

== Sub-variants ==
This chess variant does not have any notable sub-variants.

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	&quot;Sué González Hauck&quot;: [
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		&quot;global-sysop&quot;,
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	&quot;SweetCanadianMullet&quot;: [
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	&quot;Synoman Barris&quot;: [
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		&quot;transwiki&quot;,
		&quot;editor&quot;
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		&quot;editor&quot;
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		&quot;editor&quot;
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	&quot;T.seppelt&quot;: [
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	&quot;TDang&quot;: [
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	&quot;TTWIDEE&quot;: [
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	&quot;TakuyaMurata&quot;: [
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Variants/Capablanca Chess</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>474619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633365</id>
      <parentid>4610326</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T07:18:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sammy2012</username>
        <id>3074780</id>
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| tright
| 

|rd|nd|ad|bd|qd|kd|bd|cd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|al|bl|ql|kl|bl|cl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Capablanca chess
}}
== Introduction ==
'''Capablanca Chess''' (also formatted as '''Capablanca's chess''') is a term that refers to a family of chess variants played on a 10 by 8 board with two new pieces per player - the chancellor, which combines the powers of the rook and the knight, and the archbishop, which combines the powers of the bishop and the knight.

== History ==
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tleft
| 

|rd|ad|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|cd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|al|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|cl|rl

| Starting position of Carrera's chess
}}
The basic idea of a 10 by 8 variant of chess with the chancellor and archbishop has a long history. The earliest such variant that we know of dates back to 1617, when the Italian chess player Pietro Carrera published a book called ''Il Gioco degli Scacchi'' (''The Game of Chess''), which contained a description of a 10 by 8 variant with two new pieces of his own creation - the ''champion'', which combined the moves of the rook and the knight, and the ''centaur'', which combined the moves of the bishop and the knight.

It is believed his primary motivation for the creation of this variant was the limitations of chess opening theory at the time. Carrera's chess placed the centaur between the queen's knight and queen's rook, and the champion between the king's knight and king's rook. He does not appear to have been concerned with structural weakness in the opening setup, since in Carerra's chess the pawn on the b-file, in front of the archbishop, is completely unprotected at game start.
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|nd|bd|cd|qd|kd|ad|bd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|cl|ql|kl|al|bl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Bird's chess
}}
Just over 250 years later, English player Henry Bird proposed his own 10 by 8 variant. This variant differed from Carrera's in the placement of the new pieces - the rook/knight combination, called the ''guard'', was placed between the queen and queen's bishop, and the bishop/knight combination, called the ''equerry'', between the king and king's bishop. The theoretical benefit of Bird's setup is that the new pieces' pawns are very important to the opening theory of Bird's chess, just as important as the pawns of the royal pieces, and leading to a more strategically oriented game.

Capablanca chess was created sometime in the 1920s by former World Chess Champion José Raúl Capablanca, from whom the variant gets its name. Capablanca feared that professional chess would eventually reach a state of draw death, meaning games between grandmasters would always end in draws. He looked to Bird's chess as a solution, and modified the opening setup. He proposed two opening setups - his final revision places the bishop + knight combination between the queen's knight and queen's bishop, and the rook + knight combination between the king's knight and king's bishop.

Concerning the new pieces, it was Capablanca himself who introduced the names ''chancellor'' and ''archbishop'' for the rook + knight and bishop + knight combinations respectively, and these names have since become the most common names for the two pieces.

One of the variant's most important supporters was German-American player Edward Lasker, who assisted in development of the rules. According to Lasker:&lt;blockquote&gt;... I played many test games with Capablanca, and they rarely lasted more than twenty or twenty-five moves. We tried boards of 10×10 squares and 10×8 squares, and we concluded that the latter was preferable because hand-to-hand fights start earlier on it.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Rules ==
Capablanca chess adds two new pieces to the game - the '''chancellor''' and the '''archbishop'''.

* The chancellor ([[File:Chess clt45.svg|25x25px]]) combines the powers of the rook and the knight. It may slide horizontally or vertically like a rook, or jump like a knight, but not both in one move.
* The archbishop ([[File:Chess alt45.svg|25x25px]]) combines the powers of the bishop and the knight. It may slide diagonally like a bishop, or jump like a knight, but not both in one move.
{{Chess diagram
| tleft
| 

|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  
|  |  |xo|xx|xo|  |  |  
|  |xo|  |xx|  |xo|  |  
|xx|xx|xx|cl|xx|xx|xx|xx
|  |xo|  |xx|  |xo|  |  
|  |  |xo|xx|xo|  |  |  
|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  

| The chancellor may moves to any square marked with a cross, or jump to any square marked with a dot
}}
{{Chess diagram
| tleft
| 

|xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx|  
|  |xx|xo|  |xo|xx|  |  
|  |xo|xx|  |xx|xo|  |  
|  |  |  |al|  |  |  |  
|  |xo|xx|  |xx|xo|  |  
|  |xx|xo|  |xo|xx|  |  
|xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx|  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |xx

| The archbishop may moves to any square marked with a cross, or jump to any square marked with a dot
}}
{{-}}

The other pieces all retain their normal moves.

When the king castles, it moves three squares towards the rook rather than two as in standard chess.

A pawn is allowed to promote to a chancellor or archbishop alongside the usual promotion options.

All other rules remain the same as in standard chess.

== Sub-variants ==
Capablanca chess has inspired a number of 10 by 8 variants that feature different opening setups. The most notable are:

* '''Gothic chess''' (2000) by Ed Trice
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|nl|bl|ql|cl|kl|al|bl|nl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Grotesque chess''' (2004) by Fergus Duniho
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|ql|nl|kl|cl|nl|al|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Paulovich's chess''' (2004) by David Paulovich
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |cl|rl|nl|bl|al|kl|bl|nl|rl|ql
}}
{{-}}
* '''Ladorean chess''' (2005) by Bernhard U. Hermes
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|ql|nl|kl|al|nl|cl|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Embassy chess''' (2005) by Kevin Hill
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|cl|al|bl|nl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Univers chess''' (2006) by Fergus Duniho
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|nl|cl|ql|kl|al|nl|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Schoolbook chess''' (2006) by Sam Trenholme
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|ql|nl|bl|al|kl|bl|nl|cl|rl
}}
{{-}}
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|qd|bd|nd|nd|kd|ad|bd|cd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|ql|bl|nl|nl|kl|al|bl|cl|rl

| One of the valid starting positions for Capablanca random chess
}}
Another notable sub-variant of Capablanca chess is '''Capablanca random chess''', created in 2005 by Reinhard Scharnagl, a user of the chess variant website ''The Chess Variant Pages'', as part of a chess variant design competition for the website's tenth anniversary. The variant extends the random setup concept of [[Chess Variants/Fischer Random Chess|Fischer Random Chess]] to Capablanca Chess, with the following restrictions for the setup:

* The bishops must start on opposite colour squares.
* The queen and archbishop must start on opposite colour squares.
* The king must start between the two rooks to make castling possible.
* All of the pawns must be protected.
* The starting position cannot be the same as that of Gothic chess. This is to avoid violating any patents, as Gothic chess is protected by a patent in the United States.

There are 12,118 possible starting positions in Capablanca random chess.

{{bookcat}}</text>
      <sha1>1p8by53frwh3agyhr3g6pbwb4yc9v76</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633366</id>
      <parentid>4633365</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T07:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sammy2012</username>
        <id>3074780</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Introduction */ Clarification on the name</comment>
      <origin>4633366</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8370" sha1="hwjcma5zms75t0gpe9qzgphgkm7eq27" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|nd|ad|bd|qd|kd|bd|cd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|al|bl|ql|kl|bl|cl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Capablanca chess
}}
== Introduction ==
'''Capablanca Chess''' (also formatted as '''Capablanca's chess''') is a term that refers to a family of chess variants played on a 10 by 8 board with two new pieces per player - the chancellor, which combines the powers of the rook and the knight, and the archbishop, which combines the powers of the bishop and the knight. The name refers to both the family as a whole and the family's most notable member.

== History ==
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tleft
| 

|rd|ad|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|cd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|al|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|cl|rl

| Starting position of Carrera's chess
}}
The basic idea of a 10 by 8 variant of chess with the chancellor and archbishop has a long history. The earliest such variant that we know of dates back to 1617, when the Italian chess player Pietro Carrera published a book called ''Il Gioco degli Scacchi'' (''The Game of Chess''), which contained a description of a 10 by 8 variant with two new pieces of his own creation - the ''champion'', which combined the moves of the rook and the knight, and the ''centaur'', which combined the moves of the bishop and the knight.

It is believed his primary motivation for the creation of this variant was the limitations of chess opening theory at the time. Carrera's chess placed the centaur between the queen's knight and queen's rook, and the champion between the king's knight and king's rook. He does not appear to have been concerned with structural weakness in the opening setup, since in Carerra's chess the pawn on the b-file, in front of the archbishop, is completely unprotected at game start.
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|nd|bd|cd|qd|kd|ad|bd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|cl|ql|kl|al|bl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Bird's chess
}}
Just over 250 years later, English player Henry Bird proposed his own 10 by 8 variant. This variant differed from Carrera's in the placement of the new pieces - the rook/knight combination, called the ''guard'', was placed between the queen and queen's bishop, and the bishop/knight combination, called the ''equerry'', between the king and king's bishop. The theoretical benefit of Bird's setup is that the new pieces' pawns are very important to the opening theory of Bird's chess, just as important as the pawns of the royal pieces, and leading to a more strategically oriented game.

Capablanca chess was created sometime in the 1920s by former World Chess Champion José Raúl Capablanca, from whom the variant gets its name. Capablanca feared that professional chess would eventually reach a state of draw death, meaning games between grandmasters would always end in draws. He looked to Bird's chess as a solution, and modified the opening setup. He proposed two opening setups - his final revision places the bishop + knight combination between the queen's knight and queen's bishop, and the rook + knight combination between the king's knight and king's bishop.

Concerning the new pieces, it was Capablanca himself who introduced the names ''chancellor'' and ''archbishop'' for the rook + knight and bishop + knight combinations respectively, and these names have since become the most common names for the two pieces.

One of the variant's most important supporters was German-American player Edward Lasker, who assisted in development of the rules. According to Lasker:&lt;blockquote&gt;... I played many test games with Capablanca, and they rarely lasted more than twenty or twenty-five moves. We tried boards of 10×10 squares and 10×8 squares, and we concluded that the latter was preferable because hand-to-hand fights start earlier on it.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Rules ==
Capablanca chess adds two new pieces to the game - the '''chancellor''' and the '''archbishop'''.

* The chancellor ([[File:Chess clt45.svg|25x25px]]) combines the powers of the rook and the knight. It may slide horizontally or vertically like a rook, or jump like a knight, but not both in one move.
* The archbishop ([[File:Chess alt45.svg|25x25px]]) combines the powers of the bishop and the knight. It may slide diagonally like a bishop, or jump like a knight, but not both in one move.
{{Chess diagram
| tleft
| 

|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  
|  |  |xo|xx|xo|  |  |  
|  |xo|  |xx|  |xo|  |  
|xx|xx|xx|cl|xx|xx|xx|xx
|  |xo|  |xx|  |xo|  |  
|  |  |xo|xx|xo|  |  |  
|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  

| The chancellor may moves to any square marked with a cross, or jump to any square marked with a dot
}}
{{Chess diagram
| tleft
| 

|xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx|  
|  |xx|xo|  |xo|xx|  |  
|  |xo|xx|  |xx|xo|  |  
|  |  |  |al|  |  |  |  
|  |xo|xx|  |xx|xo|  |  
|  |xx|xo|  |xo|xx|  |  
|xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx|  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |xx

| The archbishop may moves to any square marked with a cross, or jump to any square marked with a dot
}}
{{-}}

The other pieces all retain their normal moves.

When the king castles, it moves three squares towards the rook rather than two as in standard chess.

A pawn is allowed to promote to a chancellor or archbishop alongside the usual promotion options.

All other rules remain the same as in standard chess.

== Sub-variants ==
Capablanca chess has inspired a number of 10 by 8 variants that feature different opening setups. The most notable are:

* '''Gothic chess''' (2000) by Ed Trice
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|nl|bl|ql|cl|kl|al|bl|nl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Grotesque chess''' (2004) by Fergus Duniho
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|ql|nl|kl|cl|nl|al|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Paulovich's chess''' (2004) by David Paulovich
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |cl|rl|nl|bl|al|kl|bl|nl|rl|ql
}}
{{-}}
* '''Ladorean chess''' (2005) by Bernhard U. Hermes
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|ql|nl|kl|al|nl|cl|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Embassy chess''' (2005) by Kevin Hill
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|cl|al|bl|nl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Univers chess''' (2006) by Fergus Duniho
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|nl|cl|ql|kl|al|nl|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Schoolbook chess''' (2006) by Sam Trenholme
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|ql|nl|bl|al|kl|bl|nl|cl|rl
}}
{{-}}
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|qd|bd|nd|nd|kd|ad|bd|cd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|ql|bl|nl|nl|kl|al|bl|cl|rl

| One of the valid starting positions for Capablanca random chess
}}
Another notable sub-variant of Capablanca chess is '''Capablanca random chess''', created in 2005 by Reinhard Scharnagl, a user of the chess variant website ''The Chess Variant Pages'', as part of a chess variant design competition for the website's tenth anniversary. The variant extends the random setup concept of [[Chess Variants/Fischer Random Chess|Fischer Random Chess]] to Capablanca Chess, with the following restrictions for the setup:

* The bishops must start on opposite colour squares.
* The queen and archbishop must start on opposite colour squares.
* The king must start between the two rooks to make castling possible.
* All of the pawns must be protected.
* The starting position cannot be the same as that of Gothic chess. This is to avoid violating any patents, as Gothic chess is protected by a patent in the United States.

There are 12,118 possible starting positions in Capablanca random chess.

{{bookcat}}</text>
      <sha1>hwjcma5zms75t0gpe9qzgphgkm7eq27</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633367</id>
      <parentid>4633366</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T07:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sammy2012</username>
        <id>3074780</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ Formatting</comment>
      <origin>4633367</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8362" sha1="e2iv4o3k7bvm9o4v0fuzp9lcocsk7mv" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|nd|ad|bd|qd|kd|bd|cd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|al|bl|ql|kl|bl|cl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Capablanca chess
}}
== Introduction ==
'''Capablanca Chess''' (also formatted as '''Capablanca's chess''') is a term that refers to a family of chess variants played on a 10 by 8 board with two new pieces per player - the chancellor, which combines the powers of the rook and the knight, and the archbishop, which combines the powers of the bishop and the knight. The name refers to both the family as a whole and the family's most notable member.

== History ==
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tleft
| 

|rd|ad|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|cd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|al|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|cl|rl

| Starting position of Carrera's chess
}}
The basic idea of a 10 by 8 variant of chess with the chancellor and archbishop has a long history. The earliest such variant that we know of dates back to 1617, when the Italian chess player Pietro Carrera published a book called ''Il Gioco degli Scacchi'' (''The Game of Chess''), which contained a description of a 10 by 8 variant with two new pieces of his own creation - the ''champion'', which combined the moves of the rook and the knight, and the ''centaur'', which combined the moves of the bishop and the knight.

It is believed his primary motivation for the creation of this variant was the limitations of chess opening theory at the time. Carrera's chess placed the centaur between the queen's knight and queen's rook, and the champion between the king's knight and king's rook. He does not appear to have been concerned with structural weakness in the opening setup, since in Carerra's chess the pawn on the b-file, in front of the archbishop, is completely unprotected at game start.
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|nd|bd|cd|qd|kd|ad|bd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|cl|ql|kl|al|bl|nl|rl

| Starting position of Bird's chess
}}
Just over 250 years later, English player Henry Bird proposed his own 10 by 8 variant. This variant differed from Carrera's in the placement of the new pieces - the rook/knight combination, called the ''guard'', was placed between the queen and queen's bishop, and the bishop/knight combination, called the ''equerry'', between the king and king's bishop. The theoretical benefit of Bird's setup is that the new pieces' pawns are very important to the opening theory of Bird's chess, just as important as the pawns of the royal pieces, and leading to a more strategically oriented game.

Capablanca chess was created sometime in the 1920s by former World Chess Champion José Raúl Capablanca, from whom the variant gets its name. Capablanca feared that professional chess would eventually reach a state of draw death, meaning games between grandmasters would always end in draws. He looked to Bird's chess as a solution, and modified the opening setup. He proposed two opening setups - his final revision places the bishop/knight combination between the queen's knight and queen's bishop, and the rook/knight combination between the king's knight and king's bishop.

Concerning the new pieces, it was Capablanca himself who introduced the names ''chancellor'' and ''archbishop'' for the rook/knight and bishop/knight combinations respectively, and these names have since become the most common names for the two pieces.

One of the variant's most important supporters was German-American player Edward Lasker, who assisted in development of the rules. According to Lasker:&lt;blockquote&gt;... I played many test games with Capablanca, and they rarely lasted more than twenty or twenty-five moves. We tried boards of 10×10 squares and 10×8 squares, and we concluded that the latter was preferable because hand-to-hand fights start earlier on it.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Rules ==
Capablanca chess adds two new pieces to the game - the '''chancellor''' and the '''archbishop'''.

* The chancellor ([[File:Chess clt45.svg|25x25px]]) combines the powers of the rook and the knight. It may slide horizontally or vertically like a rook, or jump like a knight, but not both in one move.
* The archbishop ([[File:Chess alt45.svg|25x25px]]) combines the powers of the bishop and the knight. It may slide diagonally like a bishop, or jump like a knight, but not both in one move.
{{Chess diagram
| tleft
| 

|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  
|  |  |xo|xx|xo|  |  |  
|  |xo|  |xx|  |xo|  |  
|xx|xx|xx|cl|xx|xx|xx|xx
|  |xo|  |xx|  |xo|  |  
|  |  |xo|xx|xo|  |  |  
|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |xx|  |  |  |  

| The chancellor may moves to any square marked with a cross, or jump to any square marked with a dot
}}
{{Chess diagram
| tleft
| 

|xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx|  
|  |xx|xo|  |xo|xx|  |  
|  |xo|xx|  |xx|xo|  |  
|  |  |  |al|  |  |  |  
|  |xo|xx|  |xx|xo|  |  
|  |xx|xo|  |xo|xx|  |  
|xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx|  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |xx

| The archbishop may moves to any square marked with a cross, or jump to any square marked with a dot
}}
{{-}}

The other pieces all retain their normal moves.

When the king castles, it moves three squares towards the rook rather than two as in standard chess.

A pawn is allowed to promote to a chancellor or archbishop alongside the usual promotion options.

All other rules remain the same as in standard chess.

== Sub-variants ==
Capablanca chess has inspired a number of 10 by 8 variants that feature different opening setups. The most notable are:

* '''Gothic chess''' (2000) by Ed Trice
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|nl|bl|ql|cl|kl|al|bl|nl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Grotesque chess''' (2004) by Fergus Duniho
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|ql|nl|kl|cl|nl|al|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Paulovich's chess''' (2004) by David Paulovich
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |cl|rl|nl|bl|al|kl|bl|nl|rl|ql
}}
{{-}}
* '''Ladorean chess''' (2005) by Bernhard U. Hermes
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|ql|nl|kl|al|nl|cl|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Embassy chess''' (2005) by Kevin Hill
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|cl|al|bl|nl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Univers chess''' (2006) by Fergus Duniho
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|bl|nl|cl|ql|kl|al|nl|bl|rl
}}
{{-}}
* '''Schoolbook chess''' (2006) by Sam Trenholme
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=10|rows=1|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |rl|ql|nl|bl|al|kl|bl|nl|cl|rl
}}
{{-}}
{{Chess diagram 8x10
| tright
| 

|rd|qd|bd|nd|nd|kd|ad|bd|cd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl
|rl|ql|bl|nl|nl|kl|al|bl|cl|rl

| One of the valid starting positions for Capablanca random chess
}}
Another notable sub-variant of Capablanca chess is '''Capablanca random chess''', created in 2005 by Reinhard Scharnagl, a user of the chess variant website ''The Chess Variant Pages'', as part of a chess variant design competition for the website's tenth anniversary. The variant extends the random setup concept of [[Chess Variants/Fischer Random Chess|Fischer Random Chess]] to Capablanca Chess, with the following restrictions for the setup:

* The bishops must start on opposite colour squares.
* The queen and archbishop must start on opposite colour squares.
* The king must start between the two rooks to make castling possible.
* All of the pawns must be protected.
* The starting position cannot be the same as that of Gothic chess. This is to avoid violating any patents, as Gothic chess is protected by a patent in the United States.

There are 12,118 possible starting positions in Capablanca random chess.

{{bookcat}}</text>
      <sha1>e2iv4o3k7bvm9o4v0fuzp9lcocsk7mv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Porsche/VIN Codes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>481968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633339</id>
      <parentid>4633198</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T22:47:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JustTheFacts33</username>
        <id>3434282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Position 5, Engine: */</comment>
      <origin>4633339</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19253" sha1="axkhhpg15j20w0zapbwg9s8y1vwlrp7" xml:space="preserve">===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:===  
* WP0 - Porsche passenger car
* WP1 - Porsche SUV

===Position 4, Body Style:===
'''718 / 911:'''
* A = Coupe
* B = Targa (911)
* C = Cabriolet
'''Panamera / Taycan:'''
* A = sedan (SWB)
* B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan)
* C = Sport Turismo
'''Macan / Cayenne:'''
* A = SUV (wagon)
* B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe)

===Position 5, Engine:===
'''Boxster/Cayman:'''

Type 986:
*A = 2.5L flat-6, 201 hp (Boxster '97-'99)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 217 hp (Boxster '00-'02)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 225 hp (Boxster '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 250 hp (Boxster S '00-'02)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 258 hp (Boxster S '03-'04)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 264 hp (Boxster S 50 Years of the 550 Spyder Anniversary Edition '04)

Type 987:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 240 hp (Boxster '05-'06)
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 245 hp (Boxster '07-'08, Limited Edition '08), 245 hp (Cayman '07-'08)
*A = 2.9L flat-6, 255 hp (Boxster '09-'12), 265 hp (Cayman '09-'12)
*B = 3.2L flat-6, 280 hp (Boxster S '05-'06)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 295 hp (Boxster S '07-'08, S Limited Edition '08), 295 hp (Cayman S '06-'08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 310 hp (Boxster S '09-'12), 320 hp (Cayman S '09-'12)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 303 hp (Boxster S Porsche Design Edition 2 '08, RS 60 Spyder '08), 303 hp (Cayman S Sport '08)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 320 hp (Boxster S Black Edition '12, Spyder '11-'12), 330 hp (Cayman S Black Edition '12, Cayman R '12)

Type 981:
*A = 2.7L flat-6, 265 hp (Boxster '13-'16, Boxster Black Edition '16), 275 hp (Cayman '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 315 hp (Boxster S '13-'16), 325 hp (Cayman S '14-'16)
*B = 3.4L flat-6, 330 hp (Boxster GTS '15-'16), 340 hp (Cayman GTS '15-'16)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 375 hp (Boxster Spyder '16), 385 hp (Cayman GT4 '16)

'''718 Boxster/Cayman:''' (Type 982)
*A = 2.0L turbo flat-4, 300 hp &lt;br&gt; (718 Boxster '17-'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S '17-'25)
*B = 2.5L turbo flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS '18-'19)
*D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23)
*E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25)

'''911:'''

Type 996:
*A = 3.4L water-cooled flat-6, 296 hp (911 Carrera '99, Carrera 4 '99)
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 300 hp (911 Carrera '00-'01, Carrera 4 '00-'01)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 320 hp (911 Carrera '02-'04, Carrera Cabriolet '05, Targa '02-'05, Carrera 4 '02-'04, Carrera 4S '03-'05)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera 40th Anniversary Edition -'04)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6, 415 hp (911 Turbo '01-'05)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6, 444 hp (911 Turbo S '05)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 381 hp (911 GT3 '04-'05)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6, 456 hp (911 GT2 '02-'03)
*B = 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6, 477 hp (911 GT2 '04)

Type 997:
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 325 hp (911 Carrera '05-'08, Carrera 4 '06-'08, Targa 4 '07-'08)
*A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera '09-'12, Carrera Black Edition '12, Carrera 4 '09-'12, Targa 4 '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 355 hp (911 Carrera S '05-'08, Carrera 4S '06-'08, Targa 4S '07-'08)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 385 hp (911 Carrera S '09-'12, Carrera 4S '09-'12, Targa 4S '09-'12)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 381 hp (911 Carrera S Club Coupe '06)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 408 hp (911 Carrera GTS '11-'12, Carrera 4 GTS '12, Speedster '11)
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6, 480 hp (911 Turbo '07-'09)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 500 hp (911 Turbo '10-'13)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 530 hp (911 Turbo S '11-'13)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 '07-'08)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 435 hp (911 GT3 '10-'11)
*C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 RS '07-'08)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 450 hp (911 GT3 RS '10-'11)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS 4.0 '11)
*D = 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6, 530 hp (911 GT2 '08-'09)
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 620 hp (911 GT2 RS '11)

Type 991.1:
*A = 3.4L flat-6, 350 hp (911 Carrera '12-'16, Carrera 4 '13-'16, Targa 4 '14-'16)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 400 hp (911 Carrera S '12-'16, Carrera 4S '13-'16, Targa 4S '14-'16, 911 50th Anniversary Edition '14)
*B = 3.8L flat-6, 430 hp (911 Carrera GTS '15-'16, Carrera 4 GTS '15-'16, Targa 4 GTS '16)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 520 hp (911 Turbo '14-'16)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 560 hp (911 Turbo S '14-'16)
*C = 3.8L flat-6, 475 hp (911 GT3 '14-'15)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS '16, 911 R '16)

Type 991.2:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '17-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '17-'19, Targa 4 '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '17-'19, Carrera 4S '17-'19, Targa 4S '17-'19)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '17-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '17-'19, Targa 4 GTS '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '17-'19)
*D = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series '18-'19)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '18-'19)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '19)
*E = 3.8L twin-turbo flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '18-'19)

Type 992:
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24)
*A = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-, Carrera T Club Coupe '26)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24)
*H = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar '23-'24)
*B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 '26)
*G = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23)
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25)
*D = 3.7L twin-turbo flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25)
*D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-)
*C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26)
*F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24)

'''Carrera GT:'''

*A = 5.7L Porsche M80.01 68° V10, 605 hp (Carrera GT '04-'05)

'''918 Spyder:'''

*A = PHEV: 4.6L Porsche M18 flat-plane crank V8 + 2 electric motors (1 front, 1 rear), Lithium-ion battery, 887 total system hp (918 Spyder '15)

'''Panamera:'''

Type 970:
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 300 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '11-'13)
*A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 310 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '14-'16)
*D = HEV: 3.0L supercharged Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Panamera S Hybrid '12-'13)
*D = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Panamera S E-Hybrid '14-'16)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Panamera S, 4S '10-'13)
*B = 3.0L twin-turbo Porsche M46.60 90° V6, 420 hp (Panamera S, 4S '14-'16)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 430 hp (Panamera GTS '13)
*F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 440 hp (Panamera GTS '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Panamera Turbo '10-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Panamera Turbo '14-'16)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo S '12-'13)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Panamera Turbo S '15-'16)

Type 971 &amp; 976:
*A = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '17-'20)
*J = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23)
*A = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '18-'23)
*E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '17-'20)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23)
*K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo '17-'20)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23)
*F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '18-'20)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-)

'''Taycan:'''
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 469 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24)
*A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 522 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 562 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 590 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 590 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 690 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 670 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 750 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 871 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 938 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1019 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-)

'''Macan:'''
*A = 2.0L turbo Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan '17-'21)
*A = 2.0L turbo Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-)
*B = 3.0L turbo Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S '15-'18)
*B = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-)
*G = 3.0L twin-turbo Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS '17-'18)
*G = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo '15-'18)
*F = 3.6L twin-turbo Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package '17-'18)
*F = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21)

'''Macan Electric:'''
*D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-)
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-)
*B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-)
*E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 563 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-)
*C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 630 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-)

'''Cayenne:'''

955/957 or 9PA:
*A = 3.2L (3189cc) VW EA390 15° VR6, 247 hp (Cayenne '04-'06)
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° FSI VR6, 290 hp (Cayenne '08-'10)
*B = 4.5L Porsche M48 V8, 340 hp (Cayenne S '03-'06, S Titanium Edition '06)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 385 hp (Cayenne S '08-'10)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 405 hp (Cayenne GTS '08-'10, S Transsyberia '10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 450 hp (Cayenne Turbo '03-'06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '08-'10)
*C = 4.5L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '06)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '09-'10)

958 or 92A:
*A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° VR6, 300 hp (Cayenne '11-'14, '16-'18)
*B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Cayenne S '11-'14)
*B = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 420 hp (Cayenne S '15-'18)
*E = HEV: 3.0L supercharged Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Cayenne S Hybrid '11-'14)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '15-'18)
*D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 420 hp (Cayenne GTS '13-'14)
*D = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Cayenne GTS '16-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '11-'14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo '15-'18)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '14)
*C = 4.8L twin-turbo Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '16-'18)
*F = 3.0L turbodiesel Audi EA897 90° V6, 240 hp (Cayenne Diesel '13-'16)

9YA/9YB:
*A = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23)
*A = 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23)
*E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-)
*B = 2.9L twin-turbo Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23)
*L = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-)
*N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23)
*G = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-)
*F = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23)
*H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23)
*M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 729 hp (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23)
*K = 4.0L twin-turbo Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-)

'''Cayenne Electric:'''
*A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 435 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-)
*D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1139 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-)

===Position 6, Restraint Systems:===
*1 = Seat Belts only
*2 =  Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags)

===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 7
!VIN Pos. 7-8
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|92
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|93
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|92
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|94
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|95
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|96
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|92
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|98
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|98
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|A8
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|A8
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|A8
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|91
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|93
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|96
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|99
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|99
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|99
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|A9
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|A9
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|A9
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|98
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|A1
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|A7
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|A7
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|YA
|
|Panamera (2024-)
|976
|-
|Y1
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|A5
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|XA
|
|Macan Electric (2024-)
|XAB
|-
|9P
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|AP
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A2
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|AY
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|-
|X1
|
|Cayenne Electric (2026-)
|E4
|}

===Position 9, Check Digit===
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]]

===Position 10, Model Year: ===                      
[[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]]

===Position 11, Production Plant:===
* S:    Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany
* L:    Leipzig, Germany
* D:    Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-)
* K:    Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25)
* N:    Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944)
* U:    Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12)

===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code===
Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Position 12
!VIN Pos. 12
!Complete Vehicle Type Code
!Model
!Type
|-
|4
|924
|924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|1
|931
|924 Turbo (1981-1982)
|931
|-
|4
|924
|924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine)
|924
|-
|4
|944
|944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine)
|944
|-
|1
|951
|944 Turbo (1986-1989 &amp; 1990 in Canada)
|951
|-
|8
|968
|968 (1992-1995)
|968
|-
|8
|928
|928 (1981-1995)
|928
|-
|6
|986
|Boxster (1997-2004)
|986
|-
|7
|987
|Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009)
|987
|-
|7
|A87
|Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012)
|987
|-
|1
|A81
|Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016)
|981
|-
|2
|A82
|718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025)
|982
|-
|1
|911
|911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine)
|911
|-
|0
|930
|911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo)
|930
|-
|4
|964
|911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo)
|964
|-
|3
|993
|911 (1995-1998)
|993
|-
|6
|996
|911 (1999-2004)
|996
|-
|7
|997
|911 (2005-2009)
|997
|-
|7
|A97
|911 (2010-2012)
|997
|-
|1
|A91
|911 (2013-2019)
|991
|-
|2
|A92
|911 (2020-)
|992
|-
|0
|980
|Carrera GT (2004-2005)
|980
|-
|8
|A18
|918 Spyder (2015)
|918
|-
|0
|A70
|Panamera (2010-2016)
|970
|-
|1
|A71
|Panamera (2017-2023)
|971
|-
|A
|Y1A
|Taycan (2020-)
|9J1 or &lt;br&gt; Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo)
|-
|B
|A5B
|Macan (2015-)
|95B
|-
|A
|9PA
|Cayenne (2003-2009)
|9PA
|-
|A
|APA
|Cayenne (2010)
|9PA
|-
|A
|A2A
|Cayenne (2011-2018)
|92A
|-
|A
|AYA
|Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-)
|9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe)
|}

'''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number'''

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>axkhhpg15j20w0zapbwg9s8y1vwlrp7</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...Nf6/2. e5/2...Ne4</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>482238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633373</id>
      <parentid>4629242</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T09:14:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JCrue</username>
        <id>2226064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <origin>4633373</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2005" sha1="tq53mkwgf2bt6gqgjdamfplmnba3cod" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Mokele Mbembe
|eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B02]]
|parent=[[../|Alekhine's defence]]
}}
== 2...Ne4?! · Mokele Mbembe==
{{chess/sideline}}
This knight sally, unsupported and into its opponent's side of the board, is unusual. White is likely to at least gain tempo on the knight, and possibly trap it. 

'''3. d4''' takes the centre uncontested and supports the e5-pawn. It threatens f3 to trap the knight (e.g. 3...d6? 4. f3). 3...e6, the Vavra defence, defends 4. f3? because Black can answer it 4...Qh4+! 5. g3 Nxg3 (the h-pawn is pinned to the rook). 4. Bd3 is natural, but there is a better line in the surprising 4. Nh3!, where  4...d5 5. f3 Qh4+? 6. g3 Nxg3 7. Bg5! (defended by the knight) Qh5 8. hxg3. 4. Nh3 sets off a race for the g5 square. 4...h6 5. Qg4 d5 6. f3 Ng5 7. Nxg5 hxg5 8. Bxg5 f6.

3...f6 prepares to answer f3 with ...Ng5 and the knight is defended. 

'''3. d3''' drives the knight about some more while White advances their pawns. 3...Nc5 4. d4 Ne6 5. d5 Nc5 6. Nf3 e6. 

=== History ===
[[w:Mokele Mbembe|Mokele Mbembe]] (mokèlé-mbèmbé) is a Congolese cryptid (that is, a monster of urban legend, like Bigfoot or Nessie). Stefan Bücker began playing it in the 1980s and introduced the name in his 1990 book.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Groteske Schacheröffnungen |last=Bücker |first=Stefan |publisher=Franckh Schach |year=1990 |isbn=3-440-05770-4 |location=Stuttgart |pages=83-92 |language=German}}&lt;/ref&gt; Schiller &amp; Benjamin call it the  '''knight's tour variation''' (and, &quot;such rubbish that it is relegated to our waste bin collection&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Unorthodox Openings |last=Benjamin |first=Joel |publisher=Batsford |year=1987 |isbn= |location=London |last2=Schiller |first2=Eric |page=87-88}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Theory table ==
{{chessTable}}

{{chess/theory table |links=0

|line1=3. d4 d6 4. Nh3 h6 5. Qg4 d5 6. f3 Ng5 7. Nxg5 hxg5 8. Bxg5 f6
|name1=Mokele Mbembe

}}

{{chessMid}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
===See also ===
{{ChessFooter}}</text>
      <sha1>tq53mkwgf2bt6gqgjdamfplmnba3cod</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Pescatarian recipes</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>482561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633341</id>
      <parentid>4630293</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T22:56:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codename Noreste</username>
        <id>3441010</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Typo fixes.</comment>
      <origin>4633341</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="80" sha1="h1lfbnos3pnujuw5mxm06tx3zauufoi" xml:space="preserve">Recipes that don't contain meat other than seafood.
[[Category:Recipes by diet]]</text>
      <sha1>h1lfbnos3pnujuw5mxm06tx3zauufoi</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maxima/Introduction By Example</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>482817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633266</id>
      <parentid>4633227</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T14:28:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Page revisions. Work in progress.</comment>
      <origin>4633266</origin>
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      <text bytes="9049" sha1="gwwnpvmpyugck6267x4r77h4j45ir05" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 ft²/(s²·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output.This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;

An identifier can also be used to assign a solution. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is
* °F is
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier
/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h.
&lt;math&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt;
Where in British Engineering units (feet, degrees Rankine, pounds-force per square foot), the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft² 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is (Universal Gas Constant) 1545.35 ft·lb
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15°C or 59°F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.00356616 °R/ft 
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level 

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.25588

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.4\cdot(1-(6.87535 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.25588}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <id>4633268</id>
      <parentid>4633266</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T14:31:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>minor change to citation</comment>
      <origin>4633268</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9063" sha1="hw1rhg8swpyt956b5agzegddxsotr59" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 ft²/(s²·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output.This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;

An identifier can also be used to assign a solution. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is
* °F is
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h.
&lt;math&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt;
Where in British Engineering units (feet, degrees Rankine, pounds-force per square foot), the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft² 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is (Universal Gas Constant) 1545.35 ft·lb
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15°C or 59°F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.00356616 °R/ft 
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level 

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.25588

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.4\cdot(1-(6.87535 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.25588}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633283</id>
      <parentid>4633268</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T18:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Page revisions. Work in progress.</comment>
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      <text bytes="9132" sha1="pl98u3zxhxksiugyi003gnuyr1cne0d" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is (Universal Gas Constant) 1545.35 ft·lbf
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.00356616 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.25588

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.25588}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633284</id>
      <parentid>4633283</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T18:53:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kingofnuthin</username>
        <id>3566511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Idavidmiller|Idavidmiller]] ([[User talk:Idavidmiller|talk]]) to last version by MathXplore</comment>
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      <text bytes="1773" sha1="cpzf9vhho15gaoomy14xdqkm8tieubi" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the pupose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully somemotivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure q is calculated using the expression:

&lt;math&gt;q = 1/2 \rho V^2&lt;/math&gt;

Where:

* q = dynamic pressure (in pounds of force per square foot)
* ρ = air density at sea level = 0.0023769 slugs/ft³
* VTAS = true airspeed in knots (nautical miles per hour)
* V = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later.

Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>4633285</id>
      <parentid>4633284</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Kingofnuthin</username>
        <id>3566511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4633284|4633284]] by [[Special:Contributions/Kingofnuthin|Kingofnuthin]] ([[User talk:Kingofnuthin|discuss]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="9132" sha1="pl98u3zxhxksiugyi003gnuyr1cne0d" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is (Universal Gas Constant) 1545.35 ft·lbf
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.00356616 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.25588

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.25588}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633287</id>
      <parentid>4633285</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T19:12:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
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      <text bytes="9130" sha1="stymnopvfsak5d2p2ej287ksdvlu5r5" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is (Universal Gas Constant) 1545.35 ft·lbf
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.25588

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.25588}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633288</id>
      <parentid>4633287</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T19:13:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
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      <text bytes="9128" sha1="q2jaad367zyk8wdd7vmtvl9kfph8u9z" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is (Universal Gas Constant) 1545.35 ft·lbf
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.25588

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.00356616 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.25588}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>q2jaad367zyk8wdd7vmtvl9kfph8u9z</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633329</id>
      <parentid>4633288</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T21:05:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Page revisions. Work in progress.</comment>
      <origin>4633329</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9169" sha1="8nveduykv7uz4rwwqkysj9wjrgl4v1g" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;  is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.26054

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.26054}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.688 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>8nveduykv7uz4rwwqkysj9wjrgl4v1g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633330</id>
      <parentid>4633329</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T21:07:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Temperature */</comment>
      <origin>4633330</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9168" sha1="gghworxz4zg084eqsbdy9l9bctn7mjd" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;  is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.26054

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.26054}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>4633332</id>
      <parentid>4633330</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T21:41:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
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      <text bytes="9279" sha1="ag2byedt69mgpti84nj5qufxtrek33d" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in. to Maxima. 


===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;  is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.26054:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i21)	32.174/(0.003563*1716.56);
(%o21)	5.260539027391964
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.26054}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
{{BookCat}}</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633351</id>
      <parentid>4633332</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T01:37:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Page revisions. Work in progress.</comment>
      <origin>4633351</origin>
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      <text bytes="11714" sha1="p0r25gyu5xqo0vuwgcfe559iojqfttw" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in to Maxima. In order to use the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator, the location of the downloaded  &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt; file has to be part of the argument to the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator unless the file happens to be in the Maxima current working directory. The built-in &lt;code&gt;operatingsystem&lt;/code&gt; package can provide some functions to help with determining the current working directory. This package is loaded as follows: &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i21)	load(operatingsystem);
(%o21)	&quot;/usr/local/share/maxima/5.49.0/share/contrib/operatingsystem/operatingsystem.mac&quot;

(%i22)	getcurrentdirectory ();
(%o22)	&quot;/home/username/&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this example &lt;code&gt;username&lt;/code&gt; is the name of the home directory of the user. so if the downloaded  &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt; file is not located in the current working directory, then the directory can be changed to the location where the file is located: &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i22)	chdir(&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages&quot;);
(%o22)	&quot;#P&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages&quot;&quot;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Now the &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt; file  can be loaded assuming it is within the directory /home/username/local/maxima/packages as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i23)	load(&quot;excel_round.mac&quot;);
(%o23)	&quot;excel_round.mac&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Alternatively, if the location of the file is known it can be loaded using the full path name as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i24)	load(&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages/excel_round.mac&quot;);
(%o24)	&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages/excel_round.mac&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This method obviates the need for loading the &lt;code&gt;operatingsystem&lt;/code&gt; package.

The density value above can be rounded to six decimal places as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i25)	excel_round(ρ(14.696,59.0),6);
(%o25)	0.002377
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This rounded value agrees with the sea level value of &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;23.77 \cdot 10^{-4}&lt;/math&gt; slugs/ft³ taken from a table of Standard Atmosphere values.

For Standard Atmosphere values of pressure ( 6.758 lbf/in² ) and temperature ( -12.26 °F ) at 20,000 ft the density value is:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i26)	excel_round(ρ(6.759,-12.26),6);
(%o26)	0.001267
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This rounded value agrees with the sea level value of &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;12.67 \cdot 10^{-4}&lt;/math&gt; slugs/ft³ taken from a table of Standard Atmosphere values.

===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;  is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.26054:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i21)	32.174/(0.003563*1716.56);
(%o21)	5.260539027391964
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.26054}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
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      <id>4633352</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-01T01:45:56Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Idavidmiller</username>
        <id>3577687</id>
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      <text bytes="11754" sha1="6w2i046qos9w022bd4dl893vzwr6zrq" xml:space="preserve">== Getting Used to Maxima By Way of an Example of Use ==
The example that follows is presented for the purpose of providing some beginning perspective and hopefully some motivation to make the effort to get familiar with how Maxima works.

The task at hand is relevant in the context of aerodynamics and aviation. The specific goal is to find the dynamic pressure at a true airspeed (VTAS) of 200 knots at sea level.

Dynamic pressure &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is calculated using the expression:&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;q = \rho V^2/2&lt;/math&gt;Where:

* &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; = dynamic pressure  lbf/ft² (pounds of force per square foot)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; = air density (at sea level is 0.0023769) slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; = true airspeed in feet per second (ft/s).
British Engineering units are used in this context to avoid multiple conversions due to the units used. It is better to convert in the end if necessary in this case.

Note: The appearance following Maxima example may vary depending on Unicode support in the version of Maxima being used and the Maxima user interface -- UI. The Maxima examples used in this book are from the wxMaxima GUI unless noted otherwise.

First, enter the Maxima expression for dynamic pressure q:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i1)	q : 1/2*ρ*V^2;
(q)	(V^2*ρ)/2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This Maxima expression uses the colon character to assign the expression for dynamic pressure to the identifier q. The identifier q is now simply a name for an expression. The equal sign (=)  is not used for this operation in Maxima as is the case with some programming languages. This Maxima line of a input expression ends with a semicolon ( ; ) character. Each line of input must end with a semicolon or the dollar sign character ( $ ), the use of which will be described later. Next, enter an assignment expression for the numerical value of the air density at sea level:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i2)	ρ : 0.0023769;
(ρ)	0.0023769&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Density ρ is in the units of slugs per cubic foot - slugs/ft³. With this next input expression, Maxima is asked to evaluate q. This is accomplished by two single quotation marks placed before q as shown next&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i3)	''q;
(%o3)	0.0033855446120918224*VTAS^2


&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The output indicates that q depends on VTAS -- true airspeed. The goal is to evaluate q, if VTAS = 200 is true. One way to do that is with the following Maxima expression:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i4)	''q, VTAS = 200;
(%o4)	135.42178448367287
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The result is about 135 pounds of force per square foot. There is another way to accomplish this that may be somewhat more convenient for determining sea level dynamic pressure given true airspeed. First, assign the Maxima floating point literal value of 0.0033855446120918224 to an identifier named &lt;code&gt;c&lt;/code&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i5)	c : 0.0033855446120918224;
(c)	0.0033855446120918224&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Next, enter&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i6)	q(VTAS) := c*VTAS^2;
(%o6)	q(VTAS):=c*VTAS^2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i7)	q(200);
(%o7)	135.4217844836729
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This result is limited to sea level density. That does not make the result of no practical use. This relationship, or something similar is, used to calibrate aircraft airspeed indicators to display indicated airspeed (IAS) in the cockpit. However, it might be the case that it is necessary to determine the dynamic pressure at other altitudes besides sea level. 
In the standard atmosphere model, air density is a function of altitude (h), and is defined piece-wise based on the atmospheric layer. 

The density is derived from the Ideal Gas Law: &lt;math&gt;P = \rho /(R \cdot T)&lt;/math&gt; where in British Engineering units:

* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is density in slugs/ft³
* &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is pressure in lbf/ft²
* &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;‒ is temperature in °R (Rankine)
* &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; ‒ is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i8)	P = \ρ/(R*T);
(%o8)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The backslash character ( &lt;code&gt;\&lt;/code&gt; ) in front of the character for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; in the input expression allows an identifier to use Unicode. This makes for some nicer looking output. This is a Maxima mathematical equation expression. This equation can be solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i9)	solve(%,\ρ);
(%o9)	[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The Maxima built-in identifier &lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt; names the last output expression.The output of this expression is a Maxima list object with the only instance being the equation expression solved for &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;. Depending on the expression, the &lt;code&gt;solve()&lt;/code&gt; operation may result in more than one solution expression. Maxima creates a list object for one or more solution expressions. This solution equation expression can be accessed as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i10)	%[1];
(%o10)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The value of this expression is obtained by referencing the first (and only) solution of the Maxima list object of solutions ‒ &lt;code&gt;[ρ=P*R*T]&lt;/code&gt;. The reference is obtained by use of the &lt;code&gt;[1]&lt;/code&gt; syntax as shown. There are other ways Maxima can be used to accomplish the same result:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i11)	igl : P = \ρ/(R*T);
(igl)	P=ρ/(R*T)&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this case the expression for the ideal gas law was assigned an identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt;. The advantage to this sort of assignment is that the equation can be referred to using the identifier as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i12)	solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(%o12)	ρ=P*R*T
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The identifier &lt;code&gt;igl&lt;/code&gt; can be used at any point to refer to the equation expression:  &lt;code&gt;P = \ρ/(R*T)&lt;/code&gt;. An identifier can also be used to assign the identifier &lt;code&gt;solution&lt;/code&gt; to an expression. For example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i13)	solution : solve(igl,\ρ)[1];
(solution)	ρ=P*R*T

(%i14)	solve(solution,T)[1];
(%o14)	T=ρ/(P*R)

(%i15)	solve(solution,P)[1];
(%o15)	P=ρ/(R*T)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This expression can be checked against known values:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i16)	\°R(\°F) := \°F + 459.67;
(%o16)	°R(°F):=°F+459.67

(%i17)	P(p) := p*144.0;
(%o17)	P(p):=p*144.0

(%i18)	R:1716.56;
(R)	1716.56

(%i19)	\ρ(p,\°F) := P(p)/(''R*\°R(\°F));
(%o19)	ρ(p,°F):=P(p)/(1716.56*°R(°F))&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;The above Maxima expressions are examples of Maxima function expressions. For standard sea level conditions of pressure and temperature as follows:

* p is 14.696 lbf/ft²
* °F is °59.0 
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i20)	\ρ(14.696,59.0);
(%20)	0.0023769033250291326&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Maxima does not have a built-in operator for rounding decimal fraction values. Also, there is no package that is included as part of the Maxima distribution that provides for this capability. However, Robert Dodier has created a Maxima package that includes a function for this purpose  ‒ named &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dodier |first=Robert |title=maxima-packages/robert-dodier/excel_round/ |url=https://github.com/maxima-project-on-github/maxima-packages/tree/master/robert-dodier/excel_round|website=GitHub}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

However, to be able access the &lt;code&gt;excel_round()&lt;/code&gt;  function of this package, it must first be downloaded or copied into a location accessible to Maxima using the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator. The built-in Maxima &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator is used to access specialized functions that are not built-in to Maxima. In order to use the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator, the location of the downloaded  &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt; file has to be part of the argument to the &lt;code&gt;load()&lt;/code&gt; operator unless the file happens to be in the Maxima current working directory. The built-in &lt;code&gt;operatingsystem&lt;/code&gt; package can provide some functions to help with determining the current working directory. This package is loaded as follows: &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i21)	load(operatingsystem);
(%o21)	&quot;/usr/local/share/maxima/5.49.0/share/contrib/operatingsystem/operatingsystem.mac&quot;

(%i22)	getcurrentdirectory ();
(%o22)	&quot;/home/username/&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;In this example &lt;code&gt;username&lt;/code&gt; is the name of the home directory of the user. so if the downloaded  &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt; file is not located in the current working directory, then the directory can be changed to the location where the file is located: &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;(%i22)	chdir(&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages&quot;);
(%o22)	&quot;#P&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages&quot;&quot;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Now the &lt;code&gt;excel_round.mac&lt;/code&gt; file  can be loaded assuming it is within the directory /home/username/local/maxima/packages as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i23)	load(&quot;excel_round.mac&quot;);
(%o23)	&quot;excel_round.mac&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;Alternatively, if the location of the file is known it can be loaded using the full path name as follows for example:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i24)	load(&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages/excel_round.mac&quot;);
(%o24)	&quot;/home/username/local/maxima/packages/excel_round.mac&quot;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This method obviates the need for loading the &lt;code&gt;operatingsystem&lt;/code&gt; package.

The density value above can be rounded to six decimal places as follows:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i25)	excel_round(ρ(14.696,59.0),6);
(%o25)	0.002377
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This rounded value agrees with the sea level value of &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;23.77 \cdot 10^{-4}&lt;/math&gt; slugs/ft³ taken from a table of Standard Atmosphere values.

For Standard Atmosphere values of pressure ( 6.758 lbf/in² ) and temperature ( -12.26 °F ) at 20,000 ft the density value is:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i26)	excel_round(ρ(6.759,-12.26),6);
(%o26)	0.001267
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;This rounded value agrees with the sea level value of &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;12.67 \cdot 10^{-4}&lt;/math&gt; slugs/ft³ taken from a table of Standard Atmosphere values.

===== Pressure =====
However, what is needed for the task at hand is density as a function of altitude. Both the pressure P and the temperature T can be expressed as a function of altitude h:

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;P = P_0(1 - L\cdot h/T_0)^{g/(R \cdot L)}

&lt;/math&gt; 

Where in British Engineering units, the constants are:

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is Pressure in pounds per square foot  lbf/ft²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;P_0&lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Pressure): 2116.224 lbf/ft²  or 14.696  lbf/in²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;  is the specific gas constant (for dry air) approximately 1716.56 (ft·lbf)/(slug·°R)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T_0 &lt;/math&gt; is (Sea Level Temperature): 518.67 °R (15 °C or 59 °F)
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is (Lapse Rate): 0.003563 °R/ft
* &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is 32.174 ft/s²
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is altitude in feet above sea level

The exponent &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\frac{g}{R \cdot L}&lt;/math&gt; evaluates to approximately 5.26054:&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;maxima&quot;&gt;
(%i27)	32.174/(0.003563*1716.56);
(%o27)	5.260539027391964

(%i28)	excel_round(%,5);
(%o28)	5.26054
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

===== Temperature =====
&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; Temperature in °R 
* &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; Altitude in feet. 

Thus, the practical formulas in British Engineering units are:

&lt;math&gt;P = 2116.224\cdot(1-(6.86679 \cdot 10^{-6}) \cdot h)^{5.26054}&lt;/math&gt;   

&lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;T = 518.67 - 0.003563 \cdot h&lt;/math&gt;

===== Density =====
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    <title>Lentis/Chatbots as Therapists</title>
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        <id>3580246</id>
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      <comment>Tyler - Human vs. AI section</comment>
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      <text bytes="17865" sha1="f8p92ffwxhhyq9unikrqmmz702ljhbh" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. This is not surprising. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however, easy access does not necessarily mean good control. Chatbots may sound professional, but that does not mean it is a proper therapist. It does not have professional judgement. It does not have context of the user's life and does not take social cues like a human professional would. It can behave differently than how the company says it will behave. All this to say, AI mental health tools should not be judged only by how helpful they sound. They should be judged by how well they handle risky situations, how they handle dependency of users on the chatbot, and how they escalate to human intervention when the situation needs it.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not a new subject. Joseph Weizenbaum created something based on that idea, [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]], in the 1960s. Eliza is a program that imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. ELIZA failed to actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without actually doing so or being able to take responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The change that brought about Computer-Based Therapy also came out of a larger change in mental health diagnosis. The diagnosis of mental health disorders became more standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with quantitative measurements than qualitative observations.

A more recent example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was developed by researchers at the University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies and other institutions. It was designed to interview patients and collect information that could help with mental health screening. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; Devault and other researchers described SimSensei Kiosk as a virtual human interviewer for healthcare decision support, not as a full replacement for a therapist.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ellie makes a good comparison to modern chatbots because it shows an earlier version of the same problem. Ellie asked questions and watched the patient. It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues to help assess the patient's mental state. This system was in major use by military health care professionals, where stigma is a big issue. RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. This made screening more important. It also made systems like Ellie easier to justify.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Chatbots now are much different than Ellie. Ellie was mostly used as an interviewer for diagnosis in mental disorders. ChatGPT and other generative AI systems can talk about much more. This makes them more flexible than systems like Ellie, but it also makes them harder to manage. A system that can discuss anything is much more susceptible to breakdowns and failures. Some of which can be critical. 

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
The Woebot chatbot gives a different example compared to ChatGPT, ELIZA, and Ellie. Woebot was designed as a mental health chatbot based on [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It doesn't work like LLM models, in that it is less flexible. The interactions it gives are more structured and shorter.  

In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults between ages 18 and 28 were assigned to use Woebot or to read an information only National Institute of Health ebook over two weeks. The Woebot group showed significant reductions in depression symptoms. The study measured this using the [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]]. This is a depression symptom scaling tool, that ranges from 0 to 27. A higher number means worse symptoms. The Woebot group started with an average score of 14.30. By the end of the study, the average changed to 11.14. The information only group started at 13.25 and ended at 13.67. This means the Woebot group dropped by about three points, while the information only group stayed about the same. The result was evaluated to be statistically significant. This does not mean Woebot cured depression. It shows, however, that a structured chatbot reduced self-reported depression symptoms more than just giving people mental health information. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults from a university. It does show that a chatbot can help in specific settings.  

Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it safer. A narrow chatbot is easier to test and control. A general chatbot can go almost anywhere the user takes it, and in the area of mental health that openness is not always good.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups: Support and Opposition ==
The debate about therapy chatbots is not just about whether they work. It is about what kind of support they should provide and who is responsible when that support fails. Supporters focus on access. A chatbot can be available when a therapist is not. It can help users who are not ready to talk to a person. It can give basic reflection, journaling help, psychoeducation, and structured CBT exercises. This does not make it therapy.

Critics focus on false trust. A chatbot can sound caring without actually caring. It can sound understanding without actually understanding. It also cannot take responsibility like a therapist can. Ford argued that computer assisted therapy raises ethical and professional issues because it changes the relationship between patient and therapist. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=B. D. |year=1994 |title=Ethical and Professional Issues in Computer-Assisted Therapy |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=387–400}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accountability and privacy make this worse. A therapist has a license, follows medical standards, and has legal duties and obligations. A chatbot company can avoid some of that responsibility by calling it a wellness tool. The user may not see it that way. If the chatbot listens like a therapist and responds like a therapist, the user may trust it like they would a therapist. That creates risk when the system is not held to the same standards that therapists are.

Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, private support. AI companies want growth, trust, and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families want protection. Policy makers want public safety. The conflict is primarily one about responsibility.

== Future Work ==
This chapter only captured a few examples. Future work should compare more kinds of therapy chatbots. Woebot is narrow and structured. ChatGPT is broad and flexible. Those systems should not be treated as the same thing.

Further work should also study long term use. Many studies test a chatbot for days or weeks. A much harder question to answer and something very relevant to this casebook is what happens after months or years of use. A future section could also compare adolescents, adults, veterans, and people that have already been exposed to therapy. 

More work is also needed on regulation. A big question is to what standard chatbots have to meet before they can be treated as care.

== References ==

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      <text bytes="17545" sha1="7kvz59vk9qlu995lfym35nwo47vxrr8" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how the handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not a new subject. Joseph Weizenbaum created something based on that idea, [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]], in the 1960s. Eliza is a program that imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. ELIZA failed to actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without actually doing so or being able to take responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The change that brought about Computer-Based Therapy also came out of a larger change in mental health diagnosis. The diagnosis of mental health disorders became more standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with quantitative measurements than qualitative observations.

A more recent example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was developed by researchers at the University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies and other institutions. It was designed to interview patients and collect information that could help with mental health screening. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; Devault and other researchers described SimSensei Kiosk as a virtual human interviewer for healthcare decision support, not as a full replacement for a therapist.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ellie makes a good comparison to modern chatbots because it shows an earlier version of the same problem. Ellie asked questions and watched the patient. It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues to help assess the patient's mental state. This system was in major use by military health care professionals, where stigma is a big issue. RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. This made screening more important. It also made systems like Ellie easier to justify.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Chatbots now are much different than Ellie. Ellie was mostly used as an interviewer for diagnosis in mental disorders. ChatGPT and other generative AI systems can talk about much more. This makes them more flexible than systems like Ellie, but it also makes them harder to manage. A system that can discuss anything is much more susceptible to breakdowns and failures. Some of which can be critical. 

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
The Woebot chatbot gives a different example compared to ChatGPT, ELIZA, and Ellie. Woebot was designed as a mental health chatbot based on [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It doesn't work like LLM models, in that it is less flexible. The interactions it gives are more structured and shorter.  

In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults between ages 18 and 28 were assigned to use Woebot or to read an information only National Institute of Health ebook over two weeks. The Woebot group showed significant reductions in depression symptoms. The study measured this using the [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]]. This is a depression symptom scaling tool, that ranges from 0 to 27. A higher number means worse symptoms. The Woebot group started with an average score of 14.30. By the end of the study, the average changed to 11.14. The information only group started at 13.25 and ended at 13.67. This means the Woebot group dropped by about three points, while the information only group stayed about the same. The result was evaluated to be statistically significant. This does not mean Woebot cured depression. It shows, however, that a structured chatbot reduced self-reported depression symptoms more than just giving people mental health information. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults from a university. It does show that a chatbot can help in specific settings.  

Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it safer. A narrow chatbot is easier to test and control. A general chatbot can go almost anywhere the user takes it, and in the area of mental health that openness is not always good.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups: Support and Opposition ==
The debate about therapy chatbots is not just about whether they work. It is about what kind of support they should provide and who is responsible when that support fails. Supporters focus on access. A chatbot can be available when a therapist is not. It can help users who are not ready to talk to a person. It can give basic reflection, journaling help, psychoeducation, and structured CBT exercises. This does not make it therapy.

Critics focus on false trust. A chatbot can sound caring without actually caring. It can sound understanding without actually understanding. It also cannot take responsibility like a therapist can. Ford argued that computer assisted therapy raises ethical and professional issues because it changes the relationship between patient and therapist. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=B. D. |year=1994 |title=Ethical and Professional Issues in Computer-Assisted Therapy |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=387–400}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accountability and privacy make this worse. A therapist has a license, follows medical standards, and has legal duties and obligations. A chatbot company can avoid some of that responsibility by calling it a wellness tool. The user may not see it that way. If the chatbot listens like a therapist and responds like a therapist, the user may trust it like they would a therapist. That creates risk when the system is not held to the same standards that therapists are.

Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, private support. AI companies want growth, trust, and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families want protection. Policy makers want public safety. The conflict is primarily one about responsibility.

== Future Work ==
This chapter only captured a few examples. Future work should compare more kinds of therapy chatbots. Woebot is narrow and structured. ChatGPT is broad and flexible. Those systems should not be treated as the same thing.

Further work should also study long term use. Many studies test a chatbot for days or weeks. A much harder question to answer and something very relevant to this casebook is what happens after months or years of use. A future section could also compare adolescents, adults, veterans, and people that have already been exposed to therapy. 

More work is also needed on regulation. A big question is to what standard chatbots have to meet before they can be treated as care.

== References ==

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      <text bytes="17467" sha1="iasbg6sjh293ku3catm4xda69stfn63" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how the handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The change that brought about Computer-Based Therapy also came out of a larger change in mental health diagnosis. The diagnosis of mental health disorders became more standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with quantitative measurements than qualitative observations.

A more recent example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was developed by researchers at the University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies and other institutions. It was designed to interview patients and collect information that could help with mental health screening. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; Devault and other researchers described SimSensei Kiosk as a virtual human interviewer for healthcare decision support, not as a full replacement for a therapist.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ellie makes a good comparison to modern chatbots because it shows an earlier version of the same problem. Ellie asked questions and watched the patient. It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues to help assess the patient's mental state. This system was in major use by military health care professionals, where stigma is a big issue. RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. This made screening more important. It also made systems like Ellie easier to justify.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Chatbots now are much different than Ellie. Ellie was mostly used as an interviewer for diagnosis in mental disorders. ChatGPT and other generative AI systems can talk about much more. This makes them more flexible than systems like Ellie, but it also makes them harder to manage. A system that can discuss anything is much more susceptible to breakdowns and failures. Some of which can be critical. 

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
The Woebot chatbot gives a different example compared to ChatGPT, ELIZA, and Ellie. Woebot was designed as a mental health chatbot based on [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It doesn't work like LLM models, in that it is less flexible. The interactions it gives are more structured and shorter.  

In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults between ages 18 and 28 were assigned to use Woebot or to read an information only National Institute of Health ebook over two weeks. The Woebot group showed significant reductions in depression symptoms. The study measured this using the [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]]. This is a depression symptom scaling tool, that ranges from 0 to 27. A higher number means worse symptoms. The Woebot group started with an average score of 14.30. By the end of the study, the average changed to 11.14. The information only group started at 13.25 and ended at 13.67. This means the Woebot group dropped by about three points, while the information only group stayed about the same. The result was evaluated to be statistically significant. This does not mean Woebot cured depression. It shows, however, that a structured chatbot reduced self-reported depression symptoms more than just giving people mental health information. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults from a university. It does show that a chatbot can help in specific settings.  

Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it safer. A narrow chatbot is easier to test and control. A general chatbot can go almost anywhere the user takes it, and in the area of mental health that openness is not always good.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups: Support and Opposition ==
The debate about therapy chatbots is not just about whether they work. It is about what kind of support they should provide and who is responsible when that support fails. Supporters focus on access. A chatbot can be available when a therapist is not. It can help users who are not ready to talk to a person. It can give basic reflection, journaling help, psychoeducation, and structured CBT exercises. This does not make it therapy.

Critics focus on false trust. A chatbot can sound caring without actually caring. It can sound understanding without actually understanding. It also cannot take responsibility like a therapist can. Ford argued that computer assisted therapy raises ethical and professional issues because it changes the relationship between patient and therapist. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=B. D. |year=1994 |title=Ethical and Professional Issues in Computer-Assisted Therapy |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=387–400}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accountability and privacy make this worse. A therapist has a license, follows medical standards, and has legal duties and obligations. A chatbot company can avoid some of that responsibility by calling it a wellness tool. The user may not see it that way. If the chatbot listens like a therapist and responds like a therapist, the user may trust it like they would a therapist. That creates risk when the system is not held to the same standards that therapists are.

Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, private support. AI companies want growth, trust, and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families want protection. Policy makers want public safety. The conflict is primarily one about responsibility.

== Future Work ==
This chapter only captured a few examples. Future work should compare more kinds of therapy chatbots. Woebot is narrow and structured. ChatGPT is broad and flexible. Those systems should not be treated as the same thing.

Further work should also study long term use. Many studies test a chatbot for days or weeks. A much harder question to answer and something very relevant to this casebook is what happens after months or years of use. A future section could also compare adolescents, adults, veterans, and people that have already been exposed to therapy. 

More work is also needed on regulation. A big question is to what standard chatbots have to meet before they can be treated as care.

== References ==

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      <text bytes="17403" sha1="kyhy3k44fdmwp85nbl9fp9exqkhsjvx" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how the handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Computer-based therapy also came out of a larger charge in mental health diagnosis. Mental health disorders became standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom-based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with structure rather than qualitative judgement.

A more recent example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was developed by researchers at the University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies and other institutions. It was designed to interview patients and collect information that could help with mental health screening. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; Devault and other researchers described SimSensei Kiosk as a virtual human interviewer for healthcare decision support, not as a full replacement for a therapist.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ellie makes a good comparison to modern chatbots because it shows an earlier version of the same problem. Ellie asked questions and watched the patient. It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues to help assess the patient's mental state. This system was in major use by military health care professionals, where stigma is a big issue. RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. This made screening more important. It also made systems like Ellie easier to justify.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Chatbots now are much different than Ellie. Ellie was mostly used as an interviewer for diagnosis in mental disorders. ChatGPT and other generative AI systems can talk about much more. This makes them more flexible than systems like Ellie, but it also makes them harder to manage. A system that can discuss anything is much more susceptible to breakdowns and failures. Some of which can be critical. 

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
The Woebot chatbot gives a different example compared to ChatGPT, ELIZA, and Ellie. Woebot was designed as a mental health chatbot based on [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It doesn't work like LLM models, in that it is less flexible. The interactions it gives are more structured and shorter.  

In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults between ages 18 and 28 were assigned to use Woebot or to read an information only National Institute of Health ebook over two weeks. The Woebot group showed significant reductions in depression symptoms. The study measured this using the [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]]. This is a depression symptom scaling tool, that ranges from 0 to 27. A higher number means worse symptoms. The Woebot group started with an average score of 14.30. By the end of the study, the average changed to 11.14. The information only group started at 13.25 and ended at 13.67. This means the Woebot group dropped by about three points, while the information only group stayed about the same. The result was evaluated to be statistically significant. This does not mean Woebot cured depression. It shows, however, that a structured chatbot reduced self-reported depression symptoms more than just giving people mental health information. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults from a university. It does show that a chatbot can help in specific settings.  

Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it safer. A narrow chatbot is easier to test and control. A general chatbot can go almost anywhere the user takes it, and in the area of mental health that openness is not always good.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups: Support and Opposition ==
The debate about therapy chatbots is not just about whether they work. It is about what kind of support they should provide and who is responsible when that support fails. Supporters focus on access. A chatbot can be available when a therapist is not. It can help users who are not ready to talk to a person. It can give basic reflection, journaling help, psychoeducation, and structured CBT exercises. This does not make it therapy.

Critics focus on false trust. A chatbot can sound caring without actually caring. It can sound understanding without actually understanding. It also cannot take responsibility like a therapist can. Ford argued that computer assisted therapy raises ethical and professional issues because it changes the relationship between patient and therapist. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=B. D. |year=1994 |title=Ethical and Professional Issues in Computer-Assisted Therapy |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=387–400}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accountability and privacy make this worse. A therapist has a license, follows medical standards, and has legal duties and obligations. A chatbot company can avoid some of that responsibility by calling it a wellness tool. The user may not see it that way. If the chatbot listens like a therapist and responds like a therapist, the user may trust it like they would a therapist. That creates risk when the system is not held to the same standards that therapists are.

Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, private support. AI companies want growth, trust, and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families want protection. Policy makers want public safety. The conflict is primarily one about responsibility.

== Future Work ==
This chapter only captured a few examples. Future work should compare more kinds of therapy chatbots. Woebot is narrow and structured. ChatGPT is broad and flexible. Those systems should not be treated as the same thing.

Further work should also study long term use. Many studies test a chatbot for days or weeks. A much harder question to answer and something very relevant to this casebook is what happens after months or years of use. A future section could also compare adolescents, adults, veterans, and people that have already been exposed to therapy. 

More work is also needed on regulation. A big question is to what standard chatbots have to meet before they can be treated as care.

== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>4633294</id>
      <parentid>4633293</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T19:53:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zachary Denison tsx4wu</username>
        <id>3579125</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>History type-editing part 3, we may stay under 500 words yet</comment>
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      <text bytes="16346" sha1="oouinw0zot7ifu1v1xfqqo7g38fu1jv" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how they handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Computer-based therapy also came out of a larger charge in mental health diagnosis. Mental health disorders became standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom-based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with structure rather than qualitative judgement.

A later example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was designed to support screening not replace therapists. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues. This made sense in military healthcare where stigma is a major issue.  RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
The Woebot chatbot gives a different example compared to ChatGPT, ELIZA, and Ellie. Woebot was designed as a mental health chatbot based on [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It doesn't work like LLM models, in that it is less flexible. The interactions it gives are more structured and shorter.  

In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults between ages 18 and 28 were assigned to use Woebot or to read an information only National Institute of Health ebook over two weeks. The Woebot group showed significant reductions in depression symptoms. The study measured this using the [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]]. This is a depression symptom scaling tool, that ranges from 0 to 27. A higher number means worse symptoms. The Woebot group started with an average score of 14.30. By the end of the study, the average changed to 11.14. The information only group started at 13.25 and ended at 13.67. This means the Woebot group dropped by about three points, while the information only group stayed about the same. The result was evaluated to be statistically significant. This does not mean Woebot cured depression. It shows, however, that a structured chatbot reduced self-reported depression symptoms more than just giving people mental health information. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults from a university. It does show that a chatbot can help in specific settings.  

Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it safer. A narrow chatbot is easier to test and control. A general chatbot can go almost anywhere the user takes it, and in the area of mental health that openness is not always good.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups: Support and Opposition ==
The debate about therapy chatbots is not just about whether they work. It is about what kind of support they should provide and who is responsible when that support fails. Supporters focus on access. A chatbot can be available when a therapist is not. It can help users who are not ready to talk to a person. It can give basic reflection, journaling help, psychoeducation, and structured CBT exercises. This does not make it therapy.

Critics focus on false trust. A chatbot can sound caring without actually caring. It can sound understanding without actually understanding. It also cannot take responsibility like a therapist can. Ford argued that computer assisted therapy raises ethical and professional issues because it changes the relationship between patient and therapist. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=B. D. |year=1994 |title=Ethical and Professional Issues in Computer-Assisted Therapy |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=387–400}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accountability and privacy make this worse. A therapist has a license, follows medical standards, and has legal duties and obligations. A chatbot company can avoid some of that responsibility by calling it a wellness tool. The user may not see it that way. If the chatbot listens like a therapist and responds like a therapist, the user may trust it like they would a therapist. That creates risk when the system is not held to the same standards that therapists are.

Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, private support. AI companies want growth, trust, and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families want protection. Policy makers want public safety. The conflict is primarily one about responsibility.

== Future Work ==
This chapter only captured a few examples. Future work should compare more kinds of therapy chatbots. Woebot is narrow and structured. ChatGPT is broad and flexible. Those systems should not be treated as the same thing.

Further work should also study long term use. Many studies test a chatbot for days or weeks. A much harder question to answer and something very relevant to this casebook is what happens after months or years of use. A future section could also compare adolescents, adults, veterans, and people that have already been exposed to therapy. 

More work is also needed on regulation. A big question is to what standard chatbots have to meet before they can be treated as care.

== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>oouinw0zot7ifu1v1xfqqo7g38fu1jv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633315</id>
      <parentid>4633294</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:19:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zachary Denison tsx4wu</username>
        <id>3579125</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Type-editing for Woebot, looks solid</comment>
      <origin>4633315</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15367" sha1="2e7ul3fu0irzocpykhzre2gv03hcjpn" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how they handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Computer-based therapy also came out of a larger charge in mental health diagnosis. Mental health disorders became standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom-based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with structure rather than qualitative judgement.

A later example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was designed to support screening not replace therapists. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues. This made sense in military healthcare where stigma is a major issue.  RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
Woebot gives a more controlled example. It was built around [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It is less flexible than LLM models, and its conversations are shorter. In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults used either Woebot or an information-only NIH e-book for two weeks. The Woebot group's average [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]] score dropped from 14.30 to 11.14. The information-only group stayed about the same, from 13.25 to 13.67.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults. It does show that a narrow chatbot can help in a specific setting. Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it easier to test and control.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups: Support and Opposition ==
The debate about therapy chatbots is not just about whether they work. It is about what kind of support they should provide and who is responsible when that support fails. Supporters focus on access. A chatbot can be available when a therapist is not. It can help users who are not ready to talk to a person. It can give basic reflection, journaling help, psychoeducation, and structured CBT exercises. This does not make it therapy.

Critics focus on false trust. A chatbot can sound caring without actually caring. It can sound understanding without actually understanding. It also cannot take responsibility like a therapist can. Ford argued that computer assisted therapy raises ethical and professional issues because it changes the relationship between patient and therapist. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=B. D. |year=1994 |title=Ethical and Professional Issues in Computer-Assisted Therapy |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=387–400}}&lt;/ref&gt; Accountability and privacy make this worse. A therapist has a license, follows medical standards, and has legal duties and obligations. A chatbot company can avoid some of that responsibility by calling it a wellness tool. The user may not see it that way. If the chatbot listens like a therapist and responds like a therapist, the user may trust it like they would a therapist. That creates risk when the system is not held to the same standards that therapists are.

Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, private support. AI companies want growth, trust, and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families want protection. Policy makers want public safety. The conflict is primarily one about responsibility.

== Future Work ==
This chapter only captured a few examples. Future work should compare more kinds of therapy chatbots. Woebot is narrow and structured. ChatGPT is broad and flexible. Those systems should not be treated as the same thing.

Further work should also study long term use. Many studies test a chatbot for days or weeks. A much harder question to answer and something very relevant to this casebook is what happens after months or years of use. A future section could also compare adolescents, adults, veterans, and people that have already been exposed to therapy. 

More work is also needed on regulation. A big question is to what standard chatbots have to meet before they can be treated as care.

== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <text bytes="13392" sha1="bnpb1vyr75uaigzomc4frvy2ed2v62m" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how they handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Computer-based therapy also came out of a larger charge in mental health diagnosis. Mental health disorders became standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom-based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with structure rather than qualitative judgement.

A later example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was designed to support screening not replace therapists. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues. This made sense in military healthcare where stigma is a major issue.  RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
Woebot gives a more controlled example. It was built around [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It is less flexible than LLM models, and its conversations are shorter. In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults used either Woebot or an information-only NIH e-book for two weeks. The Woebot group's average [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]] score dropped from 14.30 to 11.14. The information-only group stayed about the same, from 13.25 to 13.67.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults. It does show that a narrow chatbot can help in a specific setting. Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it easier to test and control.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups and Future Work ==
Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, and private support. AI companies want growth and legal protection. Health Professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families and policy makers want protection. The conflict is mainly about responsibility.

Future work should compare narrow systems like Woebot with broad systems like ChatGPT. It should also study long-term use, dependency, privacy, escalation, and what standard a chatbot must meet before it can be treated as care.

== References ==

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        <id>3579125</id>
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      <text bytes="13392" sha1="np4tyqksgft1ov86j2npbl3o4swbvs2" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, there are issues with scheduling, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how they handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Computer-based therapy also came out of a larger change in mental health diagnosis. Mental health disorders became standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom-based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with structure rather than qualitative judgement.

A later example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was designed to support screening not replace therapists. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues. This made sense in military healthcare where stigma is a major issue.  RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
Woebot gives a more controlled example. It was built around [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It is less flexible than LLM models, and its conversations are shorter. In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults used either Woebot or an information-only NIH e-book for two weeks. The Woebot group's average [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]] score dropped from 14.30 to 11.14. The information-only group stayed about the same, from 13.25 to 13.67.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults. It does show that a narrow chatbot can help in a specific setting. Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it easier to test and control.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups and Future Work ==
Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, and private support. AI companies want growth and legal protection. Health Professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families and policy makers want protection. The conflict is mainly about responsibility.

Future work should compare narrow systems like Woebot with broad systems like ChatGPT. It should also study long-term use, dependency, privacy, escalation, and what standard a chatbot must meet before it can be treated as care.

== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <text bytes="13380" sha1="7wqyjedr7yo05gpimt8qm7b5nf8orrg" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
AI chatbots are increasingly being used for mental-health support. Therapy costs money, scheduling can be hard, there is still a social stigma associated with it. A chatbot is different. It is private. It is cheap. And it is available all the time. That makes it useful for people with various mental illnesses who are unsure where else to go.                 

There is a problem with this, however. Easy access does not necessarily mean good care. A chatbot may sound professional, but that does not make it a therapist. It does not have professional judgement, the full context of the user's life, or the ability to read social cues. These tools should therefore be judged by how they handle risk, dependency, privacy, and escalation.
== History of Computer-Based Therapy ==
Computer-Based Therapy is not new. Joseph Weizenbaum created [[wikipedia:ELIZA|ELIZA]] in the 1960s. Eliza imitated a [[wikipedia:Person-centered_therapy|Rogerian psychotherapist]]. It did not actually understand the user. It mainly turned the user's own words back into questions. Still, people responded to it as if it understood them. Weizenbaum argued this was dangerous because the program looked like it cared without caring or actually taking responsibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation |publisher=W. H. Freeman |year=1976}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Computer-based therapy also came out of a larger change in mental health diagnosis. Mental health disorders became standardized through systems like the [[wikipedia:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders|DSM]]. Mayes and Horwitz argue that DSM-III changed psychiatry by moving diagnosis toward symptom-based categories and away from older [[wikipedia:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] explanations. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mayes |first1=Rick |last2=Horwitz |first2=Allan V. |year=2005 |title=DSM-III and the Revolution in the Classification of Mental Illness |url=https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~bmayes/pdf/dsmiii.pdf |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=249–267}}&lt;/ref&gt; This matters because computers work best with structure rather than qualitative judgement.

A later example is [[Lentis/Ellie, the Microsoft Kinect, and Psychotherapy|Ellie]], the virtual psychotherapist used in the SimSensei system. Ellie was designed to support screening, not to replace therapists. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2014 |title=SimSensei |url=http://ict.usc.edu/prototypes/simsensei/ |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=University of Southern California Institute for Creative Technologies}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite conference|last1=DeVault|first1=David|last2=Artstein|first2=Ron|last3=Benn|first3=Grace|last4=Dey|first4=Teresa|last5=Fast|first5=Ethan|last6=Gainer|first6=Alesia|title=SimSensei Kiosk: A Virtual Human Interviewer for Healthcare Decision Support|book-title=Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems|pages=1061–1068|year=2014|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2617415}}&lt;/ref&gt; It could use speech, facial expression, posture, and other cues. This made sense in military healthcare where stigma is a major issue.  RAND found that about one in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans had PTSD or major depression. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=17 April 2008 |title=One in Five Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Suffer from PTSD or Major Depression |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17.html |access-date=25 April 2026 |website=RAND}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Adam Raine and AI Chatbots in Mental Health ==
The [[wikipedia:Raine_v._OpenAI|Raine v. OpenAI]] case highlights how AI chatbots can be risky for mental health. Adam Raine, a teenager, used ChatGPT outside a clinical setting, with no supervision or crisis response. The complaint says he interacted with the chatbot often, became emotionally dependent, but there was no single harmful message. &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Raine v. OpenAI Complaint |url=https://business.cch.com/plsd/RainevOpenAI-Complaint.pdf |access-date=April 25, 2026 |website=CCH Business}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The key issue is interaction dynamics over time. The filing alleges that design choices enabled ongoing attachment, stating that “OpenAI’s executives knew these emotional attachment features would endanger minors… but launched anyway” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This shifts the analysis from output quality to system incentives. Engagement optimized systems reward continuation, not disengagement, which conflicts with crisis intervention norms that prioritize interruption and referral.  

The trajectory of responses is also critical. The complaint describes a progression from general support to a suicide-related discussion &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This pattern reflects known failure modes in language models: they adapt to user context and may mirror escalating content without robust boundary enforcement. Empirical work supports this. A Stanford study found therapy chatbots “routinely fail at providing safe, ethical care,” with repeated failures on suicide-related prompts &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore, Grabb, Agnew, Klyman, Chancellor, Ong, Haber |first=Jared, Declan, William, Kevin, Stevie, Desmond C., Nick |date=June 22, 2025 |title=Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3715275.3732039 |journal=Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency|volume=2025|via=ACM Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These failures are not random errors. They indicate weak alignment under ambiguous or indirect signals.  

Crisis detection is another structural gap. Reports describe continued engagement despite escalating distress, with the chatbot framed as a “closest companion” &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Clinical practice treats such signals as triggers for escalation. In contrast, chatbot systems often rely on pattern recognition without calibrated risk thresholds. Evidence from the Journal of Medical Internet Research shows ChatGPT-3.5 “markedly underestimated the potential for suicide attempts” relative to clinicians &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Elyoseph, Levkovich |first=Zohar, Inbar |date=Aug 1, 2023 |title=Beyond human expertise: the promise and limitations of ChatGPT in suicide risk assessment |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10427505/ |journal=Front Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=1213141 |via=PubMed Central (PMC)}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Underestimation is not just inaccuracy; it delays intervention and increases exposure to risk.   

Scale and intensity amplify these issues. The complaint reports hundreds of messages per day with increasing self-harm content &lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This matters because safety evaluations are typically single-turn, while risk here is path-dependent. Each response conditions the next, creating feedback loops that can normalize harmful themes. High-frequency interaction also increases user trust, making later unsafe outputs more influential.     

Finally, the case exposes a governance gap. General-purpose systems operate in almost therapeutic roles without the constraints applied to clinical tools. Advocacy groups like the Center for Humane Technology argue this requires stronger safeguards and accountability standards &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Litigation Case Study: OpenAI |url=https://www.humanetech.com/case-study/litigation-case-study-openai |access-date=2026-04-25 |website=Center for Humane Technology |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The core issue is misalignment between product incentives and safety requirements. Systems optimized for engagement can unintentionally sustain harmful states when used by vulnerable users.      

Overall, Raine v. OpenAI shows that harm emerges from system-level properties: incentive structures, weak crisis detection, and longitudinal interaction effects. The case is less about a single failure and more about how design, scale, and use context interact to produce risk.       

== Woebot as Controlled Computer-Based Therapy ==
Woebot gives a more controlled example. It was built around [[wikipedia:Cognitive_behavioral_therapy|CBT]] principles. It is less flexible than LLMs, and its conversations are shorter. In a 2017 randomized controlled trial, 70 young adults used either Woebot or an information-only NIH e-book for two weeks. The Woebot group's average [[wikipedia:PHQ-9|PHQ-9]] score dropped from 14.30 to 11.14. The information-only group stayed about the same, from 13.25 to 13.67.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Kathleen Kara |last2=Darcy |first2=Alison |last3=Vierhile |first3=Molly |year=2017 |title=Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial |url=https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/ |journal=JMIR Mental Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e19 |doi=10.2196/mental.7785}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

This does not prove that chatbots can replace therapists. The study was short. The sample was small. The users were young adults. It does show that a narrow chatbot can help in a specific setting. Woebot's limits are part of its design. It does less, but doing less makes it easier to test and control.  

== Human vs. AI: Can Therapists Tell the Difference? ==
Mental health professionals spend time learning and training, ensuring they meet regulations and can be responsible for their work &lt;ref&gt;American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective June 1, 2010, and January 1, 2017). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.apa.org/ethics/code&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. While chatbots could be a cheap and accessible alternative, they mimic human output with no conscious regard for regulation and responsibility. Apart from their effectiveness in treating patients, this raises the question of whether or not chatbots can replace humans in a typical therapy session.

A recent study by Kuhail et al. addresses this question with a blind empirical study &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Kuhail, M. A., Alturki, N., Thomas, J., Alkhalifa, A. K., &amp; Alshardan, A. (2025). Human-Human vs Human-AI Therapy: An Empirical Study. ''International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction'', ''41''(11), 6841–6852. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2024.2385001&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. The researchers asked 63 mental health professionals to compare transcripts from human-human sessions and from human-AI sessions. Each participant was presented two transcripts, and was asked to guess whether the therapist was AI or human and rate the quality, giving their reasoning for each decision. The research was primarily focused on early stages of therapy and active listening. The mental health professionals correctly identified the type of session only 53.9% of the time, barely better than random chance &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, human-AI sessions were rated about 7.9% higher in quality.

This finding supports the argument that AI could be used, at least in part, in mental health roles. Participants found the human-AI sessions to be just as warm, empathetic, and understanding as human-human sessions &lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;. While this application is more limited than what a licensed therapist could provide, it could reduce burden on the already limited supply of human therapists.

At the same time, this study raises the issue of false trust. If the AI output is reasonably indistinguishable from human output in early-stage therapy, people may overestimate what AI can provide long-term. AI models tend to be overly confident, even when producing incorrect output &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yujie |last2=Sheng |first2=Dongfang |last3=Zhou |first3=Zihan |last4=Wu |first4=Yifei |date=2024-09-27 |title=AI hallucination: towards a comprehensive classification of distorted information in artificial intelligence-generated content |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03811-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1278 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03811-x |issn=2662-9992}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It can sound caring and empathetic without real understanding or responsibility, and could provide detrimental advice to patients. Because current models can be difficult to interpret and reliably constrain, it may be dangerous to provide unsupervised therapy through AI.

While AI therapy is shown to be promising in early-stage therapy sessions, its ability should not be overestimated. These tools can potentially benefit mental health professionals and patients globally, but should not yet be trusted to provide long-term care, especially in providing real judgement and crisis response.

== Participant Groups and Future Work ==
Different groups want different things. Users want fast, cheap, and private support. AI companies want growth and legal protection. Health professionals want safety, evidence, and standards. Families and policy makers want protection. The conflict is mainly about responsibility.

Future work should compare narrow systems like Woebot with broad systems like ChatGPT. It should also study long-term use, dependency, privacy, escalation, and what standard a chatbot must meet before it can be treated as care.

== References ==

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      <text bytes="4270" sha1="o9oct3a79cz3mfcp9kv8jjr0renm1cx" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|name=Kunin double gambit
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C15]]
|parent=[[../|Fingerslip variation]]
}}
== 5...Qxd4 · Kunin double gambit ==
{{Chess/sideline}}
Black doesn't give up the g7-pawn and instead chases after more material. White has two moves properly make use of Black's lack of development.

'''6. O-O-O''' sets up a discovered attack on Black's queen, who has no good squares to go to. Getting off of the a1-h8 diagonal runs into 7. Qxg7, trapping Black's rook. ...Qe5 and ...Qf6 run into Bf4 and Bg5 respectively, both of which lead to Black losing their queen. Black's only moves are therefore those that displace White's queen: 
* 6...h5 chases the queen to e2 (both Qg3 and Qg5 can be met by attack the queen with the dark-squared bishop.
* 6...f5 does the same, but White has the option of going Qg3, responding to Bd6 with Bg5 (after 6...h5 this would have been met with ...h4)
* 6...Nf6 transposes back into the 5...Nf6 lines after 7. Qxg7 Rg8 8. Qh6

Alternatively, White can opt for '''6. Nf3'''. These lines tend to result in a queenless middlegame.
* 6...Nh6 (6...Nf6?? 7. Qxg7{{Chess/not|++}}) attacks the queen. White can choose to win back their pawn with 7. Qxe6+ Bxe6 8. Nxd4. White can also try to keep the queens on the board with 7. Qf4, but e5 forces it anyway. 
* 6...h5 allows the same variation as 6...Nh6 with 7. Qxe6+. 7. Qf4 manages to keep the queens on the board. 7...e5?! doesn't work any more due to 8. Nxe5, which now threatens Qxf7.
* 6...f5 is similar in spirit to 6...h5. White does get to play 7. Qh5+ g6 8. Nxd4 gxh6. The f-pawn doesn't actually defend the e-pawn due to 9. Nxe4 being a discovered attack on Black's bishop.

=== History ===
Most opening databases refer to this move as the &quot;Kunin double gambit.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=French Defense: Winawer, Fingerslip, Kunin Double Gambit
|website=www.chess.com
|url=https://www.chess.com/openings/French-Defense-Winawer-Fingerslip-Kunin-Double-Gambit
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=French Defense: Winawer Variation, Fingerslip Variation, Kunin Double Gambit
|website=lichess.org
|url=https://lichess.org/opening/French_Defense_Winawer_Variation_Fingerslip_Variation_Kunin_Double_Gambit
}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
The earliest instance of someone with the name &quot;Kunin&quot; playing this variation is '''Vladimir Kunin - Oschengoit, 1958'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Vladimir Kunin - Oschengoit, 1958
|website=www.chessgames.com
|url=https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1250817&amp;comp=1
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This game has been a popular miniature, being featured in chess miniature books and online discussions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|first=Bill |last=Wall
|title=500 French Miniatures
|page=91
|url=https://archive.org/details/500FrenchMiniaturesByBillWallXxxxx/500%20French%20Miniatures%20by%20Bill%20Wall%20xxxxx/page/n91/mode/2up
|access-date=2026-04-28
|date=1984
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=The Not-So-Unnamed Gambit
|url=https://gambitchessplayer.com/testimonial/the-not-so-unnamed-gambit/
|website=gambitchessplayer.com
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The opening was known prior to this game. It had already had appearances in high-profile games like at the 1950 candidates in a game between [[w:Isaac Boleslavsky|Isaac Boleslavsky]] and [[w:David Bronstein|David Bronstein]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Boleslavsky - Bronstein, 1950
|website=www.chessgames.com
|url=https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1033798
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This continuation was also played in the first recorded game in the Fingerslip variation [[w:Frank Marshall|Marshall]] - [[w:Mikhail Chigorin|Chigorin]], 1901.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Marshall - Chigorin, 1901
|url=https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1094494
|website=www.chessgames.com
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Theory table==
{{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}

{{Chess/theory table
|links=0
|line1=6. O-O-O h5 7. Qe2   Bd7
|line2=6. ...   f5 7. Qg3   Bd6  8. Bf4 Bxf4+ 9. Qxf4 Qc5
|line3=6. ...  Nf6 7. Qxg7  Rg8  8. Qh6
|line4=6. Nf3  Nh6 7. Qxe6+ Bxe6 8. Nxd4 Bd7
|line5=6. ...  ... 7. Qf4   e5   8. Nxd4 exf4
|line6=6. ...  h5  7. Qxe6+ Bxe6 8. Nxd4 Bd7
|line7=6. ...  f5  7. Qh5+  g6   8. Nxd4 gxh5
}}

{{ChessMid}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{BCO2}}
=== See also ===
{{Wikipedia|French Defence|anchor1=White's_fourth_move_alternatives}}
{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}</text>
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    <title>Lentis/The Ebola Outbreak of 2014</title>
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      <text bytes="8517" sha1="2w92z9qasl4m2dp4u8f5zvsf649tmr0" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
The 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa was one of the most severe public-health crises of the twenty-first century. The outbreak began in the village of Meliandou in Guinea and quickly spread to neighboring countries. Lasting from 2014-2016, the virus caused widespread devastation and death, claiming more than 11,000 lives during the outbreak. 

== Background ==
The 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak was the largest epidemic of Ebola virus. Unlike previous Ebola outbreaks, which were small and geographically isolated, the 2014 outbreak spread across multiple countries in Western Africa and isolated cases were reported in countries outside of Western Africa as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Beth P. |date=2016 |title=Overview, Control Strategies, and Lessons Learned in the CDC Response to the 2014–2016 Ebola Epidemic |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a2.htm |journal=MMWR Supplements |language=en-us |volume=65 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.su6503a2 |issn=2380-8950}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2014 outbreak began in December 2013, in Meliandou Village, Guinea.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak in West Africa, 2014 – 2016: Epidemic timeline, differential diagnoses, determining factors, and lessons for future response |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ebola-outbreak-of-2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus spread quickly reaching Liberia by March 2014, and Sierra Leone by May 2014 where major outbreaks would occur.

Several factors contributed to the severity of the outbreak, including population mobility across borders, limited healthcare infrastructure, delayed international response, and cultural practices such as burial traditions that increased exposure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Urban transmission distinguished this outbreak from previous cases which had largely occurred in rural and remote areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak 2014-2016 - West Africa |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/situations/ebola-outbreak-2014-2016-West-Africa |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In August 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Despite the increased international aid the outbreak would continue for another two years. The outbreak was officially declared over in June 2016, after infecting more than 28,600 individuals and killing 11,325.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== History ===
First identified in 1976 in the village of Yambuku, located in the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Ebola virus is a virus belonging to the Orthoebolavirus genus, which consists of 6 species.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-disease |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ebola is a severe often fatal illness, characterized by symptoms such as fever, hemorrhaging, and organ failure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; The virus transmits through direct contact with bodily fluids of infected individuals or contaminated materials.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Response ==

=== Affected Populations ===
Communities in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone encountered Ebola as both a public health crisis and a social disruption. Shortages of healthcare workers and facilities meant that many patients were cared for at home by relatives rather than in formal medical settings. These caregiving arrangements increased transmission risk while reflecting the structural limitations of the region's healthcare infrastructure.

Public health interventions frequently came into tension with established cultural practices. Families placed strong moral and emotional weight on caring for the sick and performing funeral and burial rites for the deceased. These practices constituted major transmission pathways. Isolation protocols, restrictions on touching the sick or deceased, and mandatory safe burial procedures were medically necessary, yet many families experienced them as violations of their responsibilities toward the dying and the dead.

The conflict between institutional directives and community expectations produced a breakdown in social trust that directly shaped how the outbreak unfolded. In many regions, patients transported to treatment centers often did not return due to death or poor communication between facilities and families. This reinforced suspicion among communities already skeptical of government institutions. As a result, the resistance to public health measures reflects a socially informed response to perceived institutional threat, rather than ignorance. The specific ways this resistance manifested across Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone are examined in the local government sections.

Response efforts became more effective as organizations shifted from top-down enforcement toward participatory approaches in late 2014. Initiatives such as Community-Led Ebola Action (CLEA) engaged residents in identifying local transmission risks, adapting high-risk practices, and taking active roles in contact tracing and prevention. This shift demonstrated that controlling the outbreak depended not only on medical infrastructure, but on the trust, local knowledge, and cooperation of the people most affected by it.

=== Healthcare Workers ===
Healthcare workers were among the most vulnerable groups in the 2014 outbreak, facing exposure due to limited resources and rapidly changing conditions. Facilities across West Africa were unprepared for such an outbreak lacking adequate personal protective equipment, sanitation infrastructure, and consistent training. Healthcare workers were estimated to be 21-32 times more likely to contract Ebola than the general public, with over 800 infected and more than 500 deaths reported.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Health worker Ebola infections in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-EVD-SDS-REPORT-2015.1 |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Center for Disease Control (CDC) identified exposure and insufficient protection as a major driver of infection in healthcare settings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Update: Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak — West Africa, October 2014 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6343a3.htm |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.cdc.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; Local healthcare workers often operated in under-supplied facilities with less consistent training, while international responders had better equipment, training, and evacuation options.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola: Pushed to the limit and beyond {{!}} MSF |url=https://www.msf.org/ebola-pushed-limit-and-beyond |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.msf.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Workers were crucial in implementing key containment strategies such as isolation protocols, contact tracing, and safe burial practices. Effectively executing these strategies required public trust and cooperation which became a problem during such an outbreak. In many cases mistrust and cultural tension hindered compliance, as treatment centers were feared and traditional practices conflicted with medical guidelines.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Abramowitz |first=Sharon |date=2017-10-23 |title=Epidemics (Especially Ebola) |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=Volume 46, 2017 |pages=421–445 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, healthcare workers faced severe phycological strain, burnout, and social stigma due to being seen as a possible risk of infection.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Shultz |first=James M. |last2=Cooper |first2=Janice L. |last3=Baingana |first3=Florence |last4=Oquendo |first4=Maria A. |last5=Espinel |first5=Zelde |last6=Althouse |first6=Benjamin M. |last7=Marcelin |first7=Louis Herns |last8=Towers |first8=Sherry |last9=Espinola |first9=Maria |last10=McCoy |first10=Clyde B. |last11=Mazurik |first11=Laurie |last12=Wainberg |first12=Milton L. |last13=Neria |first13=Yuval |last14=Rechkemmer |first14=Andreas |date=2016-11 |title=The Role of Fear-Related Behaviors in the 2013-2016 West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5241909/ |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=104 |doi=10.1007/s11920-016-0741-y |issn=1535-1645 |pmc=5241909 |pmid=27739026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== World Health Organization (WHO) ===

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="9604" sha1="p575qfgp2npjcjyz7phz9tgjfm2nfd6" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
The 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa was one of the most severe public-health crises of the twenty-first century. The outbreak began in the village of Meliandou in Guinea and quickly spread to neighboring countries. Lasting from 2014-2016, the virus caused widespread devastation and death, claiming more than 11,000 lives during the outbreak. 

== Background ==
The 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak was the largest epidemic of Ebola virus. Unlike previous Ebola outbreaks, which were small and geographically isolated, the 2014 outbreak spread across multiple countries in Western Africa and isolated cases were reported in countries outside of Western Africa as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Beth P. |date=2016 |title=Overview, Control Strategies, and Lessons Learned in the CDC Response to the 2014–2016 Ebola Epidemic |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a2.htm |journal=MMWR Supplements |language=en-us |volume=65 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.su6503a2 |issn=2380-8950}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2014 outbreak began in December 2013, in Meliandou Village, Guinea.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak in West Africa, 2014 – 2016: Epidemic timeline, differential diagnoses, determining factors, and lessons for future response |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ebola-outbreak-of-2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus spread quickly reaching Liberia by March 2014, and Sierra Leone by May 2014 where major outbreaks would occur.

Several factors contributed to the severity of the outbreak, including population mobility across borders, limited healthcare infrastructure, delayed international response, and cultural practices such as burial traditions that increased exposure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Urban transmission distinguished this outbreak from previous cases which had largely occurred in rural and remote areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak 2014-2016 - West Africa |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/situations/ebola-outbreak-2014-2016-West-Africa |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In August 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Despite the increased international aid the outbreak would continue for another two years. The outbreak was officially declared over in June 2016, after infecting more than 28,600 individuals and killing 11,325.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== History ===
First identified in 1976 in the village of Yambuku, located in the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Ebola virus is a virus belonging to the Orthoebolavirus genus, which consists of 6 species.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-disease |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ebola is a severe often fatal illness, characterized by symptoms such as fever, hemorrhaging, and organ failure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; The virus transmits through direct contact with bodily fluids of infected individuals or contaminated materials.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Response ==

=== Affected Populations ===
Communities in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone encountered Ebola as both a public health crisis and a social disruption. Shortages of healthcare workers and facilities meant that many patients were cared for at home by relatives rather than in formal medical settings. These caregiving arrangements increased transmission risk while reflecting the structural limitations of the region's healthcare infrastructure.

Public health interventions frequently came into tension with established cultural practices. Families placed strong moral and emotional weight on caring for the sick and performing funeral and burial rites for the deceased. These practices constituted major transmission pathways. Isolation protocols, restrictions on touching the sick, and mandatory safe burial procedures were medically necessary, yet many families experienced them as violations of their responsibilities toward the dying and the dead.

The conflict between institutional directives and community expectations produced a breakdown in social trust that directly shaped how the outbreak unfolded. In many regions, patients transported to treatment centers often did not return due to death or poor communication between facilities and families. This reinforced suspicion among communities already skeptical of government institutions. As a result, the resistance to public health measures reflects a socially informed response to perceived institutional threat, rather than ignorance. The specific ways this resistance manifested across Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone are examined in the local government sections.

Response efforts became more effective as organizations shifted from top-down enforcement toward participatory approaches in late 2014. Initiatives such as Community-Led Ebola Action (CLEA) engaged residents in identifying local transmission risks, adapting high-risk practices, and taking active roles in contact tracing and prevention. This shift demonstrated that controlling the outbreak depended not only on medical infrastructure, but on the trust, local knowledge, and cooperation of the people most affected by it.

=== Healthcare Workers ===
Healthcare workers were among the most vulnerable groups in the 2014 outbreak, facing exposure due to limited resources and rapidly changing conditions. Facilities across West Africa were unprepared for such an outbreak lacking adequate personal protective equipment, sanitation infrastructure, and consistent training. Healthcare workers were estimated to be 21-32 times more likely to contract Ebola than the general public, with over 800 infected and more than 500 deaths reported.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Health worker Ebola infections in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-EVD-SDS-REPORT-2015.1 |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Center for Disease Control (CDC) identified exposure and insufficient protection as a major driver of infection in healthcare settings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Update: Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak — West Africa, October 2014 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6343a3.htm |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.cdc.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; Local healthcare workers often operated in under-supplied facilities with less consistent training, while international responders had better equipment, training, and evacuation options.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola: Pushed to the limit and beyond {{!}} MSF |url=https://www.msf.org/ebola-pushed-limit-and-beyond |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.msf.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Workers were crucial in implementing key containment strategies such as isolation protocols, contact tracing, and safe burial practices. Effectively executing these strategies required public trust and cooperation which became a problem during such an outbreak. In many cases mistrust and cultural tension hindered compliance, as treatment centers were feared and traditional practices conflicted with medical guidelines.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Abramowitz |first=Sharon |date=2017-10-23 |title=Epidemics (Especially Ebola) |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=Volume 46, 2017 |pages=421–445 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, healthcare workers faced severe phycological strain, burnout, and social stigma due to being seen as a possible risk of infection.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Shultz |first=James M. |last2=Cooper |first2=Janice L. |last3=Baingana |first3=Florence |last4=Oquendo |first4=Maria A. |last5=Espinel |first5=Zelde |last6=Althouse |first6=Benjamin M. |last7=Marcelin |first7=Louis Herns |last8=Towers |first8=Sherry |last9=Espinola |first9=Maria |last10=McCoy |first10=Clyde B. |last11=Mazurik |first11=Laurie |last12=Wainberg |first12=Milton L. |last13=Neria |first13=Yuval |last14=Rechkemmer |first14=Andreas |date=2016-11 |title=The Role of Fear-Related Behaviors in the 2013-2016 West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5241909/ |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=104 |doi=10.1007/s11920-016-0741-y |issn=1535-1645 |pmc=5241909 |pmid=27739026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== World Health Organization (WHO) ===

=== Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) ===
Among the international organizations that responded to the 2014 outbreak, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), also known as Doctors Without Borders, played the most significant frontline role. MSF was among the first international organizations to recognize the scale of the outbreak and deployed teams to Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone before most governments and agencies had mobilized. Operating multiple Ebola Treatment Centers across the three countries, MSF ultimately treated approximately one third of all confirmed cases.

MSF's early presence also made them one of the first organizations to publicly warn that the outbreak was out of control, repeatedly calling on the international community to scale up its response months before the WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in August 2014. This tension between MSF's frontline assessment and the pace of the formal international response highlighted a broader gap between organizations operating on the ground and those coordinating from a distance. 


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="9718" sha1="1661psocdg6a67x2400rvlx84fh1mq6" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
The 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa was one of the most severe public-health crises of the twenty-first century. The outbreak began in the village of Meliandou in Guinea and quickly spread to neighboring countries. Lasting from 2014-2016, the virus caused widespread devastation and death, claiming more than 11,000 lives during the outbreak. 

== Background ==
The 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak was the largest epidemic of Ebola virus. Unlike previous Ebola outbreaks, which were small and geographically isolated, the 2014 outbreak spread across multiple countries in Western Africa and isolated cases were reported in countries outside of Western Africa as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Beth P. |date=2016 |title=Overview, Control Strategies, and Lessons Learned in the CDC Response to the 2014–2016 Ebola Epidemic |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a2.htm |journal=MMWR Supplements |language=en-us |volume=65 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.su6503a2 |issn=2380-8950}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2014 outbreak began in December 2013, in Meliandou Village, Guinea.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak in West Africa, 2014 – 2016: Epidemic timeline, differential diagnoses, determining factors, and lessons for future response |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ebola-outbreak-of-2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus spread quickly reaching Liberia by March 2014, and Sierra Leone by May 2014 where major outbreaks would occur.

Several factors contributed to the severity of the outbreak, including population mobility across borders, limited healthcare infrastructure, delayed international response, and cultural practices such as burial traditions that increased exposure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Urban transmission distinguished this outbreak from previous cases which had largely occurred in rural and remote areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak 2014-2016 - West Africa |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/situations/ebola-outbreak-2014-2016-West-Africa |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In August 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Despite the increased international aid the outbreak would continue for another two years. The outbreak was officially declared over in June 2016, after infecting more than 28,600 individuals and killing 11,325.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== History ===
First identified in 1976 in the village of Yambuku, located in the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Ebola virus is a virus belonging to the Orthoebolavirus genus, which consists of 6 species.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-disease |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ebola is a severe often fatal illness, characterized by symptoms such as fever, hemorrhaging, and organ failure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; The virus transmits through direct contact with bodily fluids of infected individuals or contaminated materials.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Response ==

=== Affected Populations ===
Communities in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone encountered Ebola as both a public health crisis and a social disruption. Shortages of healthcare workers and facilities meant that many patients were cared for at home by relatives rather than in formal medical settings.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; These caregiving arrangements increased transmission risk while reflecting the structural limitations of the region's healthcare infrastructure.

Public health interventions frequently came into tension with established cultural practices. Families placed strong moral and emotional weight on caring for the sick and performing funeral and burial rites for the deceased.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; These practices constituted major transmission pathways. Isolation protocols, restrictions on touching the sick, and mandatory safe burial procedures were medically necessary, yet many families experienced them as violations of their responsibilities toward the dying and the dead.

The conflict between institutional directives and community expectations produced a breakdown in social trust that directly shaped how the outbreak unfolded. In many regions, patients transported to treatment centers often did not return due to death or poor communication between facilities and families. This reinforced suspicion among communities already skeptical of government institutions. As a result, the resistance to public health measures reflects a socially informed response to perceived institutional threat, rather than ignorance.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;The specific ways this resistance manifested across Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone are examined in the local government sections.

Response efforts became more effective as organizations shifted from top-down enforcement toward participatory approaches in late 2014. Initiatives such as Community-Led Ebola Action (CLEA) engaged residents in identifying local transmission risks, adapting high-risk practices, and taking active roles in contact tracing and prevention. This shift demonstrated that controlling the outbreak depended not only on medical infrastructure, but on the trust, local knowledge, and cooperation of the people most affected by it.

=== Healthcare Workers ===
Healthcare workers were among the most vulnerable groups in the 2014 outbreak, facing exposure due to limited resources and rapidly changing conditions. Facilities across West Africa were unprepared for such an outbreak lacking adequate personal protective equipment, sanitation infrastructure, and consistent training. Healthcare workers were estimated to be 21-32 times more likely to contract Ebola than the general public, with over 800 infected and more than 500 deaths reported.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Health worker Ebola infections in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-EVD-SDS-REPORT-2015.1 |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Center for Disease Control (CDC) identified exposure and insufficient protection as a major driver of infection in healthcare settings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Update: Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak — West Africa, October 2014 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6343a3.htm |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.cdc.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; Local healthcare workers often operated in under-supplied facilities with less consistent training, while international responders had better equipment, training, and evacuation options.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola: Pushed to the limit and beyond {{!}} MSF |url=https://www.msf.org/ebola-pushed-limit-and-beyond |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.msf.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Workers were crucial in implementing key containment strategies such as isolation protocols, contact tracing, and safe burial practices. Effectively executing these strategies required public trust and cooperation which became a problem during such an outbreak. In many cases mistrust and cultural tension hindered compliance, as treatment centers were feared and traditional practices conflicted with medical guidelines.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Abramowitz |first=Sharon |date=2017-10-23 |title=Epidemics (Especially Ebola) |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=Volume 46, 2017 |pages=421–445 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, healthcare workers faced severe phycological strain, burnout, and social stigma due to being seen as a possible risk of infection.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Shultz |first=James M. |last2=Cooper |first2=Janice L. |last3=Baingana |first3=Florence |last4=Oquendo |first4=Maria A. |last5=Espinel |first5=Zelde |last6=Althouse |first6=Benjamin M. |last7=Marcelin |first7=Louis Herns |last8=Towers |first8=Sherry |last9=Espinola |first9=Maria |last10=McCoy |first10=Clyde B. |last11=Mazurik |first11=Laurie |last12=Wainberg |first12=Milton L. |last13=Neria |first13=Yuval |last14=Rechkemmer |first14=Andreas |date=2016-11 |title=The Role of Fear-Related Behaviors in the 2013-2016 West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5241909/ |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=104 |doi=10.1007/s11920-016-0741-y |issn=1535-1645 |pmc=5241909 |pmid=27739026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== World Health Organization (WHO) ===

=== Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) ===
Among the international organizations that responded to the 2014 outbreak, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), also known as Doctors Without Borders, played the most significant frontline role. MSF was among the first international organizations to recognize the scale of the outbreak and deployed teams to Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone before most governments and agencies had mobilized. Operating multiple Ebola Treatment Centers across the three countries, MSF ultimately treated approximately one third of all confirmed cases.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

MSF's early presence also made them one of the first organizations to publicly warn that the outbreak was out of control, repeatedly calling on the international community to scale up its response months before the WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in August 2014.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; This tension between MSF's frontline assessment and the pace of the formal international response highlighted a broader gap between organizations operating on the ground and those coordinating from a distance. 


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="10461" sha1="pcj7amyekeyule4lh7zj3wr1zsn32f8" xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
The 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa was one of the most severe public-health crises of the twenty-first century. The outbreak began in the village of Meliandou in Guinea and quickly spread to neighboring countries. Lasting from 2014-2016, the virus caused widespread devastation and death, claiming more than 11,000 lives during the outbreak. 

== Background ==
The 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak was the largest epidemic of Ebola virus. Unlike previous Ebola outbreaks, which were small and geographically isolated, the 2014 outbreak spread across multiple countries in Western Africa and isolated cases were reported in countries outside of Western Africa as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Beth P. |date=2016 |title=Overview, Control Strategies, and Lessons Learned in the CDC Response to the 2014–2016 Ebola Epidemic |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a2.htm |journal=MMWR Supplements |language=en-us |volume=65 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.su6503a2 |issn=2380-8950}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2014 outbreak began in December 2013, in Meliandou Village, Guinea.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak in West Africa, 2014 – 2016: Epidemic timeline, differential diagnoses, determining factors, and lessons for future response |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ebola-outbreak-of-2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The virus spread quickly reaching Liberia by March 2014, and Sierra Leone by May 2014 where major outbreaks would occur.

Several factors contributed to the severity of the outbreak, including population mobility across borders, limited healthcare infrastructure, delayed international response, and cultural practices such as burial traditions that increased exposure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Urban transmission distinguished this outbreak from previous cases which had largely occurred in rural and remote areas.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola outbreak 2014-2016 - West Africa |url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/situations/ebola-outbreak-2014-2016-West-Africa |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In August 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Despite the increased international aid the outbreak would continue for another two years. The outbreak was officially declared over in June 2016, after infecting more than 28,600 individuals and killing 11,325.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== History ===
First identified in 1976 in the village of Yambuku, located in the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Ebola virus is a virus belonging to the Orthoebolavirus genus, which consists of 6 species.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola disease |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-disease |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ebola is a severe often fatal illness, characterized by symptoms such as fever, hemorrhaging, and organ failure.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; The virus transmits through direct contact with bodily fluids of infected individuals or contaminated materials.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Response ==

=== Affected Populations ===
Communities in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone encountered Ebola as both a public health crisis and a social disruption. Shortages of healthcare workers and facilities meant that many patients were cared for at home by relatives rather than in formal medical settings.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; These caregiving arrangements increased transmission risk while reflecting the structural limitations of the region's healthcare infrastructure.

Public health interventions frequently came into tension with established cultural practices. Families placed strong moral and emotional weight on caring for the sick and performing funeral and burial rites for the deceased.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; These practices constituted major transmission pathways. Isolation protocols, restrictions on touching the sick, and mandatory safe burial procedures were medically necessary, yet many families experienced them as violations of their responsibilities toward the dying and the dead.

The conflict between institutional directives and community expectations produced a breakdown in social trust that directly shaped how the outbreak unfolded. In many regions, patients transported to treatment centers often did not return due to death or poor communication between facilities and families. This reinforced suspicion among communities already skeptical of government institutions. As a result, the resistance to public health measures reflects a socially informed response to perceived institutional threat, rather than ignorance.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;The specific ways this resistance manifested across Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone are examined in the local government sections.

Response efforts became more effective as organizations shifted from top-down enforcement toward participatory approaches in late 2014. Initiatives such as Community-Led Ebola Action (CLEA) engaged residents in identifying local transmission risks, adapting high-risk practices, and taking active roles in contact tracing and prevention. This shift demonstrated that controlling the outbreak depended not only on medical infrastructure, but on the trust, local knowledge, and cooperation of the people most affected by it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Bedson |first=Jamie |last2=Jalloh |first2=Mohamed F. |last3=Pedi |first3=Danielle |last4=Bah |first4=Saiku |last5=Owen |first5=Katharine |last6=Oniba |first6=Allan |last7=Sangarie |first7=Musa |last8=Fofanah |first8=James S. |last9=Jalloh |first9=Mohammed B. |last10=Sengeh |first10=Paul |last11=Skrip |first11=Laura |last12=Althouse |first12=Benjamin M. |last13=Hébert-Dufresne |first13=Laurent |date=2020-08 |title=Community engagement in outbreak response: lessons from the 2014-2016 Ebola outbreak in Sierra Leone |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7445350/ |journal=BMJ global health |volume=5 |issue=8 |pages=e002145 |doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002145 |issn=2059-7908 |pmc=7445350 |pmid=32830128}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Healthcare Workers ===
Healthcare workers were among the most vulnerable groups in the 2014 outbreak, facing exposure due to limited resources and rapidly changing conditions. Facilities across West Africa were unprepared for such an outbreak lacking adequate personal protective equipment, sanitation infrastructure, and consistent training. Healthcare workers were estimated to be 21-32 times more likely to contract Ebola than the general public, with over 800 infected and more than 500 deaths reported.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Health worker Ebola infections in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-EVD-SDS-REPORT-2015.1 |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Center for Disease Control (CDC) identified exposure and insufficient protection as a major driver of infection in healthcare settings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Update: Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak — West Africa, October 2014 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6343a3.htm |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.cdc.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; Local healthcare workers often operated in under-supplied facilities with less consistent training, while international responders had better equipment, training, and evacuation options.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ebola: Pushed to the limit and beyond {{!}} MSF |url=https://www.msf.org/ebola-pushed-limit-and-beyond |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.msf.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Workers were crucial in implementing key containment strategies such as isolation protocols, contact tracing, and safe burial practices. Effectively executing these strategies required public trust and cooperation which became a problem during such an outbreak. In many cases mistrust and cultural tension hindered compliance, as treatment centers were feared and traditional practices conflicted with medical guidelines.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Abramowitz |first=Sharon |date=2017-10-23 |title=Epidemics (Especially Ebola) |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=Volume 46, 2017 |pages=421–445 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041616 |issn=0084-6570}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, healthcare workers faced severe phycological strain, burnout, and social stigma due to being seen as a possible risk of infection.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Shultz |first=James M. |last2=Cooper |first2=Janice L. |last3=Baingana |first3=Florence |last4=Oquendo |first4=Maria A. |last5=Espinel |first5=Zelde |last6=Althouse |first6=Benjamin M. |last7=Marcelin |first7=Louis Herns |last8=Towers |first8=Sherry |last9=Espinola |first9=Maria |last10=McCoy |first10=Clyde B. |last11=Mazurik |first11=Laurie |last12=Wainberg |first12=Milton L. |last13=Neria |first13=Yuval |last14=Rechkemmer |first14=Andreas |date=2016-11 |title=The Role of Fear-Related Behaviors in the 2013-2016 West Africa Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5241909/ |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=104 |doi=10.1007/s11920-016-0741-y |issn=1535-1645 |pmc=5241909 |pmid=27739026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== World Health Organization (WHO) ===

=== Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) ===
Among the international organizations that responded to the 2014 outbreak, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), also known as Doctors Without Borders, played the most significant frontline role. MSF was among the first international organizations to recognize the scale of the outbreak and deployed teams to Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone before most governments and agencies had mobilized. Operating multiple Ebola Treatment Centers across the three countries, MSF ultimately treated approximately one third of all confirmed cases.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

MSF's early presence also made them one of the first organizations to publicly warn that the outbreak was out of control, repeatedly calling on the international community to scale up its response months before the WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in August 2014.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; This tension between MSF's frontline assessment and the pace of the formal international response highlighted a broader gap between organizations operating on the ground and those coordinating from a distance. 


== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Existing Infrastructure ==
According to a budget report from the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC), only  28% of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks. This may not be the total length of the road network  since there are other authorities that control roads within Ahmedabad. The numbers came from an article from 2025 Such as : City government (AMC), National Highways Authorities of India (NHAI), Road &amp; Buildings Department (State Authority), etc. Ahmedabad major roads have  4 - 6 lanes.  Additionally, some sections of this major roads have shoulder lanes and bus lanes. Major roads are known as arterial roads. 731.43 km road have sidewalks. Ahmedabad junction railway station opened in 1863. The road was build during the british colonial era. According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source  states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026)

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Existing Infrastructure ==
According to a budget report from the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC), only  28% of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks. This may not be the total length of the road network  since there are other authorities that control roads within Ahmedabad. The numbers came from an article from 2025 Such as : City government (AMC), National Highways Authorities of India (NHAI), Road &amp; Buildings Department (State Authority), etc. Ahmedabad major roads have  4 - 6 lanes.  Additionally, some sections of this major roads have shoulder lanes and bus lanes. Major roads are known as arterial roads. 731.43 km road have sidewalks. Ahmedabad junction railway station opened in 1863. The road was build during the british colonial era. According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source  states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026) fsdfsd
[[File:SG Highway|frame|left]]

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Existing Infrastructure ==
The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act, 1949. It is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad&lt;ref&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. To understand how the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has reduced traffic casualties and improved traffic circulation.

According to a budget report from the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC), only 28% of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks. This may not be the total length of the road network  since there are other authorities that control roads within Ahmedabad. The numbers came from an article from 2025 Such as : City government (AMC), National Highways Authorities of India (NHAI), Road &amp; Buildings Department (State Authority), etc. Ahmedabad major roads have  4 - 6 lanes.  Additionally, some sections of this major roads have shoulder lanes and bus lanes. Major roads are known as arterial roads. 731.43 km road have sidewalks. Ahmedabad junction railway station opened in 1863. The road was build during the british colonial era. According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source  states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026).

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Infrastructure ==
To understand Ahmedabad's plans to reduce traffic casualties and improve traffic circulation we examine Ahmedabad's existing infrastructure as well as plans for developing infrastructure. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act, 1949. The (AMC) is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=AMDAVAD MUNICIPAL CORPORATION |url=https://mybharat.gov.in/Gov/Urban-Local-Body/amdavad-municipal-corporation?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=MyBharat}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) is not the only body that manages roads in Ahmedabad. There are other entities such as the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2024-09-20 |title=NHAI to hand over SG Road to AMC |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/nhai-to-hand-over-sg-road-to-amc/articleshow/113532142.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (Auda)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. According to a budget report from the (AMC), only 731.43 km of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks, which is a less than 28% of the total road network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-04 |title=A city that forgot its pedestrians: Footpaths missing from 72% of Ahmedabad roads |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/a-city-that-forgot-its-pedestrians-footpaths-missing-from-72-of-ahmedabad-roads/articleshow/130008165.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 2634 km reported road length may not be the total road length within Ahmedabad since the report may not have accounted for roads under the management of the (NHAI) and the (Auda). Ahmedabad major roads, often referenced as arterial roads in The Indian Times, have 4 to 6 lanes, but some sections of these roads have even more lanes since they have service and bus lanes. Amdavad (Ahmedabad) Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) runs the public bus service in the city of Amdavad. The responsibility of the administration of AMTS comes under the Amdavad Municipal Corporation&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=About Us {{!}} Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services |url=https://www.amts.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.amts.co.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has incorporated what they referred to a “Special Purpose Vehicle” called Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd in order to run and to operate BRTS buses. Ahmedbad Janmarg Ltd is registered under Companies Act, 1956 and is 100% subsidiary of Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation. In order to provide faster, reliable, ecofriendly and advanced Public Transportation Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd is committed to operate and run BRTS services&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited |url=https://www.ahmedabadbrts.org/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ahmedabadbrts.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Existing yet not operational high-speed railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-28 |title=Gujarat: All 8 piers ready for bullet train bridge across Sabarmati |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gujarat-all-8-piers-ready-for-bullet-train-bridge-across-sabarmati/articleshow/130563689.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ahmedabad junction railway station opened in 1863&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2017-01-20 |title=First train chugged out of Ahmedabad 154 years ago |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-train-chugged-out-of-ahmedabad-154-years-ago/articleshow/56674248.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 


After India’s independence in 1947&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=1947 Indian Independence Act |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/collections1/collections2/1947-indian-independence-act/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.parliament.uk |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, the preexisting railroad system has been developed and expanded as well as new additions independent of the colonial era railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source  states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026).

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references responsive=&quot;&quot; /&gt;</text>
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== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Infrastructure ==
To understand Ahmedabad's plans to reduce traffic casualties and improve traffic circulation we examine Ahmedabad's existing infrastructure as well as its plans for developing new infrastructure. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act, 1949. The (AMC) is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=AMDAVAD MUNICIPAL CORPORATION |url=https://mybharat.gov.in/Gov/Urban-Local-Body/amdavad-municipal-corporation?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=MyBharat}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) is not the only body that manages roads in Ahmedabad. There are other entities such as the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2024-09-20 |title=NHAI to hand over SG Road to AMC |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/nhai-to-hand-over-sg-road-to-amc/articleshow/113532142.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (Auda)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

According to a budget report from the (AMC), only 731.43 km of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks, which is a less than 28% of the total road network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-04 |title=A city that forgot its pedestrians: Footpaths missing from 72% of Ahmedabad roads |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/a-city-that-forgot-its-pedestrians-footpaths-missing-from-72-of-ahmedabad-roads/articleshow/130008165.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 2634 km reported road length may not be the total road length within Ahmedabad since the report may not have accounted for roads under the management of the (NHAI) and the (Auda). Ahmedabad major roads, often referenced as arterial roads in The Indian Times, have 4 to 6 lanes, but some sections of these roads have even more lanes since they have service and bus lanes. Amdavad (Ahmedabad) Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) runs the public bus service in the city of Amdavad. The responsibility of the administration of (AMTS) comes under the (AMC)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=About Us {{!}} Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services |url=https://www.amts.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.amts.co.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) has incorporated what they referred to a “Special Purpose Vehicle” called Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd in order to run and to operate Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS). Ahmedbad Janmarg Ltd is registered under the Companies Act, 1956 and is 100% a subsidiary of (AMC). In order to provide faster, reliable, ecofriendly and advanced Public Transportation Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd is committed to operate and run BRTS services&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited |url=https://www.ahmedabadbrts.org/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ahmedabadbrts.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Alternatively, the people of Ahmedabad can take the metro station. The Ahmedabad junction railway station opened in 1863&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2017-01-20 |title=First train chugged out of Ahmedabad 154 years ago |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-train-chugged-out-of-ahmedabad-154-years-ago/articleshow/56674248.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; this is the first time the city of Ahmedabad had public train transportation. But the first section of their metro was opened in 2019 and the second section opened in 2026&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The city of Ahmedabad also implements several types of transportation infrastructure, such as vehicle bridges, including flyovers and railway overbridges; pedestrian bridges; roundabouts, locally known as “circles”; underpasses; speed bumps; and ring roads, which circle the city and allow vehicles passing through Ahmedabad to avoid getting stuck in city traffic. 


After India’s independence in 1947&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=1947 Indian Independence Act |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/collections1/collections2/1947-indian-independence-act/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.parliament.uk |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, the preexisting railroad system has been developed and expanded as well as new additions independent of the colonial era railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Existing yet not operational high-speed railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-28 |title=Gujarat: All 8 piers ready for bullet train bridge across Sabarmati |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gujarat-all-8-piers-ready-for-bullet-train-bridge-across-sabarmati/articleshow/130563689.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source  states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026).

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references responsive=&quot;&quot; /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="10449" sha1="pihedre6v59usqx53ptfm6stjb94aso" xml:space="preserve">== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Infrastructure ==
To understand Ahmedabad's plans to reduce traffic casualties and improve traffic circulation we examine Ahmedabad's existing infrastructure as well as its plans for developing new infrastructure. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act, 1949. The (AMC) is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=AMDAVAD MUNICIPAL CORPORATION |url=https://mybharat.gov.in/Gov/Urban-Local-Body/amdavad-municipal-corporation?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=MyBharat}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) is not the only body that manages roads in Ahmedabad. There are other entities such as the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2024-09-20 |title=NHAI to hand over SG Road to AMC |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/nhai-to-hand-over-sg-road-to-amc/articleshow/113532142.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (Auda)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

According to a budget report from the (AMC), only 731.43 km of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks, which is a less than 28% of the total road network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-04 |title=A city that forgot its pedestrians: Footpaths missing from 72% of Ahmedabad roads |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/a-city-that-forgot-its-pedestrians-footpaths-missing-from-72-of-ahmedabad-roads/articleshow/130008165.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 2634 km reported road length may not be the total road length within Ahmedabad since the report may not have accounted for roads under the management of the (NHAI) and the (Auda). Ahmedabad major roads, often referenced as arterial roads in The Indian Times, have 4 to 6 lanes, but some sections of these roads have even more lanes since they have service and bus lanes. Amdavad (Ahmedabad) Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) runs the public bus service in the city of Amdavad. The responsibility of the administration of (AMTS) comes under the (AMC)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=About Us {{!}} Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services |url=https://www.amts.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.amts.co.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) has incorporated what they referred to a “Special Purpose Vehicle” called Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd in order to run and to operate Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS). Ahmedbad Janmarg Ltd is registered under the Companies Act, 1956 and is 100% a subsidiary of (AMC). In order to provide faster, reliable, ecofriendly and advanced Public Transportation Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd is committed to operate and run BRTS services&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited |url=https://www.ahmedabadbrts.org/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ahmedabadbrts.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Alternatively, the people of Ahmedabad can take the metro station. The Ahmedabad junction railway station opened in 1863&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2017-01-20 |title=First train chugged out of Ahmedabad 154 years ago |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-train-chugged-out-of-ahmedabad-154-years-ago/articleshow/56674248.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; this is the first time the city of Ahmedabad had public train transportation. But the first section of their metro was opened in 2019 and the second section opened in 2026&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The city of Ahmedabad also implements several types of transportation infrastructure, such as vehicle bridges, including flyovers and railway overbridges; pedestrian bridges; roundabouts, locally known as “circles”; underpasses; speed bumps; and ring roads, which circle the city and allow vehicles passing through Ahmedabad to avoid getting stuck in city traffic. 


After India’s independence in 1947&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=1947 Indian Independence Act |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/collections1/collections2/1947-indian-independence-act/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.parliament.uk |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, the preexisting railroad system has been developed and expanded as well as new additions independent of the colonial era railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Existing yet not operational high-speed railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-28 |title=Gujarat: All 8 piers ready for bullet train bridge across Sabarmati |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gujarat-all-8-piers-ready-for-bullet-train-bridge-across-sabarmati/articleshow/130563689.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source  states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026).

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references responsive=&quot;&quot; /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>pihedre6v59usqx53ptfm6stjb94aso</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>4633353</id>
      <parentid>4633346</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T01:52:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hodife</username>
        <id>3580194</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>4633353</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10944" sha1="m5k8v3qntz9w5puql1ob5vacam9alvz" xml:space="preserve">== Background ==
Ahmedabad.

== Infrastructure ==
To understand Ahmedabad's plans to reduce traffic casualties and improve traffic circulation we examine Ahmedabad's existing infrastructure as well as its plans for developing new infrastructure. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act, 1949. The (AMC) is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=AMDAVAD MUNICIPAL CORPORATION |url=https://mybharat.gov.in/Gov/Urban-Local-Body/amdavad-municipal-corporation?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=MyBharat}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) is not the only body that manages roads in Ahmedabad. There are other entities such as the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2024-09-20 |title=NHAI to hand over SG Road to AMC |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/nhai-to-hand-over-sg-road-to-amc/articleshow/113532142.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (Auda)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

According to a budget report from the (AMC), only 731.43 km of the 2634 km road network has sidewalks, which is a less than 28% of the total road network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-04 |title=A city that forgot its pedestrians: Footpaths missing from 72% of Ahmedabad roads |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/a-city-that-forgot-its-pedestrians-footpaths-missing-from-72-of-ahmedabad-roads/articleshow/130008165.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 2634 km reported road length may not be the total road length within Ahmedabad since the report may not have accounted for roads under the management of the (NHAI) and the (Auda). Ahmedabad major roads, often referenced as arterial roads in The Indian Times, have 4 to 6 lanes, but some sections of these roads have even more lanes since they have service and bus lanes. Amdavad (Ahmedabad) Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) runs the public bus service in the city of Amdavad. The responsibility of the administration of (AMTS) comes under the (AMC)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=About Us {{!}} Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services |url=https://www.amts.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.amts.co.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The (AMC) has incorporated what they referred to a “Special Purpose Vehicle” called Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd in order to run and to operate Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS). Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd is registered under the Companies Act, 1956 and is 100% a subsidiary of (AMC). In order to provide faster, reliable, ecofriendly and advanced Public Transportation Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd is committed to operate and run BRTS services&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited |url=https://www.ahmedabadbrts.org/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ahmedabadbrts.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Alternatively, the people of Ahmedabad can take the metro station. Railway transportation in Ahmedabad began in 1863, when the first train from Ahmedabad to Surat was flagged off from the newly built Kalupur railway station.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2017-01-20 |title=First train chugged out of Ahmedabad 154 years ago |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-train-chugged-out-of-ahmedabad-154-years-ago/articleshow/56674248.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. But the first section of their metro was opened in 2019 and the second section opened in 2026&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The city of Ahmedabad has built implemented several types of transportation infrastructure, such as vehicle bridges, including flyovers and railway overbridges; pedestrian bridges; roundabouts, locally known as “circles”; underpasses; speed bumps; and ring roads, which circle the city and allow vehicles passing through Ahmedabad to avoid getting stuck in the city traffic. Between 2000 and 2026, 61 bridges, underpasses, and culverts were built, with 46 of them being constructed in the last 16 years. During that time the city built 5 pedestrian overbridges, as well as an underpass in Mithakali&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-11 |title=46 flyovers in 16 years, yet Ahmedabad’s traffic jams haven’t moved |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/46-flyovers-in-16-years-yet-ahmedabads-traffic-jams-havent-moved/articleshow/130179536.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-01 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;.   

The (AMC) plans to take up flyover construction at the city's six most congested junction locations as part of a decade long program to build flyovers at all 25 most congested junctions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-31 |title=Six most-congested junctions in Ahmedabad flagged for priority flyovers |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/six-most-congested-junctions-in-ahmedabad-flagged-for-priority-flyovers/articleshow/129910368.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-01 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Existing yet not operational high-speed railroad network&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-04-28 |title=Gujarat: All 8 piers ready for bullet train bridge across Sabarmati |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gujarat-all-8-piers-ready-for-bullet-train-bridge-across-sabarmati/articleshow/130563689.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

According to a The Times of India article around 46 structures were built to reduce the traffic congestion from 2010 to 2026.  (2026 April 11th) Another article from the same source states that there 11 river bridges, 24 railway overbridges, 26 railway underbridges, 21 flyovers, 3 minor bridges, 11 box culverts over canals, and 5 foot-overbridges. (Mar 31, 2026).

== Participant Groups ==
Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Thakkar was contacted by IL&amp;FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== References ==
&lt;references responsive=&quot;&quot; /&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lentis/Drone Warfare</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>GbergertSTS</username>
        <id>3580060</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added in a background section that introduces the topic of drone warfare in Russia and Ukraine.</comment>
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== Background ==

=== The Drone Revolution ===
Drones offer low cost and ease of production in warfare, and they can make up for an army's insufficient manpower.

==== Drone Warfare in the Russo-Ukrainian War ====
In the Russo-Ukrainian War, drones have grown from being used primarily for reconnaissance to delivering ammunition, directing artillery fire, and carrying explosives.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-10-14 |title=Game of drones: the production and use of Ukrainian battlefield unmanned aerial vehicles |url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2025-10-14/game-drones-production-and-use-ukrainian-battlefield-unmanned |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; They are responsible for destroying 85% of Russian military targets, causing 70-80% of Russian casualties, and initiating the withdrawal of heavy weaponry from the front line.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; It is estimated that 2.2 million unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) were produced in Ukraine in 2024.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; While Ukraine's drone industry has boomed with startup drone companies and production,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Ukraine has a heavy reliance on external support for drone supply and manufacturing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Chávez |first=Kerry |date=February 2023 |title=Learning on the Fly: Drones in the Russian-Ukrainian War |work=Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2023-01/features/learning-fly-drones-russian-ukrainian-war}}&lt;/ref&gt; Russia has a greater internal drone production capacity than Ukraine, but still relies on Chinese, French, and Iranian drone designs and suppliers,&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; especially with their increasing need for smaller, lightweight drones.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=FOUNDATION |first=OBSERVER RESEARCH |title=The Evolution of Russia’s Drone Warfare in Ukraine |url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-evolution-of-russia-s-drone-warfare-in-ukraine |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=orfonline.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; As the war continues, both countries have integrated drone warfare heavily into their doctrines and have created branches exclusively for overseeing drone usage.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; This gives opportunities for actors outside of Russia and Ukraine to introduce their own agendas through the proliferation of drone warfare on this front.

== Participants ==

=== Chinese Manufacturers ===
Chinese drone manufacturers supply a substantial portion of UAVs to Ukraine compared with other countries, especially lightweight drones, which are advantageous for easy maneuvering and transport. Outside of assembled drones, they supply most of the parts used to make drones.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; These companies use drone warfare to advance their financial, political, and commercial interests persistently, since Chinese drones continue to show up on the Russo-Ukrainian front despite varying sanctions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Pettyjohn, S. (2024). ''Evolution Not Revolution'' [Review of ''Evolution Not Revolution'']. Center for a New American Security (CNAS). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/files.cnas.org/documents/CNAS-Report-Defense-Ukraine-Drones-Final.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Da-Jiang Innovations (DJI) ====
As of 2021, privately-owned [[wikipedia:DJI|DJI]] held 76% of the global market share for drone manufacturing&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Developer |date=2021-06-09 |title=China’s Thriving Drone Industry - ARC Group |url=https://arc-group.com/china-thriving-drone-industry/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;, supplying to clients including but not limited to USA, Ukraine, Russia, ISIS, China, Israel, and individual actors. One of their drones, the DJI Mavic, is popular on the Russo-Ukrainian front because, according to [[wikipedia:Center_for_a_New_American_Security|CNAS]] thinktank advisor Samuel Bendett: “DJI Mavic is an easy-to-use drone right out of the box.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Hambling |first=David |title=DJI Mavic Consumer Drones Are Still Russian Soldiers’ Favorite |language=en |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2025/03/10/dji-consumer-drones-are-still-russian-soldiers-favorite/ |access-date=2026-04-29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Concerning their use on the Russo-Ukrainian front, DJI has released multiple statements condemning the use of their products to cause harm.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=DJI Statement On Military Use Of Drones - DJI United States |url=https://www.dji.com/media-center/announcements/photo |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=DJI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, DJI drones have still been prominent on the front years after such statements when the war began.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==== Autel Robotics ====
[[wikipedia:Autel_Robotics|Autel Robotics]], based in Shenzhen, China, is a smaller drone supplier than DJI. Autel, a private company, has been sanctioned by the UK&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=AUTEL ROBOTICS CO., LTD. {{!}} Sanctions Finder |url=https://sanctions-finder.com/sanction/b72c95a8-2f33-4f47-a709-d7cf29b5de51/AUTEL%20ROBOTICS%20CO.%2C%20LTD. |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=sanctions-finder.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the United States&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Mugo |first=Maurice |date=2025-01-13 |title=How Pentagon Blacklist Affects Autel Drone Users |url=https://abjacademy.global/news/how-pentagon-blacklist-affects-autel-drone-users/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=ABJ Drone Academy |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; due to suspected ties to the Chinese military and Chinese affiliates, such as Shenzhen Huasheng Industry Co. Ltd. Ukrainian Foreign Intelligence reports: “They use so-called shell companies, change names, do everything to avoid being subject to export control and avoid sanctions for their activities.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-06-05 |title=Russia plans to produce 2 million FPV drones in 2025, Ukrainian intelligence says |url=https://kyivindependent.com/russia-aims-to-produce-2-million-fpv-drones-in-2025-ukrainian-intelligence-says/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While it is important to note that those sanctioning these drone companies also have their financial and political agendas, Autel is under suspicion for many ties to Russian UAV production.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=This article was posted by TLB |date=2025-07-08 |title=Unmasking Russia-China Kamikaze Drone Supply Chain In One Map {{!}} The Liberty Beacon |url=https://www.thelibertybeacon.com/unmasking-russia-china-kamikaze-drone-supply-chain-in-one-map/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.thelibertybeacon.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

To avoid these sanctions, [https://aero-hit.ru/ Aero-HIT], a state-affiliated Russian drone manufacturer, seeks to develop Autel’s EVO Max 4T drone in Khabarovsk, Russia, near the Chinese border.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=WhereIsRussiaToday |date=2025-09-16 |title=Partners in Crime: Russian and Chinese Efforts to Avoid Sanctions in Drone Operations |url=https://whereisrussiatoday.substack.com/p/partners-in-crime-russian-and-chinese |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=WhereIsRussiaToday’s Substack}}&lt;/ref&gt; Autel continues to be sanctioned despite its statement that the “company has never participated in any military-related activities and firmly rejects the improper use of its products.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Statement |url=https://www.autelrobotics.com/news/20250107/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.autelrobotics.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>GbergertSTS</username>
        <id>3580060</id>
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      <comment>I revised the background section and Chinese manufacturers section to improve LCR.</comment>
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== Background ==

=== The Drone Revolution ===
==== Drone Warfare in the Russo-Ukrainian War ====
In the [[wikipedia:Russo-Ukrainian_war_(2022–present)|Russo-Ukrainian War]], drones have grown from being used primarily for reconnaissance to delivering ammunition, directing artillery fire, and carrying explosives.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-10-14 |title=Game of drones: the production and use of Ukrainian battlefield unmanned aerial vehicles |url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2025-10-14/game-drones-production-and-use-ukrainian-battlefield-unmanned |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; They are responsible for destroying 85% of Russian military targets, causing 70-80% of Russian casualties, and initiating the withdrawal of heavy weaponry from the front line.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; It is estimated that 2.2 million unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) were produced in Ukraine in 2024.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Ukraine's drone industry has boomed with startup drone companies and production,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; but Ukraine also relies heavily on foreign support.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Chávez |first=Kerry |date=February 2023 |title=Learning on the Fly: Drones in the Russian-Ukrainian War |work=Arms Control Association |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2023-01/features/learning-fly-drones-russian-ukrainian-war}}&lt;/ref&gt; In response, Russia has developed a greater internal drone production capacity than Ukraine, but still relies on Chinese, French, and Iranian drone designs and suppliers&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; for smaller, lightweight drones.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=FOUNDATION |first=OBSERVER RESEARCH |title=The Evolution of Russia’s Drone Warfare in Ukraine |url=https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-evolution-of-russia-s-drone-warfare-in-ukraine |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=orfonline.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Both countries have integrated drone warfare into their doctrines and have created branches exclusively for overseeing drone usage.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; This opens doors for external actors to proliferate drone warfare on this front with their own competing agendas.

== Participants ==

=== Chinese Manufacturers ===
Chinese drone manufacturers supply a substantial portion of Ukraine's UAVs, especially lightweight drones, which are advantageous for easy maneuvering and transport.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Outside of assembled drones, they supply most of the parts used to make drones.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; These companies use drone warfare to advance their financial, political, and commercial interests persistently; despite sanctions, Chinese drones continue to show up on the Russo-Ukrainian front.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Pettyjohn, S. (2024). ''Evolution Not Revolution'' [Review of ''Evolution Not Revolution'']. Center for a New American Security (CNAS). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/files.cnas.org/documents/CNAS-Report-Defense-Ukraine-Drones-Final.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Da-Jiang Innovations (DJI) ====
As of 2021, privately-owned [[wikipedia:DJI|DJI]] held 76% of the global market share for drone manufacturing&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Developer |date=2021-06-09 |title=China’s Thriving Drone Industry - ARC Group |url=https://arc-group.com/china-thriving-drone-industry/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;, supplying to clients including but not limited to USA, Ukraine, Russia, ISIS, China, and Israel. Their DJI Mavic drone is popular on the Russo-Ukrainian front because, according to [[wikipedia:Center_for_a_New_American_Security|CNAS]] thinktank advisor Samuel Bendett: “DJI Mavic is an easy-to-use drone right out of the box.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |last=Hambling |first=David |title=DJI Mavic Consumer Drones Are Still Russian Soldiers’ Favorite |language=en |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2025/03/10/dji-consumer-drones-are-still-russian-soldiers-favorite/ |access-date=2026-04-29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the war's beginning, DJI has released statements condemning the use of their products to cause harm.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=DJI Statement On Military Use Of Drones - DJI United States |url=https://www.dji.com/media-center/announcements/photo |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=DJI |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, DJI drones have remained prominent on the front years after such statements when the war began.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==== Autel Robotics ====
[[wikipedia:Autel_Robotics|Autel Robotics]] is another privately owned drone supplier to both Russia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Zoria |first=Yuri |date=2025-07-08 |title=Bloomberg: China helped Russia build drones now hitting Ukraine |url=https://euromaidanpress.com/2025/07/08/china-helped-build-the-drones-now-hitting-ukraine-bloomberg-traces-the-parts/ |access-date=2026-05-01 |website=Euromaidan Press |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Ukraine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Analytics |first=Ukraine War |date=2025-06-01 |title=Autel Evo Military Use |url=https://ukraine-war-analytics.com/drones/autel-evo-military-use.html |access-date=2026-05-01 |website=ukraine-war-analytics.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has been sanctioned by the UK&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=AUTEL ROBOTICS CO., LTD. {{!}} Sanctions Finder |url=https://sanctions-finder.com/sanction/b72c95a8-2f33-4f47-a709-d7cf29b5de51/AUTEL%20ROBOTICS%20CO.%2C%20LTD. |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=sanctions-finder.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the United States&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Mugo |first=Maurice |date=2025-01-13 |title=How Pentagon Blacklist Affects Autel Drone Users |url=https://abjacademy.global/news/how-pentagon-blacklist-affects-autel-drone-users/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=ABJ Drone Academy |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; due to suspected ties to the Chinese military and Chinese affiliates, such as Shenzhen Huasheng Industry Co. Ltd. Ukrainian Foreign Intelligence reports: “They use so-called shell companies, change names, do everything to avoid... sanctions for their activities.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-06-05 |title=Russia plans to produce 2 million FPV drones in 2025, Ukrainian intelligence says |url=https://kyivindependent.com/russia-aims-to-produce-2-million-fpv-drones-in-2025-ukrainian-intelligence-says/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Autel is under suspicion for many ties to shell companies aiding Russian UAV production.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=This article was posted by TLB |date=2025-07-08 |title=Unmasking Russia-China Kamikaze Drone Supply Chain In One Map {{!}} The Liberty Beacon |url=https://www.thelibertybeacon.com/unmasking-russia-china-kamikaze-drone-supply-chain-in-one-map/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.thelibertybeacon.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

To avoid these sanctions, [https://aero-hit.ru/ Aero-HIT], a state-affiliated Russian drone manufacturer, seeks to develop Autel’s EVO Max 4T drone in Khabarovsk, Russia, near the Chinese border.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=WhereIsRussiaToday |date=2025-09-16 |title=Partners in Crime: Russian and Chinese Efforts to Avoid Sanctions in Drone Operations |url=https://whereisrussiatoday.substack.com/p/partners-in-crime-russian-and-chinese |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=WhereIsRussiaToday’s Substack}}&lt;/ref&gt; Autel continues to be sanctioned despite its statement that the “company has never participated in any military-related activities and firmly rejects the improper use of its products.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Statement |url=https://www.autelrobotics.com/news/20250107/ |access-date=2026-04-29 |website=www.autelrobotics.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{BookCat}}</text>
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      <comment>This is not a test page, but I will mark this as a query.</comment>
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File:Bison-14916129113HR.jpg|Snowshoe Bison
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File:Bison bison bison GNP 04.jpg|Wood Bison
File:Yellowstone National Park (WY, USA), Upper Geyser Basin, Bison -- 2022 -- 2578.jpg|Dakota Bison
File:Bison-14916129113HR.jpg|Snowshoe Bison
File:Rio Mora NWR bison walking 8 October 2019.png|Central Bison
File:Yellowstone National Park (WY, USA), Old Faithful Geyser (und Bison) -- 2022 -- 2588.jpg|Smoke Bison
File:Charolais cattle, Sierra Nevada, Venezuela.jpg|California Cattle
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    <title>Lentis/Insurance Companies’ Influence in US Health Policy</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-30T19:08:30Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Created the page for the Wikibook and added the Medicare Advantage case study along with the corresponding references</comment>
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      <text bytes="5753" sha1="3zbizz516lhhjgmugvj5n6qebv10e2z" xml:space="preserve">== Case Studies ==

=== Medicare Advantage ===

Medicare Advantage (MA) are plans administered by private insurers and funded by the federal government, which serve as an alternative option to government-run Medicare. Also known as Medicare Part C, MA was introduced under the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 to introduce private-sector competition and efficiency into the Medicare system.&lt;ref&gt;Legal Clarity. (2026). When did Medicare Part C start? History of Medicare Advantage. https://legalclarity.org/when-did-medicare-part-c-start-history-of-medicare-advantage/&lt;/ref&gt; Today, MA plans cover approximately 54% of all Medicare beneficiaries.&lt;ref&gt;Legal Clarity. (2026). When did Medicare Part C start? History of Medicare Advantage. https://legalclarity.org/when-did-medicare-part-c-start-history-of-medicare-advantage/&lt;/ref&gt; These plans have grown increasingly popular due to their relatively low premiums and supplemental benefits; however, their structure creates opportunities for insurers to influence both costs and policy outcomes.

A key concern is the financial impact of MA on taxpayers, as estimates suggest that overpayments to MA plans added around $82 billion to Medicare spending in 2023.&lt;ref&gt;Gaffney, A., Woolhandler, S., &amp; Himmelstein, D. U. (2024). Less Care at Higher Cost—The Medicare Advantage Paradox. ''JAMA Internal Medicine'', 184(8). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2024.1868&lt;/ref&gt; These excess payments are often attributed to practices such as favorable selection, where healthier individuals are more likely to enroll, and upcoding, in which insurers report higher illness severity than reality to receive larger reimbursements. The regulatory body, Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services (CMS), has responded by attempting to implement reforms, including updates to the V28 risk adjustment model. This was expected to reduce MA risk scores by 3.12% to reduce upcoding.&lt;ref&gt;Clayton, W. (2026). CMS-HCC Model V28. RAAPID Inc. https://www.raapidinc.com/blogs/cms-hcc-model-v28/&lt;/ref&gt;

However, policy reform in this area is heavily shaped by industry influence. CMS initially proposed a modest 0.09% payment increase for 2027, triggering a sharp negative reaction in financial markets, with insurance stocks dropping significantly.&lt;ref&gt;MacDonald, I. (2026). Advance Notice fallout: What MA plans need to know. https://www.risehealth.org/insights-articles/article/advance-notice-fallout-what-ma-plans-need-to-know/&lt;/ref&gt; This response was followed by an extensive lobbying effort from insurers and their affiliated organizations. For example, the Better Medicare Alliance (BMA), a group funded by major insurers, directly petitioned CMS leadership to reconsider the proposed changes.&lt;ref&gt;Better Medicare Alliance. (2026). Letter to CMS Administrator Mehmet Oz. https://bettermedicarealliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/Ally-Sign-on-Letter-to-Administrator-Oz.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, America’s Health Insurance Plans (AHIP) submitted formal comments expressing “serious concerns” that the proposals would increase costs and reduce benefits for seniors.&lt;ref&gt;AHIP. (2023). AHIP submits comments on 2024 Medicare Advantage advance rate notice. https://www.ahip.org/news/press-releases/ahip-submits-comments-on-2024-medicare-advantage-advance-rate-notice&lt;/ref&gt;

Beyond public statements, insurers also mobilized research and public engagement efforts to support their position. AHIP commissioned analyses, including work by Wakely, to argue for higher funding levels and more gradual implementation of policy changes.&lt;ref&gt;America’s Health Insurance Plans. (2026). AHIP comment letter on the CY 2027 Medicare Advantage advance notice (with Wakely reports). https://ahiporg-production.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/AHIP-Comment-Letter-CY2027-Advance-Notice-with-Wakely-Reports.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; At the same time, the CMS proposal received a record-breaking 47,000 public comments, reflecting the scale of organized industry and stakeholder engagement.&lt;ref&gt;Casolo, E. (2026). 47,000 comments on 2027 Medicare Advantage pay proposal breaks CMS record. https://www.beckerspayer.com/payer/medicare-advantage/47000-comments-on-ma-payment-rule-for-2027-breaks-cms-record/&lt;/ref&gt; These actions demonstrate how insurers can shape the policy narrative by framing reforms as harmful to beneficiaries rather than as cost-control measures.

The final outcome illustrates the effectiveness of these efforts. CMS ultimately increased the payment adjustment to 2.48%, representing roughly $13 billion in additional funding for MA plans, and chose to delay key risk adjustment reforms by continuing to use the previous model.&lt;ref&gt;Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services. (2026). CMS finalizes 2027 Medicare Advantage and Part D payment policies. https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/press-releases/cms-finalizes-2027-medicare-advantage-part-d-payment-policies-strengthen-accountability-long-term&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, the agency rolled back certain regulatory changes, including the removal of 11 quality measures from the MA Star Ratings system.&lt;ref&gt;Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services. (2026). Contract year 2027 Medicare Advantage and Part D final rule. https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/fact-sheets/contract-year-2027-medicare-advantage-part-d-final-rule&lt;/ref&gt;

Overall, the Medicare Advantage case highlights how private insurers leverage lobbying, research, and public messaging to influence federal health policy. While reforms are often proposed to address inefficiencies and reduce costs, industry responses can significantly alter their implementation, demonstrating the complex relationship between government regulation and private-sector interests in U.S. healthcare.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;</text>
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-- [[/A/]]  [[/B/]]  [[/C/]]  [[/D/]]  [[/E/]]  [[/F/]]  [[/G/]]  [[/H/]]  [[/I/]]  [[/J/]]  [[/K/]]  [[/L/]]  [[/M/]]  [[/N/]]  [[/O/]]  [[/P/]]  [[/Q/]]  [[/R/]]  [[/S/]]  [[/T/]]  [[/U/]]  [[/V/]]  [[/W/]]  [[/X/]]  [[/Y/]]  [[/Z/]] --
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{{Shelves|Wikijunior pre-reader books}}{{Status|100%}}
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''B''' is for '''B'''aboon&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) female.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) female.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/C</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482972</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:04:39Z</timestamp>
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        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''C''' is for '''C'''heetah&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Cheetah Umfolozi SouthAfrica MWegmann.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Cheetah Umfolozi SouthAfrica MWegmann.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/D</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633299</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:05:28Z</timestamp>
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        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''D''' is for '''D'''uck&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Water reflection of a domestic duck in a pond at golden hour in Don Det Laos - side view.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Water reflection of a domestic duck in a pond at golden hour in Don Det Laos - side view.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/E</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633300</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:06:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''E''' is for '''E'''lephant&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) male Kruger.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) male Kruger.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/F</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633301</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:07:28Z</timestamp>
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        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''F''' is for '''F'''lamingo&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:PHOENICOPTERIDAE IN SHENZHEN SAFARI PARK.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:PHOENICOPTERIDAE IN SHENZHEN SAFARI PARK.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/G</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633302</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:08:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''G''' is for '''G'''azelle&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:022 Grant's gazelle in the Serengeti National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:022 Grant's gazelle in the Serengeti National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/H</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633303</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:09:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''H''' is for '''H'''ippopotamus&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) (16485955207).jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="162" sha1="m83b5gueprhi9n9i210sr0o2usntgek" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''H''' is for '''H'''ippopotamus&lt;/div&gt; 

[[File:Hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) (16485955207).jpg|500px|center]]</text>
      <sha1>m83b5gueprhi9n9i210sr0o2usntgek</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/I</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633304</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:10:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''I''' is for '''I'''mpala&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Impala (Aepyceros melampus) male Kruger 2.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Impala (Aepyceros melampus) male Kruger 2.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/J</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633305</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:11:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''J''' is for '''J'''ackal&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Jackal Cape cross 2009.JPG|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Jackal Cape cross 2009.JPG|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/K</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633306</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:11:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''K''' is for '''K'''udu&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) male Kruger.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) male Kruger.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/L</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633307</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:13:29Z</timestamp>
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        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''L''' is for '''L'''ion&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:León (Panthera leo), parque nacional de Tarangire, Tanzania, 2024-05-24, DD 47.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:León (Panthera leo), parque nacional de Tarangire, Tanzania, 2024-05-24, DD 47.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/M</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633308</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:14:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''M''' is for '''M'''ongoose&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:170 Banded mongoose at sunset in Etosha National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:170 Banded mongoose at sunset in Etosha National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
      <sha1>k55aix2k6fa935xnn8wjpzb4bhr46ie</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/N</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633309</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:14:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''N''' is for '''N'''yala&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Tragelaphus angasii 320641826.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Tragelaphus angasii 320641826.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/O</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633310</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:15:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''O''' is for '''O'''ryx&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Oryx gazella -Etosha National Park, Namibia-8.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Oryx gazella -Etosha National Park, Namibia-8.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
      <sha1>7da5vz14l6zos6ak5u7mbna1vlr86mu</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/P</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633311</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:16:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''P''' is for '''P'''eacock&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:099 Indian peafowl in Jim Corbett National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:099 Indian peafowl in Jim Corbett National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
      <sha1>lwm4d2yaqe960piwcdsln99tahmme86</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/Q</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>4633312</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:17:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''Q''' is for '''Q'''uelea&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea aethiopica) male breeding plumage yellow.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea aethiopica) male breeding plumage yellow.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/R</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633313</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:18:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''R''' is for '''R'''hinoceros&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:108 Male White rhinoceros walking in the Kalahari Desert of Namibia Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="206" sha1="n44dk0r9hri1insmgc065swe8azf1co" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''R''' is for '''R'''hinoceros&lt;/div&gt; 

[[File:108 Male White rhinoceros walking in the Kalahari Desert of Namibia Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/S</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633314</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:19:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''S''' is for '''S'''erval&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Serval (Leptailurus serval), parque nacional Serengueti, Tanzania, 2024-05-26, DD 01.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Serval (Leptailurus serval), parque nacional Serengueti, Tanzania, 2024-05-26, DD 01.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/T</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>482989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633316</id>
      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:22:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''T''' is for '''T'''opi&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Topi (Damaliscus lunatus jimela) running 2.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Topi (Damaliscus lunatus jimela) running 2.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:29:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26093-55</username>
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      <comment>/* */</comment>
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[[File:Bandhavgarh National Park.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet/U</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''U''' is for '''U'''ganda Kob&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Ugandan kob (Kobus kob thomasi) male 2.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Ugandan kob (Kobus kob thomasi) male 2.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''V''' is for '''V'''ervet&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) Maputo.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) Maputo.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''W''' is for '''W'''ildebeest&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) male Namibia.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) male Namibia.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''X''' is for '''X'''erus&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Xerus inauris.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Xerus inauris.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-30T20:26:48Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''Y''' is for '''Y'''ellow-Billed Hornbill&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Tockus leucomelas -Kalahari Desert, Botswana -8.jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Tockus leucomelas -Kalahari Desert, Botswana -8.jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3580059</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''Z''' is for '''Z'''ebra&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Zebra (Botswana Reserve).jpg|500px|center]]&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Zebra (Botswana Reserve).jpg|500px|center]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-04-30T22:47:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JKuroha</username>
        <id>3516066</id>
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      <comment>Created sandbox</comment>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-01T04:31:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TrulyFlawed</username>
        <id>3580272</id>
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      <comment>Start simple userpage</comment>
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      <text bytes="236" sha1="h3sol9wcug2cul5r3irjdfxundh8l85" xml:space="preserve">Hiya, I'm TrulyFlawed (she/her). I'm editing Wikibooks since I saw that the books could use a bit of a quality boost; hopefully my contributions are considered valuable.

Please scrutinize my edits to ensure they're in line with policy!</text>
      <sha1>h3sol9wcug2cul5r3irjdfxundh8l85</sha1>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-01T06:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TrulyFlawed</username>
        <id>3580272</id>
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      <comment>Tell other editors that I can be rather bold.</comment>
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      <text bytes="295" sha1="45cxbjkfe8q055un2pgxw61k5bwqjbi" xml:space="preserve">Hiya, I'm TrulyFlawed (she/her). I'm editing Wikibooks since I saw that the books could use a bit of a quality boost; hopefully my contributions are considered valuable.

Please scrutinize my edits to ensure they're in line with policy! I can be quite bold if I am confident I know the material.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. d4/2...d5</title>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3580367</id>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;{{Chess Opening Theory/Position |Beyer Gambit |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C20]] |parent=[[../|Center Game]] }} = Center Game: Beyer Gambit = Black copies White's d4. Although this approach of pushing ...d5 can be plausible against the King's Gambit (in the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. f4/2...d5|Falkbeer Countergambit]]), here it is simply unfavorable for Black. With good play, White can gain a good and superior position.  The Beyer Gambit can be met with two responses. 3...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="1014" sha1="k6i4mffionce3287rym9gt5rwxjclwt" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess Opening Theory/Position
|Beyer Gambit
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C20]]
|parent=[[../|Center Game]]
}}
= Center Game: Beyer Gambit =
Black copies White's d4. Although this approach of pushing ...d5 can be plausible against the King's Gambit (in the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. f4/2...d5|Falkbeer Countergambit]]), here it is simply unfavorable for Black. With good play, White can gain a good and superior position.

The Beyer Gambit can be met with two responses. 3. exd5?! is not bad, but gives away White's advantage. After 3...Qxd5, Black's position is quite playable with no big problems and no material deficit.

3. dxe5 is testing of the Beyer Gambit. White captures the free black pawn on e5. if Black copies with 3...dxe4, 4. Qxd8+! Kxd8 leaves White with a very favorable endgame where the black king cannot castle and is on the open d-file. Black can play a gambit with 3...d4, but it will be hard for Black to prove compensation for the lost pawn.

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}

{{BookCat}}</text>
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|Beyer Gambit
|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C20]]
|parent=[[../|Center Game]]
}}
= Center Game: Beyer Gambit =
Black copies White's d4. Although this approach of pushing ...d5 can be plausible against the King's Gambit (in the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. f4/2...d5|Falkbeer Countergambit]]), here it is simply unfavorable for Black. With good play, White can gain a good and superior position.

The Beyer Gambit can be met with two responses. 3. exd5?! is not bad, but gives away White's advantage. After 3...Qxd5, Black's position is quite playable with no big problems and no material deficit.

3. dxe5 is testing of the Beyer Gambit. White captures the free black pawn on e5. if Black copies with 3...dxe4, 4. Qxd8+! Kxd8 leaves White with a very favorable endgame where the black king cannot castle and is on the open d-file. Black can play a gambit with 3...d4, but it will be hard for Black to prove compensation for the lost pawn.

3. f4!? transposes to the Hinrichsen Gambit of the Falkbeer Countergambit.

{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}}

{{BookCat}}</text>
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    <title>Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2026/January</title>
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      <comment>Bot: Archiving 1 thread from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="3329" sha1="9ib2n8th0k0ovaghrfz6k5ljel0jq3o" xml:space="preserve">{{talk archive}}

== [[Using Wikibooks]] ==

I've noticed [[Using Wikibooks]], and I'm a little concerned that it might be confusing to have a separate book instead of official pages in the Help: and Wikibooks: namespaces. To my mind, having a separate book introduces the following issues:
* Confusion of the book with official project policy
* Outdated information or other discrepancies if the official pages are updated and the book is not
The book does have a good amount of useful information, so I think it would make the most sense to merge it into official pages in the Wikibooks: and Help: namespaces. Thoughts? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:14, 26 November 2025 (UTC)
: How can we tell which pages (from that book) should either be in the Wikibooks or Help namespaces? [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:44, 26 November 2025 (UTC)
::I think it's not necessarily a one-to-one. Rather, we'll need to find the best home(s) for the information on each page—it's something I'm happy to take point on! Is that what you were asking? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:57, 26 November 2025 (UTC)
::: Probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:38, 27 November 2025 (UTC)
::::I'll wait to see if anyone else has any comments about this; if there are no objections, I'll plan to migrate things as described. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:45, 2 December 2025 (UTC)
:::::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] and @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: I do object to this change, for two reasons.
:::::# [[Using Wikibooks]] is a featured book. By moving it to another namespace, it will no longer be a book, and thus no longer a featured book. Do we intend to delist it?
:::::# Using Wikibooks is a book. It is written in the same style as other books in our project's mainspace. It's self-consistent and organized by page. I fear that dividing and conquering it among the Help and Project namespaces is likely to make its content harder to find.
:::::[[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]&lt;sub&gt;[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:15, 5 December 2025 (UTC)
: I changed my vote, I don't think we should migrate that book to pages in other namespaces. [[User:Codename Noreste|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#0024FF&quot;&gt;Codename Noreste&lt;/span&gt;]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:46, 5 December 2025 (UTC)
:That is an &quot;official&quot; book, which I think is OK to have in this case. I think some of the help pages actually recommend reading this book. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:41, 1 January 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chess Variants/Cheskers</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:40:28Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;{{Chess diagram | tright |   |  |Nd|  |kd|  |kd|  |bd |pd|  |pd|  |pd|  |pd|   |  |pd|  |pd|  |pd|  |pd |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |   |pl|  |pl|  |pl|  |pl|   |  |pl|  |pl|  |pl|  |pl |bl|  |kl|  |kl|  |Nl|    | Starting position of cheskers }} == Introduction == '''Cheskers''' is a chess variant that combines chess with checkers. == History == There have been several game that attempt to cross over the rules of chess and checkers. Cheskers was invent...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="3139" sha1="9f2penohbmmoa8yn21jfea781ow79l5" xml:space="preserve">{{Chess diagram
| tright
| 

|  |Nd|  |kd|  |kd|  |bd
|pd|  |pd|  |pd|  |pd|  
|  |pd|  |pd|  |pd|  |pd
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
|pl|  |pl|  |pl|  |pl|  
|  |pl|  |pl|  |pl|  |pl
|bl|  |kl|  |kl|  |Nl|  

| Starting position of cheskers
}}
== Introduction ==
'''Cheskers''' is a chess variant that combines chess with checkers.
== History ==
There have been several game that attempt to cross over the rules of chess and checkers. Cheskers was invented by American mathematician Solomon W. Golomb in 1948 and is thew most well-known of these crossover games.

== Rules ==
The game is played only on the dark squares of the chessboard, and each player has twelve pieces - eight pawns, two kings, one camel (represented by an inverted knight) and one bishop. Black makes the first move.

=== Moves of the pieces ===

* The pawns move like pieces in checkers - they step one square diagonally forward. If an enemy piece is in the pawn's path and there is an empty square beyond it, the pawn may jump over the enemy piece and land on the other side, capturing the enemy piece in the process. Note that capturing with a pawn is mandatory if such a capture is possible. When a pawn reaches the furthest rank from its starting position, it promotes to the player's choice of the other thee pieces.
* The king moves like a king in checkers, moving one square in any diagonal direction. It captures in the same manner as the pawn. Capturing with a king is mandatory.
* The bishop moves in the same way as in chess. Capturing with a bishop is ''not'' mandatory.
* The camel moves in a similar manner to the chess knight, but extended - the camel first moves three squares forward, backward or sideways, then turns 90° and moves one more square. Like the knight, the camel can jump over any pieces in the way during its move. Capturing with a camel is ''not'' mandatory.

{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=7|rows=7|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
 |  |  |  |pl|  |  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
| Move of the pawn
}}
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=7|rows=7|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
 |  |  |  |kl|  |  |  
 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
| Move of the king
}}
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=7|rows=7|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx
 |  |xx|  |  |  |xx|  
 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
 |  |  |  |bl|  |  |  
 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
 |  |xx|  |  |  |xx|  
 |xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx
| Move of the bishop
}}
{{#invoke:chessboard mxn|board|cols=7|rows=7|letters=no|numbers=no
 |tleft
 | 

 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx
 |  |  |  |Nl|  |  |  
 |xx|  |  |  |  |  |xx
 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  
 |  |  |xx|  |xx|  |  
| Move of the camel
}}
{{-}}
The object of the game is to either capture all of the opponent's kings, or stalemate the opponent.

== Sub-variants ==
This chess variant does not have any notable sub-variants.

{{BookCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/K</title>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''K''' is for '''K'''angaroo&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Kangaroo Island Western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus) male.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|J|L}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Kangaroo Island Western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus) male.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|J|L}}
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    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/L</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483002</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''L''' is for '''L'''ion&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Lion (Panthera leo) old male Chobe.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|K|M}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Lion (Panthera leo) old male Chobe.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|K|M}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/M</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633389</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:48:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''M''' is for '''M'''onkey&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Tufted capuchin on a branch in Singapore.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|L|N}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Tufted capuchin on a branch in Singapore.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|L|N}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/N</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633390</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:49:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''N''' is for '''N'''ewt&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Kammmolchmaennchen.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|M|O}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Kammmolchmaennchen.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|M|O}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/O</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633391</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:50:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''O''' is for '''O'''strich&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Avestruz de cuello azul (Struthio camelus australis), cabo de Buena Esparanza, Sudáfrica, 2018-07-23, DD 87.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|N|P}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Avestruz de cuello azul (Struthio camelus australis), cabo de Buena Esparanza, Sudáfrica, 2018-07-23, DD 87.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|N|P}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/P</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633392</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:51:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''P''' is for '''P'''anda&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Giant Panda 2004-03-2.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|O|Q}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Giant Panda 2004-03-2.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|O|Q}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/Q</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633393</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:52:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''Q''' is for '''Q'''uail&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Gambel's Quail Rockhound State Park.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|P|R}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Gambel's Quail Rockhound State Park.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|P|R}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
      <sha1>j1srxqrgt4r1ypj3e2xwoq3rcy3sk29</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/R</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633394</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:52:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''R''' is for '''R'''hinoceros&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Rhinoceros in South Africa adjusted.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|Q|S}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Rhinoceros in South Africa adjusted.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|Q|S}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/S</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633395</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''S''' is for '''S'''eal&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Pagophilus groenlandicus from iNaturalist photo 141027830.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|R|T}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Pagophilus groenlandicus from iNaturalist photo 141027830.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|R|T}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/T</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633396</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:55:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''T''' is for '''T'''iger&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Panthera tigris altaica in Lodz Zoo 1.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|S|U}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="210" sha1="54g60i24terp3mhtky9ucvkoul0lw5k" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''T''' is for '''T'''iger&lt;/div&gt;


[[File:Panthera tigris altaica in Lodz Zoo 1.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|S|U}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
      <sha1>54g60i24terp3mhtky9ucvkoul0lw5k</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/U</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633397</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:56:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''U''' is for '''U'''rial&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:20170309 2597 Ulley-Leh Urial.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|T|V}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="202" sha1="tqg1hlj2zzlz2mninue40f6eza694my" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''U''' is for '''U'''rial&lt;/div&gt;


[[File:20170309 2597 Ulley-Leh Urial.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|T|V}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/V</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633398</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:56:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''V''' is for '''V'''ulture&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) in flight.JPG|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|U|W}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="216" sha1="srtxiyiss21taa8nomvth6zbhypcc5h" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''V''' is for '''V'''ulture&lt;/div&gt;


[[File:Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) in flight.JPG|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|U|W}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/W</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633399</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:57:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''W''' is for '''W'''olf&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Scandinavian grey wolf Canis lupus.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|V|X}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="206" sha1="svct1q7cs4ljwo357cmvmnbhpmyoouz" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''W''' is for '''W'''olf&lt;/div&gt;


[[File:Scandinavian grey wolf Canis lupus.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|V|X}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet/X</title>
    <ns>110</ns>
    <id>483014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4633400</id>
      <timestamp>2026-05-01T10:58:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-26599-15</username>
        <id>3580410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 400%;&quot;&gt;'''X''' is for '''X'''enopus&lt;/div&gt;   [[File:Xenopus laevi juillet 2007.jpg|center|500px]]   {{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|W|Y}} {{Bookcat}}&quot;</comment>
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[[File:Xenopus laevi juillet 2007.jpg|center|500px]]


{{Template:Wikijunior:Zoo Animal Alphabet|W|Y}}
{{Bookcat}}</text>
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