Wikibooks enwikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.1 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikibooks Wikibooks talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Cookbook Cookbook talk Transwiki Transwiki talk Wikijunior Wikijunior talk Subject Subject talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 1232 4635078 1896794 2026-05-10T08:08:15Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635078 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Cell Biology]] | [[../Parts of the cell/]] | [[../Organelles/]] Endoplasmic Reticulum | [[../Mitochondria and Chloroplasts|Mitochondria and Chloroplasts >>]] ---- The '''endoplasmic reticulum''' (endoplasmic="within the [[w:cytoplasm|cytoplasm]]", reticulum="little net"; short : ER) is an important organelle in all [[w:eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]]. [[w:prokaryote|Prokaryotic organisms]] do not have organelles and thus do not have an ER. It's base structure and composition is similar to the [[w:plasma membrane|plasma membrane]], though it is an extension of the [[w:nuclear membrane|nuclear membrane]]. The ER is the site of the [[w:protein synthesis|translation]] and folding of and transport of [[w:protein|protein]]s that are to become part of the [[w:cell membrane|cell membrane]] (e.g., [[w:transmembrane receptor|transmembrane receptor]]s and other [[w:integral membrane protein|integral membrane protein]]s) as well as proteins that are to be secreted or "[[w:exocytosis|exocytosed]]" from the cell (e.g., digestive [[w:enzyme|enzyme]]s). {| align="center" width="150" |- | [[image:nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg]] |- | '''Figure 1 :''' Image of [[w:cell nucleus|nucleus]], endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.<br> <th style="font-size:x-small;">(1) Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5) Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins that are transported. (7) Transport vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus. (11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.</th> |} The ER consists of an extensive membrane network of tubes and [[w:cisterna|cisterna]]e (sac-like structures). The membrane encloses a space, the cisternal space (or internal lumen) from the [[w:cytosol|cytosol]]. This space is acting as a gateway. Parts of the ER membrane are continuous with the outer membrane of the [[w:nuclear envelope|nuclear envelope]], and the cisternal space of the ER is continuous with the space in between the two layers of the nuclear envelope. Parts of the ER are covered with [[w:ribosome|ribosome]]s (which assemble amino acids into proteins based on instructions from the nucleus). Their rough appearance under electron microscopy led to their being called rough ER (RER), other parts are free of ribosomes and are called smooth ER (SER). The ribosomes on the surface of the rough ER insert the freshly produced proteins directly into the ER, which processes them and then passes them on to the [[w:Golgi apparatus|Golgi apparatus]] (Fig. 1). Rough and smooth ER differ not only in appearance, but also in function. While the rough ER manufactures and transports proteins destined for membranes and secretion, the smooth ER has functions in several metabolic processes. It takes part in the synthesis of various [[w:lipid|lipid]]s (e.g., for building membranes) and [[w:steroid|steroid]]s (e.g., [[w:hormone|hormone]]s), and also plays an important role in [[w:carbohydrate metabolism|carbohydrate metabolism]], detoxification of the cell, and [[w:calcium|calcium]] storage. Proteins that are transported by the ER and from there throughout the cell are marked with an address tag that are called a [[w:protein targeting|signal sequence]]. [[w:Günter Blobel|Günter Blobel]] was awarded the [[w:1999|1999]] [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for his discovery of these signal sequences in 1975. The N-terminus (one end) of a [[w:polypeptide|polypeptide]] chain (e.g., a protein) contains a few [[w:amino acid|amino acid]]s that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Proteins that are destined for places outside the ER are packed into transport [[w:vesicle|vesicle]]s and moved along the [[w:cytoskeleton|cytoskeleton]] towards their destination. ---- Endoplasmic Reticulum | [[../Mitochondria and Chloroplasts|Mitochondria and Chloroplasts >>]] [[Cell Biology]] | [[../Parts of the cell/]] | [[../Organelles/]] {{BookCat}} bl08lw9w1t9gt9kr2tj0b6sy99381pt 0 4790 4635040 4621066 2026-05-10T00:21:55Z Rgdboer 1021217 Q Society → Q Association 4635040 wikitext text/x-wiki The terms [[Abstract Algebra/Group Theory/Group|group theory]] and [[Abstract Algebra/Rings|ring theory]] are refinements of algebraic understanding that developed in the era of electronics and aircraft, the 20th century. The term '''hypercomplex number''' harkens back to the age of steam. For the most part, the hypercomplex systems have been assimilated through the resolution of vision provided by groups, rings, and [[Abstract Algebra/Fields|fields]], and the term has been retired from use other than historic reference. Similarly, the field of [[Algebra/Complex Numbers|complex numbers]] <math>C = \{ z = x + i y, \ x,y \in R \} ,\ i^2 = - 1 , </math> has an insufficiently descriptive name, and might be better described as [[Associative Composition Algebra/Binarions|division binarions]] C according to composition algebra theory. [[File:WilliamRowanHamilton.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|W.R. Hamilton (1805−1865) studied [[Abstract Algebra/Quaternions|quaternions and biquaternions]] ]] Hypercomplex numbers grew out of William Rowan Hamilton's construction of ''quaternions'' in the 1840s. The legacy of his vision continues in spatial vector algebra: for vectors <math>v = ai + bj + ck</math> and <math>w = di + ej + fk ,</math> the well-known products are * Dot: <math> v \cdot w = ad + be + cf \in R</math> * Cross: <math> v \times w = (bf - ec) i - (af - dc) j + (ae - db) k \in R^3 .</math> These products are the severed remnants of Hamilton’s quaternion product: <math>\ \ v w = - v \cdot w + v \times w \in R^4 .</math> In 1845 John T. Graves and Arthur Cayley described an eight-dimensional hypercomplex system now referred to as ''octonions'' or ''Cayley numbers''. They extend quaternions but associativity of multiplication is lost. James Cockle challenged the presumption of quaternions in four dimensions by presenting associative hypercomplex systems ''tessarines'' (1848) and ''coquaternions'' (1849). Hamilton had his own eight-dimensional system (''biquaternions'') that were explored in his ''Lectures on Quaternions'' (1853), but virtually ignored in ''Elements of Quaternions'' (completed by his son in 1865) and in the version edited by Charles Jasper Jolly in 1899. Quaternions feature the property of ''anti-commutativity'' of the basis vectors i, j, k: :<math>ij = -ji = k, \quad jk = -kj = i, \quad ki = -ik = j.</math> (in coquaternions <math>jk = -kj = -i </math>). Due to anti-commutativity, squaring a vector leaves many cancelled terms: :<math>(ai + bj +ck)^2 = - a^2 - b^2 - c^2 ,</math> &nbsp; thus for <math>r = ai + bj + ck ,</math> :<math>(a^2 + b^2 + c^2 = 1) \ \equiv \ (r^2 = -1) .</math> For any such ''r'', the plane {''x'' + ''y r'' : ''x,y'' in R} is a complex number plane, and by Euler's formula the mapping <math> ar \mapsto \cos a + r \sin a</math> takes the ray through ''r'' to a wrapping of the unit circle in that plane. The unit sphere in quaternions is composed of these circles, considering the variable ''r''. According to Hamilton, a unit quaternion is a ''versor''; evidently every versor can be known by its parameters ''a'' and ''r''. [[File:William_Kingdon_Clifford.jpg|thumb|right|200px|W.K. Clifford (1845−1879) studied [[w:split-biquaternion|split-biquaternions]] ]] When the anti-commutativity axiom is changed to commutativity, then two square roots of minus one, say ''h'' and ''i'', have a product ''hi'' with square <math>(hi)^2 = hi hi = h^2 i^2 = (-1)(-1) = +1 .</math> James Cockle’s tessarines are based on such an imaginary unit, now with plus one for its square. Cockle initiated the use of &nbsp;j, j² = +1, to represent this new imaginary unit that is ''not'' a square root of minus one. The tessarines are ''z'' = ''w'' + ''z'' j where ''z, w'' are in C. The real tessarines <math>D = \{a + b j : a, b \in R \}</math> feature a unit hyperbola, contrasting with the unit circle <math>\{a + b i : a^2+ b^2 = 1 \} \subset C .</math> Whereas the circle surrounds the origin, a hyperbola has radii in only half of the directions of the plane and requires a conjugate hyperbola to cover the other half, and even then the asymptotes, that they share, provide even more directions in the plane. In 1873 William Kingdon Clifford exploited the real tessarines to modify Hamilton's biquaternions: where Hamilton had used elements of C (division binarions) for coefficients of a biquaternion ''q'' = ''w'' + ''x'' i + ''y'' j + ''z'' k, Clifford used real tessarines (now called [[Associative Composition Algebra/Split-binarions|split-binarions]] D). Clifford’s construction illustrated a process of generating new algebras from given ones in a procedure called ''tensor products'': Hamilton’s biquaternions are <math>C \otimes H </math>, and the ''split biquaternions'' of Clifford are <math>D \otimes H .</math> Clifford was precocious, particularly in his anticipation of a geometric model of gravitation as hills and valleys in a temporal plenum. But he lived before set theory, modern logical and mathematical symbology, and before abstract algebra with its firmament of groups, rings and fields. One of the realities of light is its finite speed: a foot per nanosecond, an astronomic unit in 500 seconds, or a light year in a year. When a diagram uses any of these pairs of units as axes, the diagonals through the origin represent the locus of light, one for the left beam, one for the right. The diagonals are asymptotes to hyperbolas, such as <math>a j \mapsto \cosh a + j \sinh a, </math> a real tessarine. Eventually, over decades of deliberation, physicists realized that this hyperbola was the answer to a linear-velocity problem: How can ''v'' + ''w'' be the sum of two velocities when such accumulation may run over the speed of light? The hyperbola lies between the asymptotes and will not run over the speed of light. In the real tessarine system the points of the hyperbola are <math> e^{a j}</math> and <math> e^{b j} ,</math> representing two velocities in the group <math> \{ e^{x j} : x \in R \} ,</math> a hyperbola. The sum of two velocities is found by their product <math>e^{aj} e^{bj} = e^{(a + b)j} ,</math> another element of the hyperbola. After 1911, the parameter ''a'' was termed ''rapidity''. Evidently this aspect of special relativity was born of real tessarines. The electromagnetic work of Clerk-Maxell and Heinrich Hertz demanded a fitting context for theorizing with the temporal variable included. Maxwell had used Hamilton’s del operator :<math>\nabla = i \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + j \frac{\partial}{\partial y} + k \frac{\partial}{\partial z} </math> in ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'', but the quaternion algebra is unsuitable: it is implicitly a Euclidean 4-space since <math>q q^* = w^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2, </math> the square of the Euclidean norm. [[File:Macfarlane_Alexander_math.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alex Macfarlane (1851−1913) studied [[w:hyperbolic quaternion|hyperbolic quaternions]] ]] In the 1890s Alexander Macfarlane advocated Space Analysis with a hypercomplex system that exchanged Hamilton's sphere of imaginary units for a sphere of Cockle's imaginary units that square to +1. He retained the anti-commutative property of quaternions so that <math>q q^* = w^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 .</math> Then in this system of ''hyperbolic quaternions'', for any ''r'' on the sphere, <math>\{x + y r : x,y \in R \}</math> is a plane of split binarions, including unit hyperbola suitable to represent motion at any rapidity in direction r. The hyperbolic quaternions looked like an elegant model for electromechanics until it was found wanting. The problem was that the simple property of associative multiplication broke down in hyperbolic quaternions, and though it was a hypercomplex system with a useful model, loss of this property put it outside the purview of group theory, for instance. Once the axioms of a [[Linear Algebra/Definition and Examples of Vector Spaces|vector space]] were established, hypercomplex systems were included. The axioms require a commutative group of vectors, a scalar field, and rules of operations. Putting the axioms of a vector space together with those for a ring establishes the meaning of an [[Abstract Algebra/Algebras|algebra]] in the study of abstract algebra. For associative hypercomplex systems, Joseph Wedderburn removed all the mystery in 1907 when he showed that any such system could be represented with matrix rings over a field. For instance, 2 x 2 real matrices form an algebra M(2,R) isomorphic to coquaternions and 2 x 2 complex matrices form an algebra M(2,C) isomorphic to biquaternions. These algebras, along with R, C and tessarines form the [[Associative Composition Algebra|associative composition algebras]] which are noted for the property :<math>(pq)(pq)^* = (p p^*)(q q^*) .</math> About 1897 four cooperative efforts changed mathematics for the better. Giuseppe Peano began to assemble his ''Formulario Mathematico'', Felix Klein spearheaded the mathematical encyclopedia project, the quadrennial series of International Congresses of Mathematics was begun, and the International Association for Promoting the Study of Quaternions and Allied Systems of Mathematics published a bibliography and annual review. Peano's effort gave mathematicians the symbolic language to compress concepts and proofs using set theory. Klein's encyclopedia upheld German as the primary medium, and the Congresses drew together all nations. The [[w:Quaternion Association|Quaternion Association]] was the primary arena addressing hypercomplex numbers, and was dissolved after 1913 upon the death of its president, Alexander Macfarlane. ==Hypercomplex number systems== The best-known hypercomplex number systems are the 4-dimensional [[w:quaternions|quaternions]], 8-dimensional [[w:octonions|octonions]], and 16-dimensional [[w:sedenion|sedenions]], as summarized in the table below along with the real and complex number systems. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! Dimension !! Symbol |- | real numbers || 1 = 2⁰ || <math>\mathbb R</math> |- | complex numbers || 2 = 2¹ || <math>\mathbb C</math> |- | quaternions || 4 = 2² || <math>\mathbb H</math> |- | octonions || 8 = 2³ || <math>\mathbb O</math> |- | sedenions || 16 = 2⁴ || <math>\mathbb S</math> |- | 2ⁿ-ions || 2ⁿ || |} According to a 2002 paper by American mathematician Robert P. C. de Marrais, after the sedenions are the 32-dimensional pathions, the 64-dimensional chingons, the 128-dimensional routons, the 256-dimensional voudons (coined by Tony Smith), and ''ad infinitum''. Except for the term ''voudon'', these terms were all coined by de Marrais. They are summarized in the table below.<ref name=Box-Kite>{{cite web | last=de Marrais | first=Robert P. C. | title=Flying Higher Than a Box-Kite: Kite-Chain Middens, Sand Mandalas, and Zero-Divisor Patterns in the 2ⁿ-ions Beyond the Sedenions | arxiv=math/0207003 | year=2002 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0207003 | doi=10.48550/arXiv.math/0207003}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! Dimension !! Symbol !! Etymology !! Other names |- | pathions || 32 = 2⁵ || <math>\mathbb P</math> || 32 paths of wisdom of Kabbalah, from the ''Sefer Yetzirah'' || trigintaduonions (<math>\mathbb T</math>), 32-ions |- | chingons || 64 = 2⁶ || <math>\mathbb X</math> || 64 hexagrams of the I Ching || sexagintaquattuornions, 64-ions |- | routons || 128 = 2⁷ || <math>\mathbb U</math> || Massachusetts Route 128, of the "Massachusetts Miracle" || centumduodetrigintanions, 128-ions |- | voudons || 256 = 2⁸ || <math>\mathbb V</math> || 256 deities of the Ifá pantheon of Voodoo or West African Vodún || ducentiquinquagintasexions, 256-ions |} ==Footnotes== <references /> {{BookCat}} 9g9mln1mcx7txz2vt9d8iyje8s7n9uq 4635043 4635040 2026-05-10T00:28:28Z Rgdboer 1021217 HS Math extensions for Complex numbers 4635043 wikitext text/x-wiki The terms [[Abstract Algebra/Group Theory/Group|group theory]] and [[Abstract Algebra/Rings|ring theory]] are refinements of algebraic understanding that developed in the era of electronics and aircraft, the 20th century. The term '''hypercomplex number''' harkens back to the age of steam. For the most part, the hypercomplex systems have been assimilated through the resolution of vision provided by groups, rings, and [[Abstract Algebra/Fields|fields]], and the term has been retired from use other than historic reference. Similarly, the field of [[High_School_Mathematics_Extensions/Supplementary/Complex_Numbers|complex numbers]] <math>C = \{ z = x + i y, \ x,y \in R \} ,\ i^2 = - 1 , </math> has an insufficiently descriptive name, and might be better described as [[Associative Composition Algebra/Binarions|division binarions]] C according to composition algebra theory. [[File:WilliamRowanHamilton.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|W.R. Hamilton (1805−1865) studied [[Abstract Algebra/Quaternions|quaternions and biquaternions]] ]] Hypercomplex numbers grew out of William Rowan Hamilton's construction of ''quaternions'' in the 1840s. The legacy of his vision continues in spatial vector algebra: for vectors <math>v = ai + bj + ck</math> and <math>w = di + ej + fk ,</math> the well-known products are * Dot: <math> v \cdot w = ad + be + cf \in R</math> * Cross: <math> v \times w = (bf - ec) i - (af - dc) j + (ae - db) k \in R^3 .</math> These products are the severed remnants of Hamilton’s quaternion product: <math>\ \ v w = - v \cdot w + v \times w \in R^4 .</math> In 1845 John T. Graves and Arthur Cayley described an eight-dimensional hypercomplex system now referred to as ''octonions'' or ''Cayley numbers''. They extend quaternions but associativity of multiplication is lost. James Cockle challenged the presumption of quaternions in four dimensions by presenting associative hypercomplex systems ''tessarines'' (1848) and ''coquaternions'' (1849). Hamilton had his own eight-dimensional system (''biquaternions'') that were explored in his ''Lectures on Quaternions'' (1853), but virtually ignored in ''Elements of Quaternions'' (completed by his son in 1865) and in the version edited by Charles Jasper Jolly in 1899. Quaternions feature the property of ''anti-commutativity'' of the basis vectors i, j, k: :<math>ij = -ji = k, \quad jk = -kj = i, \quad ki = -ik = j.</math> (in coquaternions <math>jk = -kj = -i </math>). Due to anti-commutativity, squaring a vector leaves many cancelled terms: :<math>(ai + bj +ck)^2 = - a^2 - b^2 - c^2 ,</math> &nbsp; thus for <math>r = ai + bj + ck ,</math> :<math>(a^2 + b^2 + c^2 = 1) \ \equiv \ (r^2 = -1) .</math> For any such ''r'', the plane {''x'' + ''y r'' : ''x,y'' in R} is a complex number plane, and by Euler's formula the mapping <math> ar \mapsto \cos a + r \sin a</math> takes the ray through ''r'' to a wrapping of the unit circle in that plane. The unit sphere in quaternions is composed of these circles, considering the variable ''r''. According to Hamilton, a unit quaternion is a ''versor''; evidently every versor can be known by its parameters ''a'' and ''r''. [[File:William_Kingdon_Clifford.jpg|thumb|right|200px|W.K. Clifford (1845−1879) studied [[w:split-biquaternion|split-biquaternions]] ]] When the anti-commutativity axiom is changed to commutativity, then two square roots of minus one, say ''h'' and ''i'', have a product ''hi'' with square <math>(hi)^2 = hi hi = h^2 i^2 = (-1)(-1) = +1 .</math> James Cockle’s tessarines are based on such an imaginary unit, now with plus one for its square. Cockle initiated the use of &nbsp;j, j² = +1, to represent this new imaginary unit that is ''not'' a square root of minus one. The tessarines are ''z'' = ''w'' + ''z'' j where ''z, w'' are in C. The real tessarines <math>D = \{a + b j : a, b \in R \}</math> feature a unit hyperbola, contrasting with the unit circle <math>\{a + b i : a^2+ b^2 = 1 \} \subset C .</math> Whereas the circle surrounds the origin, a hyperbola has radii in only half of the directions of the plane and requires a conjugate hyperbola to cover the other half, and even then the asymptotes, that they share, provide even more directions in the plane. In 1873 William Kingdon Clifford exploited the real tessarines to modify Hamilton's biquaternions: where Hamilton had used elements of C (division binarions) for coefficients of a biquaternion ''q'' = ''w'' + ''x'' i + ''y'' j + ''z'' k, Clifford used real tessarines (now called [[Associative Composition Algebra/Split-binarions|split-binarions]] D). Clifford’s construction illustrated a process of generating new algebras from given ones in a procedure called ''tensor products'': Hamilton’s biquaternions are <math>C \otimes H </math>, and the ''split biquaternions'' of Clifford are <math>D \otimes H .</math> Clifford was precocious, particularly in his anticipation of a geometric model of gravitation as hills and valleys in a temporal plenum. But he lived before set theory, modern logical and mathematical symbology, and before abstract algebra with its firmament of groups, rings and fields. One of the realities of light is its finite speed: a foot per nanosecond, an astronomic unit in 500 seconds, or a light year in a year. When a diagram uses any of these pairs of units as axes, the diagonals through the origin represent the locus of light, one for the left beam, one for the right. The diagonals are asymptotes to hyperbolas, such as <math>a j \mapsto \cosh a + j \sinh a, </math> a real tessarine. Eventually, over decades of deliberation, physicists realized that this hyperbola was the answer to a linear-velocity problem: How can ''v'' + ''w'' be the sum of two velocities when such accumulation may run over the speed of light? The hyperbola lies between the asymptotes and will not run over the speed of light. In the real tessarine system the points of the hyperbola are <math> e^{a j}</math> and <math> e^{b j} ,</math> representing two velocities in the group <math> \{ e^{x j} : x \in R \} ,</math> a hyperbola. The sum of two velocities is found by their product <math>e^{aj} e^{bj} = e^{(a + b)j} ,</math> another element of the hyperbola. After 1911, the parameter ''a'' was termed ''rapidity''. Evidently this aspect of special relativity was born of real tessarines. The electromagnetic work of Clerk-Maxell and Heinrich Hertz demanded a fitting context for theorizing with the temporal variable included. Maxwell had used Hamilton’s del operator :<math>\nabla = i \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + j \frac{\partial}{\partial y} + k \frac{\partial}{\partial z} </math> in ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'', but the quaternion algebra is unsuitable: it is implicitly a Euclidean 4-space since <math>q q^* = w^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2, </math> the square of the Euclidean norm. [[File:Macfarlane_Alexander_math.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alex Macfarlane (1851−1913) studied [[w:hyperbolic quaternion|hyperbolic quaternions]] ]] In the 1890s Alexander Macfarlane advocated Space Analysis with a hypercomplex system that exchanged Hamilton's sphere of imaginary units for a sphere of Cockle's imaginary units that square to +1. He retained the anti-commutative property of quaternions so that <math>q q^* = w^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 .</math> Then in this system of ''hyperbolic quaternions'', for any ''r'' on the sphere, <math>\{x + y r : x,y \in R \}</math> is a plane of split binarions, including unit hyperbola suitable to represent motion at any rapidity in direction r. The hyperbolic quaternions looked like an elegant model for electromechanics until it was found wanting. The problem was that the simple property of associative multiplication broke down in hyperbolic quaternions, and though it was a hypercomplex system with a useful model, loss of this property put it outside the purview of group theory, for instance. Once the axioms of a [[Linear Algebra/Definition and Examples of Vector Spaces|vector space]] were established, hypercomplex systems were included. The axioms require a commutative group of vectors, a scalar field, and rules of operations. Putting the axioms of a vector space together with those for a ring establishes the meaning of an [[Abstract Algebra/Algebras|algebra]] in the study of abstract algebra. For associative hypercomplex systems, Joseph Wedderburn removed all the mystery in 1907 when he showed that any such system could be represented with matrix rings over a field. For instance, 2 x 2 real matrices form an algebra M(2,R) isomorphic to coquaternions and 2 x 2 complex matrices form an algebra M(2,C) isomorphic to biquaternions. These algebras, along with R, C and tessarines form the [[Associative Composition Algebra|associative composition algebras]] which are noted for the property :<math>(pq)(pq)^* = (p p^*)(q q^*) .</math> About 1897 four cooperative efforts changed mathematics for the better. Giuseppe Peano began to assemble his ''Formulario Mathematico'', Felix Klein spearheaded the mathematical encyclopedia project, the quadrennial series of International Congresses of Mathematics was begun, and the International Association for Promoting the Study of Quaternions and Allied Systems of Mathematics published a bibliography and annual review. Peano's effort gave mathematicians the symbolic language to compress concepts and proofs using set theory. Klein's encyclopedia upheld German as the primary medium, and the Congresses drew together all nations. The [[w:Quaternion Association|Quaternion Association]] was the primary arena addressing hypercomplex numbers, and was dissolved after 1913 upon the death of its president, Alexander Macfarlane. ==Hypercomplex number systems== The best-known hypercomplex number systems are the 4-dimensional [[w:quaternions|quaternions]], 8-dimensional [[w:octonions|octonions]], and 16-dimensional [[w:sedenion|sedenions]], as summarized in the table below along with the real and complex number systems. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! Dimension !! Symbol |- | real numbers || 1 = 2⁰ || <math>\mathbb R</math> |- | complex numbers || 2 = 2¹ || <math>\mathbb C</math> |- | quaternions || 4 = 2² || <math>\mathbb H</math> |- | octonions || 8 = 2³ || <math>\mathbb O</math> |- | sedenions || 16 = 2⁴ || <math>\mathbb S</math> |- | 2ⁿ-ions || 2ⁿ || |} According to a 2002 paper by American mathematician Robert P. C. de Marrais, after the sedenions are the 32-dimensional pathions, the 64-dimensional chingons, the 128-dimensional routons, the 256-dimensional voudons (coined by Tony Smith), and ''ad infinitum''. Except for the term ''voudon'', these terms were all coined by de Marrais. They are summarized in the table below.<ref name=Box-Kite>{{cite web | last=de Marrais | first=Robert P. C. | title=Flying Higher Than a Box-Kite: Kite-Chain Middens, Sand Mandalas, and Zero-Divisor Patterns in the 2ⁿ-ions Beyond the Sedenions | arxiv=math/0207003 | year=2002 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0207003 | doi=10.48550/arXiv.math/0207003}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! Dimension !! Symbol !! Etymology !! Other names |- | pathions || 32 = 2⁵ || <math>\mathbb P</math> || 32 paths of wisdom of Kabbalah, from the ''Sefer Yetzirah'' || trigintaduonions (<math>\mathbb T</math>), 32-ions |- | chingons || 64 = 2⁶ || <math>\mathbb X</math> || 64 hexagrams of the I Ching || sexagintaquattuornions, 64-ions |- | routons || 128 = 2⁷ || <math>\mathbb U</math> || Massachusetts Route 128, of the "Massachusetts Miracle" || centumduodetrigintanions, 128-ions |- | voudons || 256 = 2⁸ || <math>\mathbb V</math> || 256 deities of the Ifá pantheon of Voodoo or West African Vodún || ducentiquinquagintasexions, 256-ions |} ==Footnotes== <references /> {{BookCat}} 36rq6snhvnh4s9xggn4e1v4bc52xlet 4635045 4635043 2026-05-10T00:41:11Z Rgdboer 1021217 better Complex source 4635045 wikitext text/x-wiki The terms [[Abstract Algebra/Group Theory/Group|group theory]] and [[Abstract Algebra/Rings|ring theory]] are refinements of algebraic understanding that developed in the era of electronics and aircraft, the 20th century. The term '''hypercomplex number''' harkens back to the age of steam. For the most part, the hypercomplex systems have been assimilated through the resolution of vision provided by groups, rings, and [[Abstract Algebra/Fields|fields]], and the term has been retired from use other than historic reference. Similarly, the field of [[Math_for_Non-Geeks/Definition_of_complex_numbers|complex numbers]] <math>C = \{ z = x + i y, \ x,y \in R \} ,\ i^2 = - 1 , </math> has an insufficiently descriptive name, and might be better described as [[Associative Composition Algebra/Binarions|division binarions]] C according to composition algebra theory. [[File:WilliamRowanHamilton.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|W.R. Hamilton (1805−1865) studied [[Abstract Algebra/Quaternions|quaternions and biquaternions]] ]] Hypercomplex numbers grew out of William Rowan Hamilton's construction of ''quaternions'' in the 1840s. The legacy of his vision continues in spatial vector algebra: for vectors <math>v = ai + bj + ck</math> and <math>w = di + ej + fk ,</math> the well-known products are * Dot: <math> v \cdot w = ad + be + cf \in R</math> * Cross: <math> v \times w = (bf - ec) i - (af - dc) j + (ae - db) k \in R^3 .</math> These products are the severed remnants of Hamilton’s quaternion product: <math>\ \ v w = - v \cdot w + v \times w \in R^4 .</math> In 1845 John T. Graves and Arthur Cayley described an eight-dimensional hypercomplex system now referred to as ''octonions'' or ''Cayley numbers''. They extend quaternions but associativity of multiplication is lost. James Cockle challenged the presumption of quaternions in four dimensions by presenting associative hypercomplex systems ''tessarines'' (1848) and ''coquaternions'' (1849). Hamilton had his own eight-dimensional system (''biquaternions'') that were explored in his ''Lectures on Quaternions'' (1853), but virtually ignored in ''Elements of Quaternions'' (completed by his son in 1865) and in the version edited by Charles Jasper Jolly in 1899. Quaternions feature the property of ''anti-commutativity'' of the basis vectors i, j, k: :<math>ij = -ji = k, \quad jk = -kj = i, \quad ki = -ik = j.</math> (in coquaternions <math>jk = -kj = -i </math>). Due to anti-commutativity, squaring a vector leaves many cancelled terms: :<math>(ai + bj +ck)^2 = - a^2 - b^2 - c^2 ,</math> &nbsp; thus for <math>r = ai + bj + ck ,</math> :<math>(a^2 + b^2 + c^2 = 1) \ \equiv \ (r^2 = -1) .</math> For any such ''r'', the plane {''x'' + ''y r'' : ''x,y'' in R} is a complex number plane, and by Euler's formula the mapping <math> ar \mapsto \cos a + r \sin a</math> takes the ray through ''r'' to a wrapping of the unit circle in that plane. The unit sphere in quaternions is composed of these circles, considering the variable ''r''. According to Hamilton, a unit quaternion is a ''versor''; evidently every versor can be known by its parameters ''a'' and ''r''. [[File:William_Kingdon_Clifford.jpg|thumb|right|200px|W.K. Clifford (1845−1879) studied [[w:split-biquaternion|split-biquaternions]] ]] When the anti-commutativity axiom is changed to commutativity, then two square roots of minus one, say ''h'' and ''i'', have a product ''hi'' with square <math>(hi)^2 = hi hi = h^2 i^2 = (-1)(-1) = +1 .</math> James Cockle’s tessarines are based on such an imaginary unit, now with plus one for its square. Cockle initiated the use of &nbsp;j, j² = +1, to represent this new imaginary unit that is ''not'' a square root of minus one. The tessarines are ''z'' = ''w'' + ''z'' j where ''z, w'' are in C. The real tessarines <math>D = \{a + b j : a, b \in R \}</math> feature a unit hyperbola, contrasting with the unit circle <math>\{a + b i : a^2+ b^2 = 1 \} \subset C .</math> Whereas the circle surrounds the origin, a hyperbola has radii in only half of the directions of the plane and requires a conjugate hyperbola to cover the other half, and even then the asymptotes, that they share, provide even more directions in the plane. In 1873 William Kingdon Clifford exploited the real tessarines to modify Hamilton's biquaternions: where Hamilton had used elements of C (division binarions) for coefficients of a biquaternion ''q'' = ''w'' + ''x'' i + ''y'' j + ''z'' k, Clifford used real tessarines (now called [[Associative Composition Algebra/Split-binarions|split-binarions]] D). Clifford’s construction illustrated a process of generating new algebras from given ones in a procedure called ''tensor products'': Hamilton’s biquaternions are <math>C \otimes H </math>, and the ''split biquaternions'' of Clifford are <math>D \otimes H .</math> Clifford was precocious, particularly in his anticipation of a geometric model of gravitation as hills and valleys in a temporal plenum. But he lived before set theory, modern logical and mathematical symbology, and before abstract algebra with its firmament of groups, rings and fields. One of the realities of light is its finite speed: a foot per nanosecond, an astronomic unit in 500 seconds, or a light year in a year. When a diagram uses any of these pairs of units as axes, the diagonals through the origin represent the locus of light, one for the left beam, one for the right. The diagonals are asymptotes to hyperbolas, such as <math>a j \mapsto \cosh a + j \sinh a, </math> a real tessarine. Eventually, over decades of deliberation, physicists realized that this hyperbola was the answer to a linear-velocity problem: How can ''v'' + ''w'' be the sum of two velocities when such accumulation may run over the speed of light? The hyperbola lies between the asymptotes and will not run over the speed of light. In the real tessarine system the points of the hyperbola are <math> e^{a j}</math> and <math> e^{b j} ,</math> representing two velocities in the group <math> \{ e^{x j} : x \in R \} ,</math> a hyperbola. The sum of two velocities is found by their product <math>e^{aj} e^{bj} = e^{(a + b)j} ,</math> another element of the hyperbola. After 1911, the parameter ''a'' was termed ''rapidity''. Evidently this aspect of special relativity was born of real tessarines. The electromagnetic work of Clerk-Maxell and Heinrich Hertz demanded a fitting context for theorizing with the temporal variable included. Maxwell had used Hamilton’s del operator :<math>\nabla = i \frac{\partial}{\partial x} + j \frac{\partial}{\partial y} + k \frac{\partial}{\partial z} </math> in ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism'', but the quaternion algebra is unsuitable: it is implicitly a Euclidean 4-space since <math>q q^* = w^2 + x^2 + y^2 + z^2, </math> the square of the Euclidean norm. [[File:Macfarlane_Alexander_math.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alex Macfarlane (1851−1913) studied [[w:hyperbolic quaternion|hyperbolic quaternions]] ]] In the 1890s Alexander Macfarlane advocated Space Analysis with a hypercomplex system that exchanged Hamilton's sphere of imaginary units for a sphere of Cockle's imaginary units that square to +1. He retained the anti-commutative property of quaternions so that <math>q q^* = w^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2 .</math> Then in this system of ''hyperbolic quaternions'', for any ''r'' on the sphere, <math>\{x + y r : x,y \in R \}</math> is a plane of split binarions, including unit hyperbola suitable to represent motion at any rapidity in direction r. The hyperbolic quaternions looked like an elegant model for electromechanics until it was found wanting. The problem was that the simple property of associative multiplication broke down in hyperbolic quaternions, and though it was a hypercomplex system with a useful model, loss of this property put it outside the purview of group theory, for instance. Once the axioms of a [[Linear Algebra/Definition and Examples of Vector Spaces|vector space]] were established, hypercomplex systems were included. The axioms require a commutative group of vectors, a scalar field, and rules of operations. Putting the axioms of a vector space together with those for a ring establishes the meaning of an [[Abstract Algebra/Algebras|algebra]] in the study of abstract algebra. For associative hypercomplex systems, Joseph Wedderburn removed all the mystery in 1907 when he showed that any such system could be represented with matrix rings over a field. For instance, 2 x 2 real matrices form an algebra M(2,R) isomorphic to coquaternions and 2 x 2 complex matrices form an algebra M(2,C) isomorphic to biquaternions. These algebras, along with R, C and tessarines form the [[Associative Composition Algebra|associative composition algebras]] which are noted for the property :<math>(pq)(pq)^* = (p p^*)(q q^*) .</math> About 1897 four cooperative efforts changed mathematics for the better. Giuseppe Peano began to assemble his ''Formulario Mathematico'', Felix Klein spearheaded the mathematical encyclopedia project, the quadrennial series of International Congresses of Mathematics was begun, and the International Association for Promoting the Study of Quaternions and Allied Systems of Mathematics published a bibliography and annual review. Peano's effort gave mathematicians the symbolic language to compress concepts and proofs using set theory. Klein's encyclopedia upheld German as the primary medium, and the Congresses drew together all nations. The [[w:Quaternion Association|Quaternion Association]] was the primary arena addressing hypercomplex numbers, and was dissolved after 1913 upon the death of its president, Alexander Macfarlane. ==Hypercomplex number systems== The best-known hypercomplex number systems are the 4-dimensional [[w:quaternions|quaternions]], 8-dimensional [[w:octonions|octonions]], and 16-dimensional [[w:sedenion|sedenions]], as summarized in the table below along with the real and complex number systems. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! Dimension !! Symbol |- | real numbers || 1 = 2⁰ || <math>\mathbb R</math> |- | complex numbers || 2 = 2¹ || <math>\mathbb C</math> |- | quaternions || 4 = 2² || <math>\mathbb H</math> |- | octonions || 8 = 2³ || <math>\mathbb O</math> |- | sedenions || 16 = 2⁴ || <math>\mathbb S</math> |- | 2ⁿ-ions || 2ⁿ || |} According to a 2002 paper by American mathematician Robert P. C. de Marrais, after the sedenions are the 32-dimensional pathions, the 64-dimensional chingons, the 128-dimensional routons, the 256-dimensional voudons (coined by Tony Smith), and ''ad infinitum''. Except for the term ''voudon'', these terms were all coined by de Marrais. They are summarized in the table below.<ref name=Box-Kite>{{cite web | last=de Marrais | first=Robert P. C. | title=Flying Higher Than a Box-Kite: Kite-Chain Middens, Sand Mandalas, and Zero-Divisor Patterns in the 2ⁿ-ions Beyond the Sedenions | arxiv=math/0207003 | year=2002 | url=https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0207003 | doi=10.48550/arXiv.math/0207003}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Name !! Dimension !! Symbol !! Etymology !! Other names |- | pathions || 32 = 2⁵ || <math>\mathbb P</math> || 32 paths of wisdom of Kabbalah, from the ''Sefer Yetzirah'' || trigintaduonions (<math>\mathbb T</math>), 32-ions |- | chingons || 64 = 2⁶ || <math>\mathbb X</math> || 64 hexagrams of the I Ching || sexagintaquattuornions, 64-ions |- | routons || 128 = 2⁷ || <math>\mathbb U</math> || Massachusetts Route 128, of the "Massachusetts Miracle" || centumduodetrigintanions, 128-ions |- | voudons || 256 = 2⁸ || <math>\mathbb V</math> || 256 deities of the Ifá pantheon of Voodoo or West African Vodún || ducentiquinquagintasexions, 256-ions |} ==Footnotes== <references /> {{BookCat}} 0vondrm5j9qbaahy57dbs2fp5dxbz78 0 13106 4634995 4634672 2026-05-09T18:07:05Z Jeff1138 301139 4634995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==What is AROS== Google translation [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=de&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs German], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=nl&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Dutch], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=fr&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs French], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=it&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Italian], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=da&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Danish], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=es&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Spanish], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=hi&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Hindi], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=zh-CN&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Chinese], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=ru&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Russian], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=pl&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Polish], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=ja&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Japanese], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=ko&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Korean], [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=pt&u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DAros%2FUser%2FDocs Portuguese], *Computer Hardware *AROS (operating system) *Applications and Games *User [http://www.osnews.com/story/15819 AROS] is one of the intermediate levels between the computer hardware and the user. It is an open-source, clean-room implementation of AmigaOS 3.x that can be run on many different computer architectures. It runs primarily on PC x86 64bit and also PC 32bit hardware but also on motorola 68k and compatibles, some ARM and PowerPC. This page will cover enough to be able to write the downloaded image to your preferred media, to run a LiveUSB, LiveCD or LiveDVD on your office/home PC (Live meaning you can test without changing your existing setup) and, ultimately, to use it. Intel / AMD PC hardware support mostly covers the years 2000 to 2010 but work is under way to cover recent PC hardware. At the moment, AROS is '''not''' recommended to be '''installed''' on a working vital data holding machine. Instead, writing to and booting from a '''USB stick''' could be a much better option. AROS is an hobby OS and can co-exist with Windows(TM), MacOSX(TM), Android(TM) or Linux(TM) and act as an alternative. Unfortunately, Aros has few developers so upgrades and improvements can take [https://sourceforge.net/p/aros/mailman/aros-cvs/ time to appear]. AROS core is now [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/IncompleteAPIs ~80%] finished and is usable, so keep in mind that the software is still considered ALPHA/BETA and in development. Currently AROS is fun to play with on a curiosity level, but it is also interesting to program. AROS has some multimedia features and has internet access. Most importantly, use AROS to its maximum potential as it stands now, find ways to have fun with it and share your experiences. Good Sites to visit : [https://www.arosworld.org/home.php Aros World User forum] : [https://ae.arosworld.org/ Aros Exec site relocated] : [https://arosnews.github.io/ AROS News] : [https://www.osnews.com/topic/amiga-aros/ OSNews] : [https://www.reddit.com/r/aros/ Reddit] : [https://www.facebook.com/ArosWorkshop/ Aros Workshop], : [https://archives.arosworld.org Aros Archives] : [https://aminet.net/ Aminet] : [https://aros.sourceforge.io AROS] : [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS Codebase] : [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues Issues] and [https://sourceforge.net/p/aros/bugs/ old defunct bugs site] : [https://github.com/deadwood2 Deadwood's builds], [https://www.axrt.org/download/aros/v11/ v11 builds], [https://axrt.org/downloads-aros Updated i386 32bit PC builds], : [https://github.com/ezrec Ezrec x86 m68k mirror of old svn version] : [https://sites.google.com/view/arosone Aros One x86, x64] : [https://tinyarosdistro.flazio.com/ Tiny Aros x86 and x64] : [https://arosnews.github.io/aros-portable/ AROS portable USB3 stick images of hosted Aros One x86 and x64 on debian] : [http://vmwaros.blogspot.com Icaros Desktop x86 now on sabbatical, very old edition] : [https://sites.google.com/site/arosaspireone AspireOS, of the netbook Aspire One, very old edition] : [http://arosalive.blogspot.co.uk/p/10-basic-aros-how-tos-tutorials.html Basic How To guides] : [http://arosgamer.blogspot.co.uk/ AROS Playground], [http://thewetmachine.net/tag/aros/ Jess Wet Machine], [https://aroshacking.wordpress.com/ Jon Robertson's AROS Experiences and FPC Free Pascal], [], :[http://www.apollo-accelerators.com/ Apollo Accelerators m68k], [http://www.amigablogs.net/ Amiga Blogs], [http://blog.a-eon.biz/blog/ Trevor Dickinson blog], [http://www.pegasos.org/index.php Genesi activity], : [https://forum.amiga.org/ Amiga OS AOS 3.x forum] : [http://eab.abime.net/ EAB Amiga] : [http://www.amigaworld.net/ AmigaWorld] : [http://www.amiga-news.de/en/ English translation of German site] : [http://www.ppa.pl/ Polish Amiga Like News] : [http://www.apollo-core.com/ Apollo Forum] : [https://amigaalive.blogspot.com/ AmigaAlive] : [https://www.amigalove.com/software Disk Mags] : [https://amigachristmastree.ultimateamiga.com/ Xmas Amiga Game Jam] : [https://www.reddit.com/r/amiga/ Amiga] == Distributions aka Distros == For end users there are distributions (ready made with selected apps aiming to be easy to use), mostly created and maintained by one person in their own workflow/style. They reuse the nightly boot compiles to suit their needs and possibly other end users. You are free to create your own if required. * For native 64bit Intel/AMD: [https://sites.google.com/view/arosone Aros One x64], [https://tinyarosdistro.flazio.com/ Tiny Aros], * For native 32bit Intel/AMD which will run on 64bit machines: [https://sites.google.com/view/arosone Aros One x86], [https://www.tinyaros.it/ Tiny Aros], * For native 68k [https://sites.google.com/view/arosone Aros One m68k], [http://www.aros-platform.de/ AROS Vision], * For hosted Linux usb drive image [https://arosnews.github.io/aros-portable/ x64 Debian hosted version of Aros One], * For hosted ARM there is Aeros and wip native RaspberryPi AROS was originally developed on Linux but can run on an Intel-based Linux distro as an app. As time has gone on, it can be run as an app on many more operating systems (Windows, FreeBSD, Linux and limited on MacOS). This may sound strange: an OS running on top of another OS. Basically, this is to take advantage of drivers (audio, internet, graphics, etc.) and compiler environments, in the existing OS, with which people may be already familiar. The term we use for what AROS does is "Hosted". AROS Native is the term coined to describe AROS being run without any OS underneath it. It runs alone just like AmigaOS(TM) did. As this version does not benefit from "Hosted" drivers, dedicated ones have to be ported/written. Hence the smaller range of supported hardware / peripherals. We have other pages highlighting this support AROS is open source so basically everyone can take part. The source is public on github and there are new commits most days. AROS is automatically compiled daily, result are the nightly builds hosted on Sourceforge. The nightly builds are only used for testing changes, testing software and the starting point for distribution maintainers or even your own distribution. They are very basic, miss some functionality and apps like web browsers and are not suited for end users. * The [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/nightly2/ Nightly2], [http://aros.sourceforge.net/download.php nightly builds File Release Service] or [http://aros.sourceforge.net/downloads/ Sourceforge Project Web builds] are made automatically every night directly from the Github and in the past, SVN (Subversion) tree and contain the latest code for the AROS operating system. It should be noted that the builds have not been tested in any way and can be horrible broken. There are two standards ABIv0 (old) and ABIv1 (newest). *ABIv1 ABIv11 nightly builds for 64bit PC builds, it is where the most work is done by developers *ABIv0 is needed for 32bit (which also runs on 64bit) intel / amd distributions ==Media== AROS media tends to boot in this tier list of media types, first internal HDD SSD, CD DVD drive, and finally usb drive (last two can depend on bios boot order) * USB .VHD [https://sites.google.com/view/arosone Aros One x86 and x64], with md5 below <pre> 7dd7119ab3e56d75ee852c137226b4d7 *ArosOne-USB-v1.2-x86_64-v11.zip cf906eeaad4a83b3520b1896bdc6b0d3 *ArosOne-USB-v1.1-x86_64-v11.zip e2eb8fe8cfd61c567b0152a61cf85251 *ArosOne-x86-v2.8-USB-IMG.zip 559909c75c2f56472c74267a7d075355 *ArosOne-x86-v2.7-USB-IMG.zip 93da5898508c1a8c05bb8991ab7bd117 *AROS One Image-USB-2.4.zip 59fcabd7090e47f12d54f7eb78cf0f45 *ArosOne-x86-v2.2-USB-Image.zip 24fb8de726ae8fc5fe5bac6d30f03dc5 ArosOne-x86-v2.0-USB-Image.zip f3d725e990072edce633b59747911b6b ArosOne-x86-v1.8-USB-IMG.zip e089a24ae310e92fcc407a0125602ce8 Aros-One x86-IMG-USB-v1.6.zip </pre> [https://tinyaros.flazio.com/ Tiny AROS] 22bc993625b7c75b17263c0cc7e7baaa *Tiny Aros_copy.vhd (March 2024) There is usually a vhd image inside the zip that can be written to USB sticks which is so much faster than the old ISO written to physical CD DVD method. This .vhd can be written to an USB stick / ssd with these pieces of software below but it will erase the previous contents from the usb Windows - [https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/ RPi Raspberry Imager, use custom and see all files], [https://hddguru.com/software/HDD-Raw-Copy-Tool/ HDD-Raw-Copy-Tool], [https://rufus.ie/ Rufus up to version 3.20 may work with VirtualBox HD vhd images with Win7 but not some Rufus 4.x versions], [https://etcher.balena.io/ Balena Etcher], Linux - [https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/ Raspberry Imager Ubuntu], Suse Image / Multi writer, dd, Mac - * Virtual Machine .ISO or CDs DVDs The native iso images are currently not compatible with Ventoy, Yumi, MultiBootUSB, Easy2Boot E2B, or similar <pre> 11c8a147fcad7ecf52ae3a43e1934b69 *ArosOne-DVD-v1.2-x86_64-v11.zip f93053d3b9ccf304d7e6ac3389e1987b *ArosOne-DVD-v1.1-x86_64-v11.zip 86d808a40dc7be389a758799a9b4f595 *ArosOne-x86-v2.0-ISO-DVD.zip f1fc8599ef6a39e5df394e0f41d55526 *AROS-One-x86-ISO-DVD-v1.6.zip </pre> You can use a virtual emulator like VirtualBox, VMWare to mount the iso image which can then be used to boot and/or install to USB. no software can write an AROS ISO to a Pendrive. The author of ‘Rufus’ (who used an Amiga 500 as a child) once tried, but when he saw the system composition, he said he was unable to do it. The solution is to boot the ISO from a VM (WMware, VBox), then install the AROS build on the Pendrive, which will eventually become a Live Pendrive that can be booted on a PC. The only precaution is that in some cases it is necessary to thoroughly clean the Pendrive of any partitions and remove any bootloader that is not AROS. The Pendrive must remain raw without any partitions. You can clean the USB stick on a PC with a program that manages hard disks. You need to do a partition wipe. On some USB sticks, you can clean it with InstallAROS. Previously the only installation option was CD-RW or DVD-RW, since the whole system can be burnt onto a single disk and can be reused when the next version is released. Good branded discs like Taiyo Yuden (later JVC) or Verbatim should be used to reduce frustration later. The days for this media is gone but kept here for information Since nobody currently sells AROS on any other media, you will need access to a CD/DVD burner to create the installation disk yourself. After it is on a CD or DVD, then access and writing to USB pendrives becomes available (this should be viewed as an outdated or last resort alternative method now), as well as using good USB manufacturers like Sandisk, Kingston, etc. rather than some other no-names. Try burning it to a CD-RW or DVD-RW using your CD/DVD burning program (most burning software have a burn iso option). The ideal writing speed is 2x or 4x, higher speeds can give errors and problems. Check the writing integrity of your CD or DVD if your software has an option to do so before going any further. Standalone portable usb cd dvd drives do not boot physical burnt discs, please use an internal ide sata drive instead. * SD-card For ARM Pi Aros, copy the files onto a FAT32 formatted SD card. ==Booting== The LiveUSB, and in the past LiveCD LiveDVD, is designed to trial (test drive) various operating systems without having to install them to your working system. Since 2011, UEFI was introduced to replace the original PC BIOS which made booting media more confusing. Some changes in the UEFI/bios may be needed *go into the bios using esc, f2 or f? and disable the Security -> Secure Boot and maybe apply option for Legacy IDE mode *you may have to press F9, F10 or F12 or p on boot up to present a device boot options like USB or CD/DVD *disable the Fast Boot config so it would recognize portable DVD-drive and changed the Boot-sequence Secure boot was introduced by Microsoft and later consortium control what operating systems work with Secure Boot via shims. For Aros, it is best to disable or be able to change Secure Boot (if you dual boot with Windows this may cause issues with Window boots after) The grub part of the boot should be fully automatic, and you should see a multiple choice graphic card screen after 10 seconds for USB or over 30s CDs and DVDs. After the grub graphics choice, AROS takes over the booting and any issues can arise here =====Advice for various machines===== Some of the stages involved and shown on the display in a typical AROS boot start up <pre> [MultiLoader] [ELF Loader] [Boot] [HPET] [Kernel:ACPI] [Kernel:APIC-IA32] [Kernel:SMP APIC] [HiddStorage] ACPI: ???? ACPI Error [ACPI]AcpiOs???? [BattClock] Got RTC century offset 0x32 from ACPI [PCI] Scanning bus ? [AHCI] Sata [Vesa] only if vesa is chosen as graphics option [ATA] detect hd & cd drives [ATA0?] ata-identity [packet] fat.handler be.handler, etc. [DOS] [Storage:Bus] [Storage:Controller] [MSS] USB setup [ehciInit] Port ? maps to controller ? [I2C] [ATI] [drm] nouveau [AROSTCP] if you have network driver prefs set up to start when booting </pre> ; If boot fails, please give us some indication (pictures or videos) where the boot stops and the message(s) on screen. AROS's native SATA/AHCI driver doesn't always work. If you get errors related to ahci.device, try disabling it. At your chosen boot entry in the GRUB menu, Press E, scroll down to the ahci.device entry, and add a # or ; at the start of that line or delete it with Ctrl-K. Then press Ctrl-X or F10 to boot. If your disk isn't accessible at all with this change, you might need to change the SATA controller to IDE legacy mode in the BIOS: however, making this change will likely cause problems booting Windows on the same machine (if it's already installed). To disable ahci.device permanently, edit the text file "SYS:Arch/pc/grub/grub.cfg", and remove the ahci.device line from all boot entries you intend to use. SATA AHCI Timeout while waiting for device to complete operations with BIOS SATA entry set to AHCI mode stops at "waiting for bootable media" screen, changing BIOS SATA setting back to IDE mode may allow it to continue booting The ATA driver doesn't always work. If you get errors related to ata.device, try using the alternative in sys:devs/alt which is an older version. Press E when your chosen boot entry is highlighted in the GRUB menu, scroll down to the ata.device entry, and change it to read "module /Devs/Alt/ata.device". Then press Ctrl-X to boot. To make this change permanent, edit the text file "SYS:Arch/pc/grub/grub.cfg", and change the path to ata.device in all boot entries you intend to use. Further options (removing the " ") to add to the GRUB menus to disable certain other components for debugging: <pre> Disable AHCI "AHCI=disable" Disable NVME "NVME=disable" Disable ATA: "ATA=disable" Disable ATA: "ATA=nopci,nolegacy" ATA safe mode: "ATA=nodma,32bit" Disable IDE from SATA: "ATA=32bit,nosata2pata" VIA / SIS with cdrom read io errors "ATA=nodma,nopoll" noacpi all [PCI] devices to be invisible to AROS. disk drives work but network, sound won't Set AHCI "AHCI=force150/force300/force600" Disable AHCI/SATA: comment out with a # ; or remove ahci.device line with Ctrl-K Disable USB: comment out # ; or remove pciusb.device and poseidon.library lines with Ctrl-K Disable native graphics: "nomonitors" USB3 "USB=xhci" </pre> Other useful grub command line options - nomonitors, noacpi, vesahack, nopoll Press Ctrl and X together (or F10) to exit and boot with the new options. Just experiment with different variations until successful. Those working options will need to be reused with every reboot of AROS until you can edit the grub.cfg and make it permanent i.e. install to hard disk or USB. * If you use VESA mode, you can see the debug log if you add 'vesahack' to the command line. This will set up split-screen mode. In the upper half you'll see AROS screen, in the bottom - debug log. * ACPI ie. PCI hardware - If you get crashes at early boot, try adding 'NOACPI' to the command line If you're having boot issues and have a null modem cable and a spare pc, a boot log is always useful. Edit your grub line to include debug=serial but would try with an with sysdebug=all in the line later as it can cause issues booting on machines with sysdebug=all enabled (corrupts the cpu initialization). However, if you feel you have found a genuine bug/fault in AROS that needs attention, please use the [http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?atid=439463&group_id=43586&func=browse bug submission form] to record as much information about what happened, why, and what hardware etc. you have so that people may try to assist you For Virtual machines VMWare VirtualBox, etc., attach and press play to start the ISO image If booting hasn't worked then it could be down to Bios/UEFI settings or USB3 (2014 onwards) =====nvme.device===== Since 2018, nvme drives are standard on most machines Now as far as hardware goes on a newer machine with an NVME drive you may need to add NVME=disable as the NVME driver could potentially cause lockups. =====AHCI===== Starting taking over since 2011 on a lot of machines * Check that UEFI (replacement for PC BIOS) has options set to remove UEFI SecureBoot option and apply CSM * SATA drive is set for Legacy or a mixture AHCI/IDE and not AHCI AHCI sata can be very difficult to get working Most Windows installs are already set to AHCI sata, changing this to a legacy IDE mode setting can help but please check if Windows will still boot. Some hardware like Lenovo laptops do not always like being set in legacy mode so only use as a last resort and aware of issues that can be caused. Now as far as hardware goes on a newer machine with an NVME drive you may need to add NVME=disable as the NVME driver could potentially cause lockups. With a 16C/32T chip machine, disable SMT and it should boot. =====ata.device for old BIOS's ===== Pre 2010 this was the de facto standard method of providing settings to the computer at a lower level Some adjustments to the BIOS setup options are necessary (usually by pressing a key like DEL, F1, F2, F12 or ESC, p on the very early boot up of the computer). *Adjust booting options like moving USB hdd, CDROM higher as it is quite often disabled or placed lower by default, i.e. USB hdd, CD/DVD are placed at the top above the hard drive. Try looking here [http://www.windowsreinstall.com/articles/bios/ Windows] or [http://www.hiren.info/pages/bios-boot-cdrom Bios] or [http://www.wikihow.com/Set-Bios-to-Boot-from-a-CD-ROM Boot] or web search "BIOS BOOT CDROM" * At the '''SAME''' time, check if the SATA/AHCI option is set to Emulate or IDE Legacy, though this can have '''issues''' with any OS already on the hard disk. If in doubt, do nothing and seek advice. * check that under BIOS settings you '''DO NOT''' have plug&play OS selected as Aros at this point is unable to route interrupts on its own and needs the BIOS to do that. '''Save''' options changed at the end. PCITool can show if the motherboard chipset is in IDE mode. Class = 0x01 means STORAGE, Subclass = 0x01 means IDE. Also ProductID 0x3a20 resolves to non-AHCI mode in Intel ICH10 documentation. ==Installing== We have a separate section [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Platforms/x86_installing here] We have a specific section for each CPU platform under the Specific platforms in the NavBar navigation bar on the right hand side menu error code (-6) when using the ahci.device (has writing to disk problem but not reading) is enabled. change this line in your grub and reboot <pre> #module /Devs/ahci.device << disable module /Devs/Alt/ata.device << add this line instead </pre> ==File structure overview== AROS' directory structure is mostly identical to AmigaOS directory structure, with some additions. AROS: or SYS: also known as DH0: (i.e. the drive partition with AROS system) has the following simplified list of the main drawers (Amigas term for directories/folders). {| class="wikitable" |C: | small apps, where AROS looks first for applications/games but will look at Tools, System afterwards |---- |Devs: | .audio, .hidd, network, graphics and other hardware device drivers are stored |---- |L: | where .handler files go |---- |Libs: | where .library files go |---- |Prefs: | applications that adjust or setup AROS functions and capabilities |---- |S: | startup scripts (for the aros boot process '''not''' grub) are stored here |---- |Storage: | place to keep old or alternative device drivers |---- |System: | applications associated with AROS operating system |---- |Tools: | extra applications |---- |} See [[Aros/User/DOS#Drives.2C_Files.2C_Assigns.2C_Directories|DOS manual: Drives, Files, Assigns, Directories]] === Filesystem === Whilst the kernel is the heart, the filesystem is the blood of the system... *Journalling - ZFS XFS ext4 NTFS SFS PFS3 *Non-journaling - BtrFS [http://aminet.net/disk/misc ext2] exFAT FAT32(VFAT) FFS Filesystem options for AROS to install * SFS default * Professional File System PFS3 [http://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=52234&highlight=pfs3+free&page=13 m68k] * FFS very old now but left for legacy usage Other [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=driver/filesystem filesystems] for storage purposes * FAT32 favorite as most OSs support * NTFS (can lock system) * exFAT PFS *minimises* the amount of fragmentation, but does not automatically defrags as it saves files to the drive SFS tries to do exactly the same thing, but in certain cases it doesn't do as well as PFS. But since you can defrag SFS The only filesystems that really NEED defragging are from Microsoft(TM) - exFAT/VFAT/NTFS <pre> Copy L/exfat-handler L: DOSDriver or Mountlist entry for an exFAT partition make sure that the FileSystem and Handler are set as follows: FileSystem = exfat-handler DosType = 0x46415458 </pre> <pre> Copy L/ntfs3g-handler L: DOSDriver or Mountlist entry for an NTFS partition make sure that the FileSystem and Handler are set as follows: FileSystem = ntfs3g-handler DosType = 0x4e544653 Also to make a read-only mount you can set: Control = ro </pre> The Smart File System (SFS) is a journaling filesystem used on Amiga computers and AmigaOS-derived operating systems. It is designed for performance, scalability and integrity, offering improvements over standard Amiga filesystems as well as some special or unique features. SFS is written in C and was originally created and released as freeware in 1998 by John Hendrikx. After the original author left the Amiga scene in 2000, the source code to SFS was released and its development continued by Ralph Schmidt in MorphOS. Its development has now forked; as well as the original Amiga version, there are now versions for MorphOS, AROS, AmigaOS 3, and a version for AmigaOS 4, which have different feature sets but remain compatible to each other. Versions for AROS, AmigaOS and MorphOS are based on different branches. In addition, there is a driver for Linux to read Amiga SFS volumes, GRUB natively supports it and there are free drivers to use it from UEFI. The Linux version is [http://home.elka.pw.edu.pl/~mszyprow/programy/asfs/ independent code]. SFS (Smart File System) partially defragments itself while the filesystem is in use. The defragmentation process is almost completely stateless AROS SFS version has a 120GB partition size limit on hard disks and DVDs current 4gig size limit. The sources for the MorphOS 64-bit version of SFS were available but no porting to AROS has happened so far due to endian issues, etc. SFS Tools * GUI - arSFSDoctor, * CLI - sfscheck , [http://www.portacall.org/ sfsundelete], sfsformat, setcache hits a usability ceiling around the 10GB / 100,000 file mark, sfscheck dh0: seek purge fraglist defragment If there are two simultaneous file writes in progress and you reboot machine (or it locks up or crashes) you may end up with a corrupted filesystem. Although arSFSDoctor may help, you might have to copy the files to another partition, format the partition with the errors on and copy the files back. A bit error on the harddisk would give this error. PFS / SFS are way more advanced and much much faster than the FFS. FFS is supported for legacy reasons only. The Professional File System (PFS) is a filesystem originally developed commercially for the Amiga and now distributed on Aminet with a 4-clause BSD license. It is a compatible successor of AmiFileSafe (AFS), with an emphasis on added reliability and speed compared to standard Amiga filesystems. It also features multi-user abilities like the older MuFS. PFS has so many advantages including the important things, speed, the ability to recover all deleted files even simply same name by typing the command ". Deldir" convenient if done in Directory Opus, virtually deleted files are copied normally as if they had never been deleted, other convenience is to not ever invalidate the filesystem, just put it on top of the startup-sequence command "diskvalid", which automatically corrects any irregularities in the system startup; PFS also provides a device for floppy which makes them very fast and takes advantage of the full capacity of the floppy including the area dedicated to the bootloader. The device is split into two main areas. At the beginning of the device is the metadata section, which consists of a root block, and a generic array of blocks that can be allocated to store metadata. The rest of the device is another contiguous generic array of blocks that can be allocated to store data. The metadata section usually uses a few percent of the device, depending on the size of the device. The metadata is stored as a tree of single blocks in the metadata section. The entire directory structure is recorded in the metadata, so the data section purely contains data from files. The metadata describes the location of data in files with extents of blocks, which makes the metadata quite compact. When a metadata update occurs, the system looks at the block containing the metadata to be changed, and copies it to a newly allocated block from the metadata section, with the change made, then it recursively changes the metadata in the block that points to that block in the same way. This way, eventually the root block needs to be changed, which causes the atomic metadata update. The filesystem is reasonably good at keeping files unfragmented, although there is a defragmentation tool available which will work on an online filesystem ie whilst being used. It was the first filesystem to introduce the concept of the Recycle Bin natively at filesystem-level to the Amiga, holding the last few deleted files in a hidden directory on the disk root. PFS version 5.3 was developed in C and a small portion of assembly code by Michiel Pelt. There are endian issues to be overcome and adapting the small amount of m68k to C before use on intel based machines, etc. Autoupdate of files in a directory is already implemented in Wanderer, but not all file systems handle dos.library/StartNotify() in its full extent. It seems to work correctly in Ram Disk (thanks to AmberRAM handler), and it also works on SFS formatted devices. Other file systems might not yet have it implemented correctly though. The PC equivalent of the Amiga's RDB is the master boot record (MBR). ===Installing Applications=== The typical means to install applications under AROS/AmigaOS involves simply copying/extracting the archive (.zip .lha .rar .tar.gz) file containing the applications files to your own desired location i.e. drawer/folder. Once extracted, launching it by double clicking on an icon (recommended) or using the shell (alternative). Generally, this is on a separate partition from your AROS system files, however in reality it can be any location - including RAM: if you don't want it staying around too long especially when you switch off. At some time in the future it may be desirable for AROS to have a package-manager like subsystem able to retrieve information online about packages available for AROS and whether they update anything you currently have installed, however at the moment no such ability exists. ===User Data files=== AmigaOS has no notion of a default location to store user data files, and presently neither does AROS - though it may be desirable at some time to provide a common start location. For most people, extra small FAT32 NTFS partition(s) as well as the usual Sys: (DH0:) and Work: (DH1:) / Briefcase (DU1:) partitions to store data seems preferable. Especially if a reinstall is ever needed. ===User Environment configuration files=== AmigaOS/AROS stores persistent system configuration data in directory assigned to ENVARC:. This, by default, points to SYS:Prefs/EnvArc. During boot a copy is made to another assign, ENV:, which is for runtime usage. Changes to the files here will not survive a reboot. Setting the env variables is generally done by applications themselves, or when necessary by the user using the SetEnv command. SetEnv has a SAVE switch to force the persistent copy in ENVARC: to be written also for when you are sure the change should be permanent. Under the standard installation of AmigaOS style OSs, ENVARC: is copied to ENV: upon startup, which, if you have a hard drive installation, is in RAM:, hence, ENV: ends up being RAM:Env. ENVARC: is the Environment Archive, which is the permanent copy of ENV:, which is the Environment. It's roughly like the Registry in Windoze. Most programs do (and all should) store their settings in ENVARC: somewhere, and load them from ENV:. The effect of this can be seen in the Preference editors. If you Save your preferences, they go in ENVARC: and ENV:. If you click Use, they only go in ENV:. If you reboot, normally, anything saved to ENV: is lost, and is replaced with a copy of what is in ENVARC:. you can set the default public screen for any tool started from a cli with the PUBSCREEN variable. So open the pubscreen, set PUBSCREEN to the name and start newcli for example, then the new cli window (and all following windows opened from that window) will appear on that public screen. ===Drivers=== All hardware support is placed in the Devs drawer (folder/directory). The network drivers <something.device> go in the Networks sub-drawer. Audio drivers <something.audio> are put in the AHI sub-drawer. Graphics drivers <something.hidd> are put in the Drivers sub-drawer. ==Configuring== AROS has mainly decided on a MUI-like requester/menu/ clone so changing the background, icons, font, menus can be done with SYS:Prefs/Zune AROS has several desktop GUI front ends like * DOpus5 Magellan, Wanderer and Scalos (medium) * AROS Workbench, Workbook (smaller) File / Directory managers like Dopus4, MCAmiga, App Launch Shortcuts like FKey, Amistart, BoingIconBar, right mouse click on magellan, wanderer desktop, etc. General usability decisions - Prefs/IControl, Most apps can be autostarted by copying into SYS:WBStartup directory folder e.g. WeatherBar.zip can be downloaded, unzip and the contents of the zip copied to wbstartup folder ClicktoFront and .info to SYS:WBStartup so always be activated when turning on the computer or add a text line to user-startup is SYS:S (scripts version of wbstartup) e.g. standard Amiga / AROS does not allow clicking of background windows to come to the front to make it easy to get to the window you need but it has the ability if these apps are copied again to WBStartUp or are added to SYS:S/user-startup script run QUIET sys:Tools/Commodities/ClickToFront >Nil: run QUIET sys:Tools/Commodities/DepthMenu >Nil: run QUIET sys:Tools/Commodities/Blanker seconds=300 >Nil: Exchange controls Commodities and can be opened with alt, ctrl, h Although there are heaps of docks, menus and other launcher programs on the Amiga like OSs, FKey has got to be one of the quickest and less complicated ways to launch programs, and it comes with the OS. In SYS:Tools/Commodities, the FKey commodity (Ctrl Alt F) allows you to make actions assigned to some combinations of keys <pre> ALT TAB Cycle Windows Cycle Screens Enlarge Window Shrink Window Toggle Window Size Insert Text Run Program Run Arexx Script </pre> e.g. <pre> LAmiga F1 = Avail Flush LAmiga F2 = Open Prefs LAmiga F3 = Finder Alt Tab = Cycle Windows LAmiga Tab or M = Cycle Screens Alt Up arrow = Enlarge Window Alt Down arrow = Shrink Window Alt Home = Toggle Window Size = Insert Text LAmiga e = Run Program = Run Arexx Script </pre> If your FKey GUI pops up when you start your Workbench up and you don't want it to, click once on the icon, go to the Icons-Information in the menu and make sure it has the tooltype set "CX_POPUP=NO". Now let's launch it and assign the locale switching. After you double-click on FKey icon, launch the Exchange, choose the FKey from list and click the Show button. This will invoke the FKey window. You can see the ALT TAB in list assigned to window switching. Now enter the first key combination, say, ALT Z and go to the right panel. Choose Launch the program from pulldown menu and enter SYS:Prefs/Input as an argument. Append the USE switch and english preset name to the string as shown: SYS:Prefs/Input USE SYS:Prefs/Presets/english Click on the New Button to add the another combination. Now set the combination for your locale as shown above, replacing English name with your preset name. Click New button again and then Save Settings. Now you can use defined combinations to switch the layouts. Although not needed by most users, the system wide ARexx script capability can manage many file manipulation task(s) but this would work only with those program that support [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/Docs/Rexx ARexx] like *Desktop - DOpus5, Scalos *Dock - FKey, *Files - Multiview, DOpus4, *Internet Apps - Odyssey, WookieChat, *General Apps - the shell can be modified with escape strings but not needed in most cases Common Keyboard Shortcuts <pre> RAlt Right Alt Key LAlt Left Alt Key RWinKey Right Windows Key LWinKey Left Windows Key RAmiga Right Amiga Key (if one) LAmiga Left Amiga Key (if one) </pre> ;Bootup Options :Spacebar during boot, enters the bootmenu which allows a boot without startup sequence, etc ;Left Click :LAmiga = LWinKey = F11 ;Right Click :RAmiga = RWinKey = F12 ;Mark :RAmiga and B ;Cut :RAmiga and X ;Copy :RAmiga and C ;Paste :RAmiga and V ;Search :RAmiga and S ;Mouse Movement LAmiga and together with arrow keys - shift as well at the same time as well to move faster ;Mouse Selection LAmiga and LAlt to select ;Screen Switching LAmiga and M or N ;HELP key Can sometimes be mapped to F11 but can be changed via FKey ===DOpus 5 Directory Magellan=== Dopus 5.x is a whole desktop replacement on the Amiga Workbench (Desktop). Assign DOpus5: SYS:System/DOpus assign D5THEMES: DOPUS5:Themes Left mouse button clicked twice on the desktop background brings up the Device List window. Green strip notifies SRCE (source) and if another is open it may be red for DEST (destination). clicking on the red strip changes to green Word list of actions with a left mouse click on the DOWN Arrow and directory stuff with < button next to it single-key hotkeys? exactly the same as in dopus4, edit your functions (button bank, toolbar, menus etc.) and under the flags gadget is a key gadget, just click in it and press the key you want to use. As for the extra text field... try turning off Extended lister key selection in environment / miscellaneous. Settings (Right Win key together with 4) -> *Toolbar -> Editor (Right Win Key together with 1) for Copy, Move, Delete, etc above the Device List *Listers -> Menu (Right Win Key together with 2) *Buttons -> Editor (Right Win Key together with 3) unknown *Settings -> Clock (add to title bar as well as the date) *Settings -> Environment (Right Win key together with 4) for Backgrounds, etc *Hotkeys -> Setup for quick shortcut keypresses (Right Win Key together with 7) Each Dopus5 theme are stored in a separate directory, named appropriately, which contains further sub directories * Screens (jpg or any picture supported by datatypes but not animations) * Sounds (wav iff snd svx supported) * Icons (png newicons glowicons ) * Desktop Patterns (iff ) Shift and click on the icon - runs the icon arcdir arexx / dopus5 scripts see dopus5/arexx/ folder Just use wildcards in background filenames and you get different pics in reboots! For example, configure in Environment -> Backgrounds -> Desktop something like this: <pre> Work:Pictures/Backgrounds/#? ...or Work:Pictures/back#?.iff ...etc... </pre> If you want change the bg backdrop pic in runtime after some time, an arexx-script for it (paste it into a text file called dopusrandbg.rexx or dopusrandbg.dopus5 <pre> /* Changes DOpus background image forever Start with: Run >NIL: RX dopusrandbg.rexx */ if ~show("L", "rexxsupport.library") then do if ~addlib("rexxsupport.library", 0, -30,0) then exit 10 end /* Configure these two lines for your needs: */ minutes=1 picpath="Work:Pics/#?.iff" address DOPUS.1 do forever call delay 3000*minutes dopus set background '"'picpath'"' desktop center custom dopus refresh background custom end </pre> If you don't want to use/open rexxsupport.library just for DELAY() then use the DOS Wait command <pre> /* random diropus backdrop changer */ /* by paul trauth, 1999 */ /* to do: non-repeatable randomness? */ options results parse arg path address DOPUS.1 /* get current backdrop pattern so it actually changes */ dopus query background desktop custom currentpatt=result lastslash=lastpos('/',currentpatt) currentpatt=substr(currentpatt,lastslash+1,(pos('"',currentpatt,2)-lastslash-1)) dir=showdir(path,'FILE','/') num=0 do while dir~='' where=pos('/',dir) if where>0 then do file=left(dir,where-1) dir=right(dir,length(dir)-where) end else do file=dir dir='' end if left(file,1) ~='.' & file~=currentpatt then do pics.num=file num=num+1 end end which=random(0,num-1,time(s)) newbg='"'||path||'/'||pics.which||'"' dopus set background newbg desktop tile precision exact dopus set background on dopus refresh background </pre> It's WB ARexx interface, you could enter a cli command as a menu item to open a WB drawer like this... RX "address WORKBENCH;WINDOW 'device:drawer' OPEN" Where device:drawer is replaced by the path of the drawer to open. The ARexx script would be capable to manage such a task but this would work only with those program that support ARexx ===Wanderer === Backgrounds icon text sizes, colors, etc. with wanderer prefs in the prefs drawer but cannot use #? or *.* in the backgrounds file entry to randomly choose pictures Enable the bar, you need to edit the text file ‘statusbar.prefs’. The change is simple: just change “False” to ‘True’. Prefs/Env-Archive/SYS/Wanderer/statusbar.prefs Provides a way to hide the old Workbench 3.1 style of windows and screens. Themes - SYS:Prefs -> Appearance The default content of Prefs/Env-Archive/SYS/themes.var should be "themes:ice" but can be changed via the theme prefs, please do NOT click the Use button. Its useless. As you know, it will ask for the theme volume. Just pick the theme you want, click on Save, then reboot. * Decoration is on. Any time trying to change theme, you get: "Please insert volume Theme: in any drive"? You could check if you find SYS:System/Themes or if it is missing. Then you could open startup-sequence which you can find in drawer "S". There should be a line: Assign THEMES: SYS:SYSTEM/THEMES >Nil: This does the trick. Open a shell and run: Assign THEMES: SYS:SYSTEM/THEMES Than start the Theme prefs again... this should work * The theme is the only thing that could slow the system a bit, but it's not that performance impacting on most uses, and you can switch it of completely. Remove C:Decoration from the bottom of the file sys:s/startup-sequence. [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/theme ALua/Zulu script] built for faster Wanderer skin management. You can modify config files, install new (wdz format/zipped skin files) and delete skins via the Theme Manager. [http://sites.google.com/site/arosaspireone/download-1 Global.Prefs] ===Scalos=== [https://web.archive.org/web/20180922220139/http://scalos.noname.fr/ Scalos] is not an OS replacement, it's a Workbench replacement. It replaces the desktop and graphical file management components. Scalos is 100% Workbench replacement with most functions working like the original Workbench ones. Undo and Redo available for most window and icon operations. Fully multitasking so every window has its own task. While loading icons, any window function (e.g. Drag&Drop) is available. 24bit color support with window patterns - Unlimited and easily configurable via tooltypes. Optimised backgroundpatterns routine so patterns can be tiled, centred or even scaled to fit into the windows. Live updating window scrolling - Supports middle mouse button panning and drawer (folder) windows can be iconified on the desktop. Icon imagetypes with all types are supported such as backfill or complement. Configurable surrounding iconborder. Icon support also visually highlights files which are soft-links in the file system. Icon dragging is more stable and far less flickery on graphics cards. Whilst dragging, icons are displayed with text and they can become transparent over anything where they can be dropped. Single-window lasso mode, with scrolling window contents invoked by dragging mouse with configurable qualifier key. Text icon lasso selection used to ignore "Name column selects text icons" flag. Support for backfilled thumbnail icons, with selectable color and transparency. Added option to always generate square thumbnail icons with preview icons for images - Thumbnails can be permanently saved in icons. Supports PNG icons with alpha channel and real transparency and displays OS3.5 GlowIcons and are all scalable. Iconborders with variations (normal, shadowed, outlined). Completely configurable, filetype-specific user-definable popup menus and tooltips. Plugin system to exchange or add features and can enhance the Workbench and make it more configurable. Filetype plugins to display filetype-specific information. - Currently, EXIF information viewer for JPEG images is included. Plugin included for 100% support of OS3.9 Workbench features. Plugin included for AREXX API compatible to OS3.9 Workbench. Online update with updater.module Scalos works also as a Workbench replacement. In this case the 'emulation mode' has to be set by using Scalos' own version of LoadWB and offers * Scalos uses the Workbench Screen for its windows instead opening a new one * AppIcon, AppMenuItem, AppWindow functions are redirected to Scalos * all Programs placed in "WBStartup" should start * The Screen will be reopened in case of changes in ScreenMode and Palette settings <pre> v1.0 (V39.201) - November 1999 v1.1 (V39.212) - December 1999 v1.2b (39.220) - June 6, 2000 v1.2d (39.222) - 2000 (latest public beta executable) v1.3 (40.7) (beta) - August 2, 2001 v1.3 (40.22) - September 25, 2002 v1.4 (40.32) (beta) March 31, 2005 v1.6 (41.4) - March 27, 2007 v1.7 (41.5) - August 12, 2007 v1.8 (41.6) - March 12, 2009 v1.9 (41.7) (beta) - March 15, 2010 v1.9 (41.8) (RC1) - August 25, 2012 open source v1.9.2 (41.10) Deadwoods' AROS late 2022 32bit and 64bit build unifying the code base of ` for AROS x86 ABIv0, AROS x86_64 ABIv11 and AROS m68k </pre> Distros may have Scalos files under SYS:System/Scalos or Extras:Scalos. Known [https://github.com/deadwood2/AROS/issues/75 bug list], Certain files like Menu13.prefs, Palette13.prefs, Pattern.prefs and scalos.prefs need to be in SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/Scalos they can be found in Scalos:Storage/envarc and country drawer or run the "Scalos Menu" preferences program. Note if already setup with sub-menu entries and then re-save your menu prefs as it will now generate a new/overwrite prefs file called "Menu13.prefs" in "envarc:scalos/". The same is also required for the new Palette prefs update, click 'Save' and a "Palette13.prefs" file will be saved in to "envarc:scalos/" directory. <pre> ASSIGN Scalos: SYS:xxx/xxx DEFER ASSIGN Libs: Scalos:Libs add ;ASSIGN SYS:Devs/Datatypes Scalos:Devs/Datatypes add Assign Theme: Scalos:Themes/Default_Theme add Assign Locale: Scalos:Locale add Protect Scalos:Tools/browse.script s add quiet Protect Scalos:Tools/OpenShell s add quiet Protect Scalos:Tools/run.script s add quiet run Scalos:Tools/LoadWB ;Scalos:Scalos </pre> Add the above to SYS:S/startup-sequence or SYS:S/user-startup '''before any Wanderer entries''' In the prefs drawer (folder) is the big prefs app Scalos_Prefs which covers these user setup areas <pre> About Scalos Paths - should be preset Startup - WBStartup drawer contents should auto run on each startup Desktop - edit titlebar, icon layout and in misc, auto leave-out (drag icon to desktop) Icons - Drag and Drop - Windows - Text Windows - in misc, drawer sorting at start of listing if needed TrueType Fonts - use Truetype fonts rather than system ones Miscellaneous - Plugins - after adding oop/title_clock.plugin %ti %da does not work, maybe needs ASCII .prefs added Modules - ?? Menu - setup for MainMenu and PopupsMenu with New Menu, RE Name, Key: shortcut, Command Properties FileTypes - already added def_Project icons and def_Disk (hdd sdd cd dvd etc) support PopupMenu - tweak how popups appear Pattern - Wallpaper backgrounds with Type DE, each pattern in the list can be edited, Save as Pattern.pre Palette - change the color of things , Save as Palette.pre </pre> Scalos_Prefs - Pattern - Minimum options to be changed are *DE Desktop/Background *SC Screen *TW Window/TextBackground ie Text listing showing if icon type not recognised *IW Window/Background ie Icons showing Workflow - In "Pattern List" tab, select New - choose a picture, highlight in list, click in number box under New button and slide to another number, click on "Defaults" tab and adjust Pattern numbers slider to choose right picture for each of the above options - Click "Pattern List" tab to check eveything is OK and click Save Pattern List tab on Patterns Page - Allows you to compile a list of pictures (one at a time rather than a whole folder e.g. with #? or *.*), assigning a number Nr to one or more of them for easy reference. Using this number you will be able to assign the pictures to specific windows on the Defaults tab Page. If multiple pictures have the same number, one of the pictures will be chosen randomly. This will allow you to have random desktop pictures, random window backdrops etc. Defaults tab on Patterns Page - Here you can set the defaults for the background pictures for the Desktop, Screen, Window and/or Text Mode throughout Scalos. Randomize every time [check box] - Usually Pictures with the same number will be randomly selected as soon as the configuration loads. If this option is set, the picture will be selected as soon as a window with the same number assignment is opened. *Fit size: The picture will be resized to the dimension of the new window.You *MUST* have set GUIGfx on. asyncron layout: Pictures will be loaded and rendered while the windows opens (Like original Workbench). If this function is 'off', pictures will always be loaded before opening the windows. *Use friendbitmap : The picture is present twice in memory for best speed. This option has no effect if V43 picture.datatype or GUIGfx are used. Always relayout: If "Fit size" is set, the picture will be scaled everytime the window's dimensions change. *Randomize everytime: Usually Pictures with the same number will be randomly selected as soon as the If more pictures have the same number, one of them will be chosen randomly. Patternlist New/Delete : Add a new picture. After that you should assign a number to it. The picture will be rendered as tiles. configuration loads. If this option is set, the picture Asyncron-Task priority: You can set the CPU priority for the Task if "asyncron layout" is set. <pre> Desktop: Number of the Picture for the main window. Screen: Number of the picture for the Scalos-Screen. Window: Number of the picture for the Scalos-windows. TextMode: Number of the picture for the Scalos-windows in Text Mode. </pre> Popup Menu preferences fully configurable menus (includes ToolsDaemon and ParM launch apps import), including support for context-sensitive Popup menus configs for top pull down menus for apps, etc. Workflow - Scalos_Prefs then Menu, New Item, New Command add name at top then in Command Properties e.g. add Workbench and location e.g. DOpus:DOpus4 for apps Command for c apps or Rexx for scripts or Plugin for or AmigaDos for modules <pre> DESCRIPTION NAME/A This is the title that is displayed in the top line of any popup menu INCLUDE NAME/A Name of file to be included. Path can be relative to "Scalos:FileTypes" POPUPMENU Starts the popup menu description section for this filetype. </pre> The following Subcommands are allowed inside popup menus: <pre> SUBMENU "NAME/A" ENDSUBMENU MENUENTRY "NAME/A,KEY/K,DEFAULTACTION/S" ENDMENUENTRY INTERNALCMD "NAME/A" WBCMD "NAME/A,STACK/K/N,WBARGS/S,PRI=PRIORITY/K/N" AREXXCMD "NAME/A,STACK/K/N,WBARGS/S,P=PRIORITY/K/N" CLICMD "NAME/A,STACK/K/N,WBARGS/S,P=PRIORITY/K/N" ICONWINDOWCMD "NAME/A" PLUGINCMD MENUSEPARATOR ENDPOPUPMENU TOOLTIP ENDTOOLTIP </pre> <pre> Starts the tooltip description section for this filetype. The following Subcommands are allowed inside popup menus: GROUP "ORIENTATION/K" ENDGROUP MEMBER "HIDE/K" ENDMEMBER HBAR STRING "ID/K,TEXT/K,SRC/K,TEXTPEN/K,HALIGN/K,STYLE/K,FONT/K,VALIGN/K" SPACE "SIZE/N/A" DTIMAGE "FILENAME/A" </pre> Each theme drawer (folder) has these further folders <pre> About - Desktop - FileTrans - FileType - Icons - Menu - Modules - PointerIcons - Prefs - Sound - Window - </pre> *Plugins <pre> devicefilter.plugin persist.plugin should a crash or reboot occur - next time Scalos started, all windows re-opened title_clock.plugin add digital clock to title see more below title_envvar.plugin %ev, which can be used to display the value (a string) of the variable in the titlebar title_freepens.plugin volumegauge.plugin wb39.plugin wbrexx.plugin plugin adds a Workbench 3.5+ compatible AREXX interface to Scalos internals xtwindows.plugin left or right ALT or left or right SHIFT keys when open/close windows filetype.plugin then run FileTypes-prefs and customize the filetypes (eg import from a DefIcons-brainfile) menu.plugin </pre> *Modules - delete, empty_trashcan, execute, find, format_disk, information, iconproperties, newdrawer, reboot, rename, systeminfo, windowproperties *Tools - scripts like LoadWB, quit.rexx, open_volume.rexx, In Scalos_Prefs->Filetype->Recognition you can define the filetypes and on "Action" you define specific context menu for all filetypes defined in recognition (similar to magellan) there is the same you must show all first (list is only limited) so you created a file type AAABBB, you need to have def_AAABBB icon Associating files with "Scalos_FileTypes" is very simple, practically it is very similar to Dopus4, first you create the Def_icons to assign to the file type (will be seen automatically ), then run "Scalos_FileTypes" you add the extension, fill in the descriptor (MATCH or PATTERN etc..) and save then you create a appropriate entry in the list and rename it, if def icon exists it is shown. Below you can define how files are identified. I use "pattern", similar to magellan to identify file by ending. Then you click on the shown icon and define in it what program is used when you double-klick on it and save it. On the tab action you can define popup menu for it. defined all archive types from XAD in "filetypes". If you change to "action" and click on "archive" you can define the context menu that is shown if you do not define a specific context menu for a filetype Reset to Default in Scalos_Prefs resets all settings so BEWARE <pre> The Scalos desktop screen titlebar may be configured using the main Scalos Preference program. This oop/time_clock plugin adds some additional placeholders: %ti, displays the current time in the default Locale format. e.g. "10:43:37" %da, displays the date in the default Locale format. e.g. "Saturday 14 July 2001" Using the supplied prefs program for the plugin, or editing the ASCII file ENVARC:Scalos/title_clock.prefs you can use the following standard Amiga Locale values to change the formatting %a - abbreviated weekday name %A - weekday name %b - abbreviated month name %B - month name %c - same as "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y" %C - same as "%a %b %e %T %Z %Y" %d - day number with leading 0s %D - same as "%m/%d/%y" %e - day number with leading spaces %h - abbreviated month name %H - hour using 24-hour style with leading 0s %I - hour using 12-hour style with leading 0s %j - julian date %m - month number with leading 0s %M - the number of minutes with leading 0s %n - insert a linefeed %p - AM or PM strings %q - hour using 24-hour style %Q - hour using 12-hour style %r - same as "%I:%M:%S %p" %R - same as "%H:%M" %S - number of seconds with leadings 0s %t - insert a tab character %T - same as "%H:%M:%S" %U - week number, taking Sunday as first day of week %w - weekday number %W - week number, taking Monday as first day of week %x - same as "%m/%d/%y" %X - same as "%H:%M:%S" %y - year using two digits with leading 0s %Y - year using four digits with leading 0s </pre> Shutdown -> right mouse button Scalos, About, Reboot, Shutdown ToolTypes can be added to the Scalos.info icon like *SCALOS_PATTERNNO=<number> : background image matching the number *SCALOS_NOTEXT : The Icon will be drawn without Text. *SCALOS_NODRAG : The Icon will not be draggable. Its position will be fixed. *Module iconproperties - Added SCALOS_BROWSERMODE tooltype support runcommand parameters... in which case: <pre> %p = parameters %w = directory path %d = device-name %% = literal percentage token </pre> With the help of the wbrexx.plugin Scalos gains support for more of the compatible arexx API If an arexx command produces an error you will find the error code placed in the WORKBENCH.LASTERROR variable. ACTIVATEWINDOW <pre> /* Activate the root window */ ADDRESS workbench ACTIVATEWINDOW root /* Activate the "Work:" partition's window if already open*/ ACTIVATEWINDOW "Work:" </pre> CHANGEWINDOW <pre> /* Change the root window; move it to position 10,30. * and change its size to 200100 pixels */ ADDRESS workbench CHANGEWINDOW root LEFTEDGE 10 TOPEDGE 30 WIDTH 200 HEIGHT 100 /* Change the currently active window */ CHANGEWINDOW active 20 40 200 100 </pre> Most of Scalos' issue are due to the flexibility of its' user configuring nature but if The sort menu plugin needs to be ported from ASM to C. IIRC Scalos has a command line option to fully replace Workbench/Wanderer. The Theme: assign is used by both Wanderer and Scalos but I didn't have any problems using both at the same time. The Program will be started from the Shell. If "WB Args" is set, with the Argument "%p" will be replaced by the path of the activated Icons. The Program will started with the specified Stack value. IconWindow: Scalos opens the window of the specified path. PlugIn: Starts a Scalos Menu-PlugIn. If a Menu Item with empty name is specified, Scalos displays a separator line. It's possible to Drag&Drop an Icon in the Configuration Window. All values will be set accordingly. Entries may be dragged across the list. Mac-like selection : This function activates a multiselection method used on MacOS or Win95. Don't have to hold down shift to drag them. Clicking on an already activated icon will not deselect all other icons. MMB move: The window contents may be moved using the middle mouse button. WindowPopup title only: PopupMenu for windows can be opened only on window's title bars. FullBench: Screen-Titles removed and Main Window set Full Size. Scalos Prefs. Go to Settings->Scalos->Prefs and then the Misc section. Remove the tick against Full Bench. If you've enabled it, the titlebar will disappear when you select backdrop. Default Icons saveable : The icons which Scalos generates if "show all files" is enabled, can now be saved using "snapshot" menu option. load DefDisk first : Try to read the icons first from the DefIcons Path before using disk info. Hide hidden files : If this function is activated all files or directories where the "hide" flag is set will not be shown. Many of my Icons display more than once on the screen, while on the workbench all seems ok. The Workbench filters double displayed icons, Scalos does not. Solution: please edit the ".backdrop" file and clear double lines. Background images not scaled. GUIGfx option not set or guigfx.library and/or render.library not installed. If working with CD's causes crashs or Scalos doesn't work correctly. Most Filesystems doesn't support the ExAll function correctly. Disable "Use ExAll" in Scalos prefs. Scalos doesn't start any program in the WBStartup. WBStartup Path may be set wrongly or Scalos was not started in Emulation Mode (LoadWB etc) Some programs will not startup with error message "has not returned, wait some more"? and "unable to open your tool" need a def_icon with the same name predefined, then create an appropriate entry in the list and rename it, if def icon exists it is shown. Below this can define how files are identified. * either "pattern", similar to magellan to identify file by ending * or Then click on the shown icon and define in it what program is used when you double-click on it and save it. On the tab action you can define popup menu for it. All in all handling is of course different to magellan but can do similar For the RAM Icon, to obtain this you have only to copy the icon in the Icon Path as "RAM.info" or "Ram Disk.info". All functions will automatically be performed sometimes cut into half or quarters when scrolled off screen or drawers moved - settings issue probably Sometimes leaves initial drawer window imprint on desktop when moved - settings issue Scalos AROS released a [https://github.com/deadwood2/contrib/tree/master/scalos new build V2022-07-21] with the following changes noted: <pre> Fixed: Numerous crashes when working on 64-bit with 64-bit heap Wrong background color of Scalos logo on Scalos splash window Backgroung image of Scalos splash window and Scalos About window is not visible Icon labels on desktop and in drawer windows are displayed using Topaz instead of Arial font Font.prefs are not being loaded on 64-bit Font.prefs are being wrongly saved on 64-bit scalos.prefs are not being loaded on x86 and x86_64, scalos is using always default preference scalos.prefs are being saved on x86 and x86_64 in format not compatible with m68k NewPopupmenu.prefs is wrongly written Plugins are not loading at Scalos startup wbrexx.plugin is crashing at startup on 64-bit Multiple controls missing on Scalos Prefs/Icons page System crash when clicking on def icon image on FileTypes Prefs/Recognition page Status bar, control bar, buttons sometimes don't have images displayed Buttons in Scalos About window have white corners rendered where they should be transparent Crash when leaving out an icon Crash when adding a User-defined Button to Control bar without setting it's properties in Scalos Prefs Crash when removing any button from Control bar in Scalos Prefs Scalos Prefs allows editing TTEngine font properties when TTEngine is not present causing crash in Icons/Labels and Text Windows/Fonts pages deficons.prefs are not being loaded on x86 and x86_64 Reset to default in FileType Prefs and Save does not save preferences Won't fix: Scrollbars visible on titles of TrueType Fonts, PopupMenu, Menu, FileTypes, Pallette and Pattern pages of Scalos Preferences Not fixed: Wrong rendering on DualPNG icons Refreshing drawer windows is slow Starting Prefs/Locale or Prefs/Input from Scalos causes other preferences to fail Desktop wallpaper is damaged where Splay window was displayed When started from Wanderer, after saving Scalos Prefs, reload does not re-open main Scalos window Difference in behavior between Cleanup from popup menu and Cleanup from top menu - possibly due to missing plugin, check Cleanup association in Menu Prefs </pre> ===DOpus 4 Directory Opus=== Copy DOpus4 app to WBStartup directory folder so it starts on boot up each time Another method is add the below to the bottom of the user-startup script in S: drawer/directory <pre> run DOPUS:DirectoryOpus -i >NIL </pre> makes DOpus starts up in Iconified state at the top of Wanderer's screen. Left click on this to highlight and right mouse click to open. Just click on the sides of either outer edges of DOpus windows and it will display the parent device/volume list. DOpus saves it features in a CFG file which can be edited to suit anyones' needs by reading the [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool Dopus Manual] which is in Guide format. ===AmiStart=== Auto generates the apps menu but scans the drive each time - AmiStart can choose apps you are not interested * how to disable annoying zune/mui 'bubbles'? try a right-click on AmiStart and release on Global settings. Then click on the bubbles gadget. Move the Show Bubbles slider all the way to the left. ===BoingIconBar=== User chooses the apps to add to the dock at the centre bottom of the screen but has to be done manually, please use Save afterwards Or easier edit the text file of SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/iconbar.prefs and save <pre> SYS:System/Shell SYS:Tools/DOpus4/DOpus4 SYS:Utilities/Editor SYS:System/SysMon SYS:System/Scout Work:Extras/Internet/OWB/OWB Work:Extras/Graphics/Lunapaint Work:Extras/Graphics/ZunePaint AROS:Tools/MPlayer/MPlayer Extras:Internet/AmiFox/AmiFox </pre> right mouse click on bottom edge of screen where boingiconbar shows - select settings which opens BoingIconBar Preferences to add apps If no dock showing Add, to add apps click Add Program and search for the executable another method is to drag icons to ends of the bar and move them on the Bar using the Prefs/BoingIconBar ===Icons=== Icons are typically now .png pictures renamed as .info e.g. so Office application name would have a Office.png renamed as Office.info or MyApp.png as MyApp.info, etc. Leave Out menu option to leave app icon on desktop To select multiple icons and save their positions, click on the first icon and after while you hold the Shift key down select further icons and don't release it before SnapShot is finished. You can also select a whole group of icons by pressing the LMB at the top left of the icons and while keeping the LMB down moving the power towards the bottom right. A expanding bounding box will appear and all the icons within it will be selected. Clean Up menu option (right mouse button -> Icons) rearranges icons in a drawer or disk window into a neater condition. To use, open the window to rearrange and select Clean Up. To keep the icons in the new positions, select all the icons (shift key or mouse selection) and select 'Snapshot' and then Window and then again with All. In DOpus5, Scalos, wanderer, most files have an icon file associated with it. To change the default tool, select Icon menu, Information, and change the default tool string. For example, you could use Multiview, Editor and so on for most text, graphics and some sound files as long as the appropriate Datatype classes are installed. For scripts, set the tool to C:IconX C:Join Image1.png Image2.png TO MyFile.info is enough to make a dual state icon from two png images. You can then use Wanderer's menu Icon/Information on it to edit its fields and tooltypes. [http://www.amiga.org/forums/archive/index.php/t-46881.html Amiga OS 3.x AfA icons thread], [http://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=66213 Later DualPNG and OS4 icons thread] and [http://archives.aros-exec.org/share/graphics/icon/ Alternative Icons sets] like [http://www.amiga-look.org/artwork/classic-wb-png-iconset-l ClassicWB] [http://www.masonicons.info/6.html AISS toolbar images] unpack unarc them into RAM: and copy Images directory to SYS:Prefs/Presets/ AISS icons are looked for in PROGDIR:, PROGDIR:Images, SYS:Prefs/Presets/Images and then in TBImages: according to Open Amiga guidelines. there is Demos/iconscale which could be launched from S:User-Startup with two arguments, telling it the horizontal and vertical size. IE something like Demos/iconscale 40 40 It will shrink icons... not sure if it will be very nice though. it doesn't work for the icons on the main desktop. there is an option to scale an icon to a bounding box afair, try iconsize followed by two numbers, like: iconsize 32 32 Is there any way in AROS to change an icon type from Project to Tool or vice versa? Either the SIT option of [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/ ProcessIcon], or the TYPE option of HandleInfo (not sure if this one works at all, please test with care). processicon sys:pathoftheicon SIT=Project SIT Set type of ICON. Allowed types are: "Disk", "Drawer", "Tool", "Project", "Garbage", "Device", "Kick" and "AppIcon". Btw, are your icons, the #?.info files, writable, is the W flag set ? ===Fonts=== Install the #?.ttf files to SYS:Fonts/TrueType. Use SYS:System/FTManager to "Install Font" each #?.ttf file which will generate associated #?.otag and #?.font in SYS:Fonts. Use SYS:Prefs/Fonts to change system fonts and SYS:Prefs/Zune to change others. To achieve our goal we will use the Setup Locale, Input, Zune and Fonts, as well as The FTManager. Begin The first step you should do is to get the system to know that we speak and write in another language. What you need to do is to open the setup program and choose Locale country, and list "preferred languages" to put it first and then English. If you want the tab "Time Zone" and select city of residence to set the clock correctly. Of course we save our changes and continue opening the setup program Input. This sets the keyboard language as our beginning. When the language layout was created there was no option to switch to Aros keyboard (layout switching), so to write in the language you had to hold down Alt, something you encounter in other functions. This time working with the team of Aros to create a new keyboard layout to replace the old so we can get rid of the button Alt. For now though let only selected this layout and do not turn the switch on the keyboard. Custom Keyboard Layout [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/tree/HEAD:/workbench/devs/keymaps keymaps are in place but unfortunately when they are not, then indeed things become a bit 'low-level' as it involves redefining some tables with values that match your keyboards] only need to add your compiled table as new keymap. So taking a little peek here shows that it should be possible to compile using gcc -opc105_tr pc_105.c -nostdlib where the pc105_gr/pc_105.c needs to be replaced with your own adjusted keymapname/c-file [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Enabling_Greek_Characters_on_Your_Keyboard General overview of Greek letters on keyboards] Installing fonts *[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/EPAGrWb System jaggy] *Outline resizable .font .otag In this step you need to download some fonts that can support the encoding in our system. The easiest way is to run the script "Download Fonts" you'll find in the folder OWB. This script downloads from the Internet, and unpacks some fonts for OWB web browser, which is placed under the folder Fonts:TrueType. But as these can only be used by OWB and not the system, which unfortunately does not see. To make them available to the rest of the system, open the program FTManager, you will find the folder AROS: System /. From there select the field "Codepage" option "ISO-8859-7" and list the font "Arial" and "Regular" form in which you must double-click with the mouse. In the window that appears, select the bottom right the checkbox "Anti-aliasing" button and then "Install". Immediately folder Fonts: created files "arialregular.font" and "arialregular.otag", which are necessary in order to see the system font. Do the same steps if you wish for other fonts. Final stages After completing the above, open the folder AROS: Prefs / and run the program settings Fonts. In the new window, select the fields "Icons" and "Screen" as the font "ArialRegular" to the size you want. In the field "System" to give "s_courier", which, however, because it is not True Type Font support Antialising, and may seem a little broken. You can also use the CourierNew, if you have installed the above procedure. After you save the changes and open the Zune program settings. In this set the "ArialRegular" font fields in tabs "Windows" and "Groups", and save the changes. Reboot the system. To make sure that the above worked properly run NoWinED, which you will find under the folder AROS: Tools /. If that everything is working correctly you will see the menu and the settings window with Greek letters. You can also write in the language using the button Alt. Second program that you can try, which is fully localized, is WookieChat, which you will find in the folder AROS: Extras / Networking. And in this place all the menu and settings window works. ===Windows=== *Intuition The window you position and resize, you right click on that windows title bar and in the dropdown menu you snapshot from there. Right click to show menu -> Window -> Snapshot Windows or All but it will NOT work if that folder has no icon (e.g. Disk.nfo) attached to it. You need a folder icon. The window information gets saved in it. As for maximising the window using a shortcut key - Alt and up arrow key The AROS-Shell windows can be moved, resized by editing sys:s/icaros-sequence <pre> ; run shell if ${Icaros/autoshell} EQ true run QUIET c:newshell >NIL: EndIF </pre> ; slimmer right aros the screen run QUIET c:newshell con:0/150//300/ >NIL: ; top right corner scr-x scr-y win-x win-y run QUIET c:newshell con:600/150//300/ >NIL: *Zune - AROS version of MUI Magic Menu type functionality is implemented in IControl preferences editor: in the frame called Menus, switch type from Pull-Down to Pop-Up and/or iControl just tick the sticky menu option. Windows outside screens causing a problem either uncheck "Offscreen move" for windows in IControl prefs editor. Or use FKey commodity and define two key shortcuts: * the first using the command "cycle windows" (for example ALT TAB); * the second using the command "rescue window" (for example ALT F5). Now you can cycle windows until the one you want to rescue, and then "rescue" it: it will move back inside your screen. How to save the window size on wanderer (snapshot all, snapshot windows) Same for icon position on wanderer, can't save the position. Icon position cannot be saved yet, but you should be able to save the window position and size. sys:prefs - wanderer icon has option to save window size on exit but just for dh0. To get saving working on (DH1: Extras:) partitions try deleting the dh1 disk.info file, then reboot. The system should create a new dh1 icon. * how to set up permanently 'view all files'? As for viewing all files, removing disk.info for that disk did the job * how to list and kill processes (xkill would be useful) ? sys:Extras/System/Scout can kill apps sys:Tools/Commodities/Exchange can remove available commodities * how to restore 'go up' button in wanderer window? (it doesn't show up anymore). If you're using Icaros, go to the theme prefs and make sure that decoration is checked. Also, some themes do not use a parent button, so try another theme. You may have to restart Aros before the theme will change. * Is it really safe to turn off (hardware button) computer at any time (worried about USB hard disk) yes you can turn off the computer IF none of the drives are in progress (i.e. writing). Best to use Wanderer menu option Quit otherwise ===Printing=== This is still work in progress print from my AROS box! <pre> 1. installed printfile ( http://www.lerup.com/printfile/ ) on my Windows XP computer 2. set up the print spooler option, and used ghostscript filter for ps files 3. made the spool folder accessible from ftp (setting up ftp server on Windows) 4. send the ps file from my AROS box to the ftp server using curl (curl -T filename ftp://windows.box.adress --user username:password) </pre> It's a bit complicated but it works! *Postscript Best to set Printer Prefs in the Prefs drawer to print-to-file or parallel/USB port Save document in postscript or convert picture/text to postscript Print using compatible [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Platforms/AROS_USB_support#printer.class_-_PostScript_3_and_internal_ghostscript_drivers Ghostscript printer] or Postscript printer *GutenPrint Some work has been done ;There are no individual drivers yet for HP's Photosmart, EPSON's EPL, CANON's, Lexmark, CUPS PPD, etc. ===Files=== ====File endings and datatypes==== * Check if the file has his own .info icon file with a tool set to open it. IIRC this has higher priority over the def_XYZ.info file association. * In ENVARC:SYS/def_Text.info or whatever def_ file needs changing, use Wanderer's menu Icon -> Information and change the def_XYZ.info there. If you're on ABIv0 and want it to be applied immediately, you might have to copy it to ENV:SYS/ (or to reboot). * Identifying file types by file ending is only a fallback. Far better it is to search for magic words, for flac files this would be "flaC" according to this [http://flac.sourceforge.net/documentation_format_overview.html documentation]. For instance, to open PDFs with arospdf not localised in the default drawer of Icaros (Work:Extras/Applications/arospdf) but localised in a custom drawer in AROS. The default tools are defined in the icons in sys:prefs/env-archive/sys e.g. def_PDF. File type identification is done by datatype descriptors which you can find in Devs/Datatypes. The AROS build system has a tool which creates such datatype descriptors. '''Changing of default tools of existing icons is easy as shown above. Adding of new file types is not hard, but needs knowledge of the AROS build system.''' The enduser way would be to download the attached file, which contained two executables: 1) createdtdesc, to make a new datatype description 2) examinedtdesc, to read/show existing datatype descriptions use 2 to get an idea on how it things are currently done in aros by providing this executable a file from the drawer sys:devs/datatypes/ (alternatively you can find the original .dtd files here). use 1 to make your new datatype. Use the accompanied FORMAT file (also here) to read how to make your own datatype descriptor. use 2 to get hints from other datatype descriptors. Note: When creating a new descriptor would advise against using the pattern property, but instead use the default pattern of #? and create a Mask that matches your filetype. This requires some research in order to discover how your filetype can be recognized properly. Of course with making something like a descriptor for an ascii textfile, you would fallback to using the pattern (e.g. #?.text as the filetype cannot be determined easily otherwise). <pre > # name - choose wisely and informative. also used for icon's name. # version - choose as you like as long as it complies with version rules # basename - the 'root' datatype class. be aware that e.g. it can influence behaviour. for example when choosing binary and using tool multiview in project icon, the file will be viewed as binary file (choosing sound would tell mulitview to view the file as a soundfile). So this can influence the underlying tool being used. Could become messy if users started to modify the tool manually. # pattern - This is the file pattern match e.g. #?.text # Mask - A mask to identify the file. Requires knowledge of the actual file structure. For example 'M' 'Z' for an msdos executable. # GroupdID - not supported (AROS native) files - use syst as that would be the least intrusive in case an AROS tool/program tries to load such datatyped file. # ID - In your case, the first four characters of the name at subchapter 1 (in lower case) (or less if name is shorter). # flags - How the mask needs to be interpreted. In your case would be mostly DTF_BINARY in combination with (wanted or not) DTF_CASE (to tell if mask used letters are case sensitive or not) # priority - the priority of how the type is handled so that on datatype could have precedence over another? In any case, document tells it to be mostly 0. </pre > Now that you know each field and what it does (more or less), you write this fields in a text file for your own invented datatype, save it and create the actual dt with the tool in 1. in the end the created dt must reside in sys:devs/datatypes/ drawer. Then you would create a default icon in sys:prefs/Env-archive/SYS drawer. Don't forget to reboot or copy .info file to ram:env/sys in order to test. also don't forget to set which tool to start f.e. c:lx or dh4:emulators/mycoolemulator To test, open Wanderer then show all files and doubleclick on a file of type you just created. Alternatively you could use the 'open' command from shell (with file of datatype you just created as parameter). And as a last note. it would perhaps be welcome to have a program like xicon and/or runprglist for AROS (unfortunately both without source, but something similar could be created for AROS). Sounds complicated ? Perhaps... but OS like windows needs a complete registry to be able to do things like this. And yes, i am aware windows has gui tools that does it (more or less) for you (by manipulating the registry). Same could be done for AROS (without integrating a registry in AROS that is ). Would that suffice ? red1+2: typos, reformatting. disclaimer: please note that using these tools can screw up your currently installed support for datatypes when used incorrectly. Do not use if you do not understand what you are doing. Use at own risk. ==Network Connection== AROS currently only has one real choice for TCP/IP networking - AROSTCP. This is a port of the AmiTCP package from AmigaOS (TM), with a number of enhancements/fixes from AROS developers. Please use Prefs/Network to set up wired, wireless or USB networking Non USB wifi is easier, USB wifi can be an annoyance - remember to save whilst in prefs ===Wired=== =====IPv6===== No support so far 128bit IPv6 address packet <pre> Local FD::/8 Global 2000::/3 64:ff9b::/96 </pre> NAT64 translates IPv6 to IPv4 DNS64 OS routing works with <pre> MacOS Ventura Windows 11 with cloud account Ubuntu Jammy Jellyfish Android 10 (block google dns) </pre> ====IPv4==== The top half of the IPv4 Configuration tab on the Network Prefs deals with the network card/USB and the lower half the router part. [[File:AROS Wanderer Network Prefs DHCP.png|thumb|DHCP Settings]] '''Upper part of IPv4 tab''' * Click Add on the top right of the Prefs which opens a window called '''Interface''' * Enter Name as net0 (but can be anything as long as it is consistently used in other sections) * check mark on Active * select device to be used using the '''right hand-side gadget''' of the box where the device name will go * set Unit to 0 * IP Mode is default set to '''Get address from DHCP''' * IP Mode set to Manual if DHCP does not work automatically From the shell CLI, ifconfig -a Under net0: section, inet starting 192.168.x.xxx * inet or '''Address''' of network card * netmask convert to decimal so 0x'''ffffff7f''' becomes 255.255.255.247 which is used to adjust the above '''Address''' into * broadcast 192.168.xxx.xxx click OK [[File:AROS Wanderer Network Prefs Manual.png|thumb|Manual Settings]] '''Lower part of IPv4 tab''' * IP Mode Get address from DHCP (default) * or changing to Manual if automatic DHCP set up does not work * '''Gateway''' (Router Internal LAN-IP) (Default Route) = 192.168.0.1 (D-Link Netgear), 192.168.1.1 (Linksys 3com), 192.168.2.1 (SMC Microsoft), 192.168.1.254 (Belkin), 192.168.123.254 (USRobotics) else check with your router manual * first DNS = use 208.67.222.222 (opendns) or Gateway number above (to test web browser access to router) or 212.50.160.100 (google) i.e. or whatever your ISP needs you to set * second DNS = use 208.67.220.220 (opendns) or Gateway number above (to test web browser access to router) or 213.249.130.100 (google) i.e. or whatever your ISP needs you to set * At the bottom of IPv4 tab, check mark the '''Start networking during system boot''' option * Save and reboot (sometimes Network restart fails, so reboot every time to be sure) '''an alternative way''' to AROS ifconfig -a, other OSs have similar for the same internet connection. Another connection will have different settings. e.g. From [http://www.ncsu.edu/resnet/windows/ipconfig/ Windows], '''ipconfig /all''' and note down the IP, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS servers values and put these values in "manually" into AROS Network prefs. e.g. From Linux via dhcp router have a look at etc./dhcpc/dhcpcd-eth0.info * for manual input look at /etc/networks (IP or Gateway) and /etc/resolv.conf (DNS) Please note that all in one routers (wired+wireless) or separate routers may need different settings IPv4 involves routing (192,168.x.x), firewall, NAT ===Wireless=== [[File:MyArosWirelessSetup.png|thumb|Setting up]] [[File:MyArosWirelessTCP.png|thumb|Shell commands to work out what is happening]] We must first make certain you have a Atheros 5k chip inside acting as the wireless wifi option. Open PCITool in Tools directory. Down left hand side are a series of numbers 0.00.0 etc. Click on some at the bottom and hopefully one of them will say Atheros AR5??? or AR242?. or a Realtek RTL8187B, we can check using Prefs/Trident as this one is USB based There are many similarities with the above Wired set up so please read the above section as well * open Network/Prefs * In '''IPv4 Configuration''' tab - click Add - enter net0 / active tick / #?.device / Unit 0 / IP Mode = manual (important if default DHCP does not work automatically) Make sure that any extra network names (e.g. eth1 or net1) should be deleted. If net0 already st previously, change net0 so that it shows associated with the appropriate device name like atheros5000.device or realtek8180.device. Having two entries here will cause sub-net problems. * Go to '''Wireless''' tab and click on "Add" button. * Insert network name (SSID your wireless network name use wirelessmanager to get it), select right "encyption" that is most likely "WPA". * Key Type set as "Passphrase". i.e. type in your password for your router (aka access key). * Unselect (no tick) "hidden" if it is selected, then apply. You may have to tick it if wireless does not work. * Finally, Save and '''reboot'''. For the best chance of success, set networking to start at boot, and then reboot with the USB adapter plugged in. ===USB Ethernet=== Open SYS:Prefs/Network and in the IPv4 Configuration tag (top table covers your usb stick) * click Add button * set Name as net0 * Tick Active box * enter the usb-ethernet.device e.g. dm9601eth.device, usbpegasus.device or usbasixeth.device use SYS:c/devlist, '''Scout''' or trident prefs to get the correct spelling * set Unit to 0 (which is usual but check the messages from the bottom of the Trident prefs whilst plugging the device in to determine the unit number otherwise) * IP Mode is set to Get address from DHCP (make sure your router is set right for that) '''or manual''' * IP Address of network card, i.e. 192.168.0.xx or 192.168.1.xx (xx being greater than 1) * Subnet netmask = 255.255.255.0 * click OK There can be sometimes be boot failures when using USB ethernet - plug the USB device in after boot and save the network prefs to make it work again. Lower part of IPv4 tab covers the router information * IP Mode Get address from DHCP '''or if manual settings''' * Gateway (IP Address of router) = usually 192.168.0.1 or 192.168.1.1 but see router manual to make sure. * first DNS = use 8.8.8.8, 208.67.222.222 (opendns) or 212.50.160.100 * second DNS = use 8.8.4.4, 208.67.220.220 (opendns) or 213.249.130.100 ===USB Tethering via Android smartphone=== Go to AROS Network Prefs (IPv4 configuration tab) and write type in "usbrndis.device" in the "device" textfield of "Interface" sub-window, which appears when you add a new device (or modify an existing one). Select "Start Network during system boot" and saved the configuration, the Connection is immediate no reboot is needed.<br> usbrndis.device is a resident device (virtually always there) in fact, a driver is not present in DEVS:Networks <br><br> Plug in USB cable, go to Android settings and enable "USB Tethering" <br> A reboot should not be necessary. When restarting AROS, the Smartphone deactivates the connection and to access the network again have to reactivate it before starting the browser. ===Solving Issues=== [[File:MyArosTCP.png|thumb|Aros network setup diagnostics - why does it not work?]] * In Network Preferences, have '''only one''' item in the IPv4 Configuration tab * If using manual settings, make sure all numbers are correct, especially for IP address of the card/usb (changing the last number in chain of four) * For any USB based networking, it is often necessary to save in Prefs/Network, reboot AROS and network support can begin * For wired, make sure that the LAN-cable is plugged in before starting the computer * If wireless, try getting closer to the router. * Switch off the encryption option from your router then try wifi, if successful then your ip/dns is ok. If not then your ip/dns settings are most probably wrong or need to use one or more opendns numbers * Replace detachable wireless antenna (best wireless option to buy if you can) with a stronger antenna ie. 5&nbsp;dBi or 7&nbsp;dBi * Try with another computer/laptop/machine Program Error C:WirelessManager * Test with another OS * Check that Wifi works before changeover (if possible) * Check that socket and card are working * Check if card is too new for laptop (date code on card MMYY blue askey date 2005-2007 etc) Are you connecting with the Router ? Check with protection off e.g. wps and wep to see if it makes a difference. For USB wireless - stopping and starting may be needed... <pre> ; $VER: AROSTCP-startnet 1.0 (01/08/06) ; AROSTCP-startnet (c) The AROS Dev Team. ; Run <NIL: >NIL: AROSTCP WaitForPort AROSTCP If NOT Warn ; echo "Stack online" Else echo "Wait for Stack Failed" EndIf ; stop and restart execute "sys:system/network/AROSTCP/s/stopnet" Run <NIL: >NIL: AROSTCP WaitForPort AROSTCP If NOT Warn ; echo "Stack online" Else echo "Wait for Stack Failed" EndIf run <NIL: >NIL: wirelessmanager realtek8180.device </pre> What IRQ number is assigned to the device? You can check with Tools/PCITool? It's possible the BIOS hasn't set the right IRQ number. If you have a Linux CD/DVD handy, could you check if it boots with the options "acpi=off noapic nolapic"? If the following does nothing, this will help us figure out why networking doesn't start automatically at boot open a shell and run the following commands: <pre> echo ${AROSTCP/AutoRun} echo ${AROSTCP/WirelessAutoRun} echo ${AROSTCP/WirelessDevice} </pre> Please report the output, typically it will look like this # True (explanation this variable is related to the "Start networking during system boot" checkbox in network prefs) # True () # Devs:networks/atheros5000.device unit 0 If there's a problem with the AROSTCP package. What's the output of this? ENV:sys/packages/AROSTCP should return a string = Sys:System/Network/AROSTCP By the way, a quicker way to check networking is working would be to run some shell commands such as: <pre> ping www.google.com ifconfig net0 </pre> The best way to list the available networks and diagnose / troubleshoot problems with connecting to a wireless network is to run WirelessManager manually. First uncheck the "Start networking during system boot" box in the Network prefs app, then save and reboot. Then run this in a shell: C:wirelessmanager atheros5000.device verbose or C:wirelessmanager realtek8180.device verbose and capture the output If the above does not help, could you edit the file SYS:System/Network/AROSTCP/S/Package-Startup, and change ">NIL:" to ">T:wifi.log" on the WirelessManager line and add this as well Wait 5? <pre> if ${AROSTCP/WirelessAutoRun} eq "True" Run QUIET "C:WirelessManager ${AROSTCP/WirelessDevice} >T:wifi.log" wait 5 EndIf </pre> Then save, reboot and post the log file (T:wifi.log) here. <pre> c:wirelessmanager atheros5000.device verbose Initializing interface 'atheros5000.device:0' conf 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' driver 'default' ctrl_interface 'N/A' bridge 'N/A' Configuration file 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' -> 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' Reading configuration file 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' Line: 1 - start of a new network block ssid - hexdump_ascii(len=7) 65 63 68 65 6c 6f 6e echelon PSK (ASCII passphrase) - hexdump_ascii(len=14): [REMOVED] key_mgmt: 0x2 PSK (from passphrase) - hexdump(len=32): [REMOVED] Priority group 0 id=0 ssid='echelon' Then it just sits there. Not sure what a normal dump looks like, I don't see anything that looks wrong in the configuration. </pre> looks like the driver isn't working with that card. Has anyone else successfully used that exact model number (AR2413)? <pre> Initializing interface 'atheros5000.device:0' conf 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' driver 'default' ctrl_interface 'N/A' bridge 'N/A' Configuration file 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' -> 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' Line: 1 - start of a new network block ssid - hexdump_ascii(len=7): 65 63 68 65 6c 6f 6e echelon PSK (ASCII passphrase) - hexdump_ascii(len=14): [REMOVED] key_mgmt: 0x2 PSK (from passphrase) - hexdump(len=32): [REMOVED] Priority group 0 id=0 ssid='echelon' *** [wpa_sm_init] sm->pmksa=02c66fd4 *** Own MAC address: 00:01:36:15:ae:0c RSN: flushing PMKID list in the driver Setting scan request: 0 sec 100000 usec EAPOL: SUPP_PAE entering state DISCONNECTED EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized EAPOL: KEY_RX entering state NO_KEY_RECEIVE EAPOL: SUPP_BE entering state INITIALIZE EAP: EAP entering state DISABLED EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized Added interface atheros5000.device:0 State: DISCONNECTED -> SCANNING Started AP scan for wildcard SSID MLME: starting scan MLME: scan channel 1 (2412 MHz) sana2: sending MLME frame Then it stops. Does this mean the router is not authorizing this NIC? IRQ 4 (A) </pre> apparently locking up when the first frame is sent (a scan request). <pre> Devs/Networks/atheros5000.device:0 Initializing interface 'Devs/Networks/atheros5000.device:0' conf 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' driver 'default' ctrl_interface 'N/A' bridge 'N/A' Configuration file 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' -> 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' Reading configuration file 'ENV:Wireless.prefs' Line: 1 - start of a new network block ssid - hexdump_ascii(len=12): 41 69 72 4c 69 6e 6b 35 39 33 30 30 AirLink59300 PSK (ASCII passphrase) - hexdump_ascii(len=8): [REMOVED] key_mgmt: 0x2 PSK (from passphrase) - hexdump(len=32): [REMOVED] Priority group 0 id=0 ssid='AirLink59300' *** [wpa_sm_init] sm->pmksa=0224e444 *** Own MAC address: 00:1f:e1:42:e3:7a RSN: flushing PMKID list in the driver Setting scan request: 0 sec 100000 usec [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.160000 EAPOL: SUPP_PAE entering state DISCONNECTED EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized EAPOL: KEY_RX entering state NO_KEY_RECEIVE EAPOL: SUPP_BE entering state INITIALIZE EAP: EAP entering state DISABLED EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.060000 [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686604.060000 Added interface Devs/Networks/atheros5000.device:0 [eloop_run] Starting State: DISCONNECTED -> SCANNING Starting AP scan for wildcard SSID MLME: starting scan [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.160001 MLME: scan channel 1 (2412 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.193000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.233000 MLME: scan channel 2 (2417 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.253000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.293000 MLME: scan channel 3 (2422 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.333000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.373000 MLME: scan channel 4 (2427 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.393000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.433000 MLME: scan channel 5 (2432 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.473000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.513000 MLME: scan channel 6 (2437 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.553000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.573000 MLME: scan channel 7 (2442 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.613000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.653000 MLME: scan channel 8 (2447 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.693000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.713000 MLME: scan channel 9 (2452 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.753000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.793000 MLME: scan channel 10 (2457 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.833000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.853000 MLME: scan channel 11 (2462 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.893000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.933000 MLME: scan channel 12 (2467 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686594.973000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.013000 MLME: scan channel 13 (2472 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.033000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.073000 EAPOL: disable timer tick EAPOL: Supplicant port status: Unauthorized MLME: scan channel 14 (2484 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.113000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.153000 MLME: scan channel 1 (2412 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.193000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.213000 MLME: scan channel 2 (2417 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.253000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.293000 MLME: scan channel 3 (2422 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.333000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.353000 MLME: scan channel 4 (2427 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.393000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.433000 MLME: scan channel 5 (2432 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.473000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.493000 MLME: scan channel 6 (2437 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.533000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.573000 MLME: scan channel 7 (2442 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.613000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.653000 MLME: scan channel 8 (2447 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.673000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.713000 MLME: scan channel 9 (2452 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.753000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.793000 MLME: scan channel 10 (2457 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.833000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.853000 MLME: scan channel 11 (2462 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.893000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.933000 MLME: scan channel 12 (2467 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.973000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686595.993000 MLME: scan channel 13 (2472 MHz) [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686596.033000 sana2: sending MLME frame [eloop_reg_timeout] Timeout is at 1317686596.073000 MLME: scan completed </pre> Is your network hidden? If so, did you enable the 'Hidden' checkbox in the network prefs? What distro version are you using? <pre> "ENV:sys/wireless.prefs" looks like this: network={ ssid="testadhoc" key_mgmt=NONE wep_key0="12345" wep_tx_keyidx=0 } </pre> If your router doesn't broadcast its SSID (hidden), you need to add this option to the network block of the wpa_supplicant.conf on your aros machine and make changes after # Example blocks: scan_ssid=1 Here's a full description of all the [http://hostap.epitest.fi/gitweb/gitweb.cgi?p=hostap.git;a=blob_plain;f=wpa_supplicant/wpa_supplicant.conf config file options]. <pre> ap_scan=1 network={ ssid="YOURESSID" scan_ssid=1 proto=RSN key_mgmt=WPA-PSK pairwise=CCMP group=CCMP psk=YOURPASSWORD } </pre> <pre> filter_ssids=1 ap_scan=2 network={ ssid="REMOVED" scan_ssid=1 bssid=REMOVED priority=100 mode=0 proto=RSN key_mgmt=WPA-PSK auth_alg=OPEN pairwise=CCMP group=CCMP psk=REMOVED } </pre> Error 6: Couldn't resolve host name. Check Scout -> Devices and look at the device that you are using, in the OCnt column it should state 2 which means AROSTCP and Wirelessmanager are both accessing this driver. If 0 or 1, then uncheck the checkbox in Network prefs for starting networking at boot, save and reboot. Then run this is the shell: C:WirelessManager realtek8180.device unit 0 some quirks setting up the wireless network as well 1) it's far better setting up either the wired OR the wireless network adapter as net0:, or weird things happen 2) it's better using fixed IP on the local network instead of DHCP 3) network setting must be placed in network setting panel in /prefs, using the wirelessmanager helped me finding available SSIDs, but not actually connecting to them once done, reboot. If previous setup is proving problematic <pre > SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/Wireless.prefs SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/Zune/OWB.config SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/Zune/global.config SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/AROSTCP/WirelessDevice SYS:Prefs/Env-Archive/AROSTCP/db/Interfaces </pre > Make a copy of these files and restore in case of problems. Please try this test to check if you can connect to your router, ie established that the WiFi layer is working ̊̊̊̊Boot with networking disabled, by make sure that "Start networking at boot" in Network Prefs is unchecked (no tick). ̊ Run this in a shell: C:WirelessManager atheros5000.device VERBOSE ̊If the output of that command is too long to summarise here, you can redirect it to a file by adding >RAM:wifi.log to the end, then attach or paste that file here. try running "status" in the shell and check that AROSTCP is listed/running If AROStcp is not showing, then AROSTCP is not running. attempted to start it by clicking Use or Save in network prefs, or checking the "start networking at boot" box or typing into a shell. Execute SYS:System/Network/AROSTCP/s/startnet (run Status again afterwards). The "cannot resolve hostname" will appear if you are blocked on the wifi network by the router as well as aros not being able to assign correct network address. One way of testing this might be to disable the firewall in the router. you might also check the router how it sees the attempts aros do to speak to it. The easiest way to do that would be to manually give aros an IP number in the routers accepted range. and see if it shows up at all within the router. Tests that can be undertaken to determine correct settings and functions pciinfo sanautil -d broadcom4400.device status <pre > ping <router-address> e.g. 192.168.0.1 (aka inet) or 80.237.146.33 (www.amiganews.de) ifconfig net0 ifconfig net0 up extras:networking/utils/sanautil/sanautil -d atheros5000.device status WirelessManager atheros5000.device verbose >RAM:wifi.log ;to send the log to RAM disk to be read easier or if detected, Run WirelessManager atheros5000.device >NIL: Run WirelessManager atheros5000.device ssid="mynet1" >NIL: C:WirelessManager realtek8180.device unit 0 </pre > Please look at the task list in Scout, and check if WirelessManager and AROSTCP are running. Also look at the device list in Scout to check if realtek8180.device is open. start tools/debug/sashimi, maybe it shows some debug messages when disconnection happens. Firstly, let's take a look at what your setup most likely looks like, assuming you use a router. See diagram below: <pre> Internet <---------> home router <---------> computer -----------external IP------------------internal IP------------- </pre> Okay, so what am I trying to show you with that diagram. A few things. Firstly, the IP address that connects you to the Internet is not the same one that connects you to your router. What happens is that your computer doesn't have a direct connection to the Internet, instead your router connects to the Internet, and your computer connects to the router. You can see the external and internal IP addresses in these example settings... * Default Gateway : 76.91.64.1 (external IP for ISP/Internet host) * IP Address : 76.91.71.184 (external IP for home router) * IP Address : 192.168.0.1 (internal IP for home router) * Address = 192.168.0.161 (internal IP for computer) As you can see, there are two internal IP addresses and two external IP addresses. This is because there is a client/server relationship, effectively one address is for the service (server) and one address is for the device trying to access that service (client). The server addresses in your case are 76.91.64.1 (your ISP's address, serving the Internet), and 192.168.0.1 (your home router's address, serving your home network). The term gateway applies here, they are your gateway to those services. Subnet masks are used along with IP addresses to determine which IP addresses are allowed access to a network. I did learn the more in-depth rules about subnet masks once (watched a CCNA vid), but I've forgotten about it. The basic level of understanding you'll need is easy to remember though. A subnet mask value of 255 means that portion of the IP address must stay constant, whereas a subnet value of 0 means any unassigned value up to 255 is allowed in the IP address. By far the most common subnet value is 255.255.255.0. What this means is that the first three parts of the IP address you use to connect to a service must stay the same as the server/gateway address, and only the last section can change. So if your router's internal IP address is 192.168.0.1, and the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, the only addresses that will be allowed to be used on that network are between 192.168.0.2 and 192.168.0.255 (I think 192.168.0.0 is reserved for other uses). Final point to make is about DHCP (a.k.a. dynamic IP) vs static IP. A server/router using DHCP gives a device that connects to it an address within the acceptable range. It usually starts with the lowest numbered free address, so with your router it'll give the first device that connects to it 192.168.0.2, the next device 192.168.0.3, and so on. Static IP addresses are where you set the IP address you want to connect with in advance. When using static IP addresses on a router where DHCP is active, it's good to use a high number to avoid conflicts with other devices that are connected to your network, to reduce the risk that both devices will try using the same IP. That's why your current choice of 192.168.0.161 is good, unless you have over 159 devices connected on your current network! Okay, so what's the next step. Well, if you can use ping, I'd suggest pinging 192.168.0.1. If you get a positive response it means you're connected to your router, if you don't get a response it means the connection between your router and your computer is at fault. Documentation on configuring the AROSTCP environment further can be found [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/User/Networking here] ===File Sharing=== As AROS knows only a few filesystems (FFS, OFS, SFS, PFS (amiga only), FAT12, 16, 32, Microsoft NTFS (windows), UDF (Blu-ray)). The remaining ones in regular use like MacOSX hfs+, Linux ext2/ext3 and ext4, Haiku BeFS provide a problem in transferring files between each other. Linux can access SFS partitions but it needs to be compiled. The latest full source are [http://home.elka.pw.edu.pl/~mszyprow/programy/asfs/ here]. It compiled fine with a 2.6.30 kernel in Puppy Linux 4.31. An alternative, is to use a FAT32 partition. AROS could be installed on to a 4GB USB-key, with 512MB FAT32 partition for sharing, and the rest SFS. It works very well. An hosted Linux or Windows install relieves some of the problems. Files could be transferred [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=2915&viewmode=flat&order=ASC Sending] via TCP network. ====SMB2/3==== With Windows you can share one folder or all folders of the "Public" user. On Windows what is important is to enable sharing (Network and Sharing Center). AROS Mountlist should look lke this <pre> Handler = L:smb2-handler StackSize = 65536 Priority = 5 GlobVec = -1 ACTIVATE=1 Startup = "smb://UserAcc:password@PCShare/Sharefolder" </pre> which could also be "smb://UserPC:password@192.168.x.x/Public" or "smb://UserPC:password@Name-PC/Public" so "smb://UserPC:password@192.168.1.158/Folder" or "smb://UserPC:password@Name-PC/Folder" After you have configured a share generates a DOSDrivers it is named "SMB0" which includes the setting, and at each reboot it is Mounted. You can still delete the DOSDriver by hand, is located in Storage/DOSDrivers, the file "ServerAutoMounts", in ENV:AROSTCP which indicates the DOSDriver to be mounted, should also be deleted. The per-mount files are written to ENV:SMB or SYS:Storage/DOSDrivers. There is also additional file ENV:AROSTCP/ServerAutoMounts which states what will be presented to the end user. ====Old SMBFS==== e.g. to connect to a NAS share such as \\NASBOX\Shared use -: SMBFS WORKGROUP=<YOUR WORKGROUP NAME> VOLUME=<AROS volume name to use>: SERVICE=<UNC Path to connect to> SMBFS WORKGROUP=MYNET VOLUME=Shared: SERVICE=//NASBOX/Shared And you will then have an icon appear on your desktop for the volume name you have chosen. You can put the above script into wbstartup or give it an icon, change it to a 'project' and give it the default tool c:iconx Open a shell and type copy sys:script.info "sys:wbstartup/YOURSCRIPTNAME.info" This should create an icon for your script file. Now right-click on your script and select 'information'. Change 'tool' to 'project', put 'c:iconx' into the 'default tool' box, click save The reason being that scripts need to be opened with 'execute SCRIPTNAME' (or 'iconx') whereas the programs started from wbstartup are opened using 'run PROGRAMNAME'. It's the same as trying to start a command-line tool from the workbench by double-clicking it. ====Setup ISO images within AROS==== Use [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=driver/storage DiskImage] which supports many cd image formats ISO, CCD, MDF/MDS, CUE/BIN, NRG and UIF. To mount CD or DVD images use below.... <pre > # Rename your iso 'Unit0' (note no extension). # Do 'View/All files' on you Aros partition. You should now see a folder called 'Diskimages'. Copy your renamed iso to there. (Alternatively, you could type at the shell 'assign FDSK: xxx', where xxx is the location of your iso.) # From the shell, type 'mount CD0:' and the iso should appear on the Wanderer desktop. You can now access it like a real disk. </pre > assign devname: dismount Assign DOSVOLUME: remove [http://aminet.net/package/disk/misc/unmount-0.1 unmount] most filesystems work but SFS lacks support for ACTION_DIE packet If you are using an IcAros install, the startup scripts are set up to wipe the Diskimages directory on boot, so its worth keeping a second copy of the iso somewhere else. Alternatively, you could set up extra mountlists for additional iso images. I've made a file called iso1 in the Aros:devs directory that contains the following text: <pre> /* Entry for ISO image */ ISO1: FileSystem = cdrom.handler Device = fdsk.device Unit = 1 LowCyl = 0 HighCyl = 0 Surfaces = 1 BlocksPerTrack = 1 DOSType = 0x41434400 Activate = 1 # </pre> Then I just need an iso called 'Unit1' (corresponding to the 'Unit = 1' entry in the mountlist) in Diskimages (or wherever I assign FDSK: to) and to mount I type in at the shell: Mount iso1: from devs:iso1 Of course, if you create mountlists for ISO2, ISO3:, etc. (with the corresponding change to the 'Unit = ' line) you can have as many isos mounted as you wish. I just call mine ISO1: etc. to distinguish them from the real CD drives ==Video Guides== Video demonstrations and tutorials covering: :00. '''Introduction''' ::[https://www.youtube.com/@jamesmattson6813/videos Various Aros Installs], ::[https://www.youtube.com/embed/j8EmSEby0Rg AROS repo in gource, view of AROS dev commits from 1997 to 2025], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vx_zqlBow40&feature=related Gource view of AROS 1997 up to 2009], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s1RsvEm7UrU Why an Amiga OS in 2011], :01. '''Installation''' ::[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7YjufrJqDs Aros One install], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIMguHTdC5E Aros One USB install], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZNXauy5m5Wc Aros One install], [http://vimeo.com/11013489 Modify Grub boot], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyQVeyXIywc&feature=channel iMica Silent Pt3], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o2AnkoflY14 Wipe whole drive and Install - warning loss of data on drive], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OVXm6_-witQ VirtualBox install], [ VMware install], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0k2PEmT8I14 Broadway AROS Install], ::[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PtDiXhjSIfs Is Aros Icaros a choice?], ::[ driver install], ::[http://www.vimeo.com/10491104 HDAudio install but needs account], [], :02. '''Amiga Basics''' ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TY8mWxwzH5o Screens tutorial], ::[https://m.youtube.com/user/AMIGASYSTEM/videos General], [ Dos Scripts tutorial], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPT7SmVEpjc OS 1.2], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6kX3FqH8Ww&feature=related OS 1.3], :03. '''Customisation demos''' ::[https://www.youtube.com/@AMIGASYSTEM/videos Prefs tutorial], [ Decoration tutorial], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dn5C8G3aDXU Scalos], :04. '''Setting up''' internet access and surfing the web, FTP, IRC and Mail apps ::[ Network Prefs], [ AirCOS tutorial], [ jabberwocky tutorial], :05. '''Native bundled Games and Applications''' ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYlFv2B-VXc 3D Games], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXK7wwhd-R0 Latest Games], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RUgiVThv23Q&feature=mfu_in_order&list=UL PrBoom GL], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0s7u8TPy7V4 Assault Cubes], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fih6aCXKeqs Cube 2], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-X0ay0MGOms DosBox on Aros], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nKduDjf14k Oct 2010], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FziV2z_uxnQ Apps Pt 1], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xs37_nfa5CI Apps Pt 2], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bn59_VvbQR0&feature=related Apps Pt 3], ::DOpus4 [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSRybWjrrME DOpus 4], ::Milkytracker [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxBOEPzpdKg&feature=related Laying Down Base Tracks], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2uKQ0-ieOE Audio Evolution 4 in action], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zq4r9k0_jZI Quick Videos], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGKCFZcIc0I&feature=related ScreenRecorder], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=974c2e-Fqak&feature=related TV out Tests], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fjq8ct5d5IY AmiFIG], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0rHvPhYJo4&feature=youtu.be ZuneFIG], ::[http://wiki.povray.org/content/Documentation:Tutorial_Section_1 POVray Tutorial 1], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jk-ZNLfJsvQ pt 1, jan. 2008], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nWRy33g1R7Y pt 2, feb. 2009], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r5PbhCtm4vE pt 3, feb. 2010], ::[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7_FJUoQ89o Hollywood programming], [], [], [], ::[], [], [], ::[], [], [], ::[], [], [], :06. '''Commercial software available''' ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKXY9B4R43s AntiryadGX 3D Game Editor], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMS9NDzwm5U BOH indie Game], :07. '''Running classic amiga apps and games''' :: Amiberry [], [], ::[http://vmwaros.blogspot.com/2008/11/introducing-amibridge.html Intro Amibridge], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ee2PWvCZeLo Old Amiga Apps], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ee2PWvCZeLo Why Janus UAE is good], ::[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhlsNSYSuDg DPaint tutorial] ::[http://vmwaros.blogspot.com/2009/11/can-icaros-play-my-amiga-games-and-why.html Play Amiga Games], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTaZCNOvCnE], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tMehS77LXQ4 Pagestream Introduction], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=284-w3hTzII Pagestream Tutorial 1], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlwEGwhZzl4 Pagestream Tutorial 2], ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIcrIjPOctc Catweasel Mk4 PCI Part 1] and [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BaitHeL6bEA Part 2], :08. '''Misc and History''' ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6mDXKU29w0 Mum uses old AmigaOS Workbench 1.1 (1986)], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DaRkacQ-YMg Why an Amiga 500 (1987)], [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5CYsgVCzYY an Amiga 2000 (1987)], :09. '''Misc Shows and Events''' ::[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=klgVSWKs4kE VCF 2010], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQ3d5qR-Hv8 24:06 Jason McMullan at amiwest 2012 about AROS], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jpQO7XSfAv4 Aros SMP multi core amiwest 2013], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFRtAAmiFbE ], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjdUEyjx8GM ], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydYDqZQpim8 ], [], [https://www.youtube.com/@uminekoshouten/featured ], [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/NfoY023w-vE ], ===History=== The project was originally started by a small group of Amiga [http://www.amigahistory.co.uk/aros.html enthusiasts] in 1995. These individuals were mainly computer-based college university students at the start, though that student trend has diminished since. An interview with Aaron Digulla [http://arosshow.blogspot.com/2006/12/interview-with-aaron-digulla-who.html here] * 1992 Commodore folds * 1996-1998 much of the early years was concerned with exec, dos and intuition libraries. * Early 1999, Haage & Partner used parts of the AROS code in AmigaOS 3.9. * March 2001, floppy disk images of AROS became available. * Early 2002, AROS changed its name from Amiga Replacement Operating System to Amiga Research Operating System * June 2002, AROS devs decided to use Zune (MUI 3.8 rewrite) as the GUI system. * November 2002, Eric Schwartz drew Kitty for AROS usage. * Early 2003, AROS.org underwent a graphics facelift. * Late 2003, GCC C compiler arrived. * Early 2004, Aros-Exec opened. * Early 2005, Aros Max bootable CD arrived. * Late 2005, SFS filesystem ported and allowed fast access to apps and network support arrived * Early 2007, AROS.org underwent another graphics facelift. * Mid-2007, AROS changed to AROS Research Operating System after A.Inc. sued Hyperion with a trademark violation. * Late 2007, the hard disk installer added and VmwAROS (later called Icaros Desktop) distro launched. * Early 2009, Our first usable web browser (OWB) * September 2010, first wireless support appears and AspireOS started as a distro * Early 2012, the first paper-cut bugfix and Fab's Odyssey Web Browser ported * Early 2014, backport of most features of ABIv1 into mainstream everyday use (Icaros 2.0 and above) * 2015 work started on using the extra cores of the PI 2 * Early 2017, work started on utilising the addition cores on modern CPUs starting with the 64bit x86 version * Mid-2017, m68k port optimized for the Vampire 2 / Apollo accelerators (68080 AMMX FPGA) * 2018 The old AROS Exec website closed and a new one opened * 2019 AROS One distribution started and now with USB install version * Early 2021, backport of more features of ABIv1 into mainstream everyday ABIv0 (Aros One 1.5 and above) * 2025 year of 64bit pc builds and porting 32bit applications to 64bit ABIv11 ===Bounties=== To help inspire developers with both ideas and monetary incentives, rewards are offered for the successful completion of "bounties" (requests for missing/new functionality) chosen by the community and handled by [http://power2people.org power2people] (formerly done by TeamAROS). A monthly option is [http://www.power2people.org/funds/aros/ here]. Future goals for AROS include expanding its underlying retargetability to support even more diverse architectures, provide memory protection features and user level file security, SMP and many other wonderful features missing from AmigaOS &mdash; while still providing as much source level compatibility as is possible (however it is accepted that to achieve some goals code certain things may require a little recoding). [http://www.ohloh.net/p/aros/contributors Developers] come and go as with any open source effort and we would like to thank them for their efforts... ;1996-2000:In DigullaA (coordinator), GripJ, TempletonI (BSD), SchulzM, RittauS, voordenDagL, HolmM, JohanssonT, VanIngelgomH, SteigerwaldM, BortasP, deJongK, AlfredssonJ, InnocentiB, ;2001-2005:In [http://chodorowski.com/adam/aros.html ChodorowskiA], StegerG, BergerS, HeutlingS, AlemagnaF (gcc), VerhaegenS (rexx), KielH, MatheussenKS (CAMD), SzczygielskiP, ErikssonP, LeCorfecD (Zune), BauerS (Zune), FurlongW, GustafssonJ, AndrewsN, CafferkeyN, GierichM (jpeg), PattonJ, ParsonsM, DietrichJ, SeilerT, BischoffL, LorentzenNH, AdamO, BerglundH, SmithP, HolmenD, BlomM, ;2006-2010:In FedinP, RusslerM, SzymczykS (owb), SmiechowiczK (openGL), WeissM, NorrisR, BrunnerO, WiszkowskiT, GreppinA, [http://www.fukt.bsnet.se/~bearsoft/ Bearsoft Björn Screwelius], ErbY, CharletF, HodgesC, [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4819&forum=18&post_id=43103#forumpost43103 HokstadV], McMullanJ (m68k), WilenT (m68k), ;2011- :In MuijzenbergPHvanden, ALB42, JonesEM, weiju, DizzyofCRN, wawa, miker, * 1996 - The linux hosted version for i386 was the first to arrive * 1998 - i386, The native version for i386-based PC AT computers and compatibles. * 2004 - x86/64, The native version for 64-bit (x86_64, amd64) PC computers. * 2008 - sam440/ppc, The native version for Sam440EP, Sam440EP Flex and Sam460ex computers. * 2009 - efika, The native version for PowerPC Efika computers. * 2010 - m68k, The native version for m68k Amigas or WinUAE * 2013 - raspi/armfh, early native version for ARMv6 based Raspberry Pi computers. * 2017 - x86/64bit smp Debugging capture serial debug at all (especially with sysdebug=all or --sysdebug=all) to see it displayed on screen * yes, usb -> rs232 adapters can work most of the time, some of the cheapest ones are not fully compatible with all rs232 devices to capture to another device * you will need a null modem cable (or a null modem adapter usually female to female) in addition to the usb -> rs232 adapter (usb adapter is a normal modem ie. the pins are not crossed over) Normal modem cable - straight connection DCE <pre> Pin 2 -> Pin 2 RXD Pin 3 -> Pin 3 TXD Pin 5 -> Pin 5 GND </pre> Null modem cable connections DTE <pre> Pin 2 -> Pin 3 Pin 3 -> Pin 2 Pin 5 -> Pin 5 </pre> (9pole SUB-D) <pre> serial ser: (amiga/aros) tty2 tty1USB0 (linux) COM1 (windows) (depends on the os being used) speed baud transfer rate 9600 38400 lower baud might be more successful data bits 8 stop bits 1 parity none handshaking flow control - none xon/xoff (most likely) rts/cts dsr/dtr (pins not connected so should not work) </pre> *You cannot use compiled aros X86-64 bit software (when ready) on aros X86 32bit. PPC compiled software on X86 and so on. *68k is tested with the UAE emulator (WinUAE) but some tests are done on native 68000 based Amigas and others. *PPC support is very limited to certain devices. If you use the WBStartup, you have to delete the other icons in the folder (readme etc..) and you have to add in the Icon Tooltype the parameter DONOTWAIT If you use user-startup instead, you need to add the attached command "after assignment to LUA" C:WBRun DH1:Extras/Utility/WeatherBar/WeatherBar >NIL: Change the command to match your WeatherBar path. <pre> PATH sys:Utilities/WeatherBar ADD run >nil: lua:amilua weatherforecast.lua </pre> To enter data your Country or City, ist with city_id numbers can be found [http://bulk.openweathermap.org/sample/city.list.json.gz here] or you need to go to [https://www.bbc.com/weather BBC Weather], once you type the name of your city or town in the appropriate tab, and press enter, the 7 numbers to be added in the "WeatherBar" will appear on the Browser url address bar above Unicode v16.0 emojis are not supported but [https://github.com/jens-maus/libcodesets codesets.library] provides <pre> internally supported (hardcoded) charsets/codesets are: (conversions are possible from and to each codeset): AmigaPL – Polish (Amiga) Amiga-1251 – Cyrillic (Amiga) ISO-8859-1 – Western European ISO-8859-1+Euro – West European (with EURO) ISO-8859-2 – Central/East European ISO-8859-3 – South European ISO-8859-4 – North European ISO-8859-5 – Slavic languages ISO-8859-9 – Turkish ISO-8859-15 – West European II ISO-8859-16 – South-Eastern European KOI8-R – Russian UTF-8 – Unicode In addition, external charset table files can be stored in LIBS:Charsets or loaded by an application from PROGDIR:Charsets. The charset files included with this distributions are: IBM866 – Cyrillic (cp866) ISO-8859-7 – Greek (LatinGreek) ISO-8859-10 – Nordic (Latin 6) windows-1250 – Central/East Europe (Windows) windows-1251 – Cyrillic (Windows) windows-1252 – West European (Windows) </pre> Icaros 2.3 USB image needs a header stripped so it can work correctly dd bs=512 skip=1 status=progress if=icaros_light_2-3-0_pendrive.bin of=/dev/sdxy && sync Scalos <pre> ------------------------------- { "STRING", "ID/K,TEXT/K,SRC/K,TEXTPEN/K,HALIGN/K,STYLE/K,FONT/K,VALIGN/K", HALIGN LEFT | CENTER | RIGHT VALIGN TOP | CENTER | BOTTOM STYLE NORMAL | BOLD | ITALIC | BOLDITALIC FONT // font specification - format: "fontname.font/size" ------------------------------- arguments for STRING SRC "diskstate", "diskusage", "diskusagefree", "diskusageinuse", "diskusagepercent", "fibfilename", "filecomment", "filedate", "fileprotection", "filesize", "filetime", "filetypestring", "iconname", "linktarget", "plugin" pluginname <optional plugin arguments> "versionstring", "volumecreateddate", "volumecreatedtime", "volumeordevicename", ------------------------------- arguments for HIDE "novolumenode", "isempty" (some STRING) ------------------------------- all internal commands: "about", "backdrop", "cleanup", "cleanupbyname", "cleanupbydate", "cleanupbysize", "cleanupbytype", "clearselection", "clone", "close", "copy", "cut", "delete", "emptytrashcan", "executecommand", "formatdisk", "iconify", "iconinfo", "lastmsg", "leaveout", "makedir", "open", "parent", "paste", "putaway", "quit", "redraw", "redrawall", "rename", "reset", "selectall", "showallfiles", "showonlyicons", "shutdown", "sizetofit", "snapshot", "snapshotall", "snapshotwindow", "unsnapshot", "update", "updateall", "viewbydate", "viewbyicon", "viewbysize", "viewbytype", "viewbytext", </pre> {{status|50%}} {{BookCat}} amei5n9gmbg4rymtfpzr5ooixllykm1 102 23785 4635063 4519179 2026-05-10T06:11:22Z ~2026-28218-86 3582539 Link to an existing Bakers % page. 4635063 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__{{Recipe summary | Category = Bread recipes | Yield = 1 loaf | Image = [[File:Focaccia.png|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of Italy|Italian Cuisine]] '''Focaccia''' is a type of a somewhat flat yeast [[Cookbook:Bread|bread]] from Italy. The basic bread is often topped with any of the following: [[Cookbook:Herbs|herbs]], [[Cookbook:Olive Oil|olive oil]], [[Cookbook:Cheese|cheese]], [[Cookbook:Meat|meats]], and [[Cookbook:Vegetable|vegetables]], and can be seen as a precursor to pizza. Focaccia is commonly used for [[Cookbook:Sandwiches|sandwiches]]. ==Ingredients== {| class="wikitable" style="background: none" !Ingredient !Count !Volume<ref group="note">Weight conversions from USDA National Nutrient Database. Original recipe text and ingredient order preserved. Egg size presumed as large. </ref> !Weight ![[wikipedia:baker percentage|Baker's %]] |- |[[Cookbook:All-purpose flour|All-purpose flour]] | |4 ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] |562.5 [[Cookbook:Gram|g]] |100% |- |[[Cookbook:White Sugar|White sugar]] | |1 [[Cookbook:Teaspoon|teaspoon]] |4.2 g |0.75% |- |[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] | |1 teaspoon |6 g |1.07% |- |Active dry [[Cookbook:Yeast|yeast]] <ref group="note">This excessive amount of yeast will result in a strong yeast flavor. To reduce this flavor, it is recommend to use no more than 1.05% active dry yeast, although you can expect fermentation time to increase. Further reductions will result in less yeast flavor and longer [[wikipedia:Straight dough|bulk fermentation]] times.</ref> | |1 [[Cookbook:Tablespoon|tablespoon]] |12 g |2.13% |- |Water <ref group="note">This hydration is a little dry for this bread style which is somewhat flattish.</ref> | |1 cup |237 g |42.13% |- |[[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] | |2 tablespoons |27.2 g |4.84% |- |[[Cookbook:Egg|Egg]] |1 [[Cookbook:Each|ea]]. | |50 g |8.89% |- |[[Cookbook:Olive Oil|Olive oil]] | |3 tablespoons |40.5 g |7.2% |- |Dried [[Cookbook:Rosemary|rosemary]], crushed | |1 teaspoon |1.2 g |0.21% |- |'''Total''' | |'''n/a''' |'''940.6 g''' |'''167.22%''' |} ==Procedure== # Combine 1 cup flour, sugar, salt, and yeast. Mix well. # Heat water and vegetable oil until warm, and add to yeast mixture along with the egg. # Mix with an electric [[Cookbook:Mixer|mixer]] at low speed until moistened. [[Cookbook:Beating|Beat]] for 2 additional minutes. # Stir in 1 ¾ cup flour (half of remaining total) while beating, until [[Cookbook:Dough|dough]] pulls away from side of bowl. # [[Cookbook:Kneading|Knead]] in 1 ¾ cup flour on floured surface. Cover dough with a bowl, and let sit for 5 minutes. # Place dough on a greased [[Cookbook:Baking Sheet|baking sheet]]. [[Cookbook:Dough#Rolling|Roll out]] to 12-[[Cookbook:Inch|inch]] circle. Cover with greased [[Cookbook:Plastic Wrap|plastic wrap]] and a cloth towel. Place in a warm place for 30 minutes. # Uncover dough, and poke holes in it with a spoon handle at 1 inch intervals. Drizzle olive oil on dough, and sprinkle with crushed rosemary. # [[Cookbook:Baking|Bake]] at [[Cookbook:Oven Temperatures|400 °F (205 °C)]] for 17 to 27 minutes, until just golden. Remove from baking sheet, and cool on rack. ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}} ==Links== {{wikipedia|Focaccia}} [[Category:Recipes for focaccia]] [[Category:Baking recipes]] [[Category:Italian recipes]] [[Category:Featured recipes]] [[Category:Recipes with metric units]] [[Category:Recipes with images]] [[Category:Kid-friendly recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using white sugar]] [[Category:Recipes using egg]] [[Category:Recipes using all-purpose flour]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] eez4poemso2byymumi2smehkpdomrgq 0 31170 4635089 4343620 2026-05-10T08:38:48Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635089 wikitext text/x-wiki ==The philosophical problem of phenomenal consciousness== Chalmers (1996) encapsulated the philosophical problem of phenomenal consciousness, describing it as the ''Hard Problem''. The Hard Problem can be concisely defined as "how to explain a state of consciousness in terms of its neurological basis" Block (2004). A state is an arrangement of things in space over a period of time. It is possible that the Hard Problem has not been solved because the concepts of "space", "time" and "things" are intensely problematic in both science and philosophy. Some philosophers have argued that ''changes'' in state are equivalent to "mental states". That consciousness experience always involves acts, such as acts of acquaintance (Russell 1912). But what is a succession of states in the brain or the physical world? As an extension of the idea of "acts" as mental states many philosophers have argued that the functional description of a system does not need to contain any reference to qualia within that system. Such ideas, based on nineteenth century materialism, have been expressed by Huxley, Ryle, Smart, Goldman and many others. However, although qualia are not required for classical functions, such as most computations or servo-control, it is far from clear whether this is true for all functions. If a function is described as any thing that mediates a change in state it should be realised that "change" itself is not fully understood in philosophy or science and that some systems, such as quantum mechanical systems, contain state changes that are far from understood. It will be seen below that our scientific knowledge is not yet sufficiently complete to allow the claim that all, or even any, changes can occur without qualia. Whether a philosopher or scientist is dualist, materialist or physicalist they should have some insight into current theories about the physical world. Certainly, if they are considering the problem of "how to explain a state of consciousness in terms of its neurological basis" then some idea of a "neurological basis" is essential. The objective of this section is to give an account of the problems of space, time and content and to describe how these affect the problem of consciousness. ==Epiphenomenalism and the problem of change== Philosophers have noticed since the time of Leibniz that phenomenal consciousness does not seem to be required for the brain to produce action. As an example there are numerous reflexes that can occur without any awareness that they are happening. In fact it is difficult to think of any response to a stimulus that requires phenomenal consciousness and could not, in principle, be performed in the absence of conscious intervention. T.H. Huxley is often regarded as the originator of the term '''epiphenomenalism''' to describe how consciousness seems extraneous to processes in the materialist interpretation of the world although the term may have originated in James' description of Huxley's (1874) ideas. According to nineteenth century science changes in state cannot explain the existence of phenomenal consciousness so superficially it may appear as if phenomenal consciousness is unnecessary. However, it may come as a shock to the reader to discover that nineteenth century science is also unable to account for any change in state. In the materialist paradigm time is construed to be a succession of instants of no duration, each of which is entirely separate from the others. As a result no instant can cause a change in another instant. It is not only conscious experience that is epiphenomenal, each instant of the nineteenth century concept of the world is epiphenomenal because it cannot give rise to the next instant. On the one hand it seems that conscious experience is not required for a nineteenth century model of behaviour and on the other hand nineteenth century science seems to be impossible without extraneous input from a conscious observer who contains the idea of change. The problem of change is closely related to the problem of time which is discussed in depth below. (See [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/change/#inst Change and Inconsistency, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]). The reader might consider whether phenomenal consciousness is indeed epiphenomenal. Empirical reports describe it as something that is different from the world beyond the body (see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Consciousness_studies:_The_conflict2#Direct_Realism direct realism]) - but could we generate empirical reports of an epiphenomenon? If we do indeed generate empirical reports of phenomenal consciousness is there some non-materialist, physical** connection between phenomenal consciousness and the functional state? In the analysis that follows it is essential that the reader does not dismiss the possibility that conscious experience is largely non-functional in a classical sense. The idea that observation is not action should not be dismissed out of hand. Indeed the claim that something cannot be true if it is "epiphenomenal" in a classical sense is astonishing in the context of modern quantum physics. Everettian approaches (and offshoots like the Bohmian, Consistent Histories and operational (decoherence) approaches) to quantum physics all allow that the classical world is epiphenomenal (cf: Page 1997, Stapp 1998). The Copenhagen Interpretation, however, was less clear on this issue. It is curious that problems with the nature of phenomenal consciousness are also problems with nineteenth century science - Aristotlean regress in the mind is part of the wider problem of epistemological regress and epiphenomenalism is part of the wider problem of change. Perhaps nineteenth century science is not an appropriate foundation for understanding consciousness. Recommended reading: Mortensen, C. (2002) Change. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/change/ Page, D.N. (1997). Sensible Quantum Mechanics: Are Only Perceptions Probabilistic? http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9506010 Rivas, T., & Dongen, H. van (2003). [http://www.emergentmind.org/rivas-vandongen.htm Exit Epiphenomenalism: The Demolition of a Refuge] Stapp, (1998). Quantum Ontology and Mind-Matter Synthesis.[Appeared in proceedings of X-th Max Born Symposium, eds, Blanchard and Jadczyk, Vol 517 Lecture notes in Physics series, Springer-Verlag, 1999 (Quantum Future:from Volta and Como to the present and beyond) ] http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/quant-ph/pdf/9905/9905053.pdf (**) cf: gravity may affect the rate at which clocks tick without the occurrence of any collisions between particles or anything that can be called a "process". ==The problem of time== ''This section should be read after reading [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity_for_beginners a quick introduction to special relativity]'' ===The past century of ideas about time=== McTaggart in 1908 set out some of the problems with our idea of time in his classic paper ''The Unreality of Time''. He drew attention to the way that a sequence of things in a list does not describe time because a sequence of things is constant yet events are always changing. These considerations led him to propose that there are three different sequences of things, or series, that are commonly used to describe events. McTaggart's three different time series are summarized in the illustration below. [[Image:constudseries.gif]] He argued that only the 'A Series' is a temporal series because it is only in the A Series that change occurs so that events can be given the labels 'future', 'present' and 'past'. He pointed out that although the A Series is used for determining the direction and sequence of events it is not itself 'in time' because it contains relations that are neither a part of the C Series nor the B Series. This led him to propose that time is unreal because change involves a movement along the time series so cannot be fixed within it. Franck (1994) argued on the basis of Atmanspacher's models of universes with real and imaginary geometries that McTaggart's 'unreality' of time could be avoided by proposing a second, imaginary, time dimension. "What McTaggart in fact demonstrates is that it is impossible to account for temporality within a strictly one-dimensional concept of time."(Franck 1994). This idea is illustrated below: [[Image:constudseries2.gif]] This idea of time being two dimensional is not new and has also been advanced by such luminaries as Hermann Weyl and CD Broad. Weyl (1920) made the following statement that is extremely apposite to consciousness studies, he wrote that reality is a: "...four-dimensional continuum which is neither 'time' nor 'space'. Only the consciousness that passes on in one portion of this world experiences the detached piece which comes to meet it and passes behind it, as history, that is, as a process that is going forward in time and takes place in space." (Weyl 1920). McTaggart's objection to time is felt intuitively by anyone who has contemplated the ''Block Universe'' of Relativity Theory. If the universe is four dimensional with three space dimensions and one time dimension it would be fixed forever and the observer would be frozen within it. This would occur whether the time dimension was arranged according to Galilean Relativity or Modern Relativity. Peter Lynds in 2003 has drawn attention to the 'frozen' nature of the observer in a four dimensional universe. He proposes, like Kevin Brown in his popular [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath158.htm mathpages], that time must be approached from the viewpoint of quantum physics because simple four dimensional universes would give rise to 'frozen, static' instants and hence no change could occur. Lynds argues that if quantum physics is introduced then no event can have a definite moment of occurrence and that change occurs because of this quantum indeterminacy: {{font|face='Times New Roman',serif|I would suggest that there is possibly much more to be gleaned from the connection between quantum physics and the inherent need for physical continuity, and even go as far to speculate that the dependent relationship may be the underlying explanation for quantum jumping and with static indivisible mathematical time values directly related to the process of quantum collapse. Time will tell."}}(Lynds 2003). Our knowledge of quantum uncertainty can be traced back to De Broglie's highly successful model of individual particle motions. This model was based on Special Relativity theory and it predicted a wave nature for particles. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can be shown to be a consequence of this wave nature. See the illustration below: [[Image:constuddebroglie.gif]] The illustration is based on de Broglie (1925) and Pollock (2004). So Lynds' argument that change is due to the uncertainty principle is actually an argument that change is due to differing planes of simultaneity between systems that are in relative motion. Kevin Brown is aware of this; he summarises the effect of uncertainty due to special relativity and points out that it provides a resolution of Zeno's arrow paradox: "The theory of special relativity answers Zeno's concern over the lack of an instantaneous difference between a moving and a non-moving arrow by positing a fundamental re-structuring the basic way in which space and time fit together, such that there really is an instantaneous difference between a moving and a non-moving object, insofar as it makes sense to speak of "an instant" of a physical system with mutually moving elements. Objects in relative motion have different planes of simultaneity, with all the familiar relativistic consequences, so not only does a moving object look different to the world, but the world looks different to a moving object." (Brown 19??) Another approach to the way that time has a direction is to suggest that the possible outcomes in quantum mechanics are located in "disjoint space-time regions which exclude one another" (McCall 2000). This does not explain the A Series however because the observer would not have any sense of 'becoming' or temporality as a result of the existence of regions that could not be observed. ===Presentism and Four-Dimensionalism=== In the past century the philosophical battle lines have been drawn between the Presentists, who believe that only the durationless instant of the present exists and the Four Dimensionalists who consider that things are extended in both space and time (see Rea (2004)). There are two types of Presentism, in its extreme form it is the belief that the past and future are truly non-existent, that what we call time is not an axis for arranging things but a series of changes and records in an ''enduring'' present. In its less extreme form, which might be called ''functional presentism'', the present is a durationless instant that can never be connected to the future or past except through predictions and records. In consciousness studies it is the conventional theory that brain activity occurs in the present instant and that the past can only occur as memories retrieved into this durationless present. So, in consciousness studies functional Presentism seems to be the accepted paradigm. Presentism cannot explain change. Each instant is durationless and frozen. That said, as seen above, four dimensionalism cannot explain the observation of change although it can explain the difference between moving and stationary objects. Fortunately the debate has been largely resolved by recent scientific experiments which show that time exists and hence Presentism is unlikely. ===The existence of time=== The issue of whether or not time exists is critical to consciousness studies. If we exist at an instant without duration then how can we know we exist? Clay (1882) coined the term 'specious present' to describe how we seem to exist for a short period containing the immediate past: "All the notes of a bar of a song seem to the listener to be contained in the present. All the changes of place of a meteor seem to the beholder to be contained in the present. At the instant of the termination of such series, no part of the time measured by them seems to be a past. Time, then, considered relatively to human apprehension, consists of four parts, viz., the obvious past, the specious present, the real present, and the future." So conscious, phenomenal experience has things that are apparently extended in time. But does time exist? Recent experiments in quantum physics should change our view of time forever. Lindner ''et al.'' (2005) have explored the problem of time by investigating quantum interference between interferometer slits that are separated by time rather than space. In the famous, spatial 'double slit experiment' in quantum physics single electrons are directed at an apparatus that has the equivalent of two tiny slits separated by a small gap. The electrons pass through the apparatus one at a time and produce flashes of light on a screen or changes in a photographic plate. The electrons produce series of bands on the screen that are typical of interference effects. So each electron is deflected as if it has passed through both slits and interfered with itself. [[Image:constudtwinslit.gif]] This experiment provided some of the earliest evidence for the wave-packet nature of the electron. In an amazing technical tour de force Lindner ''et al.'' (2005) have extended the idea of the spatial double slit experiment to an investigation of time. In the double slit experiment in time electrons are produced in an inert gas by extremely short laser pulses. The pulses stimulate a single atom and there is a probability of this atom releasing an electron at each oscillation of the pulse. The apparatus is described by Paulus ''et al.'' (2003). The probability (see note 1) of an electron being ejected to the left or right of the apparatus can be adjusted by adjusting the optical pulse. Pulses can be applied with a duration of a few femtoseconds and these create 'slits' extending over an interval of about 500 attoseconds (500 x 10-18 seconds). A single electron has a probability of being emitted at each of the slits. The probability of the single electron going in a particular direction after both slits have been created depends upon the interaction of the probabilities of being emitted in a particular direction at each single slit. As expected, an interference pattern was generated as a result of single electrons interfering with themselves across different times. [[Image:constudtimeslit.gif]] This experiment is remarkable because it provides direct evidence that time exists in a similar fashion to the way that space exists. It is consistent with Feynman's theory of Quantum Electrodynamics where all possible paths, both in time and space, interact to produce the final trajectory of a particle and consistent with modern Special Relativity, on which QED is based, where the trajectories of particles occur in an extended four dimensional space-time. The experiment has not attracted as much attention as it might have done because most physicists are not Presentists. To physicists the experiment is yet another confirmation of modern physics. However it has impressed many: "This experiment should be included in every textbook on quantum mechanics," says Wolfgang Schleich, a quantum physicist at the University of Ulm in Germany. "It certainly will be in mine." (PhysicsWeb) Why should a concrete demonstration that time exists affect consciousness studies? The simple answer is that, as Kant, Gombrich, Clay, James and many others have spotted, there can be no conscious, phenomenal experience without time. The fact that time exists should provide new insights and liberate theorists in the field of consciousness studies from the problems of recursion and regression that are inherent in Presentism. Meanwhile Quantum Theorists are pressing on with the problem of how an organised spacetime could emerge from quantum chaos (cf: Ambjorn ''et al.'' (2004)) and even how mind might be involved in the emergence of time itself (cf: Romer (2004)). ===The nature of time=== ====The nature of classical time==== In the eighteenth century it became apparent that Euclid's parallel postulate could not be explained in terms of the other postulates. The parallel postulate is equivalent to the statement that exactly one line can be drawn through any point not on a given line in such a way that it is parallel to the given line (this is Playfair's simple version). It is also known as the fifth postulate. The attempts to prove the parallel postulate led to the development of non-Euclidean geometry. It was then possible to show that the parallel postulate is a special case within a range of geometrical forms from spherical geometry, through Euclidean geometry to the hyperbolic geometry of Bolyai and Lobatschefsky. Furthermore it was shown by Taurinus that the axioms of Euclidean geometry, with the exception of the fifth postulate, applied on the surface of a sphere with an imaginary radius. This motivated Hermann Minkowski to propose that Einstein's new theory of relativity was in fact due to the universe being a 'space-time' with four dimensions rather than just a space in which things change (see Walter 1999). In 1909 Minkowski said that: "Henceforth space by itself and time by itself, are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a kind of union of the two will preserve an independent reality". (Minkowski 1909). The earliest idea of the four dimensional universe involved time as an axis with displacements measured in units of the square root of minus one (cf: Einstein (1920)): time was considered to be displacements along the imaginary plane. However, from the moment of Minkowski's proposal mathematicians were aware that other interpretations of time could give almost identical physical results. According to the differential geometry developed during the nineteenth century a space is defined in terms of a ''metric tensor'' which is a matrix of factors that determine how displacements in each independent direction vary with displacements in the other directions. The metric tensor then specifies a ''metric'' which is an equation that describes the length of a displacement in any direction in terms of the independent directions, or ''dimensions''. A derivation of the metric tensor and how it can be used to calculate the metric is given in the [[/Appendix/]]. The metric of the space considered by Euclid is Pythagoras' theorem where the length of any displacement is given in terms of the displacements along the three independent axes, or dimensions: <math>s^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 </math> It is interesting to explore ''imaginary time'' from the point of view of consciousness studies. Minkowski's original idea for the geometry of the world proposed that any displacement was a displacement in both time and space given by a four dimensional version of Pythagoras' theorem: <math>s^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + (ict)^2</math> which, given that <math>i^2 = -1</math> equals: <math>s^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 - (ct)^2</math> Where ''i'' is the square root of minus one, ''c'' is a constant for converting metres to seconds and t is the displacement in time. The space-time is considered to be flat and all displacements are measured from the origin. The interesting feature of Minkowski space-time with imaginary time is that displacements in time can ''subtract'' from displacements in space. If we set <math>r^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2</math> (where ''r'' is the radius of a sphere around the origin then: <math>s^2 = r^2 - (ct)^2</math> Notice that <math>s^2 = 0</math> when <math>r^2 = (ct)^2</math> so if imaginary time existed there would be times and separations within a spherical volume of things where '''everything is at a point as well as distributed in space'''. This idea has distinct similarites with the ''res cogitans'' mentioned by Descartes, and the ''point soul'' of Reid and Malebranche etc., however, this feature of Minkowski's space-time has not been popular with physicists for some good reasons. Blandford and Thorne point out some of the problems: {{font|face='times new roman',serif|One approach, often used in elementary textbooks [and also used in Goldstein's (1980) Classical Mechanics and in the first edition of Jackson's Classical Electrodynamics], is to set <math>x^0 = it</math>, where <math>i = \sqrt{-1}</math> and correspondingly make the time basis vector be imaginary,... When this approach is adopted, the resulting formalism does not care whether indices are placed up or down; one can place them wherever one's stomach or liver dictate without asking one's brain. However, this <math>x^0 = it</math> approach has severe disadvantages: (i) it hides the true physical geometry of Minkowski spacetime, (ii) it cannot be extended in any reasonable manner to non-orthonormal bases in flat spacetime, and (iii) it cannot be extended in any reasonable manner to the curvilinear coordinates that one must use in general relativity. For this reason, most advanced texts [including the second and third editions of Jackson (1999)] and all general relativity texts take an alternative approach, which we also adopt in this book. This alternative approach requires introducing two different types of components for vectors, and analogously for tensors: contravariant components denoted by superscripts, and covariant components denoted by subscripts."}} Blandford & Thorne (2004). What Blandford and Thorne are saying is that the metric of space-time appears to be the result of the interaction of two coordinate systems and cannot be explained by a single coordinate system with imaginary time. When a more complicated geometrical analysis is applied it is evident that there are two possibilities for the time coordinate. In the first the metric can be '''assumed''' from the outset to be <math>s^2 = x^2 + y^2 + z^2 - (ct)^2</math> and the metric tensor simply adjusted by inserting -1 in the principle diagonal so that the negative sign in front of the time coordinate occurs. With this assumption and adjustment the time coordinate can be assumed to be ''real''. In the second possibility the time coordinate in the world can be assumed to be imaginary and the time coordinate of the observer can be assumed to be real. This gives rise to the same metric tensor and metric as the first possibility but does not assume the resulting metric from the outset. The three ideas of classical time (imaginary, real and mixed) are shown in the illustration below: [[Image:constudclasstime.gif]] The light cone is divided into three regions: events on the surface of the light cone, such as photons converging on the observer, are said to be ''lightlike'' separated from the observer, events inside the future or past light cones are said to be ''timelike separated'' and events outside the lightcone are said to be ''spacelike'' separated from the observer. The physical '''theory of relativity''' consists of four dimensional geometry plus the assumption of causality and the assumption that physical laws are invariant between observers. It should be noted that space-time could contain preferred frames of reference and is not, by itself, a theory of relativity. The assumption that physical laws are invariant between observers leads to the postulate that nothing can travel faster than ''c'' metres per second. This means that the constant ''c'', which in Minkowski space-time is the conversion factor from seconds to metres then has a new significance as the maximum velocity. A result of ''c'' being a maximum velocity is that nothing can travel from regions of the light cone that are spacelike separated to the observer at coordinates (0,0,0,0). This is problematic for observers if time is real because, as Stein (1968) wrote: <span style="font-family='times new roman'">“in Einstein-Minkowski space-time an event's present is constituted by itself alone.” </span> (Stein 1968). However, to each of us it seems that the present is characterised by ''many'' things simultaneously. As will be discussed below, this simultaneity of present things also results in the appearance of phenomenal space. But in Minkowski space-time with real time the plane of simultaneity is entirely space-like separated from the observation point. If real time is accepted it would appear that we cannot have the space of phenomenal experience. The regions of the light-cone and the spacelike separation of present events are shown in the illustration below: [[Image:Constudcone.gif]] So can the time in Minkowski space-time be real? If time were in some way related to the imaginary plane then all the content of the surface of the light cone could be simultaneously at the position of the observer and phenomenal experience containing space is possible, but then general relativity may be problematic. So can the time in Minkowski space-time be imaginary? There is another problem with Minkowski space-time known as the "Rietdijk-Putnam-Penrose" argument or the Andromeda paradox (Penrose 1989). Moving observers have different planes of simultaneity. The plane of simultaneity of an observer moving towards you slopes upward relative to your plane of simultaneity (see the illustration on "De Broglie waves" above). Suppose an alien civilisation in the Andromeda galaxy decided to launch a fleet of spacecraft intent on the invasion of earth just as you passed Jim in your car. Your plane of simultaneity would slope upwards ever so slightly compared with Jim's, Jim's plane of simultaneity could contain earlier events on Andromeda than yours. At the distance of the Andromeda galaxy it could be another week or two for the Andromedean's to launch their invasion fleet in Jim's slice of the universe. Penrose considers that this example shows that the events in the universe must be fixed: <span style="font-family='times new roman'">"Two people pass each other on the street; and according to one of the two people, an Andromedean space fleet has already set off on its journey, while to the other, the decision as to whether or not the journey will actually take place has not yet been made. How can there still be some uncertainty as to the outcome of that decision? If to either person the decision has already been made, then surely there cannot be any uncertainty. The launching of the space fleet is an inevitability."</span> (Penrose 1989). If the decision to invade and a time previous to this decision are both part of the present instant on earth then, in a 4D classical universe, the decision to invade must be inevitable. This lack of free will in a 4D universe is known as chronogeometrical determinism (Toretti 1983). However, as de Broglie demonstrated, it is sloping planes of simultaneity that do indeed introduce uncertainty into our universe. It should also be noted that nothing on the plane of simultaneity is observable to the owner of that plane because, to observe it would involve the transmission of data at velocities greater than the speed of light. Petkov (2002)considers a version of the Andromeda paradox in depth. He concludes that: <span style="font-family='times new roman'">"If the relativity of simultaneity is explicitly discussed in terms of the dimensionality of reality, the fact that observers in relative motion have different sets of simultaneous events can be explained either by assuming that existence is also relativized (preserving the views of the present and objective becoming) or by considering existence absolute which means that reality is a 4D world. Although the option of relativizing existence appears completely unacceptable from a philosophical point of view, that option is eliminated within the framework of SR by demonstrating that the twin paradox would not be possible if existence were not absolute."</span> According to Petkov Special Relativity describes the universe as a frozen space-time where things are eternally arranged in four dimensions. Petkov introduces the possibility of change as a feature of consciousness and in support of this quotes Weyl's intuition that only the conscious observer moves in time. ==Relationalism, Substantivalism, the Hole Argument and General Covariance== ===Relationalism and Substantivalism=== The view that the universe could be an extended space and time with things in it, a sort of unbounded container, is known as '''substantivalism'''. It was championed by Newton and Clarke in the seventeenth century. The view that the space and time in the universe depends upon the relations between the objects in the universe is known as '''relationalism''' and was championed by Leibniz. Leibniz attacked substantivalism by arguing that if there were two universes which only differed by things in one universe being displaced by five feet compared with things in the other universe then there is no reason why the two universes should be discernably different. Newton supported substantivalism by arguing that when the water in a bucket rotates it adopts a concave surface that is independent of other motions and provides evidence of the possibility of absolute motion. This argument is called the ''bucket argument''. Newton also introduces the ''globe argument'' in which he proposes that the state of motion of two globes connected by a taut thread can be gauged from the tension in the thread alone. When the globes are stationary with respect to each other there is no tension in the thread. Ernst Mach in 1893 introduced a relationalist account of the bucket argument by claiming that the water rotates in relation to the fixed stars. He stated this in what has become known as Mach's principle: "The inertia of any system is the result of the interaction of that system and the rest of the universe. In other words, every particle in the universe ultimately has an effect on every other particle." The relationalist position is interesting from the viewpoint of consciousness studies because phenomenal consciousness appears as a projection that overlies physical space. As an example, the stars on the ceiling of a planetarium appear to be at huge distances from the observer even though they are reflected lights that are only a few metres away. In general a projection where positions depend upon angular separations will be subject to relationalism. It is also probable that the space of phenomenal consciousness is a continuum of some field in the brain, if this is the case then the way we conceive of space as an existent entity is actually a conception involving the angular relations between the perturbations of the substance that is the field. Substantivalism would then literally be space as a substance. It is intriguing in this respect that Kant believed that space was a form of intuition and hence a property of mind. Kant raised another type of argument for the justification of absolute space. He asked whether ''handedness'' was due to relations or a property of space. The right and left hands are enantiomorphs (mirror images). The relations within the right and left hands are identical but they still differ, for instance a right hand cannot be moved on to a left hand so that it exactly overlies it. Kant proposed that handedness was property inherent in space itself rather than a set of relations. Gardner introduced a version of Kant's problem with the "Ozma" argument: "Is there any way to communicate the meaning of the word "left" by a language transmitted in the form of pulsating signals? By the terms of the problem we may say anything we please to our listeners, ask them to perform any experiment whatever, with one proviso: there is to be no asymmetric object or structure that we and they can observe in common." (Gardner 1990). Although it is probably impossible to provide an answer to the Ozma argument it is possible to relate handedness to a conceptual point observer who spans more than an instant of time. If a point observer is at the centre of a field of inward pointing space-time vectors then relative to any given vector there are positive and negative angular separations. The body is asymmetric and the point observer would lie within this so always have available a 'head' direction or a 'foot direction' and hence a left and right. Unlike the time extended observer an instantaneous observer would not contain vectors that contained directional information and would be no more than a collection of points in space. Pooley (2002) discusses handedness in depth and introduces the problem of parity violation in the Weak Interaction. ===General Covariance and the Hole Argument=== The proposal that the universe is four dimensional does not in itself produce a full physical theory. The assumptions of causality and the invariance of physical laws between observers are also required to create modern Relativity Theory. The second assumption, that the laws of physics are the same for all observers is closely related to the requirement of '''general covariance'''. The principle of general covariance requires that a manifold of events can be smoothly mapped to another manifold of the same dimension and back again. This mapping should always give the same result. General covariance is assumed in General Relativity. Einstein realised that there was an apparent problem with this assumption in certain circumstances. In his '''hole argument''' he considers a special region of space-time that is devoid of matter and where the stress-energy tensor vanishes. He then labels the same events outside the hole with two different coordinate systems. These coordinate systems could differ by something as simple as having origins that are separate so the difference is entirely passive. Both systems will give the same values for the gravitational field outside the hole. It turns out however that that the systems predict different fields within the hole (see MacDonald (2001) for the calculation and Norton (1993), (1999) for a discussion). Einstein overcame this problem by considering active mappings where particles are actually transferred through the hole. He concluded that the points where particles meet can be transformed according to general covariance and hence a relativistic theory could indeed be constructed. Solutions to the field equations that were inconsistent with the points defined by interacting particles were discarded as non-physical. The hole argument led Einstein to abandon the idea of space and time as something separate from the material content of the universe. The General Theory of Relativity becomes a theory of '''observables'''. He wrote that: <span style="font-family='times new roman'">"That the requirement of general covariance, which takes away from space and time the last remnant of physical objectivity, is a natural one, will be seen from the following reflection. All our space-time verifications invariably amount to a determination of space-time coincidences. If, for example, events consisted merely in the motion of material points, then ultimately nothing would be observable but the meetings of two or more of these points. Moreover, the results of our measurings are nothing but verifications of such meetings of the material points of our measuring instruments with other material points, coincidences between the hands of the a clock and points on the clock dial, and observed point-events happening at the same place at the same time. The introduction of a system of reference serves no other purpose than to facilitate the description of the totality of such coincidences".</span> (Einstein 1916). This is what would be expected from a four dimensional block universe with real time. It is a frozen universe of the type discussed earlier. As Earman (2002) puts it when discussing change: <span style="font-family='times new roman'">"First, the roots of the problem lie in classical GTR, and even if it was decided that it is a mistake to quantize GTR, there would remain the problem of reconciling the frozen dynamics of GTR with the B-series notion of change that is supported not only by common sense but by every physical theory prior to GTR. Second, although the aspect of the problem that grabs attention is that of time and change, no solution will be forthcoming without tackling the more general issue of what an “observable” of classical GTR is."</span> In such a universe action at a distance is not possible. From the viewpoint of consciousness studies the limitation of physical concepts to interactions between particles is a restatement of Ryle's regress and the recursion version of the homunculus problem. If events are no more than space-time coincidences then we are doomed to the endless transfer of data from point to point without any conscious observation. This seems to forbid any true simultaneity in experience and means that only measurements are possible. The reduction of physics to the study of particle interactions is fully relationalist and allows space-time to become a property of these interactions rather than vice-versa. Once it becomes possible to consider space-time as a dependent property it is then feasible to equate ''observation'' with ''measurement''. Observation is normally the representation of an event in an observer's space-time coordinate system. Measurement is the change in state of a system in response to an encounter with an event. If we maintain that space-time does not exist and can be replaced by encounters between particles then observation can be replaced by measurement. This may well be a way forward for some approximations to physical reality and may allow us to understand how a space-time is selected within an observer. As part of this approach the word "observable" is often used interchangeably with "measurable". ==Quantum theory and time== ===The general problem of QM and time=== Quantum physics provides many fundamental insights into the nature of time. At the simplest level the energy-time version of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle predicts that Quantum Mechanical (QM) interference should occur between a particle and earlier versions of itself. Such interference has been observed (see "The existence of time" above). Two of the most complete reviews of the problem of time in quantum theory available at present are Zeh (2001) and Isham (1993). Perhaps the most interesting aspect of QM and time is that it can provide an argument that time does not exist in the universe as a whole. The argument can be approached from many directions (See Rovelli 2003) but is clear in the Wheeler-de Witt equation which describes the wavefunction of the entire universe. This wavefunction has no reference to time. De Witt explained the emergence of time by proposing that the universe can be divided into an observer with measuring instruments and the rest of the universe so that the rest of the universe changes with respect to the observer. Rovelli (2003) supports this idea of partition, he considers in depth the problems of the "hole argument" and quantum physics and notes that, given the assumption that events are just successions of relations: "<span style="font-family='times new roman'">The unique account of the state of the world of the classical theory is thus shattered into a multiplicity of accounts, one for each possible "observing" physical system. Quantum mechanics is a theory about the physical description of physical systems relative to other systems, and this is a complete description of the world.</span> (Rovelli 2003). Barbour (1997) and Hartle and Gell-Mann have both proposed that an observer is a partition or region with memories that contain the trace of histories. The histories would represent a B Series. Unfortunately this leaves the A Series unexplained so time would have a direction but there would be no 'becoming'. Hawking introduces the observer into the problem of time by asking what sort of universe is compatible with human life. This application of the '''Anthropic Principle''' leads to constraints on the form of the universe, for instance the universe should have galaxies and last for more than a few million years. The Anthropic Principle is actually a restatement of the observer problem - if being an observer leads to a certain division of the universe into observer and observed then the observed part will have the form given by the Anthropic Principle. Hartle and Hawking () also tackled the "boundary problem" of cosmology by proposing that there is no boundary. This proposal involves adding a fifth, time-like, dimension on the imaginary plane so that the universe at its beginning is a '''de Sitter''' or '''anti de Sitter''' space-time. A de Sitter space-time is characterised by the metric: <math>ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 + (idt)^2 + du^2 </math> An anti de Sitter space time has the metric: <math>ds^2 = dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2 + (idt)^2 - du^2 </math> A de Sitter space time is fascinating from the view point of consciousness studies because it contains three space-like dimensions, one real, time-like dimension (u) and one imaginary time-like dimension. This might give the real and imaginary time-like axes that Franck proposed were needed to produce the McTaggart A Series. However, the extra dimension could only be related to the observer in the universe as it is at present because the extra dimension does not appear to be required to explain measurables. ===The interpretation of QM=== Time is also of interest in the interpretation of quantum mechanics and entanglement. There are many interpretations of QM such as the '''Operational Interpretation''' (Decoherence Theory), the '''Transactional Interpretation''', the '''Relational Interpretation''', the '''Many Worlds Interpretation''', the '''Copenhagen Interpretation''', the '''Bohm Interpretation''', the '''Many Minds Interpretation''' etc. Some of these interpretations, such as the Transactional Interpretation, allow the connection of entangled quantum states backwards in time along the path of particles. Decoherence theory is of particular interest because it allows the calculation of how long an entangled state can persist. Tegmark (2000) and Hagan ''et al.'' (2002) have used this technique to calculate the decoherence time of entanglement in microtubules and have differed by a factor of <math>10^{10} </math> because of differing assumptions about the biophysics of microtubules in the brain. ==Time and conscious experience == In a four dimensional universe time is an independent direction for arranging things. As an independent direction things arranged in time do not overlie things arranged in space. This also appears to be the case in conscious experience where whole words or "bars of a tune" can be experienced arranged in time. This extension in time is easy to experience but the independence of the time dimension is difficult to conceive, for instance Le Poidevin (2000) reflects that: <blockquote>"If events e1 and e2 are registered in a single specious present, then we perceive them both as present, and so as simultaneous. But we do not see, e.g., the successive positions of a moving object as simultaneous, for if we did we would see a blurred object and not a moving one."</blockquote> This assumes that arrangements in time do not occur in an independent direction for arranging things and hence would overlay space. In fact the mystery of conscious experience is deeply related to how we can experience many things as events that are separate from each other. Our experience of two dimensional patterns containing many things is as much a mystery as how we experience temporal patterns extended in time. The problem is illustrated below: [[Image:constudsimevent.gif]] It is as if patterns in conscious experience are being viewed from a point in at least four dimensions. How our experience can be like the 'view' of a conceptual point observer at the apex of a light cone without the data being overlaid and obscured is a profound mystery, obviously the data cannot be transferred into the apparent observation point and appears as nebulous vectors directed at the point. Some philosophers have noticed this problem. (''This is a stub, requires an elaboration of Specious Present Theory and Husserl's ideas'') Le Poidevin (2000). The experience and perception of time. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu//archives/spr2001/entries/time-experience/#4 Readers who are unfamiliar with the developments to Newtonian mechanics that occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries should read [[Consciousness Studies/The Philosophical Problem/Appendixs]] See [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Consciousness_Studies/The_Philosophical_Problem_Continued overleaf] for the philosophical problem continued..: ==[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Consciousness_Studies/The_Philosophical_Problem_Continued The problems of space, qualia, machine and digital consciousness]== Click on the above link. ==Notes and References== [[Consciousness Studies/The Philosophical Problem/Machine Consciousness|More...]] {{BookCat}} tl0n5keex4yo12hy8r5x3bng7erbf17 0 32355 4635084 3791829 2026-05-10T08:31:52Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635084 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Rene Descartes (1596-1650)== Descartes was also known as Cartesius. He had an empirical approach to consciousness and the mind, describing in his ''Meditations on First Philosophy'' (1641) what it is like to be human. His idea of perception is summarised in the diagram below. [[Image:Constuddescart3.png]] ===Dubitability=== Descartes is probably most famous for his statement: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"But immediately upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be somewhat; and as I observed that this truth, I think, therefore I am (COGITO ERGO SUM), was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the sceptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search."</span> Descartes is clear that what he means by ''thought'' is all the things that occur in experience, whether dreams, sensations, symbols etc.: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"5. Of my thoughts some are, as it were, images of things, and to these alone properly belongs the name IDEA; as when I think [ represent to my mind ] a man, a chimera, the sky, an angel or God. Others, again, have certain other forms; as when I will, fear, affirm, or deny, I always, indeed, apprehend something as the object of my thought, but I also embrace in thought something more than the representation of the object; and of this class of thoughts some are called volitions or affections, and others judgments." (Meditation III).</span> He repeats this general description of thought in many places in the Meditations and elsewhere. What Descartes is saying is that his meditator has thoughts; that there are thoughts and this cannot be doubted when and where they occur (Russell (1945) makes this clear). Needless to say the basic ''cogito'' put forward by Descartes has provoked endless debate, much of it based on the false premise that Descartes was presenting an inference or argument rather than just saying that thought certainly exists. However, the extent to which the philosopher can go beyond this certainty to concepts such as God, science or the soul is highly problematical. ===The description of thoughts and mind=== [[Image:Descartes2.jpg|thumb|left|Descartes]]Descartes uses the words "ideas" and "imagination" in a rather unusual fashion. The word "idea" he defines as follows: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"5. Of my thoughts some are, as it were, images of things, and to these alone properly belongs the name IDEA; as when I think [ represent to my mind ] a man, a chimera, the sky, an angel or God." (Meditation III).</span> As will be seen later, Descartes regards his mind as an unextended thing (a point) so "images of things" or "IDEAS" require some way of being extended. In the ''Treatise on Man'' (see below) he is explicit that ideas are extended things in the brain, on the surface of the "common sense". In ''Rules for the Direction of the Mind'' he notes that we "receive ideas from the common sensibility", an extended part of the brain. This usage of the term "ideas" is very strange to the modern reader and the source of many mistaken interpretations. It should be noted that occasionally Descartes uses the term 'idea' according to its usual meaning where it is almost interchangeable with 'thought' in general but usually he means a representation laid out in the brain. Descartes considers the imagination to be the way that the mind "turns towards the body" (by which Descartes means the part of the brain in the body called the senses communis): <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"3. I remark, besides, that this power of imagination which I possess, in as far as it differs from the power of conceiving, is in no way necessary to my [nature or] essence, that is, to the essence of my mind; for although I did not possess it, I should still remain the same that I now am, from which it seems we may conclude that it depends on something different from the mind. And I easily understand that, if some body exists, with which my mind is so conjoined and united as to be able, as it were, to consider it when it chooses, it may thus imagine corporeal objects; so that this mode of thinking differs from pure intellection only in this respect, that the mind in conceiving turns in some way upon itself, and considers some one of the ideas it possesses within itself; but in imagining it turns toward the body, and contemplates in it some object conformed to the idea which it either of itself conceived or apprehended by sense." Meditations VI </span> So ideas, where they become imagined images of things were thought by Descartes to involve a phase of creating a form in the brain. Descartes gives a clear description of his experience as a container that allows length, breadth, depth, continuity and time with contents arranged within it: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"2. But before considering whether such objects as I conceive exist without me, I must examine their ideas in so far as these are to be found in my consciousness, and discover which of them are distinct and which confused.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">3. In the first place, I distinctly imagine that quantity which the philosophers commonly call continuous, or the extension in length, breadth, and depth that is in this quantity, or rather in the object to which it is attributed. Further, I can enumerate in it many diverse parts, and attribute to each of these all sorts of sizes, figures, situations, and local motions; and, in fine, I can assign to each of these motions all degrees of duration."(Meditation V).</span> He points out that sensation occurs by way of the brain, conceptualising the brain as the place in the body where the extended experiences are found : Meditations VI: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"20. I remark, in the next place, that the mind does not immediately receive the impression from all the parts of the body, but only from the brain, or perhaps even from one small part of it, viz., that in which the common sense (senses communis) is said to be, which as often as it is affected in the same way gives rise to the same perception in the mind, although meanwhile the other parts of the body may be diversely disposed, as is proved by innumerable experiments, which it is unnecessary here to enumerate." </span> He finds that both imaginings and perceptions are extended things and hence in the (brain part) of the body. The area of extended things is called the ''res extensa'', it includes the brain, body and world beyond. He also considers the origin of intuitions, suggesting that they can enter the mind without being consciously created: Meditations VI, 10 : <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"10. Moreover, I find in myself diverse faculties of thinking that have each their special mode: for example, I find I possess the faculties of imagining and perceiving, without which I can indeed clearly and distinctly conceive myself as entire, but I cannot reciprocally conceive them without conceiving myself, that is to say, without an intelligent substance in which they reside, for [in the notion we have of them, or to use the terms of the schools] in their formal concept, they comprise some sort of intellection; whence I perceive that they are distinct from myself as modes are from things. I remark likewise certain other faculties, as the power of changing place, of assuming diverse figures, and the like, that cannot be conceived and cannot therefore exist, any more than the preceding, apart from a substance in which they inhere. It is very evident, however, that these faculties, if they really exist, must belong to some corporeal or extended substance, since in their clear and distinct concept there is contained some sort of extension, but no intellection at all. Further, I cannot doubt but that there is in me a certain passive faculty of perception, that is, of receiving and taking knowledge of the ideas of sensible things; but this would be useless to me, if there did not also exist in me, or in some other thing, another active faculty capable of forming and producing those ideas. But this active faculty cannot be in me [in as far as I am but a thinking thing], seeing that it does not presuppose thought, and also that those ideas are frequently produced in my mind without my contributing to it in any way, and even frequently contrary to my will. This faculty must therefore exist in some substance different from me, in which all the objective reality of the ideas that are produced by this faculty is contained formally or eminently, as I before remarked; and this substance is either a body, that is to say, a corporeal nature in which is contained formally [and in effect] all that is objectively [and by representation] in those ideas; or it is God himself, or some other creature, of a rank superior to body, in which the same is contained eminently. But as God is no deceiver, it is manifest that he does not of himself and immediately communicate those ideas to me, nor even by the intervention of any creature in which their objective reality is not formally, but only eminently, contained. For as he has given me no faculty whereby I can discover this to be the case, but, on the contrary, a very strong inclination to believe that those ideas arise from corporeal objects, I do not see how he could be vindicated from the charge of deceit, if in truth they proceeded from any other source, or were produced by other causes than corporeal things: and accordingly it must be concluded, that corporeal objects exist. Nevertheless, they are not perhaps exactly such as we perceive by the senses, for their comprehension by the senses is, in many instances, very obscure and confused; but it is at least necessary to admit that all which I clearly and distinctly conceive as in them, that is, generally speaking all that is comprehended in the object of speculative geometry, really exists external to me. "</span> He considers that the mind itself is the thing that generates thoughts and is not extended (occupies no space). This 'mind' is known as the ''res cogitans''. The mind works on the imaginings and perceptions that exist in that part of the body called the brain. This is Descartes' dualism: it is the proposition that there is an unextended place called the mind that acts upon the extended things in the brain. Meditations VI, 9: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"... And although I may, or rather, as I will shortly say, although I certainly do possess a body with which I am very closely conjoined; nevertheless, because, on the one hand, I have a clear and distinct idea of myself, in as far as I am only a thinking and unextended thing, and as, on the other hand, I possess a distinct idea of body, in as far as it is only an extended and unthinking thing, it is certain that I, [that is, my mind, by which I am what I am], is entirely and truly distinct from my body, and may exist without it."</span> Notice that the intellection associated with ideas is part of an "active faculty capable of forming and producing those ideas" that has a "corporeal nature" (it is in the brain). This suggests that the "thinking" in the passage above applies only to those thoughts that are unextended, however, it is difficult to find a definition of these particular thoughts. "Rules for the Direction of the Mind" demonstrates Descartes' dualism. He describes the brain as the part of the body that contains images or phantasies of the world but believes that there is a further, spiritual mind that processes the images in the brain: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"My fourth supposition is that the power of movement, in fact the nerves, originate in the brain, where the phantasy is seated; and that the phantasy moves them in various ways, as the external sense <organ> moves the <organ of> common sensibility, or as the whole pen is moved by its tip. This illustration also shows how it is that the phantasy can cause various movements in the nerves, although it has not images of these formed in itself, but certain other images, of which these movements are possible effects. For the pen as a whole does not move in the same way as its tip; indeed, the greater part of the pen seems to go along with an altogether different, contrary motion. This enables us to understand how the movements of all other animals are accomplished, although we suppose them to have no consciousness (rerum cognitio) but only a bodily <organ of> phantasy; and furthermore, how it is that in ourselves those operations are performed which occur without any aid of reason.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">My fifth and last supposition is that the power of cognition properly so called is purely spiritual, and is just as distinct from the body as a whole as blood is from bone or a hand from an eye; and that it is a single power. Sometimes it receives images from the common sensibility at the same time as the phantasy does; sometimes it applies itself to the images preserved in memory; sometimes it forms new images, and these so occupy the imagination that often it is not able at the same time to receive ideas from the common sensibility, or to pass them on to the locomotive power in the way that the body left to itself -would. "</span> Descartes sums up his concept of a point soul seeing forms in the world via forms in the sensus communis in ''Passions of the Soul'', 35: "By this means the two images which are in the brain form but one upon the gland, which, acting immediately upon the soul, causes it to see the form in the mind". ===Anatomical and physiological ideas=== In his ''Treatise on Man'' Descartes summarises his ideas on how we perceive and react to things as well as how consciousness is achieved anatomically and physiologically. The 'Treatise' was written at a time when even galvanic electricity was unknown. The excerpt given below covers Descartes' analysis of perception and stimulus-response processing. [[Image:Constuddescart1.png]] <span style="font-family:'times new roman'"> "Thus for example [in Fig 1], if fire A is close to foot B, the tiny parts of this fire (which, as you know, move about very rapidly) have the power also to move the area of skin which they touch. In this way they pull the tiny fibre ''cc'' which you see attached to it, and simultaneously open the entrance to the pore ''de'', located opposite the point where this fiber terminates - just as when you pull one end of a string, you cause a bell hanging at the other end to ring at the same time.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">When the entrance to the pore or small tube ''de'' is opened in this way, the animal spirits from cavity F enter and are carried through it - some to muscles which serve to pull the foot away from the fire, some to muscles which turn the eyes and head to look at it, and some to muscles which make the hands move and the whole body turn in order to protect it.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">Now I maintain that when God unites a rational soul to this machine (in a way that I intend to explain later) he will place its principle seat in the brain, and will make its nature such that the soul will have different sensations corresponding to the different ways in which the entrances to the pores in the internal surface of the brain are opened by means of nerves.</span> [[Image:Constuddescart2.png]] <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">In order to see clearly how ideas are formed of the objects which strike the senses, observe in this diagram [fig 2] the tiny fibres 12, 34, 56, and the like, which make up the optic nerve and stretch from the back of the eye at 1, 3, 5 to the internal surface of the brain at 2, 4, 6. Now assume that these fibres are so arranged that if the rays coming, for example, from point A of the object happen to press upon the back of the eye at point 1, they pull the whole of fibre 12 and enlarge the opening of the tiny tube marked 2. In the same way, the rays which come from point B enlarge the opening of the tiny tube 4, and likewise for the others. We have already described how, depending on the different ways in which the points 1, 3, 5 are pressed by these rays, a figure is traced on the back of the eye corresponding to that of the object ABC. Similarly it is obvious that, depending on the different ways in which the tiny tubes 2, 4, 6 are opened by the fibres 12, 34, 56 etc., a corresponding figure must also be traced on the internal surface of the brain.</span> ..... <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">And note that by 'figures' I mean not only things which somehow represent the position of the edges and surfaces of objects, but also anything which, as I said above, can give the soul occasion to perceive movement, size, distance, colours, sounds, smells and other such qualities. And I also include anything that can make the soul feel pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, joy, sadness and other such passions.</span> ... <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">Now among these figures, it is not those imprinted on the external sense organs, or on the internal surface of the brain, which should be taken to be ideas - but only those which are traced in the spirits on the surface of gland H (''where the seat of the imagination and the 'common sense' is located''). That is to say, it is only the latter figures which should be taken to be the forms or images which the rational soul united to this machine will consider directly when it imagines some object or perceives it by the senses.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">And note that I say 'imagines or perceives by the senses'. For I wish to apply the term 'idea' generally to all impressions which the spirits can receive as they leave gland H. These are to be attributed to the 'common' sense when they depend on the presence of objects; but they may also proceed from many other causes (as I shall explain later), and they should then be attributed to the imagination. "</span> The ''common sense'' is referred to by philosophers as the ''senses communis''. Descartes considered this to be the place where all the sensations were bound together and proposed the pineal gland for this role. This was in the days before the concept of 'dominance' of parts of the brain had been developed so Descartes reasoned that only a single organ could host a bound representation. Notice how Descartes is explicit about ideas being '''traced in the spirits on the surface of the gland'''. Notice also how the rational soul will consider forms on the common sense '''directly'''. Descartes believed that animals are not conscious because, although he thought they possessed the stimulus-response loop in the same way as humans he believed that they do not possess a soul. ==John Locke (1632-1704)== Locke's most important philosophical work on the human mind was "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" written in 1689. His idea of perception is summarised in the diagram below: [[Image:Constudlocke1.png]] Locke is an Indirect Realist, admitting of external objects but describing these as represented within the mind. The objects themselves are thought to have a form and properties that are the ''archetype'' of the object and these give rise in the brain and mind to derived copies called ''ektypa''. Like Descartes, he believes that people have souls that produce thoughts. Locke considers that sensations make their way from the senses to the brain where they are laid out for understanding as a 'view': <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"And if these organs, or the nerves which are the conduits to convey them from without to their audience in the brain,- the mind's presence-room (as I may so call it)- are any of them so disordered as not to perform their functions, they have no postern to be admitted by; no other way to bring themselves into view, and be perceived by the understanding." (Chapter III, 1).</span> He considers that what is sensed becomes a mental thing: Chapter IX: Of Perception paragraph 1: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"This is certain, that whatever alterations are made in the body, if they reach not the mind; whatever impressions are made on the outward parts, if they are not taken notice of within, there is no perception. Fire may burn our bodies with no other effect than it does a billet, unless the motion be continued to the brain, and there the sense of heat, or idea of pain, be produced in the mind; wherein consists actual perception. "</span> [[Image:Locke-John-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|Locke]]Locke calls the contents of consciousness "ideas" (cf: Descartes, Malebranche) and regards sensation, imagination etc. as being similar or even alike. Chapter I: Of Ideas in general, and their Original: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"1. Idea is the object of thinking. Every man being conscious to himself that he thinks; and that which his mind is applied about whilst thinking being the ideas that are there, it is past doubt that men have in their minds several ideas,- such as are those expressed by the words whiteness, hardness, sweetness, thinking, motion, man, elephant, army, drunkenness, and others: it is in the first place then to be inquired, How he comes by them? </span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">I know it is a received doctrine, that men have native ideas, and original characters, stamped upon their minds in their very first being. This opinion I have at large examined already; and, I suppose what I have said in the foregoing Book will be much more easily admitted, when I have shown whence the understanding may get all the ideas it has; and by what ways and degrees they may come into the mind;- for which I shall appeal to every one's own observation and experience. </span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">2. All ideas come from sensation or reflection. Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas:- How comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from EXPERIENCE. In that all our knowledge is founded; and from that it ultimately derives itself. Our observation employed either, about external sensible objects, or about the internal operations of our minds perceived and reflected on by ourselves, is that which supplies our understandings with all the materials of thinking. These two are the fountains of knowledge, from whence all the ideas we have, or can naturally have, do spring. </span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">3. The objects of sensation one source of ideas. First, our Senses, conversant about particular sensible objects, do convey into the mind several distinct perceptions of things, according to those various ways wherein those objects do affect them. And thus we come by those ideas we have of yellow, white, heat, cold, soft, hard, bitter, sweet, and all those which we call sensible qualities; which when I say the senses convey into the mind, I mean, they from external objects convey into the mind what produces there those perceptions. This great source of most of the ideas we have, depending wholly upon our senses, and derived by them to the understanding, I call SENSATION.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">4. The operations of our minds, the other source of them. Secondly, the other fountain from which experience furnisheth the understanding with ideas is,- the perception of the operations of our own mind within us, as it is employed about the ideas it has got;- which operations, when the soul comes to reflect on and consider, do furnish the understanding with another set of ideas, which could not be had from things without. And such are perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing, and all the different actings of our own minds;- which we being conscious of, and observing in ourselves, do from these receive into our understandings as distinct ideas as we do from bodies affecting our senses. This source of ideas every man has wholly in himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called internal sense. But as I call the other SENSATION, so I Call this REFLECTION, the ideas it affords being such only as the mind gets by reflecting on its own operations within itself. By reflection then, in the following part of this discourse, I would be understood to mean, that notice which the mind takes of its own operations, and the manner of them, by reason whereof there come to be ideas of these operations in the understanding. These two, I say, viz. external material things, as the objects of SENSATION, and the operations of our own minds within, as the objects of REFLECTION, are to me the only originals from whence all our ideas take their beginnings. The term operations here I use in a large sense, as comprehending not barely the actions of the mind about its ideas, but some sort of passions arising sometimes from them, such as is the satisfaction or uneasiness arising from any thought.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">5. All our ideas are of the one or the other of these. The understanding seems to me not to have the least glimmering of any ideas which it doth not receive from one of these two. External objects furnish the mind with the ideas of sensible qualities, which are all those different perceptions they produce in us; and the mind furnishes the understanding with ideas of its own operations. "</span> He calls ideas that come directly from the senses ''primary qualities'' and those that come from reflection upon these he calls ''secondary qualities'': <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"9. Primary qualities of bodies. Qualities thus considered in bodies are, First, such as are utterly inseparable from the body, in what state soever it be; and such as in all the alterations and changes it suffers, all the force can be used upon it, it constantly keeps; and such as sense constantly finds in every particle of matter which has bulk enough to be perceived; and the mind finds inseparable from every particle of matter, though less than to make itself singly be perceived by our senses: .......... These I call original or primary qualities of body, which I think we may observe to produce simple ideas in us, viz. solidity, extension, figure, motion or rest, and number. 10. Secondary qualities of bodies. Secondly, such qualities which in truth are nothing in the objects themselves but power to produce various sensations in us by their primary qualities....." (Chapter VIII).</span> He gives examples of secondary qualities: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"13. How secondary qualities produce their ideas. After the same manner, that the ideas of these original qualities are produced in us, we may conceive that the ideas of secondary qualities are also produced, viz. by the operation of insensible particles on our senses. .....v.g. that a violet, by the impulse of such insensible particles of matter, of peculiar figures and bulks, and in different degrees and modifications of their motions, causes the ideas of the blue colour, and sweet scent of that flower to be produced in our minds. It being no more impossible to conceive that God should annex such ideas to such motions, with which they have no similitude, than that he should annex the idea of pain to the motion of a piece of steel dividing our flesh, with which that idea hath no resemblance." (Chapter VIII).</span> He argues against all conscious experience being in mental space (does not consider that taste might be on the tongue or a smell come from a cheese): Chapter XIII: Complex Ideas of Simple Modes:- and First, of the Simple Modes of the Idea of Space - paragraph 25: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"I shall not now argue with those men, who take the measure and possibility of all being only from their narrow and gross imaginations: but having here to do only with those who conclude the essence of body to be extension, because they say they cannot imagine any sensible quality of any body without extension,- I shall desire them to consider, that, had they reflected on their ideas of tastes and smells as much as on those of sight and touch; nay, had they examined their ideas of hunger and thirst, and several other pains, they would have found that they included in them no idea of extension at all, which is but an affection of body, as well as the rest, discoverable by our senses, which are scarce acute enough to look into the pure essences of things."</span> Locke understood the "specious" or extended present but conflates this with longer periods of time: Chapter XIV. Idea of Duration and its Simple Modes - paragraph 1: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Duration is fleeting extension. There is another sort of distance, or length, the idea whereof we get not from the permanent parts of space, but from the fleeting and perpetually perishing parts of succession. This we call duration; the simple modes whereof are any different lengths of it whereof we have distinct ideas, as hours, days, years, &c., time and eternity." </span> Locke is uncertain about whether extended ideas are viewed from an unextended soul. <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"He that considers how hardly sensation is, in our thoughts, reconcilable to extended matter; or existence to anything that has no extension at all, will confess that he is very far from certainly knowing what his soul is. It is a point which seems to me to be put out of the reach of our knowledge: and he who will give himself leave to consider freely, and look into the dark and intricate part of each hypothesis, will scarce find his reason able to determine him fixedly for or against the soul's materiality. Since, on which side soever he views it, either as an unextended substance, or as a thinking extended matter, the difficulty to conceive either will, whilst either alone is in his thoughts, still drive him to the contrary side."(Chapter III, 6).</span> ==David Hume (1711-1776)== '''Hume (1739–40). A Treatise of Human Nature: Being An Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning Into Moral Subjects.''' [[Image:David_Hume.jpg|thumb|left|Hume]]Hume represents a type of pure empiricism where certainty is only assigned to present experience. As we can only directly know the mind he works within this constraint. He admits that there can be consistent bodies of knowledge within experience and would probably regard himself as an Indirect Realist but with the caveat that the things that are inferred to be outside the mind, in the physical world, could be no more than inferences within the mind. Hume has a clear concept of mental space and time that is informed by the senses: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"The idea of space is convey'd to the mind by two senses, the sight and touch; nor does anything ever appear extended, that is not either visible or tangible. That compound impression, which represents extension, consists of several lesser impressions, that are indivisible to the eye or feeling, and may be call'd impressions of atoms or corpuscles endow'd with colour and solidity. But this is not all. 'Tis not only requisite, that these atoms shou'd be colour'd or tangible, in order to discover themselves to our senses; 'tis also necessary we shou'd preserve the idea of their colour or tangibility in order to comprehend them by our imagination. There is nothing but the idea of their colour or tangibility, which can render them conceivable by the mind. Upon the removal of the ideas of these sensible qualities, they are utterly annihilated to the thought or imagination.'</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">Now such as the parts are, such is the whole. If a point be not consider'd as colour'd or tangible, it can convey to us no idea; and consequently the idea of extension, which is compos'd of the ideas of these points, can never possibly exist. But if the idea of extension really can exist, as we are conscious it does, its parts must also exist; and in order to that, must be consider'd as colour'd or tangible. We have therefore no idea of space or extension, but when we regard it as an object either of our sight or feeling.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">The same reasoning will prove, that the indivisible moments of time must be fill'd with some real object or existence, whose succession forms the duration, and makes it be conceivable by the mind."</span> In common with Locke and Eastern Philosophy, Hume considers reflection and sensation to be similar, perhaps identical: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Thus it appears, that the belief or assent, which always attends the memory and senses, is nothing but the vivacity of those perceptions they present; and that this alone distinguishes them from the imagination. To believe is in this case to feel an immediate impression of the senses, or a repetition of that impression in the memory. 'Tis merely the force and liveliness of the perception, which constitutes the first act of the judgment, and lays the foundation of that reasoning, which we build upon it, when we trace the relation of cause and effect."</span> Hume considers that the origin of sensation can never be known, believing that the canvass of the mind contains our view of the world whatever the ultimate source of the images within the view and that we can construct consistent bodies of knowledge within these constraints: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"As to those impressions, which arise from the senses, their ultimate cause is, in my opinion, perfectly inexplicable by human reason, and 'twill always be impossible to decide with certainty, whether they arise immediately from the object, or are produc'd by the creative power of the mind, or are deriv'd from the author of our being. Nor is such a question any way material to our present purpose. We may draw inferences from the coherence of our perceptions, whether they be true or false; whether they represent nature justly, or be mere illusions of the senses."</span> It may be possible to trace the origins of Jackson's Knowledge Argument in Hume's work: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">" Suppose therefore a person to have enjoyed his sight for thirty years, and to have become perfectly well acquainted with colours of all kinds, excepting one particular shade of blue, for instance, which it never has been his fortune to meet with. Let all the different shades of that colour, except that single one, be plac'd before him, descending gradually from the deepest to the lightest; 'tis plain, that he will perceive a blank, where that shade is wanting, said will be sensible, that there is a greater distance in that place betwixt the contiguous colours, than in any other. Now I ask, whether 'tis possible for him, from his own imagination, to supply this deficiency, and raise up to himself the idea of that particular shade, tho' it had never been conveyed to him by his senses? I believe i here are few but will be of opinion that he can; and this may serve as a proof, that the simple ideas are not always derived from the correspondent impressions; tho' the instance is so particular and singular, that 'tis scarce worth our observing, and does not merit that for it alone we should alter our general maxim."</span> '''David Hume (1748) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''' Hume's view of Locke and Malebranche: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"The fame of Cicero flourishes at present; but that of Aristotle is utterly decayed. La Bruyere passes the seas, and still maintains his reputation: But the glory of Malebranche is confined to his own nation, and to his own age. And Addison, perhaps, will be read with pleasure, when Locke shall be entirely forgotten."</span> He is clear about relational knowledge in space and time: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"13. .. But though our thought seems to possess this unbounded liberty, we shall find, upon a nearer examination, that it is really confined within very narrow limits, and that all this creative power of the mind amounts to no more than the faculty of compounding, transposing, augmenting, or diminishing the materials afforded us by the senses and experience. When we think of a golden mountain, we only join two consistent ideas, gold, and mountain, with which we were formerly acquainted."</span> ... <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">19. Though it be too obvious to escape observation, that different ideas are connected together; I do not find that any philosopher has attempted to enumerate or class all the principles of association; a subject, however, that seems worthy of curiosity. To me, there appear to be only three principles of connexion among ideas, namely, Resemblance, Contiguity in time or place, and Cause or Effect."</span> He is also clear that, although we experience the output of processes, we do not experience the processes themselves: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"29. It must certainly be allowed, that nature has kept us at a great distance from all her secrets, and has afforded us only the knowledge of a few superficial qualities of objects; while she conceals from us those powers and principles on which the influence of those objects entirely depends. Our senses inform us of the colour, weight, and consistence of bread; but neither sense nor reason can ever inform us of those qualities which fit it for the nourishment and support of a human body. Sight or feeling conveys an idea of the actual motion of bodies; but as to that wonderful force or power, which would carry on a moving body for ever in a continued change of place, and which bodies never lose but by communicating it to others; of this we cannot form the most distant conception. ..</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">58. ... All events seem entirely loose and separate. One event follows another; but we never can observe any tie between them. They seem conjoined, but never connected. And as we can have no idea of any thing which never appeared to our outward sense or inward sentiment, the necessary conclusion seems to be that we have no idea of connexion or power at all, and that these words are absolutely without any meaning, when employed either in philosophical reasonings or common life. "</span> Our idea of process is not a direct experience but seems to originate from remembering the repetition of events: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"59 ..It appears, then, that this idea of a necessary connexion among events arises from a number of similar instances which occur of the constant conjunction of these events; nor can that idea ever be suggested by any one of these instances, surveyed in all possible lights and positions. But there is nothing in a number of instances, different from every single instance, which is supposed to be exactly similar; except only, that after a repetition of similar instances, the mind is carried by habit, upon the appearance of one event, to expect its usual attendant, and to believe that it will exist."</span> ==Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804)== [[Image:Immanuel_Kant_2.jpg|thumb|left|kant]]Kant's greatest work on the subject of consciousness and the mind is Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Kant describes his objective in this work as discovering the axioms ("a priori concepts") and then the processes of 'understanding'. <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P12 "This enquiry, which is somewhat deeply grounded, has two sides. The one refers to the objects of pure understanding, and is intended to expound and render intelligible the objective validity of its a priori concepts. It is therefore essential to my purposes. The other seeks to investigate the pure understanding itself, its possibility and the cognitive faculties upon which it rests; and so deals with it in its subjective aspect. Although this latter exposition is of great importance for my chief purpose, it does not form an essential part of it. For the chief question is always simply this: - what and how much can the understanding and reason know apart from all experience?"</span> Kant's idea of perception and mind is summarised in the illustration below: [[Image:Constudkant.png]] 'Experience' is simply accepted. Kant believes that the physical world exists but is not known directly: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P 24 "For we are brought to the conclusion that we can never transcend the limits of possible experience, though that is precisely what this science is concerned, above all else, to achieve. This situation yields, however, just the very experiment by which, indirectly, we are enabled to prove the truth of this first estimate of our a priori knowledge of reason, namely, that such knowledge has to do only with appearances, and must leave the thing in itself as indeed real per se, but as not known by us. "</span> Kant is clear about the form and content of conscious experience. He notes that we can only experience things that have appearance and 'form' - content and geometrical arrangement. <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P65-66 "IN whatever manner and by whatever means a mode of knowledge may relate to objects, intuition is that through which it is in immediate relation to them, and to which all thought as a means is directed. But intuition takes place only in so far as the object is given to us. This again is only possible, to man at least, in so far as the mind is affected in a certain way. The capacity (receptivity) for receiving representations through the mode in which we are affected by objects, is entitled sensibility. Objects are given to us by means of sensibility, and it alone yields us intuitions; they are thought through the understanding, and from the understanding arise concepts. But all thought must, directly or indirectly, by way of certain characters relate ultimately to intuitions, and therefore, with us, to sensibility, because in no other way can an object be given to us. The effect of an object upon the faculty of representation, so far as we are affected by it, is sensation. That intuition which is in relation to the object through sensation, is entitled empirical. The undetermined object of an empirical intuition is entitled appearance. That in the appearance which corresponds to sensation I term its matter; but that which so determines the manifold of appearance that it allows of being ordered in certain relations, I term the form of appearance. That in which alone the sensations can be posited and ordered in a certain form, cannot itself be sensation; and therefore, while the matter of all appearance is given to us a posteriori only, its form must lie ready for the sensations a priori in the mind, and so must allow of being considered apart from all sensation. "</span> Furthermore he realises that experience exists without much content. That consciousness depends on form: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P66 "The pure form of sensible intuitions in general, in which all the manifold of intuition is intuited in certain relations, must be found in the mind a priori. This pure form of sensibility may also itself be called pure intuition. Thus, if I take away from the representation of a body that which the understanding thinks in regard to it, substance, force, divisibility, etc. , and likewise what belongs to sensation, impenetrability, hardness, colour, etc. , something still remains over from this empirical intuition, namely, extension and figure. These belong to pure intuition, which, even without any actual object of the senses or of sensation, exists in the mind a priori as a mere form of sensibility. The science of all principles of a priori sensibility I call transcendental aesthetic."</span> Kant proposes that space exists in our experience and that experience could not exist without it (apodeictic means 'incontrovertible): <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P 68 "1. Space is not an empirical concept which has been derived from outer experiences. For in order that certain sensations be referred to something outside me (that is, to something in another region of space from that in which I find myself), and similarly in order that I may be able to represent them as outside and alongside one another, and accordingly as not only different but as in different places, the representation of space must be presupposed. The representation of space cannot, therefore, be empirically obtained from the relations of outer appearance. On the contrary, this outer experience is itself possible at all only through that representation. 2. Space is a necessary a priori representation, which underlies all outer intuitions. We can never represent to ourselves the absence of space, though we can quite well think it as empty of objects. It must therefore be regarded as the condition of the possibility of appearances, and not as a determina- tion dependent upon them. It is an a priori representation, which necessarily underlies outer appearances. * 3. The apodeictic certainty of all geometrical propositions and the possibility of their a priori construction is grounded in this a priori necessity of space. ........."</span> He is equally clear about the necessity of time as part of experience but he has no clear exposition of the (specious present) extended present: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P 74 "1. Time is not an empirical concept that has been derived from any experience. For neither coexistence nor succession would ever come within our perception, if the representation of time were not presupposed as underlying them a priori. Only on the presupposition of time can we represent to ourselves a number of things as existing at one and the same time (simultaneously) or at different times (successively). They are connected with the appearances only as effects accidentally added by the particular constitution of the sense organs. Accordingly, they are not a priori representations, but are grounded in sensation, and, indeed, in the case of taste, even upon feeling (pleasure and pain), as an effect of sensation. Further, no one can have a priori a representation of a colour or of any taste; whereas, since space concerns only the pure form of intuition, and therefore involves no sensation whatsoever, and nothing empirical, all kinds and determinations of space can and must be represented a priori, if concepts of figures and of their relations are to arise. Through space alone is it possible that things should be outer objects to us. ..2. 3.. 4.. 5..."</span> Kant has a model of experience as a succession of 3D instants, based on conventional 18th century thinking, allowing his reason to overcome his observation. He says of time that: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">P 79 " It is nothing but the form of our inner intuition. If we take away from our inner intuition the peculiar condition of our sensibility, the concept of time likewise vanishes; it does not inhere in the objects, but merely in the subject which intuits them. I can indeed say that my representations follow one another; but this is only to say that we are conscious of them as in a time sequence, that is, in conformity with the form of inner sense. Time is not, therefore, something in itself, nor is it an objective determination inherent in things."</span> This analysis is strange because if uses the geometric term "form" but then uses the processing term "succession". ==Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) == [[Image:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg|thumb|left|Leibniz]]Leibniz is one of the first to notice that there is a problem with the proposition that computational machines could be conscious: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"One is obliged to admit that perception and what depends upon it is inexplicable on mechanical principles, that is, by figures and motions. In imagining that there is a machine whose construction would enable it to think, to sense, and to have perception, one could conceive it enlarged while retaining the same proportions, so that one could enter into it, just like into a windmill. Supposing this, one should, when visiting within it, find only parts pushing one another, and never anything by which to explain a perception. Thus it is in the simple substance, and not in the composite or in the machine, that one must look for perception." Monadology, 17.</span> Leibniz considered that the world was composed of "monads": <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"1. The Monad, of which we shall here speak, is nothing but a simple substance, which enters into compounds. By 'simple' is meant 'without parts.' (Theod. 10.) </span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">2. And there must be simple substances, since there are compounds; for a compound is nothing but a collection or aggregatum of simple things.</span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">3. Now where there are no parts, there can be neither extension nor form [figure] nor divisibility. These Monads are the real atoms of nature and, in a word, the elements of things. " (Monadology 1714).</span> These monads are considered to be capable of perception through the meeting of things at a point: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"They cannot have shapes, because then they would have parts; and therefore one monad in itself, and at a moment, cannot be distinguished from another except by its internal qualities and actions; which can only be its ''perceptions'' (that is, the representations of the composite, or of what is external, in the simple), or its ''appetitions'' (its tending to move from one perception to another, that is), which are the principles of change. For the simplicity of a substance does not in any way rule out a multiplicity in the modifications which must exist together in one simple substance; and those modifications must consist in the variety of its relationships to things outside it - like the way in which in a ''centre'', or a ''point'', although it is completely simple, there are an infinity of angles formed which meet in it." (Principles of Nature and Grace 1714).</span> Leibniz also describes this in his "New System": <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"It is only atoms of substance, that is to say real unities absolutely devoid of parts, that can be the sources of actions, and the absolute first principles of the composition of things, and as it were the ultimate elements in the analysis of substances <substantial things>. They might be called ''metaphysical points''; they have ''something of the nature of life'' and a kind of ''perception'', and ''mathematical points'' are their ''point of view'' for expressing the universe."(New System (11) 1695).</span> Having identified perception with metaphysical points Leibniz realises that there is a problem connecting the points with the world (cf: epiphenomenalism): <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Having decided these things, I thought I had reached port, but when I set myself to think about the union of the soul with the body I was as it were carried back into the open sea. For I could find no way of explaining how the body can make something pass over into the soul or vice versa, or how one created substance can communicate with another."(New System (12) 1695).</span> Leibniz devises a theory of "pre-established harmony" to overcome this epiphenomenalism. He discusses how two separate clocks could come to tell the same time and proposes that this could be due to mutual influence of one clock on the other ("the way of influence"), continual adjustment by a workman ("the way of assistance") or by making the clocks so well that they are always in agreement ("the way of pre-established agreement" or harmony). He considers each of these alternatives for harmonising the perceptions with the world and concludes that only the third is viable: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Thus there remains only my theory, ''the way of pre-established harmony'', set up by a contrivance of divine foreknowledge, which formed each of these substances from the outset in so perfect, so regular, and so exact a manner, that merely by following out its own laws, which were given to it when it was brought into being, each substance is nevertheless in harmony with the other, just as if there were a mutual influence between them, or as if in addition to his general concurrence God were continually operating upon them. (Third Explanation of the New System (5), 1696)."</span> This means that he must explain how perceptions involving the world take place: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Because of the plenitude of the world everything is linked, and every body acts to a greater or lesser extent on every other body in proportion to distance, and is affected by it in return. It therefore follows that every monad is a living mirror, or a mirror endowed with internal activity, representing the universe in accordance with its own point of view, and as orderly as the universe itself. The perceptions of monads arise one out of another by the laws of appetite, or of the ''final causes of good and evil'' (which are prominent perceptions, orderly or disorderly), just as changes in bodies or in external phenomena arise one from another by the laws of ''efficient causes'', of motion that is. Thus there is perfect ''harmony'' between the perceptions of the monad and the motions of bodies, pre-established from the outset, between the system of efficient causes and that of final causes. And it is that harmony that the agreement or physical union between the soul and body consists, without either of them being able to change the laws of the other." (Principles of Nature and Grace (3) 1714).</span> The "laws of appetite" are defined as: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"The action of the internal principle which brings about change, or the passage from one perception to another, can be called ''appetition''. In fact appetite cannot always attain in its entirety the whole of the perception towards which it tends, but it always obtains some part of it, and attains new perceptions. Monadology 15.</span> Leibniz thought animals had souls but not minds: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"But ''true'' reasoning depends on necessary or eternal truths like those of logic, numbers, and geometry, which make indubitable connections between ideas, and conclusions which are inevitable. Animals in which such conclusions are never perceived are called ''brutes''; but those which recognise such necessary truths are what are rightly called ''rational animals'' and their souls are called ''minds''. (Principles of Nature and Grace (5) 1714).</span> Minds allow reflection and awareness: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"And it is by the knowledge of necessary truths, and by the abstractions they involve, that we are raised to ''acts of reflection'', which make us aware of what we call ''myself'', and make us think of this or that thing as in ''ourselves''. And in this way, by thinking of ourselves, we think of being, of substance, of simples and composites, of the immaterial - and, by realising that what is limited in us is limitless in him, of God himself. And so these ''acts of reflection'' provide the principle objects of our reasonings." Monadology, 30.</span> ==George Berkeley (1685 - 1753) == A Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge. 1710 [[Image:George_Berkeley_by_John_Smibert.jpg|thumb|left|Berkeley]]Berkeley introduces the Principles of Human Knowledge with a diatribe against abstract ideas. He uses the abstract ideas of animals as an example: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Introduction. 9........The constituent parts of the abstract idea of animal are body, life, sense, and spontaneous motion. By body is meant body without any particular shape or figure, there being no one shape or figure common to all animals, without covering, either of hair, or feathers, or scales, &c., nor yet naked: hair, feathers, scales, and nakedness being the distinguishing properties of particular animals, and for that reason left out of the abstract idea. Upon the same account the spontaneous motion must be neither walking, nor flying, nor creeping; it is nevertheless a motion, but what that motion is it is not easy to conceive. </span> He then declares that such abstractions cannot be imagined. He emphasises that ideas are "represented to myself" and have shape and colour: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Introduction. 10. Whether others have this wonderful faculty of abstracting their ideas, they best can tell: for myself, I find indeed I have a faculty of imagining, or representing to myself, the ideas of those particular things I have perceived, and of variously compounding and dividing them. I can imagine a man with two heads, or the upper parts of a man joined to the body of a horse. I can consider the hand, the eye, the nose, each by itself abstracted or separated from the rest of the body. But then whatever hand or eye I imagine, it must have some particular shape and colour. Likewise the idea of man that I frame to myself must be either of a white, or a black, or a tawny, a straight, or a crooked, a tall, or a low, or a middle-sized man. I cannot by any effort of thought conceive the abstract idea above described. And it is equally impossible for me to form the abstract idea of motion distinct from the body moving, and which is neither swift nor slow, curvilinear nor rectilinear; and the like may be said of all other abstract general ideas whatsoever."</span> This concept of ideas as extended things, or representations, is typical of the usage amongst philosophers in the 17th and 18th century and can cause confusion in modern readers. Berkeley considers that words that are used to describe classes of things in the abstract can only be conceived as particular cases: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Introduction. 15... Thus, when I demonstrate any proposition concerning triangles, it is to be supposed that I have in view the universal idea of a triangle; which ought not to be understood as if I could frame an idea of a triangle which was neither equilateral, nor scalenon, nor equicrural; but only that the particular triangle I consider, whether of this or that sort it matters not, doth equally stand for and represent all rectilinear triangles whatsoever, and is in that sense universal. All which seems very plain and not to include any difficulty in it.</span> Intriguingly, he considers that language is used to directly excite emotions as well as to communicate ideas: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Introduction. 20. ... I entreat the reader to reflect with himself, and see if it doth not often happen, either in hearing or reading a discourse, that the passions of fear, love, hatred, admiration, disdain, and the like, arise immediately in his mind upon the perception of certain words, without any ideas coming between.</span> Berkeley considers that extension is a quality of mind: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"11. Again, great and small, swift and slow, are allowed to exist nowhere without the mind, being entirely relative, and changing as the frame or position of the organs of sense varies. The extension therefore which exists without the mind is neither great nor small, the motion neither swift nor slow, that is, they are nothing at all. But, say you, they are extension in general, and motion in general: thus we see how much the tenet of extended movable substances existing without the mind depends on the strange doctrine of abstract ideas." </span> He notes that the rate at which things pass may be related to the mind: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"14..... Is it not as reasonable to say that motion is not without the mind, since if the succession of ideas in the mind become swifter, the motion, it is acknowledged, shall appear slower without any alteration in any external object? </span> Berkeley raises the issue of whether objects exist without being perceived. He bases his argument on the concept of perception being the perceiving of "our own ideas or sensations": <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"4. It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and in a word all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it in question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the fore-mentioned objects but the things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived?"</span> He further explains this concept in terms of some Eternal Spirit allowing continued existence. Berkeley is clear that the contents of the mind have "colour, figure, motion, smell, taste etc.": <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"7. From what has been said it follows there is not any other Substance than Spirit, or that which perceives. But, for the fuller proof of this point, let it be considered the sensible qualities are colour, figure, motion, smell, taste, etc., i.e. the ideas perceived by sense. Now, for an idea to exist in an unperceiving thing is a manifest contradiction, for to have an idea is all one as to perceive; that therefore wherein colour, figure, and the like qualities exist must perceive them; hence it is clear there can be no unthinking substance or substratum of those ideas."</span> He elaborates the concept that there is no unthinking substance or substratum for ideas and all is mind: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"18. But, though it were possible that solid, figured, movable substances may exist without the mind, corresponding to the ideas we have of bodies, yet how is it possible for us to know this? Either we must know it by sense or by reason. As for our senses, by them we have the knowledge only of our sensations, ideas, or those things that are immediately perceived by sense, call them what you will: but they do not inform us that things exist without the mind, or unperceived, like to those which are perceived. This the materialists themselves acknowledge. It remains therefore that if we have any knowledge at all of external things, it must be by reason, inferring their existence from what is immediately perceived by sense. But what reason can induce us to believe the existence of bodies without the mind, from what we perceive, since the very patrons of Matter themselves do not pretend there is any necessary connexion betwixt them and our ideas? I say it is granted on all hands (and what happens in dreams, phrensies, and the like, puts it beyond dispute) that it is possible we might be affected with all the ideas we have now, though there were no bodies existing without resembling them. Hence, it is evident the supposition of external bodies is not necessary for the producing our ideas; since it is granted they are produced sometimes, and might possibly be produced always in the same order, we see them in at present, without their concurrence. "</span> and stresses that there is no apparent connection between mind and the proposed material substrate of ideas: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"19. But, though we might possibly have all our sensations without them, yet perhaps it may be thought easier to conceive and explain the manner of their production, by supposing external bodies in their likeness rather than otherwise; and so it might be at least probable there are such things as bodies that excite their ideas in our minds. But neither can this be said; for, though we give the materialists their external bodies, they by their own confession are never the nearer knowing how our ideas are produced; since they own themselves unable to comprehend in what manner body can act upon spirit, or how it is possible it should imprint any idea in the mind. ..... </span> Berkeley makes a crucial observation, that had also been noticed by Descartes, that ideas are passive: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"25. All our ideas, sensations, notions, or the things which we perceive, by whatsoever names they may be distinguished, are visibly inactive- there is nothing of power or agency included in them. So that one idea or object of thought cannot produce or make any alteration in another. To be satisfied of the truth of this, there is nothing else requisite but a bare observation of our ideas. For, since they and every part of them exist only in the mind, it follows that there is nothing in them but what is perceived: but whoever shall attend to his ideas, whether of sense or reflexion, will not perceive in them any power or activity; there is, therefore, no such thing contained in them. A little attention will discover to us that the very being of an idea implies passiveness and inertness in it, insomuch that it is impossible for an idea to do anything, or, strictly speaking, to be the cause of anything: neither can it be the resemblance or pattern of any active being, as is evident from sect. 8. Whence it plainly follows that extension, figure, and motion cannot be the cause of our sensations. To say, therefore, that these are the effects of powers resulting from the configuration, number, motion, and size of corpuscles, must certainly be false. </span> He considers that "the cause of ideas is an incorporeal active substance or Spirit (26)". He summarises the concept of an Eternal Spirit that governs real things and a representational mind that copies the form of the world as follows: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"33. The ideas imprinted on the Senses by the Author of nature are called real things; and those excited in the imagination being less regular, vivid, and constant, are more properly termed ideas, or images of things, which they copy and represent. But then our sensations, be they never so vivid and distinct, are nevertheless ideas, that is, they exist in the mind, or are perceived by it, as truly as the ideas of its own framing. The ideas of Sense are allowed to have more reality in them, that is, to be more strong, orderly, and coherent than the creatures of the mind; but this is no argument that they exist without the mind. They are also less dependent on the spirit, or thinking substance which perceives them, in that they are excited by the will of another and more powerful spirit; yet still they are ideas, and certainly no idea, whether faint or strong, can exist otherwise than in a mind perceiving it. </span> Berkeley considers that the concept of distance is a concept in the mind and also that dreams can be compared directly with sensations: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"42. Thirdly, it will be objected that we see things actually without or at distance from us, and which consequently do not exist in the mind; it being absurd that those things which are seen at the distance of several miles should be as near to us as our own thoughts. In answer to this, I desire it may be considered that in a dream we do oft perceive things as existing at a great distance off, and yet for all that, those things are acknowledged to have their existence only in the mind."</span> He considers that ideas can be extended without the mind being extended: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"49. Fifthly, it may perhaps be objected that if extension and figure exist only in the mind, it follows that the mind is extended and figured; since extension is a mode or attribute which (to speak with the schools) is predicated of the subject in which it exists. I answer, those qualities are in the mind only as they are perceived by it- that is, not by way of mode or attribute, but only by way of idea; and it no more follows the soul or mind is extended, because extension exists in it alone, than it does that it is red or blue, because those colours are on all hands acknowledged to exist in it, and nowhere else. As to what philosophers say of subject and mode, that seems very groundless and unintelligible. For instance, in this proposition "a die is hard, extended, and square," they will have it that the word die denotes a subject or substance, distinct from the hardness, extension, and figure which are predicated of it, and in which they exist. This I cannot comprehend: to me a die seems to be nothing distinct from those things which are termed its modes or accidents. And, to say a die is hard, extended, and square is not to attribute those qualities to a subject distinct from and supporting them, but only an explication of the meaning of the word die. </span> Berkeley proposes that time is related to the succession of ideas: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"98. For my own part, whenever I attempt to frame a simple idea of time, abstracted from the succession of ideas in my mind, which flows uniformly and is participated by all beings, I am lost and embrangled in inextricable difficulties. I have no notion of it at all, only I hear others say it is infinitely divisible, and speak of it in such a manner as leads me to entertain odd thoughts of my existence; since that doctrine lays one under an absolute necessity of thinking, either that he passes away innumerable ages without a thought, or else that he is annihilated every moment of his life, both which seem equally absurd. Time therefore being nothing, abstracted from the succession of ideas in our minds, it follows that the duration of any finite spirit must be estimated by the number of ideas or actions succeeding each other in that same spirit or mind. Hence, it is a plain consequence that the soul always thinks; and in truth whoever shall go about to divide in his thoughts, or abstract the existence of a spirit from its cogitation, will, I believe, find it no easy task. </span> <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"99. So likewise when we attempt to abstract extension and motion from all other qualities, and consider them by themselves, we presently lose sight of them, and run into great extravagances. All which depend on a twofold abstraction; first, it is supposed that extension, for example, may be abstracted from all other sensible qualities; and secondly, that the entity of extension may be abstracted from its being perceived. But, whoever shall reflect, and take care to understand what he says, will, if I mistake not, acknowledge that all sensible qualities are alike sensations and alike real; that where the extension is, there is the colour, too, i.e., in his mind, and that their archetypes can exist only in some other mind; and that the objects of sense are nothing but those sensations combined, blended, or (if one may so speak) concreted together; none of all which can be supposed to exist unperceived." </span> He regards "spirit" as something separate from ideas and attempts to answer the charge that as spirit is not an idea it cannot be known: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"139. But it will be objected that, if there is no idea signified by the terms soul, spirit, and substance, they are wholly insignificant, or have no meaning in them. I answer, those words do mean or signify a real thing, which is neither an idea nor like an idea, but that which perceives ideas, and wills, and reasons about them. ....</span> ==Thomas Reid (1710-1796)== [[Image:ThomasReid.jpg|thumb|left|Reid]]Thomas Reid is generally regarded as the founder of Direct Realism. Reid was a Presbyterian minister for the living of Newmachar near Aberdeen from 1737. He is explicit about the 'directness' of his realism: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"It is therefore acknowledged by this philosopher to be a natural instinct or prepossession, a universal and primary opinion of all men, a primary instinct of nature, that the objects which we immediately perceive by our senses are not images in our minds, but external objects, and that their existence is independent of us and our perception. (Thomas Reid Essays, 14)"</span> In common with Descartes and Malebranche, Reid considers that the mind itself is an unextended thing: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">".. I take it for granted, upon the testimony of common sense, that my mind is a substance-that is, a permanent subject of thought; and my reason convinces me that it is an unextended and invisible substance; and hence I infer that there cannot be in it anything that resembles extension (Inquiry)".</span> Reid is also anxious to equate the unextended mind with the soul: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"The soul, without being present to the images of the things perceived, could not possibly perceive them. A living substance can only there perceive, where it is present, either to the things themselves, (as the omnipresent God is to the whole universe,) or to the images of things, as the soul is in its proper sensorium."</span> Reid's Direct Realism is therefore the idea that the physical objects in the world are in some way presented directly to a soul. This approach is known as "Natural Dualism". Reid's views show his knowledge of Aristotle's ideas: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"When we perceive an object by our senses, there is, first, some impression made by the object upon the organ of sense, either immediately, or by means of some medium. By this, an impression is made upon the brain, in consequence of which we feel some sensation. " (Reid 1785)</span> He differs from Aristotle because he believes that the content of phenomenal consciousness is things in themselves, not signals derived from things in the brain. However, he has no idea how such a phenomenon could occur: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"How a sensation should instantly make us conceive and believe the existence of an external thing altogether unlike it, I do not pretend to know; and when I say that the one suggests the other, I mean not to explain the manner of their connection, but to express a fact, which everyone may be conscious of namely, that, by a law of our nature, such a conception and belief constantly and immediately follow the sensation." (Reid 1764).</span> Reid's idea of mind is almost impossible to illustrate because it lacks sufficient physical definition. It is like naive realism but without any communication by light between object and observer. Reid was largely ignored until the rise of modern Direct Realism. [[Image:Constudreid.png]] Reading between the lines, it seems that Reid is voicing the ancient intuition that the observer and the content of an observation are directly connected in some way. As will be seen later, this intuition cannot distinguish between a direct connection with the world itself and a direct connection with signals from the world beyond the body that are formed into a virtual reality in the brain. ==References== * Descartes, R. (1628). Rules For The Direction of The Mind. * Descartes, R. (1637). DISCOURSE ON THE METHOD OF RIGHTLY CONDUCTING THE REASON, AND SEEKING TRUTH IN THE SCIENCES. * Descartes, R. (1641). Meditations on First Philosophy. * Descartes, R. (1664) "Treatise on Man". Translated by John Cottingham, et al. The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) 99-108. * Kant, I. (1781) Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. Norman Kemp Smith with preface by Howard Caygill. Pub: Palgrave Macmillan. * Locke, J. (1689). An Essay Concerning Human Understanding * Reid, T. (1785). Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man. Edited by Brookes, Derek. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. * Reid, T. (1764). An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense. Edited by Brookes, Derek. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997. * Russell, B. (1945). A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster. '''Further Reading''' See: "Thomas Reid" at [[s:1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Reid,_Thomas|Wikisource]] * Cartesian Conscientia by Robert Hennig {{auto navigation|Nineteenth to twenty first century philosophy|Medieval concepts}} {{auto category}} o4azviuef0pax9ob16kuzkeekil31d7 0 37085 4635077 4628834 2026-05-10T08:06:54Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635077 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |Russian game |parent=[[../|King's knight opening]] |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C42-43]] |responses=<br> * [[/3. d4|3. d4 · Modern attack]] * [[/3. Nxe5|3. Nxe5 · Classical variation]] * [[/3. Bc4|3. Bc4 · Italian variation]] * [[/3. Nc3|3. Nc3 · Three knights]] }} == 2...Nf6 · Petrov's defence or Russian game == Rather than defend e5, Black counterattacks e4. This is the Russian game, aka Petrov's or Petroff's defence, a solid if drawish opening.<ref>60% of games in the Lichess masters database result in draws, compared to 50% for 2...Nc6.</ref> White's typical plan is to attack the centre, usually leading to a trade of pawns. Alternatively they may gambit their e4 pawn, or defend it and perhaps hope for a transposition. === Trade e pawns === [[/3. Nxe5|'''3. Nxe5''']] is the main line, the '''Classical variation'''. As Black didn't defend their pawn, White takes it. Black can recover it, but not immediately on account of dangerous tactics resulting from 3...Nxe4!? 4. Qe2!, exploiting the open e-file (including the famous trap, 4...Nf6?? 5. Nc6+ winning the queen). The best line is 3...d6, chasing White's knight away, after which 4...Nxe4 is safe because if 5. Qe2 Qe7 defends the knight. 3...Nc6?!, the aggressive Stafford gambit, is the most common reply in amateur games. Black gives up a pawn for open lines and a sharp attack. [[/3. d4|'''3. d4''']], the '''Modern attack''', was advocated by [[wikipedia:Wilhelm Steinitz|Steinitz]].<ref name="steinitz">{{Cite book |title=Modern Chess Instructor |last=Steintiz |first=Wilhelm |publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons |year=1889 |location=London |pages=116-139}}</ref> Of the two captures, 3...Nxe4 is most common. 3...exd4 is playable but after 4. e5 Black falls behind while their knight gets kicked about (4...Ne4 5. Qxd4 d5 6. exd6 Nxd6{{Chess/not|+}}). === Gambit e4 === [[/3. Bc4|'''3. Bc4?!''']], the '''Italian variation''', leaves White's e4 pawn undefended. It's usually played with the idea of sacrificing it for development: 3...Nxe4 4. Nc3?!, the Boden-Kieseritzky gambit. Instead, 3...Nc6 transposes into a Two knights defence of the Italian game. === Defend e4 === White may wish to prevent ...Nxe4, though taking the time to defend their pawn gives Black the chance to defend theirs too. [[/3. Nc3|'''3. Nc3''']] is the '''Three knights variation'''. White develops a piece and invites Black to transpose to a '''Four knights''' with 3...Nc6. This option is sound when White wants to avoid the sharp lines of Petrov's Defence. 3...Bb4 avoid transposing, pressures the knight on c3 and makes the game a little more active. [[/3. d3|'''3. d3''']] is, according to statistics, much more effective than it looks. White builds a strong fortress and Black must now defend his pawn. The game usually ends up looking like [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...d6/3. d4/3...Nd7|a Hanham variation of the Philidor]] with colours reversed (3...Nc6 4. Be2 d5 5. Nbd2 Bc5{{Chess/not|-}}) or White adopts a King's Indian attack-style setup with g3 and Bg2. === History === 2...Nf6 is a very old opening, appearing in the 15th/16th century [[wikipedia:Göttingen manuscript|Göttingen manuscript]], the earliest manuscript dedicated to modern chess. However, it was largely overlooked until the 19th century. Jaenisch (1813―1872) levels (his typical, bombastic) criticism at previous attempts to characterise the opening in his 1842 book<ref name="jaenisch">{{Cite book |title=Jaenisch's chess preceptor: a new analysis of the openings of games |last=de Jaenisch |first=C. F. |publisher=Longman & co. |year=1847 |location=London |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hn52dv&seq=5 |translator-last=Walker |translator-first=George}} (translation of {{Cite book |title=Analyse nouvelle des ouvertures du jeu des échecs |last=de Jaenisch |first=C. F. |publisher=Gartner |year=1842}})</ref>{{rp|126-147}}: <blockquote>The fate of this opening has been somewhat "bizarre." Proclaimed faulty from the 16th century (compare [[wikipedia:Pedro Damiano|Damiano]], [[wikipedia:Ruy López de Segura|Lopez]], and Gianutio), it has been entirely thrown on one side, and has only since appeared in the books; which content themselves with reproducing, without change, the ancient analysis of the classics. [[wikipedia:Carlo Cozio|Cozio]], in truth, that frivolous genius, who saw everything superficially, without diving into it, at last briefly corrected the fallacies of the original analysis in question; but, curious enough, was not himself aware of the importance of his observation, which passed altogether unnoticed by later writers.<br>—Carl Jaenisch (translation: Walker)<ref name="jaenisch" /></blockquote> It was [[wikipedia:Alexander Petrov (chess player)|Alexander Petrov]] (1794―1867) and Jaenisch's analyses that led to the rejuvenation of opening in the 19th century (and it's after these two Russians the opening gets its appellation). Jaenisch highlights Petrov's independent (re-)discovery of Cozio's 3. Nxe5 d6! (over 3...Qd7).<ref name="jaenisch" /> Jaenisch also credits Petrov with 3. d4 as White,<ref name="jaenisch" /> the line later advocated by [[wikipedia:Wilhelm Steinitz|Steinitz]] in his 1889 book.<ref name="steinitz" /> ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> <th align="left">7</th> <th align="left">8</th> <th align="left">9</th> <th align="left">10</th> <th align="left">11</th> <th align="left">12</th> <th align="left">13</th> <th align="left">14</th> <th align="left">15</th> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right;font-size:small;">Classical Variation</th> <td>[[/3. Nxe5|Nxe5]]<br>d6</td> <td>Nf3<br>Nxe4</td> <td>d4<br>d5</td> <td>Bd3<br>Nc6</td> <td>0-0<br>Be7</td> <td>c4<br>Nb4</td> <td>Be2<br>0-0</td> <td>Nc3<br>Bf5</td> <td>a3<br>Nxc3</td> <td>bxc3<br>Nc6</td> <td>Re1<br>Re8</td> <td>cxd5<br>Qxd5</td> <td>Bf4<br>Rac8</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right;font-size:small;">Steinitz Variation</th> <td>[[/3. d4|d4]]<br>Nxe4</td> <td>Bd3<br>d5</td> <td>Nxe5<br>Nd7</td> <td>Nxd7<br>Bxd7</td> <td>0-0<br>Bd6</td> <td>c4<br>c6</td> <td>cxd5<br>cxd5</td> <td>Nc3<br>Nxc3</td> <td>bxc3<br>0-0</td> <td>Qh5<br>g6</td> <td>Qxd5<br>Qc7</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Two Knights Defence|Two Knights Defence]]</th> <td>[[/3. Bc4|Bc4]]<br>Nc6</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Four Knights Game|Four Knights Game]]</th> <td>[[/3. Nc3|Nc3]]<br>Nc6</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:right;font-size:small;"></th> <td>[[/3. d3|d3]]<br>Nc6</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} === See also === {{wikipedia|Petrov's Defence}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} hysmfvpgj69sveg1bxvzcntjwfca4pf 102 37425 4635062 4519178 2026-05-10T06:07:31Z Generalilx 1192885 Link to an existing Bakers % page. 4635062 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe summary | category = Bread recipes | servings = One 11"x14" loaf | time = 3-4 hours | difficulty = 3 | image = [[File:Focaccia.jpg|250px]] | energy = | note = }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of Italy|Cuisine of Italy]] | [[Cookbook:Bread|Bread]] '''Focaccia''' is a flat, leavened [[Cookbook:Bread|bread]] native to Italy. ==Ingredients== {| class="wikitable" style="background: none" !Ingredient !Count !Volume<ref group="note">Weight conversions from USDA National Nutrient Database. Original recipe text and ingredient order preserved. </ref> !Weight ![[wikipedia:baker percentage|Baker's %]]<ref group="note"> This column represents the total formula. The procedure section describes a modified [[wikipedia:Sponge_and_dough|sponge and dough]] process.</ref> |- |Active dry [[cookbook:Yeast|yeast]] (non-instant) <ref group="note">This amount of yeast will result in a perceptible yeast flavor. To reduce this flavor, it is recommend to use no more than 1.05% active dry yeast, although you can expect fermentation time to increase somewhat. Further reductions will result in less yeast flavor and longer [[wikipedia:Straight dough|bulk fermentation]] times.</ref> | |2 [[Cookbook:Teaspoon|teaspoons]] |8 [[Cookbook:Gram|g]] |1.6% |- |Warm water (approx. 110°F / 43°C) | |1 ½ [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] |355.5 g |71.1% |- |Unbleached [[Cookbook:All-purpose flour|all-purpose flour]] | |4 cups |500 g |100% |- |Extra-virgin [[Cookbook:Olive Oil|olive oil]] | |5 [[Cookbook:Tablespoon|tablespoons]] |67.5 g |13.5% |- |Sea [[Cookbook:Salt|salt]] | |3 teaspoons |18 g |3.6% |- |'''Total''' | |'''n/a''' |'''949 g''' |'''190%''' |} ==Procedure== # Sprinkle one teaspoon of the yeast over ½ cup of the water in a medium bowl. Stir to mix, and let stand 10 minutes. Stir in ¾ cup flour, cover tightly with plastic and let rise in warm place until doubled, about 45 minutes. # In a large bowl, sprinkle the remaining teaspoon of yeast over 1 cup of warm water, mix and let stand 10 minutes. Add the first yeast mixture (now risen) along with 3 tablespoons of olive oil and 2 teaspoons of salt, mix well. Add the remaining flour gradually, mixing well after each addition until well incorporated. # On a lightly floured work surface, turn the dough out and [[Cookbook:Kneading|knead]] until soft, about 10 minutes. # Place the dough in a lightly oiled bowl, cover tightly and let rise in warm place until doubled, about 1 ½ hours. # Oil an 11" x 14" (28 cm x 36 cm) baking pan and turn the risen dough out onto the pan, flattening it out to the edges. If the dough springs back too much to cover the pan, allow it to rest for 10 minutes before resuming. Cover with a clean towel and let rise 45 minutes to an hour. # Preheat oven to 425 °F (220 °C). Remove towel and press indentations into the dough with your fingertips, then drizzle with the remaining 2 tablespoons of olive oil, sprinkle with sea salt and place pan in oven. Bake 20 to 25 minutes, or until the top is golden. # Remove the focaccia from the pan as soon as it is out of the oven and let cool on a rack before serving. ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note}} [[Category:Recipes for focaccia]] [[Category:Baking recipes]] [[Category:Italian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes with metric units]] [[Category:Recipes using all-purpose flour]] asfhtqfnpf35bywn21bmps2p5j922bh 0 39932 4635081 3243537 2026-05-10T08:13:13Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635081 wikitext text/x-wiki ==The Measurement Problem== In quantum physics the probability of an event is deduced by taking the square of the '''amplitude''' for an event to happen. The term "amplitude for an event" arises because of the way that the Schrödinger equation is derived using the mathematics of ordinary, classical waves where the amplitude over a small area is related to the number of photons hitting the area. In the case of light, the probability of a photon hitting that area will be related to the ratio of the number of photons hitting the area divided by the total number of photons released. The number of photons hitting an area per second is the intensity or amplitude of the light on the area, hence the probability of finding a photon is related to "amplitude". However, the Schrödinger equation is not a classical wave equation. It does not determine events, it simply tells us the probability of an event. In fact the Schrödinger equation in itself does not tell us that an event occurs at all, it is only when a measurement is made that an event occurs. The measurement is said to cause ''state vector reduction''. This role of measurement in quantum theory is known as the '''measurement problem'''. The measurement problem asks how a definite event can arise out of a theory that only predicts a continuous probability for events. Two broad classes of theory have been advanced to explain the measurement problem. In the first it is proposed that observation produces a sudden change in the quantum system so that a particle becomes localised or has a definite momentum. This type of explanation is known as ''collapse of the wavefunction''. In the second it is proposed that the probabilistic Schrödinger equation is always correct and that, for some reason, the observer only observes one particular outcome for an event. This type of explanation is known as the ''relative state interpretation''. In the past thirty years relative state interpretations, especially Everett's relative state interpretation have become favoured amongst quantum physicists. ==The quantum probability problem== The measurement problem is particularly problematical when a single particle is considered. Quantum theory differs from classical theory because it is found that a single photon seems to be able to interfere with itself. If there are many photons then probabilities can be expressed in terms of the ratio of the number hitting a particular place to the total number released but if there is only one photon then this does not make sense. When only one photon is released from a light source quantum theory still gives us a probability for a photon to hit a particular area but what does this mean at any instant if there is indeed only one photon? If the Everettian interpretation of quantum mechanics is invoked then it might seem that the probability of the photon hitting an area in your particular universe is related to the occurrences of the photon in all the other universes. But in the Everrettian interpretation even the improbable universes occur. This leads to a problem known as the quantum '''probability problem''': If the universe splits after a measurement, with every possible measurement outcome realised in some branch, then how can it make sense to talk about the probabilities of each outcome? Each outcome occurs. This means that if our phenomenal consciousness is a set of events then there would be endless copies of these sets of events, almost all of which are almost entirely improbable to an observer outside the brain but all of which exist according to an Everrettian Interpretation. Which set is you? Why should 'you' conform to what happens in the environment around you? ==The preferred basis problem== It could be held that you assess probabilities in terms of the branch of the universe in which you find yourself but then why do you find yourself in a particular branch? Decoherence Theory is one approach to these questions. In decoherence theory the environment is a complex form that can only interact with particles in particular ways. As a result quantum phenomena are rapidly smoothed out in a series of micro-measurements so that the macro-scale universe appears quasi-classical. The form of the environment is known as the preferred basis for quantum decoherence. This then leads to the '''preferred basis problem''' in which it is asked how the environment occurs or whether the state of the environment depends on any other system. According to most forms of decoherence theory 'you' are a part of the environment and hence determined by the preferred basis. From the viewpoint of phenomenal consciousness this does not seem unreasonable because it has always been understood that the conscious observer does not observe things as quantum superpositions. The conscious observation is a classical observation. However, the arguments that are used to derive this idea of the classical, conscious observer contain dubious assumptions that may be hindering the progress of quantum physics. The assumption that the conscious observer is simply an information system is particularly dubious: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"Here we are using aware in a down - to - earth sense: Quite simply, observers know what they know. Their information processing machinery (that must underlie higher functions of the mind such as "consciousness") can readily consult the content of their memory. </span>(Zurek 2003). This assumption is the same as assuming that the conscious observer is a set of measurements rather than an observation. It makes the rest of Zurek's argument about decoherence and the observer into a tautology - given that observations are measurements then observations will be like measurements. However, conscious observation is not simply a change of state in a neuron, a "measurement", it is the entire manifold of conscious experience. In his 2003 review of this topic Zurek makes clear an important feature of information theory when he states that: There is no information without representation. So the contents of conscious observation are states that correspond to states of the environment in the brain (i.e.: measurements). But how do these states in the brain arise? The issue that arises here is whether the representation, the contents of consciousness, is entirely due to the environment or due to some degree to the form of conscious observation. Suppose we make the reasonable assumption that conscious observation is due to some physical field in the dendrites of neurons rather than in the action potentials that transmit the state of the neurons from place to place. This field would not necessarily be constrained by decoherence; there are many possibilities for the field, for instance, it could be a radio frequency field due to impulses or some other electromagnetic field (cf: Anglin & Zurek (1996)) or some quantum state of macromolecules etc.. Such a field might contain many superposed possibilities for the state of the underlying neurons and although these would not affect sensations, they could affect the firing patterns of neurons and create actions in the world that are not determined by the environmental "preferred basis". Zeh (2000) provides a mature review of the problem of conscious observation. For example he realises that memory is not the same as consciousness: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"The genuine carriers of consciousness ... must not in general be expected to represent memory states, as there do not seem to be permanent contents of consciousness."</span> and notes of memory states that they must enter some other system to become part of observation: <span style="font-family:'times new roman'">"To most of these states, however, the true physical carrier of consciousness somewhere in the brain may still represent an external observer system, with whom they have to interact in order to be perceived. Regardless of whether the ultimate observer systems are quasi-classical or possess essential quantum aspects, consciousness can only be related to factor states (of systems assumed to be localized in the brain) that appear in branches (robust components) of the global wave function — provided the Schrodinger equation is exact. Environmental decoherence represents entanglement (but not any “distortion” — of the brain, in this case), while ensembles of wave functions, representing various potential (unpredictable) outcomes, would require a dynamical collapse (that has never been observed)."</span> However, Zeh (2003) points out that events may be irreversibly determined by decoherence before information from them reaches the observer. This might give rise to a multiple worlds and multiple minds mixture for the universe, the multiple minds being superposed states of the part of the world that is the mind. Such an interpretation would be consistent with the ''apparently'' epiphenomenal nature of mind. A mind that interacts only weakly with the consensus physical world, perhaps only approving or rejecting passing actions would be an ideal candidate for a QM multiple minds hypothesis. ==Further reading and references== * Anglin, J.R. & Zurek, J.H. (1996). Decoherence of quantum fields: decoherence and predictability. Phys.Rev. D53 (1996) 7327-7335 http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/quant-ph/pdf/9510/9510021.pdf * Baker, D.J. (2004). Lingering Problems with Probability in Everettian Quantum Mechanics http://www.princeton.edu/~hhalvors/teaching/phi538_f2004/LingeringProbsEverett.pdf * Lockwood, M. (1996) Many Minds Interpretations of quantum mechanics. The British Journal of the Philosophy of Science. 47: 2 (159-188). http://www.ibiblio.org/weidai/Many_Minds.pdf * Pearl, P. (1997). True collapse and false collapse. Published in Quantum Classical Correspondence: Proceedings of the 4th Drexel Symposium on Quantum Nonintegrability, Philadelphia, PA, USA, September 8–11, 1994, pp.&nbsp;51–68. Edited by Da Hsuan Feng and Bei Lok Hu. Cambridge, MA: International Press, 1997. http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/quant-ph/pdf/9805/9805049.pdf * Squires, E.J. (1996). What are quantum theorists doing at a conference on consciousness? http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/quant-ph/pdf/9602/9602006.pdf * Zeh, H. D. (1979). Quantum Theory and Time Asymmetry. Foundations of Physics, Vol 9, pp 803–818 (1979). * Zeh, H.D. (2000) THE PROBLEM OF CONSCIOUS OBSERVATION IN QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION. Epistemological Letters of the Ferdinand-Gonseth Association in Biel (Switzerland) Letter No 63.0.1981, updated 2000. http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9908084 * Zeh, H.D. (2003). Decoherence and the Appearance of a Classical World in Quantum Theory, second edition, Authors:. E. Joos, H.D. Zeh, C. Kiefer D. Giulini, J. Kupsch, and I.-O. Stamatescu. Chapter 2: Basic Concepts and their Interpretation. http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~as3/index.html * Zurek, W.H. (2003). Decoherence, einselection and the quantum origins of the classical. Rev. Mod. Phys. 75, 715 (2003) http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0105127 {{BookCat}} 6al60kq8xdtt5cu0dwmj3yd3xy9xdq3 0 44450 4634976 4622574 2026-05-09T15:46:18Z JCrue 2226064 infobox and analysis 4634976 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit |aka=Schliemann defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[../|Spanish game]] |responses=<br> * [[/4. Nc3|4. Nc3 · Berger variation]] * [[/4. d3|4. d3 · Safe variation]] }} == 3...f5 · Jaenisch gambit == The first thing to know about the the Jaenisch gambit, aka the Schliemann defence, is that it is not a gambit. Despite the apparent similarity to the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]], Black's knight on c6 changes everything. Unlike in the Latvian, White can't capture on e5 immediately, and capturing on e5 after exchanging on c6 ([[/4. Bxc6|'''4. Bxc6''']] dxc6 5. Nxe5) doesn't win the pawn either because ...dxc6 let Black's queen into the game, and the usual Ruy López rejoinder 5...Qd4! wins it straight back. ''Ah,'' thinks White, ''don't I have the intermezzo 6. Qh5+, with the knight controlling g6?'' Unfortunately this falls into a common trap. 6. Qh5+?? g6 7. Nxg6 hxg6 and the rook is defended by Black's queen. The pawn on f5 isn't free either. [[/4. exf5|'''4. exf5?!''']] and 4...e4 embarrasses the knight, who (again, because of that knight on c6) doesn't have the e5 or d4 squares to move to. After 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4, the game may even end in a draw by repetition after 7...Qe5 8. Nf3 Qe7 etc. So rather than blast the Jaenisch off the board, White must act natural and wait to exploit Black's weakened kingside further down the line. Black's pawn on f5 is threatening ...fxe4, so White should choose a move that helps to defend e4. The choice is [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] or [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']]: would White prefer to recapture with a knight or a pawn? [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] is the '''Dyckhoff variation'''. Recapturing with the knight (4...fxe4 5. Nxe4) invites 5...d5, and leads to the hair-raising sacrifice 6. Nxe5! and a razor-sharp repudiation of the gambit. [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']] is a popular and less sharp alternative, intending to recapture on e4 with the pawn. After 4...fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 the pawn does not need to be defended directly because after 6. O-O Nxe4? White can recover it tactically with Re1. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} :1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 f5 <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> <th align="left">7</th> <th align="left">8</th> <th align="left">9</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">1</th> <td>[[/4. Nc3|Nc3]]<br>fxe4</td> <td>Nxe4<br>d5</td> <td>Nxe5<br>dxe4</td> <td>Nxc6<br>Qg5</td> <td>Qe2<br>Nf6</td> <td>f4<br>Qh4+</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">2</th> <td>[[/4. d4|d4]]<br>fxe4</td> <td>Nxe5<br>Nxe5</td> <td>dxe5<br>c6</td> <td>Nc3<br>cxb5</td> <td>Nxe4<br>d5</td> <td>exd6<br>Nf6</td> <td>∞</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">3</th> <td>[[/4. d3|d3]]<br>Nf6</td> <td>exf5<br>Bc5</td> <td>Nc3<br>O-O</td> <td>O-O<br>Nd4</td> <td>Nxe5<br>d5</td> <td>Nf3<br>c6</td> <td>∞</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">4</th> <td>[[/4. exf5|exf5]]<br>e4</td> <td>Qe2<br>Qe7</td> <td>Bxc6<br>dxc6</td> <td>Nd4<br>Qe5</td> <td>Nf3<br>Qe7</td> <td>Nd4<br>Qe5</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} {{wikipedia|Ruy_Lopez#Jaenisch Gambit}} ==References== {{reflist}} * Winning with the Schliemann by [[w:Mikhail Tseitlin|Mikhail Tseitlin]], Published 1991 by Maxwell Macmillan Chess {{ISBN|1-85744-017-X}}. {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} ohg5omc0q9cqpwwuydfo9yp0vbg2m0e 4634977 4634976 2026-05-09T15:46:38Z JCrue 2226064 4634977 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit |aka=Schliemann defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[../|Spanish game]] |responses=<br> * [[/4. Nc3|4. Nc3 · Dyckhoff variation]] * [[/4. d3|4. d3]] }} == 3...f5 · Jaenisch gambit == The first thing to know about the the Jaenisch gambit, aka the Schliemann defence, is that it is not a gambit. Despite the apparent similarity to the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]], Black's knight on c6 changes everything. Unlike in the Latvian, White can't capture on e5 immediately, and capturing on e5 after exchanging on c6 ([[/4. Bxc6|'''4. Bxc6''']] dxc6 5. Nxe5) doesn't win the pawn either because ...dxc6 let Black's queen into the game, and the usual Ruy López rejoinder 5...Qd4! wins it straight back. ''Ah,'' thinks White, ''don't I have the intermezzo 6. Qh5+, with the knight controlling g6?'' Unfortunately this falls into a common trap. 6. Qh5+?? g6 7. Nxg6 hxg6 and the rook is defended by Black's queen. The pawn on f5 isn't free either. [[/4. exf5|'''4. exf5?!''']] and 4...e4 embarrasses the knight, who (again, because of that knight on c6) doesn't have the e5 or d4 squares to move to. After 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4, the game may even end in a draw by repetition after 7...Qe5 8. Nf3 Qe7 etc. So rather than blast the Jaenisch off the board, White must act natural and wait to exploit Black's weakened kingside further down the line. Black's pawn on f5 is threatening ...fxe4, so White should choose a move that helps to defend e4. The choice is [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] or [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']]: would White prefer to recapture with a knight or a pawn? [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] is the '''Dyckhoff variation'''. Recapturing with the knight (4...fxe4 5. Nxe4) invites 5...d5, and leads to the hair-raising sacrifice 6. Nxe5! and a razor-sharp repudiation of the gambit. [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']] is a popular and less sharp alternative, intending to recapture on e4 with the pawn. After 4...fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 the pawn does not need to be defended directly because after 6. O-O Nxe4? White can recover it tactically with Re1. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} :1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 f5 <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> <th align="left">7</th> <th align="left">8</th> <th align="left">9</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">1</th> <td>[[/4. Nc3|Nc3]]<br>fxe4</td> <td>Nxe4<br>d5</td> <td>Nxe5<br>dxe4</td> <td>Nxc6<br>Qg5</td> <td>Qe2<br>Nf6</td> <td>f4<br>Qh4+</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">2</th> <td>[[/4. d4|d4]]<br>fxe4</td> <td>Nxe5<br>Nxe5</td> <td>dxe5<br>c6</td> <td>Nc3<br>cxb5</td> <td>Nxe4<br>d5</td> <td>exd6<br>Nf6</td> <td>∞</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">3</th> <td>[[/4. d3|d3]]<br>Nf6</td> <td>exf5<br>Bc5</td> <td>Nc3<br>O-O</td> <td>O-O<br>Nd4</td> <td>Nxe5<br>d5</td> <td>Nf3<br>c6</td> <td>∞</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">4</th> <td>[[/4. exf5|exf5]]<br>e4</td> <td>Qe2<br>Qe7</td> <td>Bxc6<br>dxc6</td> <td>Nd4<br>Qe5</td> <td>Nf3<br>Qe7</td> <td>Nd4<br>Qe5</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} {{wikipedia|Ruy_Lopez#Jaenisch Gambit}} ==References== {{reflist}} * Winning with the Schliemann by [[w:Mikhail Tseitlin|Mikhail Tseitlin]], Published 1991 by Maxwell Macmillan Chess {{ISBN|1-85744-017-X}}. {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} f4mxnst7lwt7bia3z6eeit6og2vs4gq 4634980 4634977 2026-05-09T16:37:06Z JCrue 2226064 history 4634980 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit |aka=Schliemann defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[../|Spanish game]] |responses=<br> * [[/4. Nc3|4. Nc3 · Dyckhoff variation]] * [[/4. d3|4. d3]] }} == 3...f5 · Jaenisch gambit == The first thing to know about the the Jaenisch gambit, aka the Schliemann defence, is that it is not a gambit. Despite the apparent similarity to the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]], Black's knight on c6 changes everything. === Capture a pawn ? === Unlike in the Latvian, White can't capture on e5 immediately, and capturing on e5 after exchanging on c6 ([[/4. Bxc6|'''4. Bxc6''']] dxc6 5. Nxe5) doesn't win the pawn either because ...dxc6 let Black's queen into the game, and the usual Ruy López rejoinder 5...Qd4! wins it straight back. ''Ah,'' thinks White, ''don't I have the intermezzo 6. Qh5+, with the knight controlling g6?'' Unfortunately this falls into a common trap. 6. Qh5+?? g6 7. Nxg6 hxg6 and the rook is defended by Black's queen. The pawn on f5 isn't free either. [[/4. exf5|'''4. exf5?!''']] and 4...e4 embarrasses the knight, who (again, because of that knight on c6) doesn't have the e5 or d4 squares to move to. After 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4, the game may even end in a draw by repetition after 7...Qe5 8. Nf3 Qe7 etc. So rather than blast the Jaenisch off the board, White must act natural and wait to exploit Black's weakened kingside further down the line. === Defend e4 === Black's pawn on f5 is threatening ...fxe4, so White should choose a move that helps to defend e4. The choice is [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] or [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']]: would White prefer to recapture with a knight or a pawn? [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] is the '''Dyckhoff variation'''. Recapturing with the knight (4...fxe4 5. Nxe4) invites 5...d5, and leads to the hair-raising sacrifice 6. Nxe5! and a razor-sharp repudiation of the gambit. [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']] is a popular and less sharp alternative, intending to recapture on e4 with the pawn. After 4...fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 the pawn does not need to be defended directly because after 6. O-O Nxe4? White can recover it tactically with Re1. === Counterattack e5 === [[/4. d4|'''4. d4!?''']], the '''Schönemann attack''', allows 4...fxe4, intending 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 {{chess/not|+}}. === History === 3...f5 was analysed by [[w:Carl Jaenisch|Carl Jaenisch]] in ''Le Palamède'' in 1847. He analysed 4. d4, 4. exf5, and 4. Bxc6, concluding, "Seems likely to be a good defence for Black."<ref>"ce qu'elle nous paraît susceptible d'une bonne défense pour les Noirs." {{Cite journal |title=Le Début Royal Ch. IV |journal=La Palamède |last=de Jaénisch |first=C.-F. |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nq5AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA530 |pages=538-542 |language=French}}</ref> von der Lasa's ''Handbuch des Schachspiels'' associated the line with Adolf Schliemann and gave the appraisal, "If White accepts it or declines it with 4. d4, Black appears to achieve at least an equal game; conversely, White seems to gain a slight advantage with 4. d3 or 4. 0-0. However, precise analyses of this are still lacking."<ref>"Das Gegengambit wurde von dem verstorbenen Dr. Schliemann empfohlen. Nimmt Weiß es an oder lehnt er es mit 4. d4 ab, so scheint Schwarz ein mindestens gleiches Spiel zu erlangen; dagegen scheint Weiß mit 4. d3 oder 4. 0—0 etwas in Vorteil zu kommen. Genaue Analysen hierüber fehlen jedoch noch." {{Cite book |title=Handbuch des Schachspiels |last=von der Lasa |first=P. R. |publisher=Verlag Von Veit & Comp. |year=1891 |edition=7th |location=Leipzig |pages=223 |language=German |url=https://archive.org/details/handbuchdesscha00schagoog/page/n10/mode/2up}}</ref> ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} :1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 f5 <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> <th align="left">7</th> <th align="left">8</th> <th align="left">9</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">1</th> <td>[[/4. Nc3|Nc3]]<br>fxe4</td> <td>Nxe4<br>d5</td> <td>Nxe5<br>dxe4</td> <td>Nxc6<br>Qg5</td> <td>Qe2<br>Nf6</td> <td>f4<br>Qh4+</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">2</th> <td>[[/4. d4|d4]]<br>fxe4</td> <td>Nxe5<br>Nxe5</td> <td>dxe5<br>c6</td> <td>Nc3<br>cxb5</td> <td>Nxe4<br>d5</td> <td>exd6<br>Nf6</td> <td>∞</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">3</th> <td>[[/4. d3|d3]]<br>Nf6</td> <td>exf5<br>Bc5</td> <td>Nc3<br>O-O</td> <td>O-O<br>Nd4</td> <td>Nxe5<br>d5</td> <td>Nf3<br>c6</td> <td>∞</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">4</th> <td>[[/4. exf5|exf5]]<br>e4</td> <td>Qe2<br>Qe7</td> <td>Bxc6<br>dxc6</td> <td>Nd4<br>Qe5</td> <td>Nf3<br>Qe7</td> <td>Nd4<br>Qe5</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} {{wikipedia|Jaenisch Gambit}} ==References== {{reflist}} === See also === * Winning with the Schliemann by [[w:Mikhail Tseitlin|Mikhail Tseitlin]], Published 1991 by Maxwell Macmillan Chess {{ISBN|1-85744-017-X}}. {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} 50xrvl4uq8zh03i78jbfyai4hsja1vc 4634981 4634980 2026-05-09T16:46:50Z JCrue 2226064 /* Theory table */ 4634981 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit |aka=Schliemann defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[../|Spanish game]] |responses=<br> * [[/4. Nc3|4. Nc3 · Dyckhoff variation]] * [[/4. d3|4. d3]] }} == 3...f5 · Jaenisch gambit == The first thing to know about the the Jaenisch gambit, aka the Schliemann defence, is that it is not a gambit. Despite the apparent similarity to the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]], Black's knight on c6 changes everything. === Capture a pawn ? === Unlike in the Latvian, White can't capture on e5 immediately, and capturing on e5 after exchanging on c6 ([[/4. Bxc6|'''4. Bxc6''']] dxc6 5. Nxe5) doesn't win the pawn either because ...dxc6 let Black's queen into the game, and the usual Ruy López rejoinder 5...Qd4! wins it straight back. ''Ah,'' thinks White, ''don't I have the intermezzo 6. Qh5+, with the knight controlling g6?'' Unfortunately this falls into a common trap. 6. Qh5+?? g6 7. Nxg6 hxg6 and the rook is defended by Black's queen. The pawn on f5 isn't free either. [[/4. exf5|'''4. exf5?!''']] and 4...e4 embarrasses the knight, who (again, because of that knight on c6) doesn't have the e5 or d4 squares to move to. After 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4, the game may even end in a draw by repetition after 7...Qe5 8. Nf3 Qe7 etc. So rather than blast the Jaenisch off the board, White must act natural and wait to exploit Black's weakened kingside further down the line. === Defend e4 === Black's pawn on f5 is threatening ...fxe4, so White should choose a move that helps to defend e4. The choice is [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] or [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']]: would White prefer to recapture with a knight or a pawn? [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] is the '''Dyckhoff variation'''. Recapturing with the knight (4...fxe4 5. Nxe4) invites 5...d5, and leads to the hair-raising sacrifice 6. Nxe5! and a razor-sharp repudiation of the gambit. [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']] is a popular and less sharp alternative, intending to recapture on e4 with the pawn. After 4...fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 the pawn does not need to be defended directly because after 6. O-O Nxe4? White can recover it tactically with Re1. === Counterattack e5 === [[/4. d4|'''4. d4!?''']], the '''Schönemann attack''', allows 4...fxe4, intending 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 {{chess/not|+}}. === History === 3...f5 was analysed by [[w:Carl Jaenisch|Carl Jaenisch]] in ''Le Palamède'' in 1847. He analysed 4. d4, 4. exf5, and 4. Bxc6, concluding, "Seems likely to be a good defence for Black."<ref>"ce qu'elle nous paraît susceptible d'une bonne défense pour les Noirs." {{Cite journal |title=Le Début Royal Ch. IV |journal=La Palamède |last=de Jaénisch |first=C.-F. |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nq5AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA530 |pages=538-542 |language=French}}</ref> von der Lasa's ''Handbuch des Schachspiels'' associated the line with Adolf Schliemann and gave the appraisal, "If White accepts it or declines it with 4. d4, Black appears to achieve at least an equal game; conversely, White seems to gain a slight advantage with 4. d3 or 4. 0-0. However, precise analyses of this are still lacking."<ref>"Das Gegengambit wurde von dem verstorbenen Dr. Schliemann empfohlen. Nimmt Weiß es an oder lehnt er es mit 4. d4 ab, so scheint Schwarz ein mindestens gleiches Spiel zu erlangen; dagegen scheint Weiß mit 4. d3 oder 4. 0—0 etwas in Vorteil zu kommen. Genaue Analysen hierüber fehlen jedoch noch." {{Cite book |title=Handbuch des Schachspiels |last=von der Lasa |first=P. R. |publisher=Verlag Von Veit & Comp. |year=1891 |edition=7th |location=Leipzig |pages=223 |language=German |url=https://archive.org/details/handbuchdesscha00schagoog/page/n10/mode/2up}}</ref> ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} {{Chess/theory table |links=all |name1=Dyckhoff variation |line1=4. Nc3 fxe4 5. Nxe4 d5 6. Nxe5 dxe4 7. Nxc6 Qg5 8. Qe2 Nf6 9. f4 Qxf4 10. Ne5+ c6 11. d4 Qh4+ 12. g3 Qh3 13. Bc4 Be6 |eval1={{chess/not|+}} |line2=4. ... ... 5. ... Nf6 6. Nxf6+ Qxf6 7. Qe2 Be7 8. Bxc6 bxc6 9. Nxe5 |name2=Tartakower variation |eval2={{chess/not|+}} |line3=4. d3 fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 6. O-O d6 7. Nc3 |eval3={{chess/not|+}} |line4=4. d4 fxe4 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 |name4=Schönemann attack |eval5={{chess/not|=}} |line5=4. exf5 e4 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4 |name5=Jaenisch gambit accepted |eval5={{chess/not|=}} }} {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} === See also === * Winning with the Schliemann by [[w:Mikhail Tseitlin|Mikhail Tseitlin]], Published 1991 by Maxwell Macmillan Chess {{ISBN|1-85744-017-X}}. {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} kp6cmnw64z69esvumvbh41jn2fbd5ra 4634983 4634981 2026-05-09T16:47:06Z JCrue 2226064 /* See also */ 4634983 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit |aka=Schliemann defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[../|Spanish game]] |responses=<br> * [[/4. Nc3|4. Nc3 · Dyckhoff variation]] * [[/4. d3|4. d3]] }} == 3...f5 · Jaenisch gambit == The first thing to know about the the Jaenisch gambit, aka the Schliemann defence, is that it is not a gambit. Despite the apparent similarity to the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]], Black's knight on c6 changes everything. === Capture a pawn ? === Unlike in the Latvian, White can't capture on e5 immediately, and capturing on e5 after exchanging on c6 ([[/4. Bxc6|'''4. Bxc6''']] dxc6 5. Nxe5) doesn't win the pawn either because ...dxc6 let Black's queen into the game, and the usual Ruy López rejoinder 5...Qd4! wins it straight back. ''Ah,'' thinks White, ''don't I have the intermezzo 6. Qh5+, with the knight controlling g6?'' Unfortunately this falls into a common trap. 6. Qh5+?? g6 7. Nxg6 hxg6 and the rook is defended by Black's queen. The pawn on f5 isn't free either. [[/4. exf5|'''4. exf5?!''']] and 4...e4 embarrasses the knight, who (again, because of that knight on c6) doesn't have the e5 or d4 squares to move to. After 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4, the game may even end in a draw by repetition after 7...Qe5 8. Nf3 Qe7 etc. So rather than blast the Jaenisch off the board, White must act natural and wait to exploit Black's weakened kingside further down the line. === Defend e4 === Black's pawn on f5 is threatening ...fxe4, so White should choose a move that helps to defend e4. The choice is [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] or [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']]: would White prefer to recapture with a knight or a pawn? [[/4. Nc3|'''4. Nc3''']] is the '''Dyckhoff variation'''. Recapturing with the knight (4...fxe4 5. Nxe4) invites 5...d5, and leads to the hair-raising sacrifice 6. Nxe5! and a razor-sharp repudiation of the gambit. [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']] is a popular and less sharp alternative, intending to recapture on e4 with the pawn. After 4...fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 the pawn does not need to be defended directly because after 6. O-O Nxe4? White can recover it tactically with Re1. === Counterattack e5 === [[/4. d4|'''4. d4!?''']], the '''Schönemann attack''', allows 4...fxe4, intending 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 {{chess/not|+}}. === History === 3...f5 was analysed by [[w:Carl Jaenisch|Carl Jaenisch]] in ''Le Palamède'' in 1847. He analysed 4. d4, 4. exf5, and 4. Bxc6, concluding, "Seems likely to be a good defence for Black."<ref>"ce qu'elle nous paraît susceptible d'une bonne défense pour les Noirs." {{Cite journal |title=Le Début Royal Ch. IV |journal=La Palamède |last=de Jaénisch |first=C.-F. |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nq5AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA530 |pages=538-542 |language=French}}</ref> von der Lasa's ''Handbuch des Schachspiels'' associated the line with Adolf Schliemann and gave the appraisal, "If White accepts it or declines it with 4. d4, Black appears to achieve at least an equal game; conversely, White seems to gain a slight advantage with 4. d3 or 4. 0-0. However, precise analyses of this are still lacking."<ref>"Das Gegengambit wurde von dem verstorbenen Dr. Schliemann empfohlen. Nimmt Weiß es an oder lehnt er es mit 4. d4 ab, so scheint Schwarz ein mindestens gleiches Spiel zu erlangen; dagegen scheint Weiß mit 4. d3 oder 4. 0—0 etwas in Vorteil zu kommen. Genaue Analysen hierüber fehlen jedoch noch." {{Cite book |title=Handbuch des Schachspiels |last=von der Lasa |first=P. R. |publisher=Verlag Von Veit & Comp. |year=1891 |edition=7th |location=Leipzig |pages=223 |language=German |url=https://archive.org/details/handbuchdesscha00schagoog/page/n10/mode/2up}}</ref> ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} {{Chess/theory table |links=all |name1=Dyckhoff variation |line1=4. Nc3 fxe4 5. Nxe4 d5 6. Nxe5 dxe4 7. Nxc6 Qg5 8. Qe2 Nf6 9. f4 Qxf4 10. Ne5+ c6 11. d4 Qh4+ 12. g3 Qh3 13. Bc4 Be6 |eval1={{chess/not|+}} |line2=4. ... ... 5. ... Nf6 6. Nxf6+ Qxf6 7. Qe2 Be7 8. Bxc6 bxc6 9. Nxe5 |name2=Tartakower variation |eval2={{chess/not|+}} |line3=4. d3 fxe4 5. dxe4 Nf6 6. O-O d6 7. Nc3 |eval3={{chess/not|+}} |line4=4. d4 fxe4 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 |name4=Schönemann attack |eval5={{chess/not|=}} |line5=4. exf5 e4 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4 |name5=Jaenisch gambit accepted |eval5={{chess/not|=}} }} {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} === See also === * Winning with the Schliemann by [[w:Mikhail Tseitlin|Mikhail Tseitlin]], Published 1991 by Maxwell Macmillan Chess {{ISBN|1-85744-017-X}}. {{BCO2}} {{wikipedia|Jaenisch Gambit}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} ghepxm6xz1uezdwuahhlbmnsfljgxn0 8 50984 4634945 4634876 2026-05-09T13:09:41Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Removing the [unchecked] tag CSS code since it might have been displaying an error. 4634945 css text/css /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */ .mobile-only { display: none; } .PrettyTextBox { background-color: var(--background-color-neutral-subtle, #27292d); color: inherit; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: 0.2em; } /* Add arrows to toggle-blocks for collapsible elements */ .mw-collapsible-arrowtoggle.mw-collapsible-toggle-expanded { padding-left: 20px !important; background-image: url('//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/MediaWiki_Vector_skin_action_arrow.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: center left; } .mw-collapsible-arrowtoggle.mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed { padding-left: 20px !important; background-image: url('//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/MediaWiki_Vector_skin_right_arrow.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: center left; } body #siteSub { display: none; } /* Fix the background color on the sitenotice */ table#mw-dismissable-notice { background-color: transparent; } /* Selectively hide headers in WikiProject banners */ .wpb .wpb-header { display: none; } .wpbs-inner .wpb .wpb-header { display: table-row; } /* for other browsers */ .wpbs-inner .wpb-outside { display: none; } /* hide things that should only display outside shells */ .nowraplinks a, .nowraplinks .selflink { white-space: nowrap; } /* Hack to remove comment box for FlaggedRevs, since we seem unable to remove it from configuration. */ #mw-fr-commentbox { display:none; } label[for="mw-fr-commentbox"]{display: none;} body.page-Special_RecentChanges { /* Highlight edit filter tags */ span.mw-tag-markers {background-color: rgba(255, 51, 51, 0.25);} } /* Keep menus in toolbox from growing too long */ .wikiEditor-ui-toolbar .group .menu .options { height:300px; overflow: auto; } /* Show only when printing */ @media screen, projection, handheld { .printonly { display: none !important; } } /* Disable the automatic text-size adjust of WebKit on iPhones etc. It scales some text, and not the other. 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These markers indicate the [[w:thematic relation|grammatical role]] ([[w:grammatical case|case]]) of the noun phrase in the sentence – roles such as the doer or experiencer, undergoer or object, and receiver of the action, among others. The following table shows examples of grammatical roles in a given sentence. Note the use of case markers which are written in '''bold'''. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Grammatical role → !! ''(Verb)'' !! Doer !! Object !! Receiver !! Location |- | '''Example''' || ''binigyán''|| '''ni''' Ana || '''ng''' pera || '''ang''' kanyáng anák || '''sa''' tabí ng bahay |- | '''Gloss''' || ''given (to)'' || ''(by) Ana'' || ''money'' || ''her child''|| ''beside the house'' |- | '''Translation''' ||colspan="7"| ''Ana gave her child some money, beside the house'' |} There are three main sets of markers: 1. '''''ang''-markers''', also called ''direct'', ''pivot'', or ''focus'' markers; at times, although less preferably, known as ''absolutive'' or ''nominative'' markers 2. '''''ng''-markers''', also called ''indirect'' or ''genitive'' markers; less preferably known as ''ergative'' or ''accusative'' markers 3. '''''sa''-markers''', also called ''oblique'' markers Different grammars use different terms for these markers, as shown above. In this lesson, they will be called ''ang-'', ''ng-'', and ''sa-markers'' to avoid confusion. Tagalog markers also have two classes: one set for personal names and another set for common nouns and proper nouns that are not names of people. The former will be referred to in this guide as ''personal'' marker, while the latter ''common'' marker. Additionally, personal markers have a separate plural form characterized by the ''-na'' ending. Common markers, on the other hand, typically remain unchanged, where the particle ''mga'' is used to pluralize the noun or noun phrase. Below is a chart of the case markers. Note that ''mga'' (pronounced [maŋa]) marks the plural. The word ''ng'' is pronounced as [naŋ]. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" !&nbsp; !ang-marker !ng-marker !sa-marker |- |'''Common singular''' |ang |ng |sa |- |'''Common plural''' |ang mga |ng mga |sa mga |- |'''Personal singular''' |si |ni |kay |- |'''Personal plural''' |sina |nina |kina |} ====Ang-markers==== The ''ang-marker'' marks the focused or pivot noun phrase of the sentence. Depending on the form of the verb, the ang-marked noun may be the actor, object/patient, location, beneficiary, instrument, or another role. ====Ng-markers==== The ''ng-marker'' marks a non-focused core noun phrase. It may mark the actor in some verb forms, the object/patient in other verb forms, or possession. ====Sa-markers==== The ''sa-marker'' marks oblique relationships, such as location, direction, recipient, beneficiary, time, or reference. ===Examples=== '''Dumating''' ang ''lalaki''.<br> "The ''man'' '''arrived'''." '''Nakita''' ni Juan si Maria.<br> "John '''saw''' Maria." '''Pupunta''' sina Elena at Roberto sa bahay ni Miguel.<br> "Elena and Roberto '''will go''' to Miguel's house." '''Nasaan''' ang mga ''libro''?<br> "'''Where are''' the ''books''?" '''Kay''' ''Tatay'' ang susi.<br> "''Father'' '''has''' the keys" ---- [[Tagalog|^ Table of Contents ^]] | [[Tagalog/Ligatures|<<Ligatures]] | '''Nouns and Markers''' | [[Tagalog/Prefixes and suffixes|Prefixes and Suffixes>>]] {{BookCat}} 1wj0ngio2tvrs1sl4478w7m6o9bjdqr 4635059 4635019 2026-05-10T05:12:17Z JamesTor2egosa 3582451 /* Aralín (Lesson) */ 4635059 wikitext text/x-wiki This lesson will teach you about the usage of nouns and markers in Tagalog. ==Aralín (Lesson)== ===Nouns and case markers=== Tagalog nouns and noun phrases are preceded by one-syllable words known as ''case markers''. These markers indicate the [[w:thematic relation|grammatical role]] of the noun phrase in the sentence – roles such as the doer or experiencer, undergoer or object, and receiver of the action, among others. The following table shows examples of grammatical roles in a given sentence. Note the use of case markers which are written in '''bold'''. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Grammatical role → !! ''(Verb)'' !! Doer !! Object !! Receiver !! Location |- | '''Example''' || ''binigyán''|| '''ni''' Ana || '''ng''' pera || '''ang''' kanyáng anák || '''sa''' tabí ng bahay |- | '''Gloss''' || ''given (to)'' || ''(by) Ana'' || ''money'' || ''her child''|| ''beside the house'' |- | '''Translation''' ||colspan="7"| ''Ana gave her child some money, beside the house'' |} There are three [[w:grammatical case|cases]] in Tagalog, as indicated by case markers: 1. '''''ang''-case''', also called ''direct'', ''pivot'', or ''focus'' case; at times, although less preferably, known as the ''absolutive'' or ''nominative'' case 2. '''''ng''-case''', also called ''indirect'' or ''genitive'' case; less preferably known as the ''ergative'' or ''accusative'' case 3. '''''sa''-case''', also called ''oblique'' case Different grammars use different terms for these cases, which are listed above. In this lesson, they will be called ''ang-'', ''ng-'', and ''sa-case'' to avoid confusion – so called from the ''common singular'' forms of these markers. Tagalog case markers also have two classes: 1. '''''personal''''' markers, used before personal names (''names of people and animals'') and terms of address; ex., '''''si''' [[w:Walt Disney|Walt Disney]]'' 2. '''''common''''' markers, used before common nouns and proper nouns that are not personal names; ex., '''''ang''' [[w:The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'' Additionally, personal markers have a separate plural form characterized by the ''-na'' ending. On the other hand, common markers remain unchanged, where the particle ''mga'' is used to pluralize the noun or noun phrase. Below is a chart of the case markers. Note that ''mga'' is pronounced [maŋa], and ''ng'' as [naŋ]. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" !&nbsp; !ang-case !ng-case !sa-case |- |'''Common singular''' |ang |ng |sa |- |'''Common plural''' |ang mga |ng mga |sa mga |- |'''Personal singular''' |si |ni |kay |- |'''Personal plural''' |sina |nina |kina |} ====Ang-case==== The ''ang-case'' marks the ''pivot'' noun phrase of the sentence. Depending on the form of the verb, the ang-marked noun may be the actor, object/patient, location, beneficiary, instrument, or another role. ====Ng-case==== The ''ng-case'' marks a non-focused core noun phrase. It may mark the actor in some verb forms, the object/patient in other verb forms, or possession. ====Sa-case==== The ''sa-case'' marks oblique relationships, such as location, direction, recipient, beneficiary, time, or reference. ===Examples=== '''Dumating''' ang ''lalaki''.<br> "The ''man'' '''arrived'''." '''Nakita''' ni Juan si Maria.<br> "John '''saw''' Maria." '''Pupunta''' sina Elena at Roberto sa bahay ni Miguel.<br> "Elena and Roberto '''will go''' to Miguel's house." '''Nasaan''' ang mga ''libro''?<br> "'''Where are''' the ''books''?" '''Kay''' ''Tatay'' ang susi.<br> "''Father'' '''has''' the keys" ---- [[Tagalog|^ Table of Contents ^]] | [[Tagalog/Ligatures|<<Ligatures]] | '''Nouns and Markers''' | [[Tagalog/Prefixes and suffixes|Prefixes and Suffixes>>]] {{BookCat}} 5cjpmyxbztusutorx6mucqpsqyq0j9z 4635068 4635059 2026-05-10T07:28:55Z JamesTor2egosa 3582451 /* Case and Case Markers */ 4635068 wikitext text/x-wiki This lesson will teach you about the usage of nouns and markers in Tagalog. ==Case and Case Markers== Tagalog nouns and noun phrases are preceded by one-syllable words known as ''case markers''. These markers indicate the [[w:thematic relation|grammatical role]] of the noun phrase in the sentence – roles such as the doer or experiencer, undergoer or object, and receiver of the action, among others. The following table shows examples of grammatical roles in a given sentence. Note the use of case markers which are written in '''bold'''. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Grammatical role → !! ''(Verb)'' !! Doer !! Object !! Receiver !! Location |- | '''Noun/Noun Phrase''' || ''(binigyán)''|| '''ni''' Ana || '''ng''' pera || '''ang''' kanyáng anák || '''sa''' tabí ng bahay |- | '''Gloss''' || ''given (to)'' || ''(by) Ana'' || ''money'' || ''her child''|| ''beside the house'' |- | '''Translation''' ||colspan="7"| ''Ana gave her child some money, beside the house'' |} There are three [[w:grammatical case|cases]] in Tagalog, as indicated by case markers: 1. '''''ang''-case''', also called ''direct'', ''pivot'', or ''focus'' case; at times, although less preferably, known as the ''absolutive'' or ''nominative'' case 2. '''''ng''-case''', also called ''indirect'' or ''genitive'' case; less preferably known as the ''ergative'' or ''accusative'' case 3. '''''sa''-case''', also called ''oblique'' case Different grammars use different terms for these cases, which are listed above. In this lesson, they will be called ''ang-'', ''ng-'', and ''sa-case'' to avoid confusion – so called from the ''common singular'' forms of these markers. Tagalog case markers also have two classes: 1. '''''personal''''' markers, used before personal names (''names of people and animals'') and terms of address; ex., '''''si''' [[w:Walt Disney|Walt Disney]]'' 2. '''''common''''' markers, used before common nouns and proper nouns that are not personal names; ex., '''''ang''' [[w:The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'' Additionally, personal markers have a separate plural form characterized by the ''-na'' ending. On the other hand, common markers remain unchanged, where the particle ''mga'' is used to pluralize the noun or noun phrase. Below is a chart of the case markers. Note that ''mga'' is pronounced [maŋa], and ''ng'' as [naŋ]. {| border="1" cellpadding="2" !&nbsp; !ang-case !ng-case !sa-case |- |'''Common singular''' |ang |ng |sa |- |'''Common plural''' |ang mga |ng mga |sa mga |- |'''Personal singular''' |si |ni |kay |- |'''Personal plural''' |sina |nina |kina |} ===Ang-case (''Pivot'')=== In Tagalog, each verb typically forms a ''special relationship'' with a single noun or noun phrase in a given sentence – that noun is known as the '''''pivot''''' (also known as the ''focus'' or ''direct'' noun). This means that the verb determines the grammatical role of the ''pivot'', depending on how that verb is conjugated by ''trigger''. The '''''ang-case''''' marks the ''pivot'' noun or noun phrase of the sentence. The ''ang''-case therefore specifically: * marks the '''agent''' (doer or experiencer) of the action when the verb is conjugated in the ''agent-trigger'' {| class="wikitable" |- ! ''Agent-trigger Verb'' !! Doer !! Object !! Receiver |- | '''''nag'''bigáy''|| '''si''' Ana || ng pera || sa kanyáng anák |- | ''gave'' || ''Ana'' || ''money'' || ''(to) her child'' |- | colspan="6"| Translation: ''Ana gave her child some money'', or, ''Ana gave money to her child'' |} * marks the '''patient''' (object or undergoer) of the action when the verb is conjugated in the ''patient-trigger'' * marks the '''beneficiary''' (or recipient) of the action when the verb is conjugated in the ''benefactive-trigger'' * marks the '''location''' (or direction) of the action when the verb is conjugated in the ''locative-trigger'' * marks the '''instrument''' (or means) of the action when the verb is conjugated in the ''instrument-trigger'' * marks the '''reason''' (or cause) of the action when the verb is conjugated in the ''reason-trigger'' In other words, the ''ang''-case noun may be the agent, patient, location, beneficiary, instrument, or reason of the action – depending on the conjugation of the verb ''it relates to''. Note that for every verb, there will only be a maximum of one ''pivot'' noun or noun phrase as marked by the ''ang-case''. If a sentence has two or more verbs, the sentence may have a single ''pivot'' common to those verbs, or separate ones for each. ===Ng-case=== The ''ng-case'' marks a non-focused core noun phrase. It may mark the actor in some verb forms, the object/patient in other verb forms, or possession. ===Sa-case=== The ''sa-case'' marks oblique relationships, such as location, direction, recipient, beneficiary, time, or reference. ===Examples=== '''Dumating''' ang ''lalaki''.<br> "The ''man'' '''arrived'''." '''Nakita''' ni Juan si Maria.<br> "John '''saw''' Maria." '''Pupunta''' sina Elena at Roberto sa bahay ni Miguel.<br> "Elena and Roberto '''will go''' to Miguel's house." '''Nasaan''' ang mga ''libro''?<br> "'''Where are''' the ''books''?" '''Kay''' ''Tatay'' ang susi.<br> "''Father'' '''has''' the keys" ---- [[Tagalog|^ Table of Contents ^]] | [[Tagalog/Ligatures|<<Ligatures]] | '''Nouns and Markers''' | [[Tagalog/Prefixes and suffixes|Prefixes and Suffixes>>]] {{BookCat}} hzrt5np3yqr5xvhz73s09cqhvk2ivsz 0 61361 4634973 4435727 2026-05-09T15:24:44Z ~2026-28054-89 3582399 /* Quantifying information */ Corrected tpo 4634973 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Intro to LIS|next=Ethics and Values in the Information Professions}} This chapter will draw on two important fields to define roles and contexts for librarianship and other information work. First, we will explore the many diverse roles libraries have played throughout history, exploring the different motivations for libraries and services library workers have provided towards these motivations. We will then look at how different individuals and fields conceive of information in today's world, and how these conceptions inform their practice. We will conclude by drawing on historical LIS practice and lessons learned from related disciplines to establish roles and a scope for contemporary LIS practice and scholarship. After reading this chapter, a student should be able to articulate: # what a library is # the value of critically examining library history to inform current library practice # the missions and practices of libraries in ancient and medieval European libraries # the contributions of pre-modern East Asian, Middle Eastern, and African libraries to contemporary library practice # exclusionary practices and policies in 19th- and 20th-century libraries in the United States # the concepts of ahistoricism and tunnel vision # definitions of information from several different fields, and how they inform LIS practice # how the following fields relate to LIS #* Computer science #* Education #* Information theory #* Social work ==Defining libraries== {{stub}} A library can be defined as a major department concerned with the collection, organization, dissemination of recorded information, facts or readable material for the purpose of teaching, learning and research. ==Libraries of the past== This section will introduce characteristics and purposes of libraries throughout time, and then introduce some critical issues and methods of library history. ===A brief history of libraries=== ====Early libraries (2600 BC – 800 BC)==== [[File:Library of Ashurbanipal The Flood Tablet.jpg|thumb|Tablet from the Library of Ashurbanipal containing part of the Epic of Gilgamesh]] The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing - the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer<ref>{{cite book |title=Libraries in the Ancient World |first=Lionel |last=Casson|page=3 |publisher=Yale University Press|date= 11 Aug 2002 |accessdate=7 March 2012}}</ref>. The earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit (in present-day Syria); besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC and those at Nineveh about 700 BC showing a library classification system.<ref>''The American International Encyclopedia'', New York: J. J. Little & Ives, 1954; Volume IX</ref> Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been discovered at Nineveh,<ref>[http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/ashurbanipal_library_phase_1.aspx Britishmuseum.org] "Assurbanipal Library Phase 1", British Museum One</ref> providing modern scholars with an amazing wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious and administrative work. Among the findings were the Enuma Elish, also known as ''the Epic of Creation,''<ref>"Epic of Creation", in Dalley, Stephanie. ''Myths from Mesopotamia.'' Oxford, 1989; pp. 233-81</ref> which depicts a traditional Babylonian view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh,<ref>"Epic of Gilgamesh", in Dalley, Stephanie. ''Myths from Mesopotamia.'' Oxford, 1989; pp. 50–135</ref> a large selection of "omen texts" including ''Enuma Anu Enlil'' which "contained omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction with planets and fixed stars, the sun, its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their visibility, appearance, and stations",<ref>Van De Mieroop, Marc. ''A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC''. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2007: pg. 263 </ref> and astronomic/astrological texts, as well as standard lists used by scribes and scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of medical diagnoses. Philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty.<ref name="Mukherjee, A. K 1966 p. 86">Mukherjee, A. K. Librarianship: Its Philosophy and History. Asia Publishing House (1966) p. 86</ref> Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians.<ref name="Mukherjee, A. K 1966 p. 86"/> ====Classical period (800 BC – 500 AD)==== [[File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg|thumb|Artistic rendering of the Library of Alexandria, based on some archaeological evidence]] =====The Library of Alexandria===== The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II (283–246 BC).<ref name="unllib.unl.edu">Phillips, Heather A., [http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/phillips.htm "The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010]</ref> An early organization system was in effect at Alexandria.<ref name="unllib.unl.edu"/> Much of what we know about the Alexandrian library is not based on verifiable fact, but rather a collection of stories, many of which we should forego according to Jochum’s research. There are no physical remnants of the library left, only written allusions from classical writers, but he believes that the great library did not exist merely as single building. The Alexandrian library claimed to have contained every book on every subject in every language. The methods for acquiring these books varied. One reported method was to employ traders to buy books wherever they could be found. Another claimed that books were confiscated from ships in the Alexandrian harbor, then copied for the library and returned to their owners. Catalogs were made of the collection’s books, including the metadata on the original owners and where the copy was copied or written. Today, the thought of a library containing every book on every subject in every known '''language''' is impossible, especially as technology advances. As long ago as 1976, having the information available digitally was proposed as the way to emulate the ideal of the Alexandrian library. The economies offered by digitalization can get us access to the type of knowledge sought by the Greeks. Jochum offers that the Alexandrian may not have existed as the ultimate facility. Once we can weed out the lore from fact, we can then begin to move forward with the library as a learning center instead of a just physical repository for books.<ref>Jochum, Uwe. “The Alexandrian Library and Its Aftermath.” Library History 15 (May 1999): 5-12.</ref> =====Other Classical libraries===== Private or personal libraries made up of written books (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. The celebrated book collectors of Hellenistic Antiquity were listed in the late 2nd century in ''Deipnosophistae''. All these libraries were Greek; the cultivated Hellenized diners in ''Deipnosophistae'' pass over the libraries of Rome in silence. By the time of Augustus there were public libraries near the forums of Rome: there were libraries in the Porticus Octaviae near the Theatre of Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus, and in the Bibliotheca Ulpiana in the Forum of Trajan. The state archives were kept in a structure on the slope between the Roman Forum and the Capitoline Hill. Private libraries appeared during the late republic: Seneca the Younger inveighed against libraries fitted out for show by illiterate owners who scarcely read their titles in the course of a lifetime, but displayed the scrolls in bookcases (''armaria'') of citrus wood inlaid with ivory that ran right to the ceiling: "by now, like bathrooms and hot water, a library is got up as standard equipment for a fine house (''domus'').<ref>Seneca, ''De tranquillitate animi'' ix.4–7.</ref> Libraries were amenities suited to a villa, such as Cicero's at Tusculum, Maecenas's several villas, or Pliny the Younger's, all described in surviving letters. At the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, apparently the villa of Caesar's father-in-law, the Greek library has been partly preserved in volcanic ash; archaeologists speculate that a Latin library, kept separate from the Greek one, may await discovery at the site. In the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman Empire as each succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which outshone that of his predecessor. Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on shelves built into the walls of a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the room itself. The surviving records give only a few instances of lending features. As a rule, Roman public libraries were bilingual: they had a Latin room and a Greek room. Most of the large Roman baths were also cultural centres, built from the start with a library, a two room arrangement with one room for Greek and one for Latin texts. Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus scrolls as at Alexandria: the export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce. There were a few institutional or royal libraries which were open to an educated public (such as the Serapeum collection of the Library of Alexandria, once the largest Great library in the ancient world),<ref name="unllib.unl.edu"/> but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it was possible for a scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access to the stacks. In all recorded cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where the staff went to get them for the readers, who had to consult them in an adjoining hall or covered walkway. Han Chinese scholar Liu Xiang established the first library classification system during the Han Dynasty,<ref>{{cite book |title=China bibliography: a research guide ... – Google Books|work=books.google.com.au|accessdate=30 April 2010 |isbn= 978-90-04-10278-1 |author1= Zurndorfer, Harriet Thelma |year= 1995}}</ref> and the first book notation system. At this time the library catalogue was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags. ====Middle Ages (501 AD – 1400 AD)==== In the 6th century, at the very close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria.<br> Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, established a monastery at Vivarium in the heel of Italy with a library where he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus not only collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses of reading and methods for copying texts accurately. In the end, however, the library at Vivarium was dispersed and lost within a century. Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid collector of books of Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others came and studied there. By the 8th century first Iranians and then Arabs had imported the craft of papermaking from China, with a paper mill already at work in Baghdad in 794. By the 9th century public libraries started to appear in many Islamic cities. They were called "halls of Science" or ''dar al-'ilm''. They were each endowed by Islamic sects with the purpose of representing their tenets as well as promoting the dissemination of secular knowledge. The 9th century Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil of Iraq, ordered the construction of a "zawiyat qurra" – an enclosure for readers which was "lavishly furnished and equipped". <br>In Shiraz, Adhud al-Daula (d. 983) set up a library, described by the medieval historian al-Muqaddasi as "a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with lakes and waterways. The buildings were topped with domes, and comprised an upper and a lower story with a total, according to the chief official, of 360 rooms.... In each department, catalogs were placed on a shelf... the rooms were furnished with carpets".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Al-Muqaddasi: Ahsan al-Taqasim|editor=Goeje, M. J. de|year=1906|encyclopedia=Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum|language=Arabic |volume=III|publisher=E. J. Brill|location=Leiden |pages=449}}</ref> <br>The libraries often employed translators and copyists in large numbers, in order to render into Arabic the bulk of the available Persian, Greek, Roman and Sanskrit non-fiction and the classics of literature. <br>This flowering of Islamic learning ceased centuries later, after many of these libraries were destroyed by Mongol invasions. Others were victim of wars and religious strife in the Islamic world. However, a few examples of these medieval libraries, such as the libraries of Chinguetti in West Africa, remain intact and relatively unchanged. Another ancient library from this period which is still operational and expanding is the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in the Iranian city of Mashhad, which has been operating for more than six centuries. The contents of these Islamic libraries were copied by Christian monks in Muslim/Christian border areas, particularly Spain and Sicily. From there they eventually made their way into other parts of Christian Europe. These copies joined works that had been preserved directly by Christian monks from Greek and Roman originals, as well as copies Western Christian monks made of Byzantine works. Buddhist scriptures, educational materials, and histories were stored in libraries in pre-modern Southeast Asia. In Burma, a royal library called the Pitaka Taik was legendarily founded by King Anawrahta;<ref>''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zoq_TtEN54IC&pg=PA29 International dictionary of library histories]'', 29</ref> in the 18th century, British envoy Michael Symes, upon visiting this library, wrote that "it is not improbable that his Birman majesty may possess a more numerous library than any potentate, from the banks of the Danube to the borders of China". In Thailand libraries called ho trai were built throughout the country, usually on stilts above a pond to prevent bugs from eating at the books. In the Early Middle Ages, monastery libraries developed, such as the important one at the Abbey of Montecassino. Books were usually chained to the shelves, and these chained libraries reflected the fact that manuscripts, created via the labour-intensive process of hand copying, were valuable possessions.<ref>{{cite book |url= http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jM-OY0LCHCEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chained+libraries&hl=en&sa=X&ei=guNVT9v8CMTV8QPmmaTbCA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Chained%20libraries&f=false |title=The Chained Library|first=Burnett Hillman |last=Streeter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date= 10 Mar 2011 |accessdate=6 March 2012}}</ref> Despite this protectiveness, many libraries loaned books if provided with security deposits (usually money or a book of equal value). Lending was a means by which books could be copied and spread. In 1212 the council of Paris condemned those monasteries that still forbade loaning books, reminding them that lending is "one of the chief works of mercy."<ref>{{cite book|title=Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages|author=Geo. Haven Putnam|year=1962|publisher=Hillary}}</ref> The early libraries located in monastic cloisters and associated with scriptoria were collections of lecterns with books chained to them. Shelves built above and between back-to-back lecterns were the beginning of bookpresses. The chain was attached at the fore-edge of a book rather than to its spine. Book presses came to be arranged in carrels (perpendicular to the walls and therefore to the windows) in order to maximize lighting, with low bookcases in front of the windows. This "stall system" (fixed bookcases perpendicular to exterior walls pierced by closely spaced windows) was characteristic of English institutional libraries. In European libraries, bookcases were arranged parallel to and against the walls. This "wall system" was first introduced on a large scale in Spain's El Escorial. ====Renaissance==== [[File:Biblioteca medicea laurenziana, sala di lettura di michelangelo, 01.jpg|thumb|Reading room of the Laurentian Library]] In Rome, the papal collections were brought together by Pope Nicholas V, in separate Greek and Latin libraries, and housed by Pope Sixtus IV, who consigned the Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana to the care of his librarian, the humanist Bartolomeo Platina in February 1475.<ref>This section on Roman Renaissance libraries follows Kenneth M. Setton, "From Medieval to Modern Library" ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''104'''.4, Dedication of the APS Library Hall, Autumn General Meeting, November, 1959 (August 1960:371–390) p. 372 ff.</ref> The 16th and 17th centuries saw other privately endowed libraries assembled in Rome: the Vallicelliana, formed from the books of Saint Filippo Neri, with other distinguished libraries such as that of Cesare Baronio, the Biblioteca Angelica founded by the Augustinian Angelo Rocca, which was the only truly public library in Counter-Reformation Rome; the Biblioteca Alessandrina with which Pope Alexander VII endowed the University of Rome; the Biblioteca Casanatense of the Cardinal Girolamo Casanate; and finally the Biblioteca Corsiniana founded by the bibliophile Clement XII Corsini and his nephew Cardinal Neri Corsini, still housed in Palazzo Corsini in via della Lungara. The Republic of Venice patronized the foundation of the Biblioteca Marciana, based on the library of Cardinal Basilios Bessarion. In Milan, Cardinal Federico Borromeo founded the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. This trend soon spread outside of Italy, for example Louis III, Elector Palatine founded the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg. These libraries don't have so many volumes as the modern libraries. However, they keep many valuable manuscripts of Greek, Latin and Biblical works. Tianyi Chamber, founded in 1561 by Fan Qin during the Ming Dynasty, is the oldest surviving library in China. In its heyday it boasted a collection of 70,000 volumes of antique books. ====17th and 18th centuries==== [[File:Vogel Załuski Library.jpg|thumb|Załuski Library, Warsaw]] During the 17th and 18th centuries, some of the more important European libraries were founded, such as the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the British Museum Library in London, the Mazarine Library and the Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, the Austrian National Library in Vienna, the National Central Library in Florence, the Prussian State Library in Berlin, the Załuski Library in Warsaw and the M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library of St Petersburg.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Information and Storage Retrieval|author=Stockwell, Foster |year=2000 |isbn=0-7864-0840-5 |unused_data=North Carolina: McFarland & Company}}</ref> The 18th century is when we see the beginning of the modern public library. In France, the French Revolution saw the confiscation in 1789 of church libraries and rich nobles' private libraries, and their collections became state property. The confiscated stock became part of a new national library – the Bibliothèque Nationale. Two famous librarians, Hubert-Pascal Ameilhon and Joseph Van Praet, selected and identified over 300,000 books and manuscripts that became the property of the people in the ''Bibliothèque Nationale''.<ref name="Mukherjee, A. K 1966 p. 112">Mukherjee, A. K. (1966) ''Librarianship: its Philosophy and History''. Asia Publishing House; p. 112</ref> During the French Revolution, librarians were solely responsible for the bibliographic planning of the nation. Out of this came the implementation of the concept of library service – the democratic extension of library services to the general public regardless of wealth or education.<ref name="Mukherjee, A. K 1966 p. 112"/> ====19th century==== _The Industrial Revolution_ ====20th century==== After the World Wars, Cold Wars and the introduction of Technology in libraries Stephen Cresswell reviews literature concerning libraries, the civil rights movement and the end of segregation in Southern libraries. The ALA did not actively support library integration. As Rubin notes, until the 1960s, the ALA considered itself an association representing only its constituency of librarians (Rubin, 294). Efforts by the ALA included: #The 1936 decision to boycott convention cities where hotels and restaurants were segregated. #In the late 1950s and 1960s ALA denied membership to segregated state library associations and ruled a state could have only one state association. #The 1961 amendment to the Library Bill of Rights stated that the right of an individual to the use of a library should not be abridged because of his race, religion, national origins or political views. #In 1962 the organization undertook an “Access Study” to evaluate freedom of access throughout the country. The study revealed more segregation and inequities in libraries in northern cities than in the South. Northern libraries were sometimes the focus of destructive demonstrations. In the South they were often the first focus of civil rights demonstrations rather than schools, because they evoked sympathy for the individual’s right to learn, rather than the more emotional reactions to integrating public schools. <ref>Cresswell, Stephen. “The Last Days of Jim Crow in Southern Libraries.” Libraries and Culture 31 (summer/fall 1996): 557-573.</ref> ===Issues in library history=== ====Ahistoricism==== Lancaster, F.W. (1978). Toward paperless information systems. Harris and Hannah (1992). Why do we study the history of libraries? Black, Alastair. "Information and Modernity: The History of Information and the Eclipse of Library History." Library History 14 (May 1998): 39-45. ====Gender==== Garrison, writing in 1972, highlights a problem of the public image of librarianship: it has not attained the status of the more scientific professions such as doctor, sociologist, etc. One possible reason, the one central to this article, is the entrée of women into the field during the Victorian era. Garrison examines three tenets that make a profession: service, knowledge, and autonomy. Librarians, as professionals, serve their clients (community or society); female librarians, on the other hand, were to be almost subservient. The knowledge required of a librarian, considered highly educated for a woman at the time, lacked the standardized training for a doctor. Libraries were governed by boards populated by men, not female librarians, who made key decisions. Garrison concludes that until library science comes to terms with women’s early employment in libraries and the way it has shaped the current assumptions, it will never attain the rank of other professions. Garrison provides a lively essay on the history of female librarians and its manifestations today. Her perspective, however, is colored by feminism’s second wave in the 1970s. Perhaps the public image of librarianship today should not focus so much on doctors and sociologists, but the more technology-based professions under the information science umbrella. For instance, librarians are not seen as the driving force behind innovation like software engineers and others in the IT field. Would an analysis of women in the early stages of librarianship give insight into why some have trouble with the information science moniker?<ref>Garrison, Dee. “The Tender Technicians: The Feminization of Public Librarianship, 1876-1905.” Journal of Social History 6 (winter 1972-1973): 131-156.</ref> Even though the profession of a librarian is considered "women's work" there are men who have chosen this profession. However, they usually hold positions of upper management and other higher paying areas. What exactly is "women's work" within the library environment? Suzanne Hildenbrand argues that cataloging and services for children and youth are most often seen in this way. There are statistics that show these two positions are the lowest paid and are not held in high esteem within the library workplace. The author raises a great point that what needs to be focused on is not the movement of women into management positions and other high paying positions but one that focuses on the equality of salaries and conditions within the most female concentrated specialties up to the standard of the profession <ref>Hildenbrand, Suzanne. "'Women's Work' within Librarianship." Library Journal 114 (September 1, 1989): 153-155.</ref> ====Inclusions and exclusions==== Before 1960, there were no public library services for ethnic minorities. During the 1960’s and 1970’s, many attempts to design and develop library services for ethnic groups were put into motion. The cultural programs that flourished were programs that had adequate federal funding for services and experimentation. Other factors that contributed to successful programs: *Recruitment of appropriate staff to identify information needs and promote library programs *Involvement by the community in planning and developing services *Developed mechanisms that enable the community to identify its own needs *Link the needs to the expertise of librarians Ethnic library services have been dropping gradually since 1981; and libraries are still failing to include: books, periodicals, films, recording, and archives that relate to various minority groups. Rethinking ideas to meet different needs is required when there are demographic changes, and libraries should take proper steps to appeal to everyone <ref>Trujillo, Roberto G., and Yolanda J. Cuesta, 1989. Service to Diverse Populations. ALA Yearbook of Library and Information Science. Vol. 14: 7-11.</ref>. It is important to have a diverse staff, particularly when a diverse clientele is involved. There has been a decrease in college enrollment amongst minorities; and in 1991-1992, only 8.5% of the Library and Information Science graduates were minorities. There are five tasks administrators and librarians should implement, so the number of graduates increase in the library program: * Cooperative efforts to hire minority graduates * Additional monetary incentives ? scholarships, tuition waivers, and housing * Recruitment activities aimed at students as early as the junior high school * Recruitment of nontraditional students from military or community colleges * Development of an academic and social environment on campus conducive to success In 1993, a few efforts have been made to recruit minorities, but none had been particularly successful. In order to make recruitment more successful, it must be considered a priority <ref>McCook, Kathleen, and Geist, Paula, 1993. Diversity Deferred: Where are the Minority Librarians? Library Journal. 118: 23-26.</ref> Salvador Guerena and Edward Erazo have three recommendations for the future of Latinos and libraries: #Increase recruitment, retention, and mentoring of bilingual/ bicultural Latino professional personnel. #Include members of the Latino community in the process of planning library services for the community. #Foster networking among libraries providing service to the Latino community. Hispanics represent the fastest growing demographic group in the United States, but Latino librarianship has remained constant at 1.8% of librarians. Shortages of bilingual librarians will continue to increase. Foreign language proficiency is not required of library schools so graduates are not prepared to serve the needs of the Latino community. REFORMA, LSTA, and ALA have been advocates for training, improving technology and curriculum in response to changing multicultural, multiethnic and multilingual society. The article is informative yet pessimistic. It recognizes the technological divide in the Hispanic community and the need for education and availability of computers in libraries. The affordability of computers has not increased ownership of computers in their homes. In West Chicago Middle School, many Latino students use the computers in the classroom to complete their assignments. For many of these students, high school will be the end of their formal education. At the Olcott library, the greatest demand for Spanish titles comes from Miami and Los Angeles not locally. A telling observation of the article is that Hispanics do not feel welcome in libraries because Hispanics feel libraries are Anglo American institutions run by and for Anglo Americans.<ref>Guerena, Salvador and Edward Erazo. "Latinos and Librarianship." Library Trends 49 (2000) : 138-181.</ref> ====Tunnel vision==== Wayne Weigand says that "a constant re-examination of our past [...] can show the parameters of tunnel vision and reveal many of the blind spots". Librarians often act as "stewards" of the past, which may mean perpetuating many of the past's close-minded views.<ref>Wayne Wiegand, Tunnel Vision and Blind Spots: What the Past Tells Us about the present; reflections on the twentieth-century history of American librarianship (Library Quarterly, 69:1, Jan. 1999)</ref> Library collections, like the steward-librarians Weigand mentions are "products of our pasts". Unless we have the luxury of throwing out our entire collection and starting anew, we are stuck with including the tunnel vision of the past in our libraries. ==Libraries in the information age== ===Defining information=== There are many ways of defining and conceptualizing ''information''. Definitions can focus on the technical aspects of information, or the societal aspects. ====Technical aspects==== =====Information as a sequence of symbols===== In its most restricted technical sense, is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as a message. Information can be recorded as signs, or transmitted as signals. ====Societal aspects==== =====Information as a right===== In an article written for the Bowker Annual in 1987, Kenneth Dowlin discusses the need for the library profession to ensure that access to information remains available, as a basic human right, to everyone in an age where we are moving from an industrial to an information society. He argues that the mission of libraries should be to develop minimum standards of access and “promote the compatibility of information systems”. Dowlin gives a brief discussion of why information must be considered a human right, and identifies several barriers to this, namely #Legislative barriers #Competitive barriers #Technological barriers #Perceptual barriers #Economic barriers He then proposes some strategies to reduce these barriers and defines the role the library profession should play in implementing them. I believe that he is correct in his assessment of the barriers that exist, and that libraries should play a role in ensuring access for all to information, but disagree with most of his proposed solutions, which in my mind are based on false assumptions, which time has borne out. He asks the library profession to implement solutions they are not equipped to deal with and have no control over. The library profession has no way to set standards of technology to ensure access for all. Letting the private sector derive solutions to these barriers, has proven the best way to overcome the barriers he has identified. Although Dowlin’s fundamental statement is correct, it is questionable whether his solutions are practical or achievable in the real world.<ref>Dowlin, Kenneth E. “Access to Information: A Human Right?” Bowker Annual 32 (1987): 64-68.</ref> =====Information as a commodity===== ===Quantifying information=== There is a plethora of ways to think about information, and those involved in information and knowledge work have a number widely divergent agendas. This can make evaluation of information services very difficult. Some groups attempt to make such evaluation mathematical and scientific, while others rely on tools from the social sciences, such as surveys and studies. The mathematical and scientific groups often try to measure a service's value using calculations and monetary values. While the United Kingdom conducted a survey that had people evaluate how much service they received and how it contributed to their productivity. The article wasn't necessarily aimed at just the business world. The author did a great job at relating this to the library field by talking about the amount of knowledge you posses and how useful that makes you. It talked about the more knowledgeable you are, the more productive you will be, and the more assistance you will be able to provide. From our discussion last week in class about what makes a good librarian this was one of the major things that we all thought made a good librarian. I feel the more informed and versatile you are in all different aspects, the more you will have to draw upon and offer. All of that contributes to your ability to be more productive for the patrons that you assist.<ref>Koenig, Michael E. D. “Information Services and Downstream Productivity.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 25 (1990): 55 – 86.</ref> ===Defining knowledge=== Knowledge is a general understanding or familiarity with a subject, place, situation, etc. Knowledge can be acquired through experience or education. ====Information needs==== An information need is a gap in a person's knowledge. When a person identifies such a gap, it may be expressed as a question or a search query. ====Education==== ==References== {{reflist}} {{Intro to LIS|next=Ethics and Values in the Information Professions}} {{BookCat}} azekk1x5oswwjei3ua4zvpkvzquioma 0 77318 4635104 4626459 2026-05-10T11:06:34Z WeelkyWikiReader 3474871 4635104 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Unicode page}} {| |- valign="middle" | {| align="center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border:1px solid #ced8df;margin:0 0 0 1.5em; white-space:nowrap;" lang="en" |-align="center" !style="background:#ccf;" colspan="14"|[[Unicode/Character reference|Unicode characters]] |-align="center" !colspan="1" style="background:#efefef;"|{{H:title|Basic Multilingual Plane|BMP}} !colspan="1" style="background:#ffdead;"|{{H:title|Supplementary Multilingual Plane|SMP}} !colspan="1" style="background:#efefef;"|{{H:title|Supplementary Ideographic Plane|SIP}} !colspan="1" style="background:#ffdead;"|{{H:title|Tertiary Ideographic Plane|TIP}} 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officially released in 2044.|Unicode&nbsp;36.0}} |style="{{37.0}};color:black"|{{H:title|Pending, will be officially released in 2045.|Unicode&nbsp;37.0}} |style="{{38.0}};color:black"|{{H:title|Pending, will be officially released in 2046.|Unicode&nbsp;38.0}} |style="{{39.0}};color:black"|{{H:title|Pending, will be officially released in 2047.|Unicode&nbsp;39.0}} |----- align="center" |style="{{40.0}};color:black"|{{H:title|Pending, will be officially released in 2048.|Unicode&nbsp;40.0}} | | | |----- align="center" |style="{{pua}}"|Private Use<!-- :( --> |style="{{sur}}"|Surrogate<!-- :( --> |style="{{res}};color:#ffffff"|Reserved |style="{{nch}};color:#ffffff"|Noncharacter |} {{center/end}} |} '''Note:''' Unicode character visualization will depend on the character support of your web browser and the fonts installed on your system. <noinclude> {{BookCat}}</noinclude> 3rq6hq40xvp0rxxpvqc0plqd4axq55d 0 105123 4635038 4634880 2026-05-10T00:10:56Z Y7at7Y 3582263 4635038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Modern Defense| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|= |pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|= | | | | | | |pd| |= | | | | | | | | |= | | | |pl|pl| | | |= | | | | | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl|= |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= |moves=1.e4 g6 2.d4 |eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B06]] |parent=[[Chess/King's Pawn Opening|King's Pawn Opening]] }} =Modern Defense= White has established his center and Black is planning to destroy it from a distance. He may play an immediate [[/2...Bg7/]] or delay it and play [[/2...d6/]]. A transposition to the Caro-Kann is possible by playing [[/2...c6/]]. [[/2...Nf6/]] is the Norwegian Defence, and [[/2...f5/]], the Fianchetto Gambit, is simply bad. ==Theory table== {{ChessTable}} '''1. e4 g6 2. d4''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">2</th> <th align="left">3</th> <th align="left">4</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Modern Defense|Modern Defense]]</th> <td>d4<br>[[/2...Bg7|Bg7]]</td> <td>Nc3<br>d6</td> <td>Be3<br>a6</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Caro-Kann Defense|Caro-Kann Defense]]</th> <td>...<br>[[/2...c6|c6]]</td> <td>Nc3<br>d5</td> <td>h3<br>Bg7</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Pirc Defense|Pirc Defense]]</th> <td>...<br>[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...d6/2. d4/2...g6|d6]]</td> <td>Nc3<br>Nf6</td> <td>Nf3<br>Bg7</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} {{wikipedia|Modern Defense}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} kx5bky8f1qh6faxah6s44y2c4e0pg0r 0 105543 4635085 4342930 2026-05-10T08:33:28Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635085 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chinese Intro TOC}} {{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}} __NOTOC__ =Writing in Chinese= Learning to read and write Chinese characters will probably be your largest obstacle in this course. Since Chinese has no alphabet with reusable letters, there is no way around lots of writing practice and rote memorization. But while there is no small set of glyphs that can be used to write the entire language, there is reuse and repetition. Although pinyin is useful for representing the sounds characters make, they couldn't be used to replace characters, since many words make the same sounds. Remember the way you learned to write the Latin alphabet—with extensive practice. While difficult and time consuming, learning Chinese characters can be an enjoyable and rewarding experience that provides a window into Chinese culture. The writing system has been in continuous use for over 3000 years, with the traditional characters essentially unchanged since the 7th century. There is a story in every character. Additionally, because of the difficulty, people tend to be that much more impressed by foreigners who take it upon themselves to learn Chinese characters. === CJK strokes === The '''CJK strokes''' (also known as the CJK(V) or CJKV strokes) are the strokes needed to write the Chinese characters used in East Asia. The corresponding CJKV characters being the characters that come from Chinese Hanzi, and which are now used in '''C'''hina, '''J'''apan, '''K'''orea, and still a little in '''V'''ietnam. There are some thirty distinct types of strokes recognized in Chinese characters, some of which are compound strokes made from basic strokes. The compound strokes comprise more than one movement of the writing instrument, and many of these have no agreed-upon name. Each single stroke includes all the motions necessary to produce a given part of a character before lifting the writing instrument from the writing surface; thus, a single stroke may have abrupt changes in direction within the line. For example: :[[Image:S-black.png|30px]] is one stroke, named Shu, and also a basic stroke (one direction) :[[Image:SZZ-black.png|30px]] is a compound stroke, named ShuZheZhe, comprising 3 basic strokes but written without lifting the writing instrument from the writing surface. Several aspects of interest in the study of CJK(V) strokes are, for example, their use in East Asian calligraphy (how write them, which shape, which way), their change according to which style is in use, their naming and counting conventions, and their use on computers. ==== Basic strokes==== [[Image:CJK 37 Strokes (8+29).png|400px|thumb|Another classification showing 37 strokes: 8 basic strokes, and 29 complex strokes.]] {|class="wikitable" |+ '''Table of simple strokes''' !Name<br/><small>([[Pinyin|pinyin]], trad.&nbsp;char./ simp.&nbsp;char.)</small> !CJK stroke !Translation<br/>of Chinese name !Additional<br/>description |- |colspan=3|'''Basic strokes''' |- ||''diǎn'', 點/点||[[Image:D-black.png|25px]]||"Dot"||Tiny dash, speck |- ||''héng'', 橫/横||[[Image:H-black.png|25px]]||"Horizontal"||Rightward stroke |- ||''shù'', 豎/竖||[[Image:S-black.png|25px]]||"Vertical"||Downward stroke |- ||''tí'', 提||[[Image:T-black.png|25px]]||"Rise"||Flick up and rightwards |- ||''nà'', 捺||[[Image:N-black.png|25px]]||"Press down"||Falling rightwards (fattening at the bottom) |- ||''piě'', 撇||[[Image:P-black.png|25px]]||"Throw away"||Falling leftwards (with slight curve) |- |colspan=3|'''Combining strokes''' |- ||''zhé'', 折||<big>n/a</big>||"Break"||Indicates change in stroke direction, usually 90° turn, going down or going right only. |- || ''gōu'', 鉤/钩||[[Image:G-black.png|25px]]||"Hook"||Appended to other strokes, suddenly going down or going left only. |- || ''wān'', 彎/弯||[[Image:W-black.png|25px]]||"Bend"||A tapering thinning curve, usually concave left (convex outward right). |- ||''xié'', 斜||[[Image:XG-black.png|25px]]||"Slant"||Curved line, usually concave right (convex outward left). |- |} The "dot" is rarely a real dot. Instead it usually takes the shape of a very small line pointing in one of several directions, and may be long enough to be confused with other strokes. Certain strokes (such as ''gōu'' and ''zhé'', the "hook" and "break") never occur alone, but always in compound strokes. Thus, they are not in themselves individual strokes. The character for "eternity" shown in the following image demonstrates some of these compound strokes. The centre line is a compound stroke that combines three stroke shapes in a single stroke. == Writing CJK strokes == To write CJK characters, one must know how to write CJK strokes, and thus, needs to identify the basic strokes that make up a character. The following section lists the most usual common shapes of the basic CJK strokes, and the proper way of writing each. Many different lists of basic strokes coexist and there is no broad agreement as far as the stroke names are concerned (examples). We use a set of 37 CJK strokes based on the 8 basic strokes of 永, and 29 other compound strokes. We also use a common naming system, which is not the only available. The strokes are painted in black and a red arrow shows the way to write it (you can click on images to enlarge them). ;The 8 principles of Yong, the 8 basic strokes<ref name="37strokes">The extended CJK set of strokes has 29 strokes. These most common 29 used strokes can be reduced to combinations of 8 basic strokes. This subset is found in the character "eternity" 永, hence the name of this set. But other sets of CJK strokes can be found.</ref> [[Image:8 strokes of 永-zh.svg|thumb|280px|left|The 8 basic strokes (8 stroke shapes in 5 basic and compound strokes), extract from [[:wiktionary:永|永]], "eternity". Enlarge this image to see the red arrows, showing the way of writing of each.]] :[[Image:D-black.png|25px]] － the Diǎn 點, is a Dot. Filled from the top, to the bottom, traditionally made by "couching" the brush on the page. :[[Image:H-black.png|25px]] － the Héng 横, is horizontal. Filled from left to right, the same way the Latin letters A, B,C,D are written. :[[Image:S-black.png|25px]] － the Shù 豎, is vertical-falling. The brush begins by a dot on top, then falls downward. :[[Image:G-black.png|25px]] － the Gōu 鉤, ending another stroke, is a sharp change of direction either down (after a Heng) or left (after a Shù). :[[Image:T-black.png|25px]] － the Tí 提, is a flick up and rightwards :[[Image:W-black.png|25px]] － the Wān 彎, follows a concave path on the left or on the right :[[Image:P-black.png|25px]] － the Piě 撇, is a falling leftwards (with a slight curve) :[[Image:N-black.png|25px]] － the Nà 捺, is falling rightwards (with an emphasis at the end of the stroke) :(+ [[Image:XG-black.png|25px]] － the Xié 斜 is sometimes added to the 永's strokes. It's a concave Shù falling right, always ended by a Gōu, visible on this image).<br clear="all" /> {| style="width:80%;margin:auto;" | [[Image:D-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:H-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:S-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:G-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:T-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:W-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:P-black.png|60px]] || [[Image:N-black.png|60px]] || ([[Image:XG-black.png|60px]]) |} ;8 basics making 29 compound strokes<ref name="37strokes"/> This 8 traditional basic strokes are used to make all other compound strokes －or complex strokes－. In example, Shù ''plus'' Gōu produce [[Image:SG-black.png|25px]] named ShùGōu. The new way of naming strokes is simply the sum of the names of the basic strokes, in the writing order. Moreover, a turn of 90⁰ (and only of 90⁰) producing a Shù or a Héng is called Zhé 折. In example, Héng ''plus'' Shù ''plus'' Gōu produces [[Image:HZG-black.png|25px]] named Héng'''Zhé'''Gōu. Shù ''plus'' Héng ''plus'' Shù produces a Shù'''ZhéZhé''' ([[Image:SZZ-black.png|25px]]). Nearly all complex strokes can be named using this simple scheme. It is essential to recognize and know how to draw the different strokes that make a character. To properly draw a Chinese character, it is also necessary to draw the strokes with respect to a certain order. ==== Stroke Order ==== Every character has a specific stroke order to it. It may seem at first like this would make writing characters harder by being one more thing to remember, but definite stroke orders actually help you to remember characters. The "motor memory" you develop from following the same order every time helps develop a rhythm that flows through until the end of the character. In contrast, just attacking a character with a random stroke order each time might leave you with lots of half-completed characters! The principal rules to keep in mind are shown in the chart below, with specifics following. {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="margin:0em 0em 1em 0em; width:auto" | style="width:%; vertical-align:top; border:1px solid #fad67d; background-color:#faf6ed;" | <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #fad67d; background-color:#faecc8; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">'''Principal rules'''</div> {| style="border-bottom:1px solid #fad67d; padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;" | [[Image:三-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:三-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Top before bottom |- | [[Image:十-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:十-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Horizontal strokes before intersecting vertical strokes… |- | [[Image:八-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:八-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Left before right… |- | [[Image:口-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:口-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Left vertical stroke (usually) before top horizontal stroke… |- | [[Image:生-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:生-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Horizontal "support stroke" in last… |- 三八口生水十文玉戈 ｜ 古但四这 | [[Image:水-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:水-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Center stroke before wings… |- | [[Image:文-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:文-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Left-falling strokes before right-falling strokes… |- | [[Image:玉-order.gif|40px]] || || [[Image:玉-bw.png|1000000x35px]] || Minor strokes (often) last. |- | colspan="4"| Other details to note: [[Image:那-order.gif|35px]] [[Image:力-order.gif|35px]] [[Image:广-order.gif|35px]] [[Image:𫳘-order.gif|35px]] [[Image:手-order.gif|35px]] [[Image:扌-order.gif|35px]] [[Image:提-order.gif|35px]] |} |} '''1. Write from left to right, and from top to bottom'''. As a general rule, characters are written from left to right, and from top to bottom. For example, among the first characters usually learned is the word "one," which is written with a single horizontal line: 一. This character has one stroke which is written from left to right (see image). [[Image:一-order.gif|100px|thumb|The character "one" has a single stroke which is written from left to right.]] The character for "two" has two strokes: 二. In this case, both are written from left to right, but the top stroke is written first. The character for "three" has three strokes: 三. Each stroke is written from left to right, starting with the uppermost stroke. This rule applies also to more complex characters. For example, 校 can be divided into two. The entire left side (木) is written before the right side (交). There are some exceptions to this rule, mainly occurring when the right side of a character has a lower enclosure (see below), for example 誕 and 健. In this case, the left side is written first, followed by the right side, and finally the lower enclosure. When there are upper and lower components, the upper components are written first, then the lower components, as in 品 and 襲. '''2. Horizontal lines are written from left to right; vertical lines are written from top to bottom''' '''3. Horizontal before vertical''' When strokes cross, horizontal strokes are usually written before vertical strokes: the character for "ten," 十, has two strokes written as follows: 一 <span style="font-size:x-small; color:red">→</span> 十. '''4. Ocassionaly Vertical before Horizontal''' There are some circumstances where the vertical stroke is written before a horizontal, such as when the character ends in a horizontal stroke at the bottom. E.g., 上 is written 一 then | then _. [[Image:人-red.png|thumb|200px|right|The Chinese character meaning "person" ([[Image:人-order.gif|20px|人 animation]], Chinese: ''rén''). The character has two strokes, the first shown here in dark, and the second in red. The black area represents the starting position of the writing instrument.]] '''5. Cutting strokes last''' Vertical strokes that "cut" through a character are written after the horizontal strokes they cut through, as in 書 and 筆. Horizontal strokes that cut through a character are written last, as in 母 and 海. '''6. Diagonals right-to-left before left-to-right''' Right-to-left diagonals (ノ) are written before left-to-right diagonals (乀): 文. '''7. Centre verticals before outside "wings"''' Vertical centre strokes are written before vertical or diagonal outside strokes; left outside strokes are written before right outside strokes: 小 and 水. '''8. Outside before inside''' Outside enclosing strokes are written before inside strokes; bottom strokes are written last (see 4): 日 and 口. This applies also to characters that have no bottom stroke, such as 同 and 月. '''9. Left vertical before enclosing''' Left vertical strokes are written before enclosing strokes. In the following two examples, the leftmost vertical stroke (|) is written first, followed by the uppermost and rightmost lines (┐) (which are written as one stroke): 日 and 口. '''10. Bottom enclosing strokes last''' Bottom enclosing strokes are always written last: 道, 週, 画. '''11. Dots and minor strokes last''' Minor strokes are usually written last, as the small "dot" in the following: 玉. If you're not sure about the stroke order of a Chinese character, you can usually look it up in an online Chinese dictionary. For example, [http://www.nciku.com nciku] has stroke order animations for almost all Simplified Chinese characters (look up a single-character word and scroll down to the bottom of the page).<!--; there are probably other dictionaries that do the same for Traditional Chinese.--> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Chinese Intro TOC}} {{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}} {{BookCat}} [[es:Chino/Escribir chino]] 4yyudjqeh04gdleb43lpf6m6t09y49w 0 112544 4635074 4341752 2026-05-10T08:00:45Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635074 wikitext text/x-wiki "whay an interesting book it is!I wish i would borrow early book earlier" =Creative Writing= While other forms of writing ask that you to find research in external source before you begin, creative writing does not require this of you. More often than not, creative writing projects only require you to use your memory and imagination to tackle your project. This ability to just sit down and write without having to perform research allows you to practice writing whenever you want. You can try writing a poem on your coffee break or during a bus or subway ride. You can spend an afternoon writing a memoir about your favorite childhood pet, or you could begin to keep a journal where describe the events of your day, the weather, the books you are reading, or television shows you like to watch. For creative and personal writing, the possibilities are endless. Now you may be asking yourself if you have anything worth writing about, and the simple answers is yes you do! Every day provides an infinite number of topics to write about, whether that be having dinner with a friend, the taste of your coffee, or the beauty of a painting you saw in a museum. The activities in this section will help you jump-start your creativity, and before you know it you will have written some great poems, short stories, and memoirs. == Poetry == More so than any other form of writing, poetry is known for its ability to express ideas and emotions or tell stories using very few words. Though some poems can be long, in general the best poems are those that help us appreciate mankind and nature by condensing a scene or event into short poem full of specific details. With these poetry exercises, you will attempt to write poems that are short but specific. Like every other kind of writing, the most successful pieces of poetry help us clearly imagine what the poet is talking about by using concrete images or facts. The following exercises will also help you practice writing clear sentences, think about grammar, and practice using punctuation, but most of all have fun writing. ===Poetry Without Punctuation=== Have you ever got tired of having to use punctuation and wish you could write without having to worry about periods, commas, and quotations? Well many poets have become famous for writing pieces that do not use any punctuation to make their sentences clear. However do not be fooled, writing without punctuation can be just as difficult as writing with it. For this exercise, read Lucille Clifton's [http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poem.html?id=176011 "the garden of delight"] and then write a poem about a garden or park you like to visit without using any punctuation. Keep in mind that you want the reader to be able to easily understand the poem, so like Clifton insert line breaks or spaces to help the reader understand how to read the poem. Then on a separate piece of paper, try writing the same poem again, but this time use punctuation. Notice how the poem changes and the punctuation can help you. After you have written the second version of the poem, spend a few moments and journal about writing both poems. Which poem was easier to write? What made it easier to write? Do you like this poem better and why? Which do you think is easier for the reader to understand? Why? Be sure to have both poems in front of you when you journal so that you can easily compare them, noticing where you used punctuation in the second poem and how that might or might have clarified what you wrote in the first poem. ==Narrative and Memoir== === Defining ''Narrative'' and ''Memoir''=== * Narrative: 1.ACTION 2.REACTION 3.DIALOGUE these three must be used when writing a memoir (narrative lead) <blockquote>Simply stated, narrative is a style of writing that tells a story. It can be fiction or nonfiction and is typically told from a first- or third-person point of view. Narratives can be in the form of short stories, poetry, personal essays, novels, monologues, folktales, fables, legends, etc. The characteristic hallmark of narrative is that there is a character or voice telling the reader or viewer "what happened," as with the "narrators" of most novels and short stories, and many movies or television programs. Well-known and popular TV examples of this would include the late 1980s/early 1990s drama, ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0094582/ The Wonder Years],'' or more recently the prime-time shows ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0285403/ Scrubs]'', and ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0410975/ Desperate Housewives]''. A narrative may or may not have dialogue, depending on whether or not the event or action taking place is simply an observation from a distance (like the narrator of a nature documentary) or, for instance, a kind of ''I said'' or ''he/she said'' situation (like J.D. Salinger's ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catcher_in_the_rye The Catcher in the Rye]'' and F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Gatsby The Great Gatsby]''). Some narratives have multiple narrators, or more than one character/voice, each of whom is responsible for either telling one part of a larger story, or who tell different versions of the same story. Several narrative examples of the use of multiple narrators can be found in William Faulkner's novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury The Sound and the Fury],'' Ernest J. Gaines's novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Gathering_of_Old_Men A Gathering of Old Men],'' and Akira Kurosawa's film ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042876/ Rashomon].'' </blockquote> * Memoir: <blockquote>Memoir is a specific type of narrative. It is autobiographical in nature but it is not meant to be as comprehensive as biography (which tells the ''entire'' life story of a person). Instead, a memoir is usually only a specific "slice" of one's life. The time span within a memoir is thus frequently limited to a single memorable event or moment, though it can also be used to tell about a longer series of events that make up a particular period of one's life (as in Cameron Crowe's film memoir ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0181875/ Almost Famous]''). It is narrative in structure, usually describing people and events that ultimately focuses on the emotional significance of the story to the one telling it. Generally, this emotional significance is the result of a resolution from the conflict within the story. Though a memoir is the retelling of a true account, it is not usually regarded as being completely true. After all, no one can faithfully recall every detail or bit of dialogue from an event that took place many years ago. Consequently, some creative license is granted by the reader to the memoirist recounting, say, a significant moment or events from his childhood some thirty years or more earlier. (However, the memoirist who assumes too much creative license without disclosing that fact is vulnerable to censure and public ridicule if his deception is found out, as recently happened with James Frey and his alleged memoir, ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_Little_Pieces A Million Little Pieces].'') Furthermore, names of people and places are often changed in a memoir to protect those who were either directly or indirectly involved in the lives and/or event(s) being described.</blockquote> === Common Approaches === Below you will find some typical writing prompts that will allow you to begin writing a narrative or memoir. Remember to stay focused and to tell a story when writing in this genre. * "Write about someone significant in your life." * "Write about the worst/best, most significant/exciting/boring day of your life." * "If you had a chance to talk with a historical/famous/legendary/etc. person, what would you talk about? Explain why." === Sample Assignment === There is not one right or best way to write a narrative or memoir. However, there are certainly better ways to write in this genre than others. Read the following short samples of an "excellent," "needs a little work," and "needs a lot of work" narrative writing assignment! Because it should be a narrative, remember that the writer should be telling a story. All grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors should be cleared up when editing. See [[Basic Writing/Editing]] for more help. So the focus will be on content. Assignment: "Write about someone significant in your life." '''Needs a lot of work:''' <blockquote> My mom is a significant person in my life. She has always taken good care of me. She looks after my family and does a lot of hard work. My family couldn't make it without my mom. I really love my mom a lot because of all she has done for me. She's a great person. I tell my mom everything. She is probably my closest friend. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This narrative needs a lot of work. There are very few specific details. Questions that need to be answered are: How does she take good care of you? What kind of hard work does she do? Why is she a great person? What kind of a person is she? What does she do with the information you give her? What kind of sacrifices has she made for the family? </em></span></blockquote> <blockquote><span style="color:#555555"><em>Answering these questions will really improve the writing. The audience wants to know as much interesting information as you can tell them about this topic. Think about all the details you see and hear in a movie or really good book. You don't need to reach that level, but that should be your goal. Giving some specific, personal examples will help the audience understand the writing and enjoy reading it. See the next example for a better response to this assignment. </em></span></blockquote> '''Needs a little work:''' <blockquote> When I was young, I didn't get along very well with my mom. We used to fight a lot and I just didn't understand her. She always seemed to be in my business and trying to snoop around. I've always had really dry eyes. Sometimes they water to compensate or get really red because they're so dry. My mom used to think I'd been crying and bug me to death asking me if someone had hurt my feelings at school! I was a teenager! </blockquote> <blockquote>But now me and my mom are best friends. I tell her everything and she tells me everything. Sometimes we still disagree, but we've learned to understand and respect each other. We're very different people, but I don't know what I'd do without my mom. She has always supported me and stood behind whatever I've wanted to do or be. She's my biggest fan. In my mom's eyes, I could be the next great world leader, or a famous ballerina, or the first astronaut to live on Mars. It took me a while to realize just how significant my mom is to me, but now that I know, nothing will ever change the way I feel about her. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This narrative is better than the first one because it has more details and gives some specific examples regarding the writer's relationship to her mom. However, it still needs a little work because even more details could be provided to give the reader a clearer picture of their relationship. For example, the reader doesn't know what has changed in this relationship that led to the two of them becoming like "best friends."</em></span></blockquote> '''Excellent:''' <blockquote> When I was a teenager, I didn't get along very well with my mom. It seemed like we fought on a daily basis and we rarely if ever understood where the other was coming from. I felt so separate from her and it was impossible to tell her about my problems because all she would ever do is freak out.<br> <br> I remember one particular fight in perfect clarity. We were having one of our good days - that should've been the first warning sign. I was helping her weed the flower beds, telling her about a conversation that I had had with my boyfriend's mom the previous night. When I was finished telling her about the advice that Janice shared with me about how to reconcile with a friend of mine, my mom grew very quiet. I asked her if something was wrong but she continued to stare at a stubborn dandelion in the middle of her peony bed.<br> <br> Finally, she looked up at me. Frustration and anger filled her face and tears spilled down her cheeks. "How come you never come to me anymore?" she spat. "Why do you have to go to other moms to talk about your problems? Am I not good enough?"<br> <br> I didn't really know what to say. I tried to reason with her, explaining that it's normal for teenagers to talk to other parents about personal problems, but all she did was storm off.<br> <br> That was the day that I realized how much my mom actually meant to me. I knew from her reaction that she felt devalued and even though we had our issues, I also knew that I had a great mom. She had always taken care of me, provided for me, and as a young child, she was my best friend. I wanted that back and from that day on, the two of us worked on communicating better and getting to know each other all over again. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This is an excellent example of a narrative because it provides necessary details to help the reader understand the relationship between the mother and daughter. In the "needs a little work" example, the writer did not explain how the mom and daughter became "best friends." This is an important and significant detail. It is important to explain the important details as much as possible in a story. To continue this writing, the writer will probably give another example of how things were after they began to understand each other better. This will give the audience a clear picture of the progress of the relationship.</em></span></blockquote> === Examples: === The following are example compositions written for an assignment where students were asked to write narrative descriptions about a day they consider to be one of their worst. (Note: Even though two of the following three examples have death as a theme, personal narratives and memoirs can just as easily be written about smaller, less dramatic events from one's life.) '''Example 1:''' <blockquote>It was the worst day of my life, and it was only 10:00am. Sitting in my dorm room sobbing into the phone, my mom tried to calm me down. But she couldn't erase the pain and misery, hurt and disappointment I was currently feeling. What had gone wrong? Why was everyone against me? How would I get through the rest of the day... the week with my injuries? Let me start from the beginning.<br> <br> It was a cold, blustery day at Evangel University. I had spent the last few days preparing for a presentation for my Children's Literature class, and I would soon go to the preschool just down the road to teach a lesson for the preschoolers. I had made beautiful little magnetic snowflakes that the students could take home with them. The snowflakes went along with the story I'd be reading in about an hour.<br> <br> I was completely prepared and had spent a lot of time thinking through the lesson and carefully paying attention to detail. As I was about to leave, I recognized how miserably cold it was outside and wondered if I could find a ride, even though the preschool was actually on campus. I asked my roommate if I could borrow her car, knowing there was little chance since it was a leased vehicle and her dad had forbidden her to let anyone drive it. But I thought it wouldn't hurt to ask. She turned me down. She also wasn't able to take me because she had to go to class herself. She apologized, but didn't seem too sympathetic. (What really irked me was that I found out later that she had let her boyfriend borrow her car for a much longer drive than the one I needed to take! I've since forgiven her... I think.)<br> <br> Next I tried to call my brother, but couldn't get a hold of him. He was probably in class as well. Due to the early hour, most everyone was in class, so no one else was around to ask either. So I bundled up in my warmest, flannel-lined overalls and fur coat and trekked down to the preschool. The snow swirled around me in fury and I was near to tears with my own inner-fury at my roommate who could have helped me avoid this situation.<br> <br> Gladly arriving at the preschool, I barged in ready to teach my well-prepared lesson, only to discover that another classmate was there teaching her lesson. I couldn't believe it! I knew I had written down the correct date, but something went wrong. The regular teachers didn't have time to fill me in that day, so instead of teaching my beautifully created lesson, I left to trudge back up the hill in the angry snow. Tears streaming down my face, I arrived back at the dorm. I was wearing my clunky wooden clogs and ran up the stairs as I had done a thousand times before. But I slipped... </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example is a memoir because it's a slice of life as opposed to a complete autobiography. It shows a picture of one day in the life of this person. It is the emotional retelling of a story from the narrator's perspective. Notice that the narrator does not focus on relationships or events surrounding this one event, but just on the event itself. The focus is all of the details that caused this day to be the worst of this person's life. If other threads such as the relationship with the roommate or details about the Children's Literature class had been added, the focus would have been lost in the muddle of too many details. </em></span></blockquote> <blockquote><span style="color:#555555"><em>In a memoir, the focus must stay tight. Think of taking a picture with a camera. Think about what you want to be in the picture and what would distract from the picture. Have you ever taken a picture where there was a lot of white space at the top and what was supposed to be the focus: the people, are just tiny dots at the bottom? This is what happens to a story when the focus is too broad. See the [[Basic Writing/Invention]] section of this book wikitext for help on narrowing your topic. </em></span></blockquote> '''Example 2:''' <blockquote>On my worst day I was supposed to get up early so I could get out to my folks’ house on account that my mama needed me to help her take our old dog to the vet. My mama needed my help because she’s not a very big person and our dog is really big. She also has a bad knee. My mama, I mean, not the dog. Well anyway our dog is one of them Great Pyrenees, a great big white monster of a thing, and she’s got arthritis in her hips and spine something bad. So my mama had to make an appointment to have her put down because our dog couldn’t even stand to eat or pee anymore. That’s how bad off she was, you see.<br> <br> So here I was supposed to get up early to help my mama load the dog into her car and my alarm doesn’t go off. Luckily I wake up on my own and I’m not all that late yet so I hurry up and get dressed and run out of the house to my truck. Then I take off towards my folks’ house kind of fast because I’m already behind schedule and I’m about half way there when all of a sudden I get a flat tire. Making matters worse is the fact that it’s raining outside, been raining all night in fact and I guess that’s why my alarm didn’t work. So I pull half into the ditch because the road doesn’t have a shoulder and of course the flat tire is on the passenger side which means that I have to work in the mud. Even worse my little bottle jack won’t lift the truck on account it keeps sinking into the ground. Well lately I’d had some bricks in the bed of my pick-up but when I go to get them out they aren’t there. Now I’m pissed because I’m late, I’ve got a flat tire, I can’t get the jack to work because it’s raining and the ground is too soft, and some jackass has stolen a handful of worthless bricks from the bed of my truck. This on top of the fact that our old dog’s got to be put down and my mama needs me to be there. Still determined to make it, I root around in the ditch till I find a couple of rocks I can put under the jack. I finally get my tire changed but by then I’m soaked to the bone and covered in mud, which means that I get my seat all wet and muddy too.<br> <br> Finally I make it out to my folks’ place and my mama is sitting in the front yard with our dog and holding an umbrella over her. I can plainly see that she’s in pretty bad shape, worse than the last time I saw her. The dog, I mean, not my mama, although she’s looking pretty down herself. She doesn’t bother to ask why I’m all wet and muddy, so I know things are bad for sure. When I try to pick our old dog up to put her in the back of my mama’s Jimmy she yelps real loud and snaps at me. I decided then and there that getting her to the vet wasn’t going to work. She was too heavy and in too much pain to be messing with. So I went and got my old red wagon out of my dad’s shop and carefully my mama and me lifted her onto it.<br> <br> My mama knew what had to be done and so she says her goodbyes to our old dog. Then I roll her slowly around the house to where we’ve buried other pets in the past and I dig a fairly large hole. When I am finished I sit on the ground beside the old red wagon and talk to our dog for a bit, tell her what she’s meant to me all these years and that I am going to miss her. I’d rather not say what happened after that other than I like to believe she understood it all and that it came as a relief to her.<br> <br> When I get back to my place later I realize that I’d left in such a hurry earlier that I’d locked myself out of the house. It had stopped raining by then, though, so I just sit for a while in a lawn chair there on my porch. Then I look over and see the bricks still lying there where I’d stacked them a few days before and forgotten. Suddenly I start laughing then and can’t stop, keep laughing till tears run down my cheeks. Looking back on it now that seems pretty weird since it had been such a terrible day. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example, like the one above it, is also memoir. It is similar in that it also describes a day in the writer's life and is necessarily limited only to those details that are relevant to the story and that move the narrative forward. A good exercise, though, might be to examine how these two samples from the same genre are different. Do both sound as if they are spoken by the same "voice"? What details from each might you use to argue the speakers' gender? Does either "sound" female/male? Also note that Example 2 reads much more like spoken language--is that appropriate for this genre, or should the writer have written in a more academic or formal manner?</em></span></blockquote> '''Example 3:''' <blockquote>I was standing in the middle of Dollar Tree, leaning on my cart, when I said, "What?" to my mom telling me about my little black cat, Baby, being found dead a few days earlier. "Baby's dead, honey." I couldn't say anything. What could I say? I had been the one to take her to the farm thinking that she would adjust and be happier as a farm cat. Besides, I had too many cats, six actually, and Baby and Ginger had been the most logical choices to relocate. Both of them were unhappy living in such a small environment with four other cats. Baby suffered from anxiety problems and Ginger just wanted more territory. She was always so bitchy, hissing like she owned everything and everyone. Adorable, yes, but incredibly bitchy. Baby just wanted to be alone, or with me. The only way I could get her to come out of hiding is if I'd sing to her - any song with her name in it. Her favorite one was the one from the movie ''Dirty Dancing'' "Ba-byyy, ohh-ohhh ba-byyy, my sweet ba-byyy, you're the one. . ." When I'd sing it to her, she'd roll 'on the floor and rub against me as if to say, "I reeeaaallly love you!" I'll never be able to listen to that song without missing her now. <br> <br> "Honey, are you alright?" my mom asked quietly. No, I'm not alright. I knew something was wrong. I had a feeling several days ago - one of those feelings that tell you something is wrong, but I chose to ignore it. "How did she die?" I ask, trying to keep my emotions under control. It's no use though, tears start streaking my face and Dollar Tree customers are beginning to stare. "They found her dead in the cabin," mom said, her voice choking, "I'm so sorry, hon." "She was still in the cabin?!" I practically shout into the phone. "I thought Laura picked her up to take her to her house." Mom grew quiet. After a few moments she said, "They never could catch her. Dad said that they looked for her every day. They moved the furniture and everything but they couldn't find her. Now they think that maybe she might have climbed behind the fridge to hide."<br> <br> I was livid, but I knew it would just kill mom and dad if I blamed them for this. Despite this fact, I had to ask one last question, "Mom, why didn't you guys call me and tell me that you were having problems with her? I could've come home to take care of her. I told you that I smelled natural gas or something on the day that we dropped her off at the cabin. Why didn't someone call me?!" At this point I was hysterical and customers were steering their shopping carts way around me. When my mom finally answered her comforting voice was gone. Replacing it was one of defense and insensitivity. "We did the best we could! Dad's been so depressed lately and this almost pushed him over the edge. He knows how much you love your cats and he's blaming himself. It's not his fault and it's not yours either! Do you hear me?" <br> <br> All I could do was cry. I didn't want to hurt them, but I just couldn't understand why they chose not to call me. And I do blame myself. I knew that something was wrong, and knowing that she was alone in that cabin for two weeks, going through god knows what, thinking god knows what, well it just killed me inside. I was filled with guilt. I had rescued her as a baby, beaten and left for dead and now, seven years later I just pawn her off on someone else and she dies alone? I don't even want to know how much pain she may have been in. How in the world will I deal with the guilt of knowing that all of this could've been avoided? How?</blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example is also similar to the above examples so the same comments apply. It is a narrative memoir, however there are two elements within this memoir that set it apart from the above examples. First of all, it includes dialogue which is somewhat tricky when writing. The most important thing to remember is that dialogue should sound natural - like the voice of the person speaking. Practice saying it out loud as if reading a script for an audition. Also, when using dialogue make sure the reader can understand who is saying what.<br> <br>Another element that was included in this example was a specific use of stylized writing during the recitation of Baby's favorite song and her response to that song. This style of writing is becoming more popular in mainstream writing - especially comedic novels. An example of this style of writing can be found throughout the novel, <U>The Nanny Diaries</U>, by Emma McLaughlin and Nicola Kraus.</em></span></blockquote> {{BookCat}} pkowke5nac4zmqd4b2w3vnluwz05bpi 0 127222 4634988 4537035 2026-05-09T17:08:41Z JCrue 2226064 /* History */ 4634988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |Berlin defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C65-C68]] |parent=[[Chess/Ruy Lopez|Ruy Lopez]] |responses = <br> * [[/4. 0-0|4. 0-0 · Main Line]] * [[/4. d3|4. d3]] * [[/4. Nc3|4. Nc3 · Spanish Four Knights Game]] <small>(transposition)</small> }} == 3...Nf6 · Berlin defence == 3...Nf6 is the main sideline to 3...a6. The Berlin defence is known for being solid and is used at the top level of chess as a reliable drawing weapon. The mainline continuation leads to [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...Nf6/4. O-O/4...Nxe4/5. d4/5...Nd6/6. Bxc6/6...dxc6/7. dxe5/7...Nf5/8. Qxd8/8...Kxd8|an equal endgame known as the Berlin Wall]], where it is difficult for White to achieve better than a draw. Another common variation leads to a quick draw by repetition by turn 14. 3...Nf6 is developing move that controls the centre, attacks e4, and gets Black closer to castling. The main line [[/4. O-O|'''4. O-O''']] allows Black to take the e4 pawn 4...Nxe4. This is a trade because White can recover the material by applying pressure on the e-file (e.g. 5. Re1 skewers e5 through the knight). The main line continues 5. d4 Nd6 and either 6. Bxc6 or 6. dxe5. * 6. Bxc6 leads to a queen trade on turn eight and the Berlin Wall endgame; * 6. dxe5 often leads to the famous Berlin draw by repetition, employed when it is advantageous for the players to agree a quick draw in tournaments where [[wikipedia:Draw by agreement|draws by agreement]] are otherwise restricted. [[/4. d3|'''4. d3''']] avoids these main Berlin defence continuations. It defends e4 so defuses the threat of 4...Nxe4, but also reinforces White's threat on e5, as after Bxc6 dxc6 Nxe5, the ...Qd4 tactic no longer forks the pawn. Black may defend it directly (4...d6) or tactically (4...Bc5! sets up the threat of ...Qd4 and ...Qxf2#). [[/4. Qe2|'''4. Qe2''']] is a tricky sideline. It, too, defends e4 so avoids the trade of e-pawns, but also defends f2, defusing the ...Bc5 ...Qd4 ...Qxf2# threat (4. Qe2 Bc5 5. Bxc6 dxc6? 6. Nxe5 wins the pawn, as 6...Qd4 7. Nd3 [gains time on the bishop] Bb6 8. f3 [defends pawn]{{Chess/not|++}}). Compared to 4. d3, White keeps the option of c3 then d4 in one move, but after ...Bc4 Black has too much control of d4 to manage this anyway. === History === An early analysis of 3...Nf6 was published by Berliner [[Wikipedia:Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa|Baron von der Lasa]] in ''Handbuch des Schachspiels'' (1843). The name "Berlin defence" came into use in German by at least 1848, appearing in ''Deutsche Schachzeitung'' which attributed the coining to [[wikipedia:Carl Jaenisch|Carl Jaenisch]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Berlin Defence (Ruy López) |url=https://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/berlin.html |last=Winter |first=Edward |access-date=2025-09-09 |website=Chess Notes}}</ref> In his article for ''Le Palamède'', 1847, Jaenisch wrote that it was "discovered in Berlin (we cannot affirm whether by de Heydebrand [i.e. Baron von der Lasa] or by another)".<ref>"découvet à Berlin (nous ne saurions affirmer si c'est par M. de Heydebrand ou par un autre)" {{Cite journal |title=Le Début Royal Ch. IV |journal=La Palamède |last=de Jaénisch |first=C.-F. |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nq5AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA530 |pages=538-542 |language=French}}</ref> The Berlin defence was revived by [[wikipedia:Vladimir Kramnik|Vladimir Kramnik]] who used it to stall out [[wikipedia:Garry Kasparov|Garry Kasparov]]'s 1. e4 repertoire in their [[Wikipedia:Classical World Chess Championship 2000|2000 World Championship match]]. Try as he might, Kasparov couldn't manage better than a draw in Kramnik's Berlin Wall endgame. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} '''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 Nf6''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> <th align="left">7</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Ruy Lopez</th> <td>[[/4. 0-0|O-O]]<br>Nxe4</td> <td>d4<br>Nd6</td> <td>Bxc6<br>dxc6</td> <td>dxe5<br>Nf5</td> <td>+=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>[[/4. d3|d3]]<br>Bc5</td> <td>c3 0-0 </td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Four Knights</th> <td>[[/4. Nc3|Nc3]]<br>...</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>[[/4. d4|d4]]<br>...</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>[[/4. Qe2|Qe2]]<br>...</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Other</th> <td>Bxc6<br>dxc6</td> <td>0-0<br>Bd6</td> <td>d4<br>Qe7</td> <td>+=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} === See also === {{wikipedia|Ruy Lopez}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} gehf468l40angyq923oqxegpo6imdp8 0 129688 4635037 3101948 2026-05-09T22:24:57Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635037 wikitext text/x-wiki {{B3D:N2P/NAV |next=Glossary |previous=Hacking Blender }} {{B3D:N2P/ForVersion|2.43}} Mission Statement: The purpose of this section is to show a programmer how to make sense of the blender game engine source code. It is not intended for those who cannot code in C++. If you're one of the people who have a basic understanding, I'm being careful to use keywords that if you google, should provide enough information to understand. When you press P, several things are sent to the GE before anything can be done. What might these be? <pre>StartKetsjiShell(struct ScrArea *area, char* scenename, struct Main* maggie1, struct SpaceIpo *sipo, int always_use_expand_framing) </pre> <hr /> Blender uses a lot of structs and classes. You need to have a working understanding of these as well as inheritance before we can move on. For a refresher: http://www-numi.fnal.gov/offline_software/srt_public_context/WebDocs/Companion/cxx_crib/inheritance.html '''The SCA_IObject class''' {{B3D:N2P/RepoMain|source/gameengine/GameLogic/SCA_IObject.cpp}} and {{B3D:N2P/RepoMain|source/gameengine/GameLogic/SCA_IObject.h|SCA_IObject.h}} This class encapsulates a lot of other things, so we can start here and move downwards to the things that it controls. First off it uses vectors to store all the different Sensors, Controllers and Actuators that are linked to the object. ''A vector is like an array, but it is dynamic and has built in functions.''<br />We will begin by examining how sensors are added. <br /> <code>typedef std::vector<SCA_ISensor *> SCA_SensorList;<br /> SCA_SensorList m_sensors;</code> The first line here is a typedef so it just tells us that we can create a vector of SCA_ISensor by using the name SCA_Sensor list.<br /> The second line creates the vector with the name, m_sensors <div style="color: blue"><pre> void SCA_IObject::AddSensor(SCA_ISensor* act)<br /> { m_sensors.push_back(act); } </pre></div> This function allows the parents of an SCA_IObject to add new sensors by calling: SCA_IObject.AddSensor(keyboard); ''pseudocode'' <br /> <br /> So now you know how Objects in the GE create sensors (and actuators and controllers, its the same :) So lets look at how Sensors are grabbed! Since they are dynamically added the program can't make assumptions about how many are there or what they will be. Thus there is this helper function: <br /> <div style="color: blue"><pre> 1''SCA_ISensor* SCA_IObject::FindSensor(const STR_String& sensorname) 2{ 3 SCA_ISensor* foundsensor = NULL; 4 5 for (SCA_SensorList::iterator its = m_sensors.begin();!(its==m_sensors.end());its++) 6 { 7 if ((*its)->GetName() == sensorname) 8 {<br /> 9 foundsensor = (*its); 10 break; 11 } 12 } 13 return foundsensor; 14}'' </pre></div> Put simply, you give this the name of a sensor and it returns a pointer to the sensor. <br /> <br /> for the newbies: I know you learned all about classes when i asked you to, but just in case:) the first word, "SCA_ISensor*" this tells us that the function will return a pointer to a SCA_ISensor. And based on the functions arguments, we know that when you call FindSensor you must give it a string between the parenthesis. <br /> in line 3 you create an empty pointer which you will use to store the sensor that you find. Then you loop and go through each sensor in the vector of sensors (remember, it was named m_sensors) until you find the one that matches the name. If you don't find one, you return NULL. '''void SCA_IObject::Suspend(void)''' What this does is it loops through all of the sensors and sends each one a "suspend" call. What this does is change a variable named, "m_suspended" which makes stops the sensors from running when they are called with their Activate() function. {{B3D:N2P/NAV |next=Glossary |previous=Hacking Blender }} q17iyprmkvlmodypsfmexjia21ikguz 4 140081 4635052 4634913 2026-05-10T03:25:07Z MathXplore 3097823 Reporting Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7 4635052 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. 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[[User:Larsnooden|Larsnooden]] ([[User talk:Larsnooden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Larsnooden|contribs]]) 05:06, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :Same for Q139611668 and Q139611580. All three links should be deleted / removed as the destination pages in the en.wikibook do not have any data but instead normal prose. - [[User:Larsnooden|Larsnooden]] ([[User talk:Larsnooden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Larsnooden|contribs]]) 05:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Glinemovers reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Glinemovers}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Glinemovers/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:08, 6 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:37, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Deftsoft51 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Deftsoft51}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Deftsoft51/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:09, 6 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:37, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Pizzazilla1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Pizzazilla1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Pizzazilla1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:20, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :Done. //[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 00:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-28014-44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-28014-44}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-28014-44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:02, 9 May 2026 (UTC) == Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7}} Long-term abuse. 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[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 26 April 2026 (UTC) == Mirko Privitera reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mirko Privitera}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mirko Privitera/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:57, 26 April 2026 (UTC) == Kevinsteinfeldt reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Kevinsteinfeldt}} Cross-wiki issues: Vandalism-only account <!-- USERREPORTED:/Kevinsteinfeldt/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 05:15, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Globally locked by Count Count. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:57, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Your username will be adjusted to "Mutesstud" due to technical restrictions reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Your username will be adjusted to "Mutesstud" due to technical restrictions}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/Your username will be adjusted to "Mutesstud" due to technical restrictions/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 07:02, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Globally locked by M7. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:58, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Degroot1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Degroot1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Degroot1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:47, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Page was already deleted, but the account is otherwise {{stale}}. Please re-report if they continue spamming. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:59, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Jalwagamesonline reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jalwagamesonline}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jalwagamesonline/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:30, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Page was already deleted, but the account is otherwise {{stale}}. Please re-report if they continue spamming. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:00, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-26947-55 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-26947-55}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-26947-55/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:24, 3 May 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:00, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == No data in page linked to by Wikidata == The page, [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/OpenSSH/Third_Party_Utilities OpenSSH: Third Party Utilities] has no data and thus should not be linked to from [https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139625509 Q139625509] How can the link be deleted? Thanks. [[User:Larsnooden|Larsnooden]] ([[User talk:Larsnooden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Larsnooden|contribs]]) 05:06, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :Same for Q139611668 and Q139611580. All three links should be deleted / removed as the destination pages in the en.wikibook do not have any data but instead normal prose. - [[User:Larsnooden|Larsnooden]] ([[User talk:Larsnooden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Larsnooden|contribs]]) 05:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Glinemovers reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Glinemovers}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Glinemovers/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:08, 6 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:37, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Deftsoft51 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Deftsoft51}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Deftsoft51/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:09, 6 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:37, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Pizzazilla1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Pizzazilla1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Pizzazilla1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:20, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :Done. //[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 00:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-28014-44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-28014-44}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-28014-44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:02, 9 May 2026 (UTC) == Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7}} Long-term abuse. Spam / spambot. [[Special:CentralAuth/OmranTokhi7]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}}. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 04:29, 10 May 2026 (UTC) ljpymtofrmfxjyseknj9fpxpearzvsy 4635080 4635057 2026-05-10T08:10:40Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 2 threads (older than 14 days) to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2026/April]] 4635080 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Everythingis99 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Everythingis99}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Everythingis99/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 25 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:38, 26 April 2026 (UTC) == Kevinsteinfeldt reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Kevinsteinfeldt}} Cross-wiki issues: Vandalism-only account <!-- USERREPORTED:/Kevinsteinfeldt/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 05:15, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Globally locked by Count Count. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:57, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Your username will be adjusted to "Mutesstud" due to technical restrictions reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Your username will be adjusted to "Mutesstud" due to technical restrictions}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/Your username will be adjusted to "Mutesstud" due to technical restrictions/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 07:02, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Globally locked by M7. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:58, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Degroot1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Degroot1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Degroot1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:47, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Page was already deleted, but the account is otherwise {{stale}}. Please re-report if they continue spamming. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:59, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == Jalwagamesonline reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jalwagamesonline}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jalwagamesonline/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:30, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : Page was already deleted, but the account is otherwise {{stale}}. Please re-report if they continue spamming. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:00, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-26947-55 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-26947-55}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-26947-55/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:24, 3 May 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:00, 3 May 2026 (UTC) == No data in page linked to by Wikidata == The page, [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/OpenSSH/Third_Party_Utilities OpenSSH: Third Party Utilities] has no data and thus should not be linked to from [https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139625509 Q139625509] How can the link be deleted? Thanks. [[User:Larsnooden|Larsnooden]] ([[User talk:Larsnooden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Larsnooden|contribs]]) 05:06, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :Same for Q139611668 and Q139611580. All three links should be deleted / removed as the destination pages in the en.wikibook do not have any data but instead normal prose. - [[User:Larsnooden|Larsnooden]] ([[User talk:Larsnooden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Larsnooden|contribs]]) 05:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Glinemovers reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Glinemovers}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Glinemovers/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:08, 6 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:37, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Deftsoft51 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Deftsoft51}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Deftsoft51/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:09, 6 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:37, 6 May 2026 (UTC) == Pizzazilla1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Pizzazilla1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Pizzazilla1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:20, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :Done. //[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 00:31, 9 May 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-28014-44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-28014-44}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-28014-44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:02, 9 May 2026 (UTC) == Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7}} Long-term abuse. Spam / spambot. [[Special:CentralAuth/OmranTokhi7]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :{{done}}. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 04:29, 10 May 2026 (UTC) 9sel9kf1i8z6q1dvsnvda0dkemgz763 0 142006 4635058 4631954 2026-05-10T04:53:25Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* List of Many WMIs */ 4635058 wikitext text/x-wiki ==World Manufacturer Identifier== The first three characters uniquely identify the manufacturer of the vehicle using the '''World Manufacturer Identifier''' or '''WMI''' code. A manufacturer that builds fewer than 1000 vehicles per year uses a 9 as the third digit and the 12th, 13th and 14th position of the VIN for a second part of the identification. Some manufacturers use the third character as a code for a vehicle category (e.g., bus or truck), a division within a manufacturer, or both. For example, within 1G (assigned to General Motors in the United States), 1G1 represents Chevrolet passenger cars; 1G2, Pontiac passenger cars; and 1GC, Chevrolet trucks. ===WMI Regions=== The first character of the WMI is the region in which the manufacturer is located. In practice, each is assigned to a country of manufacture. Common auto-manufacturing countries are noted. <ref>{{cite web | url=https://standards.iso.org/iso/3780/ | title=ISO Standards Maintenance Portal: ISO 3780 | publisher=[[wikipedia:International Organization for Standardization]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! WMI ! Region ! Notes |- | A-C | Africa | AA-AH = South Africa<br />BF-BG = Kenya<br />BU = Uganda<br />CA-CB = Egypt<br />DF-DK = Morocco |- | H-R | Asia | H = China<br />J = Japan<br />KF-KH = Israel<br />KL-KR = South Korea<br />L = China<br />MA-ME = India<br />MF-MK = Indonesia<br />ML-MR = Thailand<br />MS = Myanmar<br />MX = Kazakhstan<br />MY-M0 = India<br />NF-NG = Pakistan<br />NL-NR = Turkey<br />NS-NT = Uzbekistan<br />PA-PC = Philippines<br />PF-PG = Singapore<br />PL-PR = Malaysia<br />PS-PT = Bangladesh<br />PV=Cambodia<br />RA-RB = United Arab Emirates<br />RF-RK = Taiwan<br />RL-RN = Vietnam<br />R1-R7 = Hong Kong |- | S-Z | Europe | SA-SM = United Kingdom<br />SN-ST = Germany (formerly East Germany)<br />SU-SZ = Poland<br />TA-TH = Switzerland<br />TJ-TP = Czech Republic<br />TR-TV = Hungary<br />TW-T2 = Portugal<br />UH-UM = Denmark<br />UN-UR = Ireland<br />UU-UX = Romania<br />U1-U2 = North Macedonia<br />U5-U7 = Slovakia<br />VA-VE = Austria<br />VF-VR = France<br />VS-VW = Spain<br />VX-V2 = France (formerly Serbia/Yugoslavia)<br />V3-V5 = Croatia<br />V6-V8 = Estonia<br /> W = Germany (formerly West Germany)<br />XA-XC = Bulgaria<br />XF-XH = Greece<br />XL-XR = The Netherlands<br />XS-XW = Russia (formerly USSR)<br />XX-XY = Luxembourg<br />XZ-X0 = Russia<br />YA-YE = Belgium<br />YF-YK = Finland<br />YS-YW = Sweden<br />YX-Y2 = Norway<br />Y3-Y5 = Belarus<br />Y6-Y8 = Ukraine<br />ZA-ZU = Italy<br />ZX-ZZ = Slovenia<br />Z3-Z5 = Lithuania<br />Z6-Z0 = Russia |- | 1-5 | North America | 1, 4, 5 = United States<br />2 = Canada<br />3 = Mexico<br />7F-70 = United States |- | 6-7 | Oceania | 6A-6W = Australia<br />7A-7E = New Zealand |- | 8-9 | South America | 8A-8E = Argentina<br />8F-8G = Chile<br />8L-8N = Ecuador<br />8S-8T = Peru<br />8X-8Z = Venezuela<br />82 = Bolivia<br />84 = Costa Rica<br />9A-9E, 91-90 = Brazil<br />9F-9G = Colombia<br />9S-9V = Uruguay |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! &nbsp; ! A ! B ! C ! D ! E ! F ! G ! H ! J ! K ! L ! M ! N ! P ! R ! S ! T ! U ! V ! W ! X ! Y ! Z ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 0 |- | '''A''' || colspan="8" | South Africa || colspan="2" | Ivory Coast || colspan="2" | Lesotho || colspan="2" | Botswana || colspan="2" | Namibia || colspan="2" | Madagascar || colspan="2" | Mauritius || colspan="2" | Tunisia || colspan="2" | Cyprus || colspan="2" | Zimbabwe || colspan="2" | Mozambique || colspan="5" | ''Africa'' |- | '''B''' || colspan="2" | Angola || colspan="1" | Ethiopia || colspan="2" | ''Africa'' || colspan="2" | Kenya || colspan="1" | Rwanda || colspan="2" | ''Africa'' || colspan="1" | Nigeria || colspan="3" | ''Africa'' || colspan="1" | Algeria || colspan="1" | ''Africa'' || colspan="1" | Swaziland || colspan="1" | Uganda || colspan="7" | ''Africa''|| colspan="2" | Libya || colspan="6" | ''Africa'' |- | '''C''' || colspan="2" | Egypt || colspan="3" | ''Africa'' || colspan="2" | Morocco || colspan="3" | ''Africa'' || colspan="2" | Zambia || colspan="21" | ''Africa'' |- | '''D''' || colspan="33" rowspan="1" | |- | '''E''' || colspan="33" | Russia |- | '''F''' || colspan="33" rowspan="2" | |- | '''G''' |- | '''H''' || colspan="33" | China |- | '''J''' || colspan="33" | Japan |- | '''K''' || colspan="5" | ''Asia'' || colspan="3" | Israel || colspan="2" | ''Asia'' || colspan="5" | South Korea || colspan="2" | Jordan || colspan="6" | ''Asia'' || colspan="3" | South Korea || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="1" | Kyrgyzstan || colspan="5" | ''Asia'' |- | '''L''' || colspan="33" | China |- | '''M''' || colspan="5" | India || colspan="5" | Indonesia || colspan="5" | Thailand || colspan="1" | Myanmar || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="1" | Mongolia || colspan="2" | ''Asia'' || colspan="1" | Kazakhstan || colspan="12" | India |- | '''N''' || colspan="5" | Iran || colspan="2" | Pakistan || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="1" | Iraq || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="5" | Turkey || colspan="2" | Uzbekistan || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="1" | Azerbaijan || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="1" | Tajikistan || colspan="1" | Armenia || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="5" | Iran || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="2" | Turkey || colspan="2" | ''Asia'' |- | '''P''' || colspan="3" | Philippines || colspan="2" | ''Asia'' || colspan="2" | Singapore || colspan="3" | ''Asia'' || colspan="5" | Malaysia || colspan="2" | Bangladesh || colspan="10" | ''Asia'' || colspan="6" | India |- | '''R''' || colspan="2" | UAE || colspan="3" | ''Asia'' || colspan="5" | Taiwan || colspan="3" | Vietnam || colspan="1" | Laos || colspan="1" | ''Asia'' || colspan="2" | Saudi Arabia || colspan="3" | Russia || colspan="3" | ''Asia'' || colspan="7" | Hong Kong || colspan="3" | ''Asia'' |- ! &nbsp; ! A ! B ! C ! D ! E ! F ! G ! H ! J ! K ! L ! M ! N ! P ! R ! S ! T ! U ! V ! W ! X ! Y ! Z ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 0 |- | '''S''' || colspan="12" | United Kingdom || colspan="5" | Germany <small>(former East Germany)</small> || colspan="6" | Poland || colspan="2" | Latvia || colspan="1" | Georgia || colspan="1" | Iceland || colspan="6" | ''Europe'' |- | '''T''' || colspan="8" | Switzerland || colspan="6" | Czech Republic || colspan="5" | Hungary || colspan="6" | Portugal || colspan="3" | Serbia || colspan="1" | Andorra || colspan="2" | Netherlands || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' |- | '''U''' || colspan="3" | Spain || colspan="4" | ''Europe'' || colspan="5" | Denmark || colspan="3" | Ireland || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' || colspan="4" | Romania || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' || colspan="2" | North Macedonia || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' || colspan="3" | Slovakia || colspan="3" | Bosnia & Herzogovina |- | '''V''' || colspan="5" | Austria || colspan="10" | France || colspan="5" | Spain || colspan="5" | France <small>(formerly Yugoslavia & Serbia)</small> || colspan="3" | Croatia || colspan="3" | Estonia || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' |- | '''W''' || colspan="33" | Germany |- | '''X''' || colspan="3" | Bulgaria || colspan="2" | Russia || colspan="3" | Greece || colspan="2" | Russia || colspan="5" | Netherlands || colspan="5" | Russia <small>(former USSR)</small> || colspan="2" | Luxembourg || colspan="11" | Russia |- | '''Y''' || colspan="5" | Belgium || colspan="5" | Finland || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' || colspan="1" | Malta || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' || colspan="5" | Sweden || colspan="5" | Norway || colspan="3" | Belarus || colspan="3" | Ukraine || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' |- | '''Z''' || colspan="18" | Italy || colspan="2" | ''Europe'' || colspan="3" | Slovenia || colspan="1" | San Marino|| colspan="1" | ''Europe''|| colspan="3" | Lithuania || colspan="5" | Russia |- | '''1''' || colspan="33" | United States |- | '''2''' || colspan="28" | Canada || colspan="5" | ''North America'' |- | '''3''' || colspan="21" | Mexico || colspan="5" | ''North America'' || colspan="1" | Nicaragua || colspan="1" | Dom. Rep. || colspan="1" | Honduras || colspan="1" | Panama || colspan="2" | Puerto Rico || colspan="1" | ''North America'' |- | '''4''' || colspan="33" rowspan="2" | United States |- | '''5''' |- | '''6''' || colspan="21" | Australia || colspan="3" | New Zealand || colspan="9" | ''Oceania'' |- | '''7''' || colspan="5" | New Zealand || colspan="28" | United States |- | '''8''' || colspan="5" | Argentina || colspan=2 | Chile || colspan="3" | ''South America'' || colspan="3" | Ecuador || colspan="2" | ''South America'' || colspan="2" | Peru || colspan="3" | ''South America'' || colspan="3" | Venezuela || colspan="1" | ''SA'' || colspan="1" | Bolivia || colspan="1" | ''SA'' || colspan="1" | Costa Rica || colspan="6" | ''South America'' |- | '''9''' || colspan="5" | Brazil || colspan="2" | Colombia || colspan="8" | ''South America'' || colspan="4" | Uruguay || colspan="4" | ''South America'' || colspan="10" | Brazil |- | '''0''' || colspan="33" rowspan="1" | |} ===List of Many WMIs=== The [[w:Society of Automotive Engineers|Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE) in the US assigns WMIs to countries and manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iso.org/standard/45844.html | title=ISO 3780:2009 - Road vehicles — World manufacturer identifier (WMI) code | date=October 2009 | publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref> The following table contains a list of mainly commonly used WMIs, although there are many others assigned. {| class="wikitable x" style="text-align:center" |- ! WMI !! Manufacturer |- | AAA|| Audi South Africa made by Volkswagen of South Africa |- | AAK|| FAW Vehicle Manufacturers SA (PTY) Ltd. |- | AAM|| MAN Automotive (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd. (includes VW Truck & Bus) |- |AAP || VIN restamped by South African Police Service (so-called SAPVIN or AAPV number) |- | AAV || Volkswagen South Africa |- | AAW || Challenger Trailer Pty Ltd. (South Africa) |- | AA9/CN1 || TR-Tec Pty Ltd. (South Africa) |- | ABJ || Mitsubishi Colt & Triton pickups made by Mercedes-Benz South Africa 1994–2011 |- | ABJ || Mitsubishi Fuso made by Daimler Trucks & Buses Southern Africa |- | ABM || BMW Southern Africa |- | ACV || Isuzu Motors South Africa 2018- |- | AC5 || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Automotive South Africa |- | AC9/BM1 || Beamish Beach Buggies (South Africa) |- | ADB || Mercedes-Benz South Africa car |- | ADD || UD Trucks Southern Africa (Pty) Ltd. |- | ADM || General Motors South Africa (includes Isuzu through 2018) |- | ADN || Nissan South Africa (Pty) Ltd. |- | ADR || Renault Sandero made by Nissan South Africa (Pty) Ltd. |- | ADX || Tata Automobile Corporation (SA) Ltd. |- | AE9/MT1 || Backdraft Racing (South Africa) |- | AFA || Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa & Samcor |- | AFB || Mazda BT-50 made by Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa |- | AFD || BAIC Automotive South Africa |- | AFZ || Fiat Auto South Africa |- | AHH || Hino South Africa |- | AHM || Honda Ballade made by Mercedes-Benz South Africa 1982–2000 |- | AHT || Toyota South Africa Motors (Pty.) Ltd. |- | BF9/|| KIBO Motorcycles, Kenya |- | BUK || Kiira Motors Corporation, Uganda |- | BR1 || Mercedes-Benz Algeria (SAFAV MB) |- | BRY || FIAT Algeria |- | CA3 || MCV bus (Egypt) |- | DDY || Geyushi Motors (bus) (Egypt) |- | DF9/|| Laraki (Morocco) |- | EAA || Aurus Motors (Russia) |- | EAN || Evolute (Russia) |- | EAU || Elektromobili Manufacturing Rus - EVM (Russia) |- | EBE || Sollers-Auto (Russia) |- | EBZ || Nizhekotrans bus (Russia) |- | ECE || XCITE (Russia) |- | ECW || Trans-Alfa bus (Russia) |- | HAC || GAC Motor (Aion) |- | HA0 || Wuxi Sundiro Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. (Palla, Parray) |- | HA6 || Niu Technologies |- | HA7 || Jinan Qingqi KR Motors Co., Ltd. |- | HES || smart Automobile Co., Ltd. (Mercedes-Geely joint venture) |- | HGL || Farizon Auto van (Geely) |- | HGX || Wuling Motors commercial vehicle (Geely) |- | HHZ || Huazi Automobile |- | HJN || Nio, Firefly |- | HJR || Chery Commercial Vehicle (Anhui) Co., Ltd. Jetour made by Chery Commercial Vehicle |- | HJZ || Juzhen Chengshi van |- | HJ4 || BAW car |- | HL4 || Zhejiang Morini Vehicle Co., Ltd. <br />(Moto Morini subsidiary of Taizhou Zhongneng Motorcycle Co., Ltd.) |- | HLX || Li Auto |- | HRV || Beijing Henrey Automobile Technology Co., Ltd. |- | HVW || Volkswagen Anhui |- | HWM || WM Motor Technology Co., Ltd. (Weltmeister) |- | HXM || Xiaomi |- | HZ2 || Taizhou Zhilong Technology Co., Ltd (motorcycle) |- | H0D || Taizhou Qianxin Vehicle Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | H0G || Wisdom (Fujian) Motor Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | JAA || Isuzu truck, Holden Rodeo TF, Opel Campo, Bedford/Vauxhall Brava pickup made by Isuzu in Japan |- | JAB || Isuzu car |- | JAC || Isuzu SUV, Opel/Vauxhall Monterey & Holden Jackaroo/Monterey made by Isuzu in Japan |- | JAE || Acura SLX made by Isuzu |- | JAL || Isuzu commercial trucks & <br /> Chevrolet commercial trucks made by Isuzu 2016+ & <br /> Hino S-series truck made by Isuzu (Incomplete Vehicle - medium duty) |- | JAM || Isuzu commercial trucks (Incomplete Vehicle - light duty) |- | JA3 || Mitsubishi car (for North America) |- | JA4 || Mitsubishi MPV/SUV (for North America) & Nissan Rogue PHEV '26 |- | JA7 || Mitsubishi truck (for North America) |- | JB3 || Dodge car made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JB4 || Dodge MPV/SUV made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JB7 || Dodge truck made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JC0 || Ford brand cars made by Mazda |- | JC1 || Fiat 124 Spider made by Mazda |- | JC2 || Ford Courier made by Mazda |- | JDA || Daihatsu, Subaru Justy made by Daihatsu |- | JD1 || Daihatsu car |- | JD2 || Daihatsu SUV |- | JD4 || Daihatsu truck |- | JE3 || Eagle car made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JE4 || Mitsubishi Motors |- | JF1 || ([[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]]) car |- | JF2 || ([[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]]) SUV |- | JF3 || ([[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]]) truck |- | JF4 || Saab 9-2X made by Subaru |- | JG1 || Chevrolet/Geo car made by Suzuki |- | JG2 || Pontiac car made by Suzuki |- | JG7 || Pontiac/Asuna car made by Suzuki for GM Canada |- | JGC || Chevrolet/Geo SUV made by Suzuki (classified as a truck) |- | JGT || GMC SUV made by Suzuki for GM Canada (classified as a truck) |- | JHA || Hino truck |- | JHB || Hino incomplete vehicle |- | JHD || Hino |- | JHF || Hino |- | JHH || Hino incomplete vehicle |- | JHF-JHG, JHL-JHN, JHZ,<br/>JH1-JH5 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] |- | JHL || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] MPV/SUV |- | JHM || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car |- | JH1 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] truck |- | JH2 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] motorcycle/ATV |- | JH3 || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] ATV |- | JH4 || Acura car |- | JH6 || Hino incomplete vehicle |- | JJ3 || Chrysler brand car made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JKA || Kawasaki (motorcycles) |- | JKB || Kawasaki (motorcycles) |- | JKM || Mitsuoka |- | JKS || Suzuki Marauder 1600/Boulevard M95 motorcycle made by Kawasaki |- | JK8 || Suzuki QUV620F UTV made by Kawasaki |- | JLB || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck & Bus Corp. |- | JLF || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck & Bus Corp. |- | JLS || Sterling Truck 360 made by Mitsubishi Fuso Truck & Bus Corp. |- | JL5 || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck & Bus Corp. |- | JL6 || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck & Bus Corp. |- | JL7 || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck & Bus Corp. |- | JMA || Mitsubishi Motors (right-hand drive) for Europe |- | JMB || Mitsubishi Motors (left-hand drive) for Europe |- | JMF || Mitsubishi Motors for Australia (including Mitsubishi Express made by Renault) |- | JMP || Mitsubishi Motors (left-hand drive) |- | JMR || Mitsubishi Motors (right-hand drive) |- | JMY || Mitsubishi Motors (left-hand drive) for South America & Middle East |- | JMZ || Mazda for Europe export & Mazda 2 made by Ford Spain & Mazda 2 Hybrid made by Toyota Motor Manufacturing France |- | JM0 || Mazda for Oceania export |- | JM1 || Mazda car |- | JM2 || Mazda truck |- | JM3 || Mazda MPV/SUV |- | JM4 || Mazda |- | JM6 || Mazda |- | JM7 || Mazda |- | JNA || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks incomplete vehicle |- | JNC || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks |- | JNE || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks truck |- | JNK || Infiniti car |- | JNR || Infiniti SUV |- | JNX || Infiniti incomplete vehicle |- | JN1 || Nissan car & Infiniti car |- | JN3 || Nissan incomplete vehicle |- | JN6 || Nissan truck/van & Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Van |- | JN8 || Nissan MPV/SUV & Infiniti SUV |- | JPC || Nissan Diesel/UD Trucks |- | JP3 || Plymouth car made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JP4 || Plymouth MPV/SUV made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JP7 || Plymouth truck made by Mitsubishi Motors |- | JR2 || Isuzu Oasis made by Honda |- | JSA || Suzuki ATV & '03 Kawasaki KFX400 ATV made by Suzuki, Suzuki car/SUV (outside N. America), Holden Cruze YG made by Suzuki |- | JSK || Kawasaki KLX125/KLX125L motorcycle made by Suzuki |- | JSL || '04-'06 Kawasaki KFX400 ATV made by Suzuki |- | JST || Suzuki Across SUV made by Toyota |- | JS1 || Suzuki motorcycle & Kawasaki KLX400S/KLX400SR motorcycle made by Suzuki |- | JS2 || Suzuki car |- | JS3 || Suzuki SUV |- | JS4 || Suzuki truck |- | JTB || Toyota bus |- | JTD || Toyota car |- | JTE || Toyota MPV/SUV |- | JTF || Toyota van/truck |- | JTG || Toyota MPV/bus |- | JTH || Lexus car |- | JTJ || Lexus SUV |- | JTK || Toyota car |- | JTL || Toyota SUV |- | JTM || Toyota SUV, Subaru Solterra made by Toyota |- | JTN || Toyota car |- | JTP || Toyota SUV |- | JT1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] van |- | JT2 || Toyota car |- | JT3 || Toyota MPV/SUV |- | JT4 || Toyota truck/van |- | JT5 || Toyota incomplete vehicle |- | JT6 || Lexus SUV |- | JT7 || Toyota bus/van |- | JT8 || Lexus car |- | JW6 || Mitsubishi Fuso division of Mitsubishi Motors (through mid-2003) |- | JYA || Yamaha motorcycles |- | JYE || Yamaha snowmobile |- | JY3 || Yamaha 3-wheel ATV |- | JY4 || Yamaha 4-wheel ATV |- | J81 || Chevrolet/Geo car made by Isuzu |- | J87 || Pontiac/Asüna car made by Isuzu for GM Canada |- | J8B || Chevrolet commercial trucks made by Isuzu (incomplete vehicle) |- | J8C || Chevrolet commercial trucks made by Isuzu (truck) |- | J8D || GMC commercial trucks made by Isuzu (incomplete vehicle) |- | J8T || GMC commercial trucks made by Isuzu (truck) |- | J8Z || Chevrolet LUV pickup truck made by Isuzu |- | KF3 || Merkavim (Israel) |- | KF6 || Automotive Industries, Ltd. (Israel) |- | KF9/004 || Tomcar (Israel) |- | KG9/002 || Charash Ashdod (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/004 || H. Klein (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/007 || Agam Trailers (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/009 || Merkavey Noa (trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/010 || Weingold Trailers (trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/011 || Netzer Sereni (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/015 || Merkaz Hagrorim (trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/035 || BEL Technologies (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/091 || Jansteel (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/101 || Bassamco (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KG9/104 || Global Handasa (truck trailer) (Israel) |- | KL || Daewoo [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] South Korea |- | KLA || Daewoo/GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet/Alpheon)<br /> from Bupyeong & Kunsan plants |- | KLP || CT&T United (battery electric low-speed vehicles) |- | KLT || Tata Daewoo |- | KLU || Tata Daewoo |- | KLY || Daewoo/GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet) from Changwon plant |- | KL1 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet car) |- | KL2 || Daewoo/GM Daewoo (Pontiac) |- | KL3 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Holden) |- | KL4 || GM Korea (Buick) |- | KL5 || GM Daewoo (Suzuki) |- | KL6 || GM Daewoo (GMC) |- | KL7 || Daewoo (GM Canada brands: Passport, Asuna (Pre-2000)) |- | KL7 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet MPV/SUV (Post-2000)) |- | KL8 || GM Daewoo/GM Korea (Chevrolet car from Changwon plant (Spark)) |- | KM || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] |- | KMC || Hyundai commercial truck |- | KME || Hyundai commercial truck (semi-tractor) |- | KMF || Hyundai van & commercial truck & Bering Truck |- | KMH || Hyundai car & Mexican market Dodges made by Hyundai |- | KMJ || Hyundai minibus/bus |- | KMT || Genesis Motor car |- | KMU || Genesis Motor SUV |- | KMX || Hyundai Galloper SUV |- | KMY || Daelim Motor Company, Ltd/DNA Motors Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | KM1 || Hyosung Motors (motorcycles) |- | KM4 || Hyosung Motors/S&T Motors/KR Motors (motorcycles) |- | KM8 || Hyundai SUV |- | KNA || Kia car |- | KNC || Kia truck |- | KND || Kia MPV/SUV & Hyundai Entourage |- | KNE || Kia for Europe export |- | KNF || Kia, special vehicles |- | KNG || Kia minibus/bus |- | KNJ || Ford Festiva & Aspire made by Kia |- | KNL || Kia Elan/Vigato made by Kia Motech |- | KNM || Renault Samsung Motors, Nissan Rogue made by Renault Samsung, Nissan Sunny made by Renault Samsung |- | KNM || Renault Korea Co., Ltd. |- | KN1 || Asia Motors |- | KN2 || Asia Motors |- | KPA || SsangYong/KG Mobility (KGM) pickup |- | KPB || SsangYong car |- | KPD || SsangYong TransStar (bus) |- | KPH || Mitsubishi Precis |- | KPT || SsangYong/KG Mobility (KGM) SUV/MPV |- | LAA || Shanghai Jialing Vehicle Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LAE || Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle |- | LAL || Sundiro [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Motorcycle |- | LAN || Changzhou Yamasaki Motorcycle |- | LAP || Chongqing Jianshe Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LAP || Zhuzhou Nanfang Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LAT || Luoyang Northern Ek Chor Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (Dayang) |- | LA6 || Xiamen King Long United Automotive Industry Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LA7 || Radar Auto (Geely) |- | LA8 || Anhui Ankai |- | LA9/AYS || Jiangsu Alfa Bus Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LA9/BFC || Beijing North Huade Neoplan Bus Co., Ltd. |- | LA9/FBC || Xiamen Fengtai Bus & Coach International Co., Ltd. (FTBCI) (bus) |- | LA9/HFF || Anhui Huaxia Vehicle Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LA9/JXK || CHTC Bonluck Bus Co., Ltd. |- | LA9/LC0 || BYD |- | LA9/LFJ || Xinlongma Automobile |- | LA9/LM6 || SRM Shineray |- | LBB || Zhejiang Qianjiang Motorcycle (QJ Motor/Keeway/Benelli) |- | LBE || Beijing [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] (Hyundai, Shouwang) |- | LBM || Zongshen Piaggio |- | LBP || Chongqing Jianshe Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LBV || BMW Brilliance (BMW, Zinoro) |- | LBX || Jiangsu Kinroad Xintian Motorcycle Manufacture Co. Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LBZ || Yantai Shuchi Vehicle Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LB1 || Fujian Benz |- | LB2 || Geely Motorcycles |- | LB3 || Zhejiang Geely Holding Group (Geely, Galaxy, Geometry, Kandi) |- | LB4 || Chongqing Yinxiang Motorcycle Group Co., Ltd. |- | LB5 || Foshan City Fosti Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LB7 || Tibet New Summit Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LCE || Hangzhou Chunfeng Motorcycles (CFMOTO) |- | LCR || Gonow |- | LC0 || BYD Auto (BYD, Denza) |- | LC2 || Changzhou Kwang Yang Motor Co., Ltd. (Kymco) |- | LC6 || Changzhou Haojue Suzuki Motorcycle Co. Ltd. |- | LDB || Dadi Auto |- | LDC || Dongfeng Peugeot Citroen Automobile Co., Ltd. (DPCA), Dongfeng Fengshen (Aeolus) L60 |- | LDD || Dandong Huanghai Automobile |- | LDF || Dezhou Fulu Vehicle Co., Ltd. (motorcycles), BAW Yuanbao electric car (Ace P1 in Norway) |- | LDK || FAW Bus (Dalian) Co., Ltd. |- | LDN || Soueast (South East (Fujian) Motor Co., Ltd.) including Mitsubishi made by Soueast |- | LDP || Dongfeng, Dongfeng Fengshen (Aeolus), Voyah, Renault City K-ZE/Venucia e30 made by eGT New Energy Automotive |- | LDY || Zhongtong Bus Holding Co. Ltd. |- | LD3 || Guangdong Tayo Motorcycle Technology Co. (Zontes) (motorcycle) |- | LD5 || Benzhou Vehicle Industry Group Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LD9/L3A || SiTech (FAW) |- | LEC || Tianjin Qingyuan Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. |- | LEF || Jiangling Motors Corporation Ltd. (JMC) |- | LEH || Zhejiang Riya Motorcycle Co. Ltd. |- | LET || Jiangling-Isuzu Motors, China |- | LEW || Dongfeng commercial vehicle |- | LE4 || Beijing Benz & Beijing Benz-Daimler Chrysler Automotive Co. (Chrysler, Jeep, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz) & Beijing Jeep Corp. |- | LE8 || Guangzhou Panyu Hua'Nan Motors Industry Co. Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LFB || FAW Group (Bestune, Hongqi) & Mazda made under license by FAW (Mazda 8, CX-7) |- | LFF || Zhejiang Taizhou Wangye Power Co., Ltd. |- | LFG || Taizhou Chuanl Motorcycle Manufacturing |- | LFJ || Fujian Motors Group (Keyton) |- | LFM || FAW Toyota Motor (Toyota, Ranz) |- | LFN || FAW Bus (Wuxi) Co., Ltd. (truck, bus) |- | LFP || FAW Car, Bestune, Hongqi (passenger vehicles) & Mazda made under license by FAW (Mazda 6, CX-4) |- | LFT || FAW (trailers) |- | LFU || Lifeng Group Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LFV || FAW-Volkswagen (VW, Audi, Jetta, Kaili) |- | LFW || FAW JieFang (truck) |- | LFX || Sany Heavy Industry (truck) |- | LFY || Changshu Light Motorcycle Factory |- | LFZ || Leapmotor |- | LF3 || Lifan Motorcycle |- | LGA || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. trucks |- | LGB || Dongfeng Nissan (Nissan, Infiniti, Venucia) |- | LGB || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. |- | LGC || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. bus chassis |- | LGD || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. |- | LGF || Dongfeng Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. bus chassis |- | LGG || Dongfeng Liuzhou Motor (Forthing/Fengxing) |- | LGJ || Dongfeng Fengshen (Aeolus) |- | LGL || Guilin Daewoo |- | LGV || Heshan Guoji Nanlian Motorcycle Industry Co., Ltd. |- | LGW || Great Wall Motor (GWM, Haval, Ora, Tank, Wey) |- | LGX || BYD Auto (BYD, Fangchengbao) |- | LGZ || Guangzhou Denway Bus |- | LG6 || Dayun Group |- | LHA || Shuanghuan Auto |- | LHB || Beijing Automotive Industry Holding |- | LHG || GAC Honda (Honda, Everus, Acura) |- | LHJ || Chongqing Astronautic Bashan Motorcycle Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |- | LHM || Dongfeng Renault Automobile Co. |- | LHW || CRRC Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LH0 || WM Motor Technology Co., Ltd. (Weltmeister) |- | LH1 || FAW-Haima, China |- | LJC || Jincheng Corporation |- | LJD || Yueda Kia (previously Dongfeng Yueda Kia) (Kia, Horki) & Human Horizons - HiPhi (made under contract by Yueda Kia) |- | LJM || Sunlong (bus) |- | LJN || Zhengzhou Nissan |- | LJR || CIMC Vehicles Group (truck trailer) |- | LJS || Yaxing Coach, Asiastar Bus |- | LJU || Shanghai Maple Automobile & Kandi & Zhidou |- | LJU || Lotus Technology (Wuhan Lotus Cars Co., Ltd.) |- | LJV || Sinotruk Chengdu Wangpai Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. |- | LJW || JMC Landwind |- | LJX || JMC Ford |- | LJ1 || JAC (JAC, Sehol) |- | LJ1 || Nio, Inc. |- | LJ4 || Shanghai Jmstar Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LJ5 || Cixi Kingring Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (Jinlun) |- | LJ8 || Zotye Auto made by Jiangnan Automobile |- | LKC || BAIC commercial vehicles, previously Changhe |- | LKG || Youngman Lotus Automobile Co., Ltd. |- | LKH || Hafei Motor |- | LKL || Higer Bus |- | LKT || Yunnan Lifan Junma Vehicle Co., Ltd. commercial vehicles |- | LK2 || Anhui JAC Bus |- | LK6 || SAIC-GM-Wuling (Wuling, Baojun) microcars and other vehicles |- | LK8 || Zhejiang Yule New Energy Automobile Technology Co., Ltd. (ATV) |- | LLC || Loncin Motor Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LLJ || Jiangsu Xinling Motorcycle Fabricate Co., Ltd. |- | LLN || Qoros |- | LLP || Zhejiang Jiajue Motorcycle Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |- | LLU || Dongfeng Fengxing Jingyi |- | LLV || Lifan, Maple (owned by Geely), Livan Automotive |- | LLX || Yudo Auto |- | LL0 || Sanmen County Yongfu Machine Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LL2 || WM Motor Technology Co., Ltd. (Weltmeister) |- | LL3 || Xiamen Golden Dragon Bus Co. Ltd. |- | LL6 || GAC Mitsubishi Motors Co., Ltd. (formerly Hunan Changfeng) |- | LL8 || Jiangsu Linhai Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd. |- | LMC || Suzuki Hong Kong (motorcycles) |- | LME || Skyworth (formerly Skywell), Elaris Beo |- | LMF || Jiangmen Zhongyu Motor Co., Ltd. |- | LMG || GAC Motor, Trumpchi, [[w:Dodge Attitude#Fourth generation (2025)|Dodge Attitude made by GAC]] |- | LMH || Jiangsu Guowei Motor Co., Ltd. (Motoleader) |- | LMP || Geely Sichuan Commercial Vehicle Co., Ltd. |- | LMV || Haima Car Co., Ltd. |- | LMV || XPeng Motors G3 (not G3i) made by Haima |- | LMW || GAC Group, [[w:Trumpchi GS5#Dodge Journey|Dodge Journey made by GAC]] |- | LMX || Forthing (Dongfeng Fengxing) |- | LM0 || Wangye Holdings Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LM6 || SWM (automobiles) |- | LM8 || Seres (formerly SF Motors), AITO |- | LNA || GAC Aion New Energy Automobile Co., Ltd., Hycan |- | LNB || BAIC Motor (Senova, Weiwang, Huansu) & Arcfox & Xiaomi SU7 built by BAIC |- | LND || JMEV (Jiangxi Jiangling Group New Energy Vehicle Co., Ltd.), Eveasy/Mobilize Limo |- | LNE || Zhejiang CRRC Electric Vehicle Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LNP || NAC MG UK Limited & Nanjing Fiat Automobile |- | LNN || Chery Automobile, Omoda, Jaecoo |- | LNV || Naveco (Nanjing Iveco Automobile Co. Ltd.) |- | LNX || Dongfeng Liuzhou Motor (Chenglong trucks) |- | LNY || Yuejin |- | LPA || Changan PSA (DS Automobiles) |- | LPE || BYD Auto |- | LPS || Polestar |- | LP6 || Guangzhou Panyu Haojian Motorcycle Industry Co., Ltd. |- | LRB || SAIC-General Motors (Buick for export) |- | LRD || Beijing Foton Daimler Automotive Co., Ltd. Auman trucks |- | LRE || SAIC-General Motors (Cadillac for export) |- | LRP || Chongqing Rato Power Co. Ltd. (Asus) |- | LRR || Ningbo Longjia Power Technology Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LRW || Tesla, Inc. (Gigafactory Shanghai) |- | LR4 || Yadi Technology Group |- | LR6 || Guangzhou Dayun Vehicle Co., Ltd. |- | LSC || Changan Automobile (light truck) |- | LSF || SAIC Maxus or LDV pickup/SUV & Chevrolet S10 Max & Shanghai Sunwin Bus Corporation |- | LSG || SAIC-General Motors (For China: Chevrolet, Buick, Cadillac, Sail Springo, For export: Chevrolet) |- | LSH || SAIC Maxus van or LDV van & Chevrolet Express Max |- | LSJ || SAIC MG & SAIC Roewe & IM Motors & Rising Auto |- | LSK || SAIC Maxus or LDV van |- | LSV || SAIC-Volkswagen (VW, Skoda, Audi, Tantus) |- | LSY || Brilliance (Jinbei, Zhonghua) & Jinbei GM |- | LS3 || Hejia New Energy Vehicle Co., Ltd |- | LS4 || Changan Automobile (MPV/SUV) |- | LS5 || Changan Automobile (car) & Changan Suzuki |- | LS6 || Changan Automobile & Deepal Automobile & Avatr |- | LS7 || JMC Heavy Duty Truck Co., Ltd. |- | LS8 ||Henan Shaolin Auto Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LTA || ZX Auto |- | LTN || Soueast-built Chrysler & Dodge vehicles |- | LTP || National Electric Vehicle Sweden AB (NEVS) |- | LTV || FAW [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] (Tianjin) |- | LTW || Zhejiang Dianka Automobile Technology Co. Ltd. (Enovate) |- | LT1 || Yangzhou Tonghua Semi-Trailer Co., Ltd. (truck trailer) |- | LUC || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Automobile (China) |- | LUD || Dongfeng Nissan Diesel Motor Co Ltd. |- | LUG || Qiantu Motor |- | LUJ || Zhejiang Shanqi Tianying Vehicle Industry Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | LUR || Chery Automobile, iCar |- | LUX || Dongfeng Yulon Motor Co. Ltd. |- | LUZ || Hozon Auto New Energy Automobile Co., Ltd. (Neta) |- | LVA || Foton Motor |- | LVB || Foton Motor truck |- | LVC || Foton Motor bus |- | LVF || Changhe Suzuki |- | LVG || GAC Toyota (Toyota, Leahead) |- | LVH || Dongfeng Honda (Honda, Ciimo) |- | LVM || Chery Commercial Vehicle |- | LVP || Dongfeng Sokon Motor Company (DFSK) |- | LVR || Changan Mazda |- | LVS || Changan [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] (Ford, Lincoln) & Changan Ford Mazda & Volvo S40 and S80L made by Changan Ford Mazda |- | LVT || Chery Automobile, Exeed, Jetour, Soueast |- | LVU || Chery Automobile, Jetour |- | LVV || Chery Automobile, Omoda, Jaecoo |- | LVX || Landwind, JMC (discontinued in 2021) |- | LVX || Aiways Automobiles Company Ltd |- | LVY || Volvo Cars Daqing factory |- | LVZ || Dongfeng Sokon Motor Company (DFSK) |- | LV3 || Hengchi Automobile (Evergrande Group) |- | LV7 || Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle |- | LWB || Wuyang Honda Motorcycle (Guangzhou) Co., Ltd. |- | LWE || Yangtse Motor Group (bus) |- | LWG || Chongqing Huansong Industries (Group) Co., Ltd. |- | LWL || Qingling Isuzu |- | LWM || Chongqing Wonjan Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LWV || GAC Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (Fiat, Jeep) |- | LWX || Shanghai Wanxiang Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LW4 || Li Auto |- | LXA || Jiangmen Qipai Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LXD || Ningbo Dongfang Lingyun Vehicle Made Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LXG || Xuzhou Construction Machinery Group Co., Ltd. (XCMG) |- | LXK || Shanghai Meitian Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LXM || Xiamen Xiashing Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (SYM) |- | LXN || Link Tour |- | LXV || Beijing Borgward Automotive Co., Ltd. |- | LXW || JMC - Ford |- | LXY || Chongqing Shineray Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LX6 || Jiangmen City Huari Group Co. Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LX8 || Chongqing Xgjao (Xinganjue) Motorcycle Co Ltd. |- | LYB || Weichai (Yangzhou) Yaxing Automobile Co., Ltd. |- | LYD || Taizhou City Kaitong Motorcycle Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LYJ || Beijing ZhongdaYanjing Auto Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | LYM || Zhuzhou Jianshe Yamaha Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | LYS || Nanjing Vmoto Manufacturing Co. Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LYU || Huansu (BAIC Motor & Yinxiang Group) |- | LYV || Volvo Cars Chengdu factory & Luqiao factory |- | LY4 || Chongqing Yingang Science & Technology Group Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | LZE || Isuzu Guangzhou, China |- | LZF || SAIC Iveco Hongyan (-2021), SAIC Hongyan (2021-) |- | LZG || Shaanxi Automobile Group (Shacman) |- | LZK || Sinotruk (CNHTC) Huanghe bus |- | LZL || Zengcheng Haili Motorcycle Ltd. |- | LZM || MAN China |- | LZP || Zhongshan Guochi Motorcycle (Baotian) |- | LZS || Zongshen, Electra Meccanica Vehicles Corp. (Solo) made by Zongshen |- | LZU || Guangzhou Isuzu Bus |- | LZW || SAIC-GM-Wuling (Wuling, Baojun, Chevrolet [for export]) |- | LZY || Yutong Bus Co., Ltd. |- | LZZ || Sinotruk (CNHTC) (Howo, Sitrak) |- | LZ0 || Shandong Wuzheng Group Co., Ltd. |- | LZ4 || Jiangsu Linzhi Shangyang Group Co Ltd. |- | LZ9/LZX || Raysince |- | L0N || Ezytrail (camper trailers) |- | L1K || Chongqing Hengtong Bus Co., Ltd. |- | L1N || XPeng Motors |- | L10 || Geely Emgrand |- | L2B || Jiangsu Baodiao Locomotive Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | L2C || Chery Jaguar Land Rover |- | L3H || Shanxi Victory Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |- | L37 || Huzhou Daixi Zhenhua Technology Trade Co., Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | L4B || Xingyue Group (motorcycles) |- | L4F || Suzhou Eagle Electric Vehicle Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |- | L4H || Ningbo Longjia Motorcycle Co., Ltd. |- | L4S || Zhejiang Xingyue Vehicle Co Ltd. (motorcycles) |- | L4Y || Qingqi Group Ningbo Rhon Motorcycle / Ningbo Dalong Smooth Locomotive Industry Co., Ltd. |- | L5C || Zhejiang Kangdi Vehicles Co., Ltd. (motorcycles, ATVs) |- | L5E || Zoomlion Heavy Industry Science & Technology Co., Ltd. |- | L5K || Zhejiang Yongkang Easy Vehicle |- | L5N || Zhejiang Taotao (ATV & motorcycles) |- | L5Y || Taizhou Zhongneng Motorcycle Co. Ltd. (Znen) |- | L6F || Shandong Liangzi Power Co. Ltd. |- | L6J || Zhejiang Kayo Motor Co. Ltd. (ATV) |- | L6K || Shanghai Howhit Machinery Manufacture Co. Ltd. |- | L6T || Geely, Lynk & Co, Zeekr |- | L66 || Zhuhai Granton Bus and Coach Co. Ltd. |- | L82 || Baotian |- | L85 || Zhejiang Yongkang Huabao Electric Appliance |- | L8A || Jinhua Youngman Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |- | L8X || Zhejiang Summit Huawin Motorcycle |- | L8Y || Zhejiang Jonway Motorcycle Manufacturing Co., Ltd. |- | L9G || Zhuhai Guangtong Automobile Co., Ltd. (bus) |- | L9N || Zhejiang Taotao Vehicles Co., Ltd. |- | MAA || India Kawasaki Motors Pvt. Ltd. |- | MAB || Mahindra & Mahindra |- | MAC || Mahindra & Mahindra |- | MAH || Fiat India Automobiles Pvt. Ltd |- | MAJ || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] India |- | MAK || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Cars India |- | MAL || Hyundai Motor India |- | MAN || Eicher Polaris Multix |- | MAT || Tata Motors, Rover CityRover |- | MA1 || Mahindra & Mahindra |- | MA3 || Maruti Suzuki India (domestic & export) |- | MA6 || GM India |- | MA7 || Hindustan Motors Ltd. & Mitsubishi Motors & Isuzu models made by Hindustan Motors |- | MA8 || Daewoo Motor India |- | MBF || Royal Enfield |- | MBH || Suzuki (for export) & Nissan Pixo made by Maruti Suzuki India Limited |- | MBJ || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Kirloskar Motor Pvt. Ltd. |- | MBK || MAN Trucks India Pvt. Ltd. |- | MBL || Hero MotoCorp |- | MBR || Mercedes-Benz India |- | MBU || Swaraj Vehicles Limited |- | MBV || Premier Automobiles Ltd. |- | MBX || Piaggio India (Piaggio Ape) |- | MBY || Asia Motor Works Ltd. |- | MB1 || Ashok Leyland |- | MB2 || Hyundai Motor India (SUV) |- | MB7 || Reva Electric Car Company/Mahindra Reva Electric Vehicles Pvt. Ltd. |- | MB8 || Suzuki Motorcycle India Limited |- | MCA || FCA India Automobiles Pvt. Ltd. (Fiat, Jeep) |- | MCB || GM India |- | MCD || Mahindra Two Wheelers |- | MCG || Atul Auto Ltd. |- | MCL || International Cars And Motors Ltd. |- | MC1 || Force Motors Ltd. |- | MC2 || Eicher Motors Ltd./Volvo Eicher Commercial Vehicles Ltd. |- | MC4 || Dilip Chhabria Design Pvt Ltd. |- | MC9/RE1 || Reva Electric Car Company (Reva G-Wiz) |- | MDE || Kinetic Engineering Limited |- | MDH || Nissan Motor India Pvt Ltd. (including Datsun) |- | MDT || Kerala Automobiles Limited |- | MD2 || Bajaj Auto Ltd. & KTM and Husqvarna motorcycles built by Bajaj & Indian-market Triumph motorcycles built by Bajaj |- | MD6 || TVS Motor Company |- | MD7 || LML Ltd including Genuine Scooter Company Stella |- | MD9 || Shuttle Cars India |- | MEC || Daimler India Commercial Vehicles (BharatBenz) |- | MEE || Renault India Private Limited |- | MEG || Harley-Davidson India |- | MER || Benelli India |- | MES || Mahindra Navistar |- | MET || Piaggio India (Vespa, Indian-market Aprilia) |- | MEX || Škoda Auto Volkswagen India Pvt. Ltd. 2015 on |- | ME1 || India Yamaha Motor Pvt. Ltd. |- | ME3 || Royal Enfield |- | ME4 || Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India |- | MYH || Ather Energy |- | MZB || Kia India Pvt. Ltd. |- | MZD || Classic Legends Private Limited – Jawa |- | MZZ || Citroen India (PCA Automobiles India Private Limited) |- | MZ7 || MG Motor India Pvt. Ltd. |- | M3G || Isuzu Motors India |- | M6F || UM Lohia Two Wheelers Private Limited |- | ME9/ || BUYMYEV TECHNOLOGY PVT. LTD. (Indibike) |- | MF3 || PT Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Indonesia |- | MHB || PT Nissan Motor Indonesia |- | MHD || PT Indomobil Suzuki International |- | MHF || PT [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing Indonesia |- | MHK || PT Astra Daihatsu Motor (includes Toyotas made by Astra Daihatsu) |- | MHL || PT Mercedes-Benz Indonesia |- | MHR || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Indonesia (PT Honda Prospect Motor) (car) |- | MHY || PT Suzuki Indomobil Motor (car, MPV, van) |- | MH1 || PT Astra Honda Motor (motorcycle) |- | MH3 || PT Yamaha Indonesia Motor Mfg. |- | MH4 || PT Kawasaki Motor Indonesia |- | MH8 || PT Suzuki Indomobil Motor (motorcycle) |- | MJB || GM Indonesia |- | MKF || PT Sokonindo Automobile (DFSK) |- | MK2 || PT Mitsubishi Motors Krama Yudha Indonesia |- | MK3 || PT SGMW Motor Indonesia (Wuling) |- | MLB || Siam Yamaha Co Ltd. |- | MLC || Thai Suzuki Motor Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | MLE || Thai Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd. |- | MLH || Thai [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | MLW || Sco Motor Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) |- | MLY || Harley-Davidson Thailand |- | ML0 || Ducati Motor (Thailand) Co., Ltd. |- | ML3 || Mitsubishi Motors, Dodge Colt 100 [Canada], [[w:Dodge Attitude#Third generation (A10; 2015)|Dodge Attitude]] [Mexico] made by Mitsubishi (Thailand) |- | ML5 || Kawasaki Motors Enterprise Co. Ltd. (Thailand) |- | MMA || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) |- | MMB || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) |- | MMC || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) |- | MMD || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) |- | MME || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) |- | MMF || BMW Manufacturing (Thailand) Co., Ltd. |- | MML || MG Thailand (SAIC-CP) |- | MMM || Chevrolet Thailand, Holden Colorado RC pickup |- | MMR || Subaru/Tan Chong Subaru Automotive (Thailand) Co. Ltd. |- | MMS || Suzuki Motor (Thailand) Co., Ltd. (passenger car) |- | MMT || Mitsubishi Motors (Thailand) |- | MMU || Holden Thailand (Colorado RG, Colorado 7, & Trailblazer) |- | MM0, MM6, MM7, MM8 || Mazda Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) |- | MNA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) for Australia/New Zealand export |- | MNB || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) for other right-hand drive markets |- | MNC || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford-Mazda AutoAlliance Thailand plant) for left-hand drive markets |- | MNK || Hino Motors Manufacturing Thailand Co Ltd. |- | MNT || Nissan Motor (Thailand) Co., Ltd. |- | MNU || Great Wall Motor Manufacturing (Thailand) Co., Ltd. |- | MN3 || Eagle Vista [Canada] made by Mitsubishi (Thailand) |- | MPA || Isuzu Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd. & Holden Rodeo RA pickup made by Isuzu in Thailand |- | MPB || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Thailand (Ford Thailand Manufacturing plant) |- | MP1 || Isuzu Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd. |- | MP2 || Mazda BT-50 pickup built by Isuzu Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd. |- | MP3 || Plymouth Colt 100 [Canada] made by Mitsubishi (Thailand) |- | MP5 || Foton Motor Thailand |- | MRH || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Thailand (car) |- | MRT || Neta (Hozon Auto) made by Bangchan General Assembly Co., Ltd. |- | MR0 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand (pickups & Fortuner SUV) |- | MR1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand |- | MR2 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand (Gateway plant) (passenger cars & CUVs) |- | MR3 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Thailand (Hilux Champ chassis cab) |- | MS0 || [[../SUPER SEVEN STARS MOTORS INDUSTRY CO.,LTD/VIN Codes|Super Seven Stars Motors]] Myanmar |- | MS1 || [[../SUPER SEVEN STARS AUTOMOTIVE CO.,LTD/VIN Codes|Super Seven Stars Automotive]] Myanmar |- | MS3 || Suzuki Myanmar Motor Co., Ltd. |- | MXB || Saryarka AvtoProm bus (Kazakhstan) |- | MXL || Yutong bus made by Qaz Tehna (Kazakhstan) |- | MXV || IMZ-Ural Ural Motorcycles (Kazakhstan) |- | MX3 || Hyundai Trans Auto (Kazakhstan) |- | NAA || Iran Khodro (Peugeot Iran) |- | NAC || Mammut (truck trailers) |- | NAD || Škoda |- | NAL || Maral Sanat Jarvid (truck trailers) |- | NAP || Pars Khodro |- | NAS || SAIPA |- | NC0 || Oghab Afshan (bus) |- | NC9/ || VIRA Diesel |- | ND9/345 || Oghab Afshan (bus) |- | NFB || Honda Atlas Cars Pakistan Ltd. |- | NG3 || Lucky Motor Corporation |- | NLA || Honda Turkiye A.S. cars |- | NLC || Askam Kamyon Imalat Ve Ticaret A.S. |- | NLE || Mercedes-Benz Türk A.S. Truck |- | NLF || Koluman Otomotiv Endustri A.S. (truck trailer) |- | NLH || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Assan Otomotiv car/SUV |- | NLJ || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Assan Otomotiv van |- | NLN || Karsan |- | NLR || Otokar |- | NLT || Temsa |- | NLZ || Tezeller |- | NL1 || TOGG |- | NL2 || HABAS/HBS (bus) |- | NMA || MAN Türkiye A.Ş. |- | NMB || Mercedes-Benz Türk A.S. Buses |- | NMC || BMC Otomotiv Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. |- | NMH || Honda Anadolu motorcycle |- | NMS || Otoyol San. A.Ş. |- | NMT || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing Turkey |- | NM0 || Ford Otosan |- | NM1 || Oyak Renault Otomobil Fabrikaları A.Ş. |- | NM4 || Tofaş (Turk Otomobil Fabrikasi AS) |- | NNA || Anadolu Isuzu |- | NNN || Gépébus Oréos 4X (based on Otokar Vectio) |- | NNY || Yeksan (truck trailer) |- | NPM || Seyit Usta Treyler (truck trailer) |- | NPR || Oztreyler (truck trailer) |- | NPS || Nursan (truck trailer) |- | NP8|| ÖZGÜL TREYLER (truck trailer) |- | NP9/002 || OKT Trailer (truck trailer) |- | NP9/003 || Aksoylu Trailer (truck trailer) |- | NP9/011 || Güleryüz (bus) |- | NP9/021 || Dogumak (truck trailer) |- | NP9/022 || Alim (truck trailer) |- | NP9/042 || Ali Rıza Usta (truck trailer) |- | NP9/066 || Makinsan (truck trailer) |- | NP9/093 || BRF Trailer (truck trailer) |- | NP9/103 || Türkkar (bus) |- | NP9/106 || Çarsan Treyler (truck trailer) |- | NP9/107 || Arbus Perfect (bus) |- | NP9/108 || Guven Makina (truck trailer) |- | NP9/117 || Katmerciler (truck trailer) |- | NP9/300 || TCV (bus) |- | NP9/258 || Ceytrayler (truck trailer) |- | NP9/306 || Cryocan (truck trailer) |- | NRE || Bozankaya |- | NRX || Musoshi |- | NRY || Pilotcar Otomotiv |- | NR9/012 || Doğan Yıldız (truck trailer) |- | NR9/028 || Micansan (truck trailer) |- | NR9/029 || Yilteks (truck trailer) |- | NR9/034 || Akia (bus) |- | NR9/084 || Harsan (truck trailer) |- | NR9/257 || Vega Trailer (truck trailer) |- | NSA || SamAvto / SAZ (Uzbekistan) |- | NS2 || JV MAN Auto - Uzbekistan |- | NVA || Khazar (IKCO Dena made in Azerbaijan) |- | PAB || Isuzu Philippines Corporation |- | PAD || Honda Cars Philippines |- | PE1 || Ford Motor Company Philippines |- | PE3 || Mazda Philippines made by Ford Motor Company Philippines |- | PFD || Hyundai Motor Group Innovation Center in Singapore (HMGICS) |- | PL1 || Proton, Malaysia |- | PL8 || Inokom-Hyundai |- | PLP || Subaru/Tan Chong Motor Assemblies, Malaysia |- | PLZ || Isuzu Malaysia |- | PMA || MAN Truck & Bus Malaysia |- | PMH || Honda Malaysia (car) |- | PMK || Honda Boon Siew (motorcycle) |- | PML || Hicom |- | PMN || Modenas |- | PMS || Suzuki Assemblers Malaysia (motorcycle) |- | PMV || Hong Leong Yamaha Motor Sdn. Bhd. |- | PMY || Hong Leong Yamaha Motor Sdn. Bhd. |- | PM1 || BMW & Mini/Inokom |- | PM2 || Perodua |- | PM9/ || Bufori |- | PNA || Naza/Kia/Peugeot |- | PNA || Stellantis Gurun (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. (Peugeot) |- | PNS || SKSBUS Malaysia (bus) |- | PNS || TMSBUS Malaysia (bus) |- | PNV || Volvo Car Manufacturing Malaysia |- | PN1 || UMW Toyota Motor |- | PN2 || UMW Toyota Motor |- | PN8 || Nissan/Tan Chong Motor Assemblies, Malaysia |- | PPP || Suzuki |- | PPV || Volkswagen/HICOM Automotive Manufacturers (Malaysia) |- | PP1 || Mazda/Inokom |- | PP3 || Hyundai/Inokom |- | PRA || Sinotruk |- | PRH || Chery (by Chery Alado Holdings [joint venture] at Oriental Assemblers plant) |- | PRX || Kia/Inokom |- | PR8 || Ford |- | PRN || GAC Trumpchi made by Warisan Tan Chong Automotif Malaysia |- | PV3 || Ford made by RMA Automotive Cambodia |- | RA1 || Steyr Trucks International FZE, UAE |- | RA9/015 || Al-Assri Industries (Trailers), UAE |- | LFA || Ford Lio Ho Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Taiwan) |- | LM1 || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Suzuki motorcycle made by Tai Ling) (Taiwan) |- | LM4 || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Suzuki ATV made by Tai Ling) (Taiwan) |- | LN1 || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. old designation (Suzuki motorcycle made by Tai Ling) (Taiwan) |- | LPR || Yamaha Motor Taiwan Co. Ltd. old designation (Taiwan) |- | RFB || Kwang Yang Motor Co., Ltd. (Kymco), Taiwan |- | RFC || Taiwan Golden Bee |- | RFD || Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd. new designation (Taiwan) |- | RFG || Sanyang Motor Co., Ltd. (SYM) Taiwan |- | RFL || Her Chee Industrial Co., Ltd. (Adly), Taiwan |- | RFT || CPI Motor Company, Taiwan |- | RFV || Motive Power Industry Co., Ltd. (PGO Scooters including Genuine Scooter Company models made by PGO) (Taiwan) |- | RF3 || Aeon Motor Co., Ltd., Taiwan |- | RF5 || Yulon Motor Co. Ltd., Taiwan (Luxgen) |- | RF8 || EVT Technology Co., Ltd (motorcycle) |- | RGS || Kawasaki made by Kymco (Taiwan) |- | RHA || Ford Lio Ho Motor Co Ltd. new designation (Taiwan) |- | RKJ || Prince Motors Taiwan |- | RKL || Kuozui Motors (Toyota) (Taiwan) |- | RKM || China Motor Corporation (Taiwan) |- | RKR || Yamaha Motor Taiwan Co. Ltd. new designation |- | RKT || Access Motor Co., Ltd. (Taiwan) |- | RK3 || E-Ton Power Tech Co., Ltd. (motorcycle) (Taiwan) |- | RK3 || Honda Taiwan |- | RK7 || Kawasaki ATV made by Tai Ling Motor Co Ltd (rebadged Suzuki ATV) new designation (Taiwan) |- | RLA || Vina Star Motors Corp. – Mitsubishi (Vietnam) |- | RLC || Yamaha Motor Vietnam Co. Ltd. |- | RLE || Isuzu Vietnam Co. |- | RLH || Honda Vietnam Co. Ltd. |- | RLL || VinFast SUV |- | RLM || Mercedes-Benz Vietnam |- | RLN || VinFast |- | RLV || Vietnam Precision Industrial CO., Ltd. (Can-Am DS 70 & DS 90) |- | RL0 || Ford Vietnam |- | RL4 || Toyota Motor Vietnam |- | RP8 || Piaggio Vietnam Co. Ltd. |- | RUN || Sollets-Auto ST6 (Russia) |- | R1J || Jiayuan Power (Hong Kong) Ltd. (Electric Low-Speed Vehicles) (Hong Kong) |- | R1N || Niu Technologies Group Ltd. (Hong Kong) |- | R10 || ZAP (HK) Co. Ltd. |- | R19/003 || GMI (bus) (Hong Kong) |- | R2P || Evoke Electric Motorcycles (Hong Kong) |- | R3M || Mangosteen Technology Co., Ltd. (Hong Kong) |- | R36 || HK Shansu Technology Co., Ltd. (Hong Kong) |- | R4N || Elyx Smart Technology Holdings (Hong Kong) Ltd. |- | R82 || Hangzhou Lantu Technology Co., Ltd. (Hong Kong) |- | SAA || Austin |- | SAB || Optare (1985-2020), Switch Mobility (2021-) |- | SAD || Daimler Company Limited (until April 1987) |- | SAD || Jaguar SUV (E-Pace, F-Pace, I-Pace) |- | SAF || ERF trucks |- | SAH || Honda made by Austin Rover Group |- | SAJ || Jaguar passenger car & Daimler passenger car (after April 1987) |- | SAL || [[../Land Rover/VIN Codes|Land Rover]] |- | SAM || Morris |- | SAR || Rover & MG Rover Group |- | SAT || Triumph car |- | SAX || Austin-Rover Group including Sterling Cars |- | SAY || Norton Motorcycles |- | SAZ || Freight Rover |- | SA3 || Ginetta Cars |- | SA9/ || OX Global |- | SA9/A11 || Morgan Roadster (V6) (USA) |- | SA9/J00 || Morgan Aero 8 (USA) |- | SA9/004 || Morgan (4-wheel passenger cars) |- | SA9/005 || Panther |- | SA9/010 || Invicta S1 |- | SA9/011 || Midas Cars |- | SA9/019 || TVR |- | SA9/022 || Triking Sports Cars |- | SA9/026 || Fleur de Lys |- | SA9/038 || DAX Cars |- | SA9/039 || Westfield Sportscars |- | SA9/048 || McLaren F1 |- | SA9/050 || Marcos Engineering |- | SA9/062 || AC Cars (Brooklands Ace) |- | SA9/068 || Johnston Sweepers |- | SA9/073 || Tomita Auto UK (Tommykaira ZZ) |- | SA9/074 || Ascari |- | SA9/088 || Spectre Angel |- | SA9/105 || Mosler Europe Ltd. |- | SA9/113 || Noble |- | SA9/130 || MG Sport and Racing |- | SA9/141 || Wrightbus |- | SA9/202 || Morgan 3-Wheeler, Super 3 |- | SA9/207 || Radical Sportscars |- | SA9/211 || BAC (Briggs Automotive Company Ltd.) |- | SA9/225 || Paneltex (truck trailer) |- | SA9/231 || Peel Engineering |- | SA9/337 || Ariel |- | SA9/341 || Zenos |- | SA9/438 || Charge Cars |- | SA9/458 || Gordon Murray Automotive |- | SA9/474 || Mellor (bus) |- | SA9/612 || Tiger Racing (kit car) |- | SA9/621 || AC Cars (Ace) |- | SBB || Leyland Vehicles |- | SBC || Iveco Ford Truck |- | SBF || Nugent (trailer) |- | SBJ || Leyland Bus |- | SBL || Leyland Motors & Leyland DAF |- | SBM || McLaren |- | SBS || Scammell |- | SBU || United Trailers (truck trailer) |- | SBV || Kenworth & Peterbilt trucks made by Leyland Trucks |- | SBW || Weightlifter Bodies (truck trailer) |- | SB1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing UK |- | SCA || Rolls Royce passenger car |- | SCB || Bentley passenger car |- | SCC || Lotus Cars & Opel Lotus Omega/Vauxhall Lotus Carlton |- | SCD || Reliant Motors |- | SCE || DeLorean Motor Cars N. Ireland (UK) |- | SCF || Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd. passenger car & '21 DBX SUV |- | SCG || Triumph Engineering Co. Ltd. (original Triumph Motorcycle company) |- | SCK || Ifor Williams Trailers |- | SCM || Manitowoc Cranes - Grove |- | SCR || London Electric Vehicle Company & London Taxi Company & London Taxis International |- | SCV || Volvo Truck & Bus Scotland |- | SC5 || Wrightbus (from ~2020) |- | SC6 || INEOS Automotive SUV |- | SDB || Talbot |- | SDC || SDC Trailers Ltd. (truck trailer) |- | SDF || Dodge Trucks – UK 1981–1984 |- | SDG || Renault Trucks Industries 1985–1992 |- | SDK || Caterham Cars |- | SDL || TVR |- | SDP || NAC MG UK & MG Motor UK Ltd. |- | SDU || Utility (truck trailer) |- | SD7 || Aston Martin SUV |- | SD8 || Moke International Ltd. |- | SED || IBC Vehicles (General Motors Luton Plant) (Opel/Vauxhall, 1st gen. Holden Frontera, Isuzu Midi) |- | SEG || Dennis Eagle Ltd., including Renault Trucks Access and D Access |- | SEP || Don-Bur (truck trailer) |- | SEY || LDV Group Ltd. |- | SFA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] UK |- | SFD || Dennis UK / Alexander Dennis |- | SFE || Alexander Dennis UK |- | SFR || Fruehauf (truck trailer) |- | SFN || Foden Trucks |- | SFZ || Tesla Roadster made by Lotus |- | SGA || Avondale (caravans) |- | SGB || Bailey (caravans) |- | SGD || Swift Group Ltd. (caravans) |- | SGE || Elddis (caravans) |- | SGL || Lunar Caravans Ltd. |- | SG4 || Coachman (caravans) |- | SHH || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] UK passenger car |- | SHS || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] UK SUV |- | SH7 || INEOS Automotive truck |- | SJA || Bentley SUV |- | SJB || Brian James Trailers Ltd |- | SJK || Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK - Infiniti |- | SJN || Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK - Nissan |- | SJ1 || Ree Automotive |- | SKA || Vauxhall |- | SKB || Kel-Berg Trailers & Trucks |- | SKF || Bedford Vehicles |- | SKL || Anaig (UK) Technology Ltd |- | SLA || Rolls Royce SUV |- | SLC || Thwaites Dumpers |- | SLG || McMurtry Automotive |- | SLN || Niftylift |- | SLP || JC Bamford Excavators Ltd. |- | SLV || Volvo bus |- | SMR || Montracon (truck trailer) |- | SMT || Triumph Motorcycles Ltd. (current Triumph Motorcycle company) |- | SMW || Cartwright (truck trailer) |- | SMX || Gray & Adams (truck trailer) |- | SNE || Barkas (East Germany) |- | SNE || Wartburg (East Germany) |- | SNT || Trabant (East Germany) |- | SNZ || MZ (motorcycle) (Germany) |- | SPE || B-ON GmbH (Germany) |- | ST3 || Calabrese (truck trailer) |- | SUA || Autosan (bus) |- | SUB || Tramp Trail (trailer) |- | SUC || Wiola (trailer) |- | SUD || Wielton (truck trailers) |- | SUF || FSM/Fiat Auto Poland (Polski Fiat) |- | SUG || Mega Trailers (truck trailer) (Poland) |- | SUJ || Jelcz (Poland) |- | SUL || FSC (Poland) |- | SUM || Novatrail (truck trailers) |- | SUP || FSO/Daewoo-FSO (Poland) |- | SUU || Solaris Bus & Coach (Poland) |- | SU9/AR1 || Emtech (truck trailer) |- | SU9/BU1 || BODEX (truck trailer) |- | SU9/DE2 || Demarco (truck trailer) |- | SU9/EB1 || Elbo (truck trailer) |- | SU9/EZ1 || Enerco (truck trailer) |- | SU9/NC5 || Zasta (truck trailer) |- | SU9/NJ1 || Janmil (truck trailer) |- | SU9/PL1 || Plandex (truck trailer) |- | SU9/PN1 || Solaris Bus & Coach (Poland) - until 2004 |- | SU9/RE1 || Redos (truck trailer) |- | SU9/RE2 || Gromex (trailer) |- | SU9/TR1 || Plavec (truck trailer) |- | SU9/YV1 || Pilea bus/ARP E-Vehicles (Poland) |- | SU9/ZC1 || Wolf (truck trailer) |- | SVH || ZASŁAW (truck trailer) |- | SVM || Inter Cars (truck trailer) |- | SVS || BODEX (truck trailer) |- | SV9/BC2 || BC-LDS (truck trailer) |- | SV9/DR1 || Dromech (truck trailer) |- | SV9/RN1 || Prod-Rent (truck trailer) |- | SWH || Temared (trailers) |- | SWR || Weekend Trailers (trailers) |- | SWV || TA-NO (Poland) |- | SWZ || Zremb (trailers) |- | SW9/BA1 || Solbus |- | SW9/WG3 || Grew / Opalenica (trailer) |- | SXE || Neptun Trailers |- | SXK || Konar (truck trailer) |- | SXM || MELEX Sp. z o.o. |- | SXY || Wecon (truck trailer) |- | SXX || Martz (trailer) |- | SX7 || Arthur Bus |- | SX9/GR0 || GRAS (truck trailer) |- | SX9/KT1 || AMZ - Kutno (bus) |- | SX9/PN1 || Polkon (truck trailer) |- | SX9/SP1 || SOMMER Polska (truck trailer) |- | SYB || Rydwan (trailer) |- | SYG || Gniotpol, GT Trailers Sp. z o. o. (truck trailer) |- | SY1 || Neso Bus (PAK-PCE Polski Autobus Wodorowy) |- | SY9/FR1 || Feber (truck trailer) |- | SY9/PF1 || KEMPF (truck trailer) |- | SZA || Scania Poland |- | SZC || Vectrix (motorcycle) |- | SZL || Boro Trailers |- | SZN || Przyczepy Głowacz (trailer) |- | SZR || Niewiadów (trailer) |- | SZ9/AE6 || Gewe (trailer) |- | SZ9/BG1 || GALA Syriusz (trailer) |- | SZ9/PW1 || PRO-WAM (truck trailer) |- | SZ9/TU1 || Ovibos (truck trailer) |- | S19/AM0 || AMO Plant (bus) (Latvia) |- | S19/EF1 || Electrify (minibus) (Latvia) |- | S19/MT0 || Mono-Transserviss (truck trailer) (Latvia) |- | TAW || NAW Nutzfahrzeuggesellschaft Arbon & Wetzikon AG (Switzerland) |- | TBS || Boschung AG (Switzerland) |- | TCC || Micro Compact Car AG (smart 1998-1999) (Switzerland) |- | TDM || QUANTYA Swiss Electric Movement (Switzerland) |- | TEB || Bucher Municipal AG (includes Johnston Sweepers) (Switzerland) |- | TEM || Twike (SwissLEM AG) (Switzerland) |- | TFH || FHS Frech-Hoch AG (truck trailer) (Switzerland) |- | TH9/512 || Hess AG (bus, trolleybus) (Switzerland) |- | TJ5 || Vezeko (trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TKP || Panav a.s. (truck trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TKX || Agados s.r.o. (trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TKY || Metaco (truck trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TK9/AH3 || Atmos Chrást s.r.o. (Czech Republic) |- | TK9/AP3 || Agados, spol. s.r.o. (trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TK9/HP1 || Hipocar (truck trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TK9/PP7 || Paragan Trucks (truck trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TK9/SL5 || SOR Libchavy buses (Czech Republic) |- | TK9/SS5 || SVAN Chrudim (truck trailer) (Czech Republic) |- | TLJ || Jawa Moto (Czech Republic) |- | TMA || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Motor Manufacturing Czech |- | TMB || Škoda Auto|Škoda (Czech Republic) |- | TMC || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] Motor Manufacturing Czech (SUV) |- | TMK || Karosa (Czech Republic) |- | TMP || Škoda trolleybuses (Czech Republic) |- | TMT || Tatra passenger car (Czech Republic) |- | TM9/CA2 || Oasa bus (Oprava a stavba automobilů) (Czech Republic) |- | TM9/SE3 || Škoda Transportation trolleybuses (Czech Republic) |- | TM9/SE4 || Škoda Transportation trolleybuses (Czech Republic) |- | TM9/TE6 || TEDOM bus (Czech Republic) |- | TNA || Avia/Daewoo Avia |- | TNE || TAZ |- | TNG || LIAZ (Liberecké Automobilové Závody) |- | TNT || Tatra trucks |- | TNU || Tatra trucks |- | TN9/EE7 || Ekova (bus) (Czech Republic) |- | TN9/VP5 || VPS (truck trailer) |- | TRA || Ikarus Bus |- | TRC || Csepel bus |- | TRE || Rákos bus |- | TRK || Credo bus/Kravtex (Hungary) |- | TRR || Rába Bus (Hungary) |- | TRU || Audi Hungary (TT/TTS) |- | TSB || Ikarus Bus |- | TSC || VIN assigned by the National Transport Authority of Hungary |- | TSE || Ikarus Egyedi Autobuszgyar (EAG) (Hungary) |- | TSF || Alfabusz (Hungary) |- | TSM || Suzuki Hungary (Magyar Suzuki),<br> Fiat Sedici made by Suzuki, Subaru Justy G3X made by Suzuki, Suzuki Swace made by Toyota UK (TMUK) |- | TSY || Keeway Motorcycles (Hungary) |- | TS9/111 || NABI Autóbuszipari (bus) (Hungary) |- | TS9/130 || Enterprise Bus (Hungary) |- | TS9/131 || MJT bus (Hungary) |- | TS9/156 || Ikarus / ARC (Auto Rad Controlle Kft.) bus (Hungary) |- | TS9/167 || Hungarian Bus Kft. (Hungary) |- | TS9/170 || Csaba Metál bus (Hungary) |- | TT9/117 || Ikarus Egyedi Autobusz Gyarto Kft. / Magyar Autóbuszgyártó Kft. / MABI (Hungary) |- | TT9/123 || Ikarus Global Zrt. (Hungary) |- | TWG || CaetanoBus (Portugal) |- | TW0 || CaetanoBus (Portugal) |- | TW1 || Toyota Caetano Portugal, S.A. (Toyota Coaster, Dyna, Optimo, Land Cruiser 70 Series) |- | TW2 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Lusitana (Portugal) |- | TW4 || UMM (Portugal) |- | TW6 || Citroën (Portugal) |- | TW7 || Mini Moke made by British Leyland & Austin Rover Portugal |- | TX5 || Mini Moke made by Cagiva (Moke Automobili) |- | TX9/046 || Riotrailer (truck trailer) (Portugal) |- | TYA || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corp. Portugal (right-hand drive) |- | TYB || Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corp. Portugal (left-hand drive) |- | T3C || Lohr Backa Topola (truck trailer) (Serbia) |- | T49/BG7 || FAP (Serbia) |- | T49/BH8 || Megabus (bus) (Serbia) |- | T49/BM2 || Feniksbus (minibus) (Serbia) |- | T49/V16 || MAZ made by BIK (bus) (Serbia) |- | T7A || Ebusco (Netherlands) |- | UA1 || AUSA Center (Spain) |- | UA4 || Irizar e-mobility (Spain) |- | UCY || Silence Urban Ecomobility (Spain) |- | UD3 || Granalu truck trailers (Belgium) |- | UHE || Scanvogn (trailer) (Denmark) |- | UHL || Camp-let (recreational vehicle) (Denmark) |- | UH2 || Brenderup (trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH2 || De Forenede Trailerfabrikke (trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH9/DA3 || DAB - Danish Automobile Building (acquired by Scania) (Denmark) |- | UH9/FK1 || Dapa Trailer (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH9/HF1 || HFR Trailer A/S (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH9/HM1 || HMK Bilcon A/S (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH9/NS1 || Nopa (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH9/NT1 || Nordic Trailer (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UH9/VM2 || VM Tarm a/s (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UJG || Garia ApS - Club Car (Denmark) |- | UKR || Hero Camper (Denmark) |- | UMT || MTDK a/s (truck trailer) (Denmark) |- | UN1 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Ireland |- | UN9/089 || Brian Noone Ltd. bus (Ireland) |- | UU1 || Dacia (Romania) |- | UU2 || Oltcit |- | UU3 || ARO |- | UU4 || Roman/Grivbuz |- | UU5 || Rocar |- | UU6 || Daewoo Romania |- | UU7 || Euro Bus Diamond |- | UU9 || Astra Bus |- | UVW || UMM (truck trailer) |- | UV9/AT1 || ATP Trucks, ATP Bus |- | UWR || Robus Reșița |- | UZT || UTB (Uzina de Tractoare Brașov) |- | U1A || Sanos (North Macedonia) |- | U1V || VDL Van Hool Macedonia (North Macedonia) |- | U5Y || Kia Motors Slovakia |- | U59/AS0 || ASKO (truck trailer) |- | U6A || Granus (bus) (Slovakia) |- | U6Y || Kia Motors Slovakia |- | U69/NL1 || Novoplan (bus) (Slovakia) |- | U69/SB1 || SlovBus (bus) |- | U69/TR8 || Troliga Bus (Slovakia) |- | VAG || Steyr-Daimler-Puch Puch G & Steyr-Puch Pinzgauer |- | VAH || Hangler (truck trailer) |- | VAK || Kässbohrer Transport Technik |- | VAN || MAN Austria/Steyr-Daimler-Puch Steyr Trucks |- | VAV || Schwarzmüller |- | VAX || Schwingenschlogel (truck trailer) |- | VA0 || ÖAF, Gräf & Stift |- | VA4 || KSR Group (motorcycle) |- | VA9/GS0 || Gsodam Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer) |- | VA9/ZT0 || Berger Fahrzeugtechnik (truck trailer) |- | VBF || Fit-Zel (trailer) |- | VBK || KTM |- | VBK || Husqvarna Motorcycles & Gas Gas under KTM ownership |- | VCF || Fisker Inc. (Fisker Ocean) made by Magna Steyr |- | VFA || Alpine, Renault Alpine GTA |- | VFG || Caravelair (caravans) |- | VFK || Fruehauf (truck trailers) |- | VFN || Trailor, General Trailers (truck trailers) |- | VF1 || Renault, Mobilize Duo, Eagle Medallion made by Renault, Opel/Vauxhall Arena made by Renault,<br> Mitsubishi ASX, Colt, & Grandis made by Renault |- | VF2 || Renault Trucks |- | VF3 || Peugeot |- | VF4 || Talbot |- | VF5 || Iveco Unic |- | VF6 || Renault Trucks including vans made by Renault S.A. |- | VF7 || Citroën |- | VF8 || Matra Automobiles (Talbot-Matra Murena, Rancho made by Matra, Renault Espace I/II/III, Avantime made by Matra) |- | VF9/024 || Legras Industries (truck trailer) |- | VF9/049 || G. Magyar (truck trailer) |- | VF9/063 || Maisonneuve (truck trailer) |- | VF9/132 || Jean CHEREAU S.A.S. (truck trailer) |- | VF9/300 || EvoBus France |- | VF9/435 || Merceron (truck trailer) |- | VF9/519 || Hommell |- | VF9/607 || Mathieu (sweeper) |- | VF9/673 || Venturi Automobiles |- | VF9/795 || [[../Bugatti/VIN Codes|Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.]] |- | VF9/848 || G. Magyar (truck trailer) |- | VF9/880 || Bolloré Bluebus |- | VF9/938 || SAFRA (bus) |- | VGA || Peugeot Motocycles |- | VGT || ASCA (truck trailers) |- | VGU || Trouillet (truck trailers) |- | VGW || BSLT (truck trailers) |- | VGX || Coder (truck trailers) |- | VGY || Lohr (truck trailers) |- | VG5 || MBK (motorcycles) & Yamaha Motor |- | VG6 || Renault Trucks & Mack Trucks medium duty trucks made by Renault Trucks |- | VG7 || Renault Trucks |- | VG8 || Renault Trucks |- | VG9/019 || Naya (autonomous vehicle) |- | VG9/061 || Alstom-NTL Aptis (bus) |- | VHR || Robuste (truck trailer) |- | VHX || Manitowoc Cranes - Potain |- | VH1 || Benalu SAS (truck trailer) |- | VH8 || Microcar |- | VJR || Ligier |- | VJY || Gruau |- | VJ1 || Heuliez Bus |- | VJ2 || Mia Electric |- | VJ4 || Gruau |- | VKD || Cheval Liberté (horse trailer) |- | VK1 || SEG (truck trailer) |- | VK2 || Grandin Automobiles |- | VK8 || Venturi Automobiles |- | VLG || Aixam-Mega |- | VLU || Scania France |- | VL4 || Bluecar, Citroen E-Mehari |- | VMK || Renault Sport Spider |- | VMS || Automobiles Chatenet |- | VMT || SECMA |- | VMW || Gépébus Oréos 55 |- | VM3 || Lamberet (trailer) |- | VM3 || Chereau (truck trailer) |- | VN1 || Renault SOVAB (France), Opel/Vauxhall Movano A made at SOVAB |- | VN4 || Voxan |- | VNE || Iveco Bus/Irisbus (France) |- | VNK || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Manufacturing France & '11-'13 Daihatsu Charade (XP90) made by TMMF |- | VNV || Nissan made in France by Renault |- | VRW || Goupil |- | VR1 || DS Automobiles |- | VR3 || Peugeot (under Stellantis) |- | VR7 || Citroën (under Stellantis) |- | VPL || Nosmoke S.A.S |- | VP3 || G. Magyar (truck trailers) |- | VXE || Opel Automobile Gmbh/Vauxhall van |- | VXF || Fiat van (Fiat Scudo, Ulysse '22-) |- | VXK || Opel Automobile Gmbh/Vauxhall car/SUV |- | VYC || Lancia Ypsilon (4th gen.) |- | VYE || Jeep Compass (3rd gen. - EU market '26-) |- | VYF || Fiat Doblo '23- & Fiat Topolino '23- & Fiat Grande Panda '25- |- | VYJ || Ram 1200 '25- (sold in Mexico) |- | VYS || Renault & Alpine made by Ampere (Renault 5 E-Tech, Renault 4 E-Tech, Alpine A290) |- | VZ2 || Avtomontaža (bus) (Slovenia) |- | UA2 || Iveco Massif & Campagnola made by Santana Motors in Spain |- | VSA || Mercedes-Benz Spain |- | VSC || Talbot |- | VSE || Santana Motors (Land Rover Series-based models) & Suzuki SJ/Samurai, Jimny, & Vitara made by Santana Motors in Spain |- | VSF || Santana Motors (Anibal/PS-10, 300/350) |- | VSK || Nissan Motor Iberica SA, Nissan passenger car/MPV/van/SUV/pickup & Ford Maverick 1993–1999 |- | VSR || Leciñena (truck trailers) |- | VSS || SEAT/Cupra |- | VSX || Opel Spain |- | VSY || Renault V.I. Spain (bus) |- | VS1 || Pegaso |- | VS5 || Renault Spain |- | VS6 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Spain |- | VS7 || Citroën Spain |- | VS8 || Peugeot Spain |- | VS9/001 || Setra Seida (Spain) |- | VS9/011 || Advanced Design Tramontana |- | VS9/013 || Mirofret (truck trailer) (Spain) |- | VS9/016 || Irizar bus (Spain) |- | VS9/019 || Cobos Hermanos (truck trailer) (Spain) |- | VS9/031 || Carrocerias Ayats (Spain) |- | VS9/032 || Parcisa (truck trailer) (Spain) |- | VS9/044 || Beulas bus (Spain) (Spain) |- | VS9/047 || Indox (truck trailers) (Spain) |- | VS9/052 || Montull (truck trailer) (Spain) |- | VS9/057 || SOR Ibérica (truck trailers) (Spain) |- | VS9/072 || Mecanicas Silva (truck trailer) (Spain) |- | VS9/098 || Sunsundegui bus (Spain) |- | VS9/172 || EvoBus Iberica |- | VS9/917 || Nogebus (Spain) |- | VTD || Montesa Honda (Honda Montesa motorcycle models) |- | VTH || Derbi (motorcycles) |- | VTL || Yamaha Spain (motorcycles) |- | VTM || Montesa Honda (Honda motorcycle models) |- | VTP || Rieju S.A. (motorcycles) |- | VTR || Gas Gas |- | VTT || Suzuki Spain (motorcycles) |- | VVC || SOR Ibérica (truck trailers) |- | VVG || Tisvol (truck trailers) |- | VV1 || Lecitrailer Group (truck trailers) |- | VV5 || Prim-Ball (truck trailers) |- | VV9/ || [[wikipedia:Tauro Sport Auto|TAURO]] Sport Auto Spain |- | VV9/010 || Castrosúa bus (Spain) |- | VV9/125 || Indetruck (truck trailers) |- | VV9/130 || Vectia Mobility bus (Spain) |- | VV9/130 || UNVI bus (Spain) |- | VV9/359|| Hispano-Suiza |- | VWA || Nissan Vehiculos Industriales SA, Nissan Commercial Vehicles |- | VWF || Guillén Group (truck trailers) |- | VWL || Indox (truck trailers) |- | VWV || Volkswagen Spain |- | VXY || Neobus a.d. (Serbia) |- | VX1 || [[w:Zastava Automobiles|Zastava Automobiles]] / [[w:Yugo|Yugo]] (Yugoslavia/Serbia) |- | V1Y || FAS Sanos bus (Yugoslavia/North Macedonia) |- | V2X || Ikarbus a.d. (Serbia) |- | V31 || Tvornica Autobusa Zagreb (TAZ) (Croatia) |- | V34 || Crobus bus (Croatia) |- | V39/AB8 || Rimac Automobili (Croatia) |- | V39/CB3 || Eurobus (Croatia) |- | V39/WB4 || Rasco (machinery) (Croatia) |- | V6A || Bestnet AS; Tiki trailers (Estonia) |- | V6B || Brentex-Trailer (Estonia) |- | V6T || Verge Motorcycles (Estonia) |- | V61 || Respo Trailers (Estonia) |- | WAC || Audi/Porsche RS2 Avant |- | WAF || Ackermann (truck trailer) |- | WAG || Neoplan |- | WAP || Alpina |- | WAU || Audi car |- | WA1 || Audi SUV |- | WBA || BMW car |- | WBC || Boom Trikes |- | WBJ || Bitter Cars |- | WBK || Böcker Maschinenwerke GmbH |- | WBL || Blumhardt (truck trailers) |- | WBS || BMW M car |- | WBU || Bürstner (caravans) |- | WBX || BMW SUV |- | WBY || BMW i car |- | WB0 || Böckmann Fahrzeugwerke GmbH (trailers) |- | WB1 || BMW Motorrad |- | WB2 || Blyss (trailer) |- | WB3 || BMW Motorrad Motorcycles made in India by TVS |- | WB4 || BMW Motorrad Motorscooters made in China by Loncin |- | WB5 || BMW i SUV |- | WCD || Freightliner Sprinter "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 2008–2019 |- | WCM || Wilcox (truck trailer) |- | WDA || Mercedes-Benz incomplete vehicle (North America) |- | WDB || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] & Maybach |- | WDC || Mercedes-Benz SUV |- | WDD || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] car |- | WDF || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] van/pickup (French & Spanish built models – Citan & Vito & X-Class) |- | WDP || Freightliner Sprinter incomplete vehicle 2005–2019 |- | WDR || Freightliner Sprinter MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) 2005–2019 |- | WDT || Dethleffs (caravans) |- | WDW || Dodge Sprinter "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 2008–2009 |- | WDX || Dodge Sprinter incomplete vehicle 2005–2009 |- | WDY || Freightliner Sprinter truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) 2005–2019 |- | WDZ || Mercedes-Benz "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) (North America) |- | WD0 || Dodge Sprinter truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) 2005–2009 |- | WD1 || Freightliner Sprinter 2002 & Sprinter (Dodge or Freightliner) 2003–2005 incomplete vehicle |- | WD2 || Freightliner Sprinter 2002 & Sprinter (Dodge or Freightliner) 2003–2005 truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) |- | WD3 || Mercedes-Benz truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) (North America) |- | WD4 || Mercedes-Benz MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) (North America) |- | WD5 || Freightliner Sprinter 2002 & Sprinter (Dodge or Freightliner) 2003–2005 MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) |- | WD6 || Freightliner Unimog truck |- | WD7 || Freightliner Unimog incomplete vehicle |- | WD8 || Dodge Sprinter MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) 2005–2009 |- | WEB || Evobus GmbH (Mercedes-Benz buses) |- | WEG || Ablinger (trailer) |- | WEL || e.GO Mobile AG |- | WFB || Feldbinder Spezialfahrzeugwerke GmbH |- | WFC || Fendt (caravans) |- | WFD || Fliegl Trailer |- | WFN || Tadano Faun GmbH |- | WF0 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Germany |- | WF1 || Merkur |- | WGB || Göppel Bus GmbH |- | WG0 || Goldhofer AG (truck trailer) |- | WHB || Hobby (recreational vehicles) |- | WHD || Humbaur GmbH (truck trailer) |- | WHL || Hulco (trailer) |- | WHW || Hako GmbH |- | WHY || Hymer (recreational vehicles) |- | WH7 || Hüfferman (truck trailer) |- | WJM || Iveco/Iveco Magirus |- | WJR || Irmscher |- | WKE || Krone (truck trailers) |- | WKK || Setra (Evobus GmbH; formerly Kässbohrer) |- | WKN || Knaus, Weinsberg (caravans) |- | WKV || Kässbohrer Fahrzeugwerke Gmbh (truck trailers) |- | WK0 || Kögel (truck trailers) |- | WLA || Langendorf semi-trailers |- | WLF || Liebherr (mobile crane) |- | WMA || MAN Truck & Bus |- | WME || smart (from 5/99) |- | WMG || Demag Cranes |- | WMM || Karl Müller GmbH & Co. KG (truck trailers) |- | WMP || M & V GmbH (truck trailers) |- | WMU || Hako GmbH (Multicar) |- | WMW || MINI car |- | WMX || Mercedes-AMG used for Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG & Mercedes-AMG GT & Mercedes-AMG One (not used in North America) |- | WMZ || MINI SUV |- | WNA || Next.e.GO Mobile SE |- | WP0 || Porsche car |- | WP1 || Porsche SUV |- | WRA || Renders (truck trailers) |- | WRJ || Riese & Müller (bicycle) |- | WSE || STEMA Metalleichtbau GmbH (trailers) |- | WSJ || STERK Trailers (truck trailers) |- | WSK || Schmitz-Cargobull Gotha (truck trailers) |- | WSM || Schmitz-Cargobull (truck trailers) |- | WSP || Spitzer (truck trailers) |- | WSV || Aebi Schmidt Group |- | WS5 || StreetScooter |- | WS7 || Sono Motors |- | WTA || Tabbert (caravans) |- | WUA || Audi Sport GmbH (formerly quattro GmbH) car |- | WU1 || Audi Sport GmbH (formerly quattro GmbH) SUV |- | WVG || Volkswagen SUV & Touran |- | WVM || Arbeitsgemeinschaft VW-MAN |- | WVP || Viseon Bus |- | WVW || Volkswagen passenger car, Sharan, Golf Plus, Golf Sportsvan |- | WV1 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (cargo van or 1st gen. Amarok) |- | WV2 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (passenger van or minibus) |- | WV3 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (chassis cab) |- | WV4 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (2nd gen. Amarok & T7 Transporter made by Ford) |- | WV5 || Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles (T7 Caravelle made by Ford) |- | WWA || Wachenhut (truck trailer) |- | WWC || WM Meyer (truck trailer) |- | WZ1 || Toyota Supra (Fifth generation for North America) |- | W0D || Obermaier (truck trailer) |- | W0L || Adam Opel AG/Vauxhall & Holden |- | W0L || Holden Zafira & Subaru Traviq made by GM Thailand |- | W0V || Opel Automobile Gmbh/Vauxhall & Holden (since 2017) |- | W04 || Buick Regal & Buick Cascada |- | W06 || Cadillac Catera |- | W08 || Saturn Astra |- | W09/A55 || Artega Automobile |- | W09/A71 || Apollo |- | W09/B09 || Bitter Cars |- | W09/B16 || Brabus |- | W09/B48 || Bultmann (trailer) |- | W09/B91 || Boerner (truck trailer) |- | W09/C09 || Carnehl Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer) |- | W09/D04 || DOLL (truck trailer) |- | W09/D05 || Drögmöller (bus) |- | W09/D17 || Dinkel (truck trailer) |- | W09/E04 || Eder (trailer) |- | W09/E27 || Esterer (truck trailer) |- | W09/E32 || ES-GE (truck trailer) |- | W09/E45 || Eurotank (truck trailer) |- | W09/F46 || FSN Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer) |- | W09/F57 || Twike |- | W09/G10 || GOFA (truck trailer) |- | W09/G64 || Gumpert |- | W09/H10 || Heitling Fahrzeugbau |- | W09/H21|| Dietrich Hisle GmbH (truck trailer) |- | W09/H46 || Hendricks (truck trailer) |- | W09/H49 || H&W Nutzfahrzeugtechnik GmbH (truck trailer) |- | W09/J02 || Isdera |- | W09/K27 || Krupp |- | W09/K27 || Kotschenreuther (truck trailer) |- | W09/L05 || Liebherr |- | W09/L06 || LMC Caravan (recreational vehicles) |- | W09/M08 || MEILLER Kipper (truck trailer) |- | W09/M09 || Meierling (truck trailer) |- | W09/M29 || MAFA (truck trailer) |- | W09/M40 || Franz Mersch (trailer) |- | W09/M79 || MKF Matallbau (truck trailer) |- | W09/N22 || NFP-Eurotrailer (truck trailer) |- | W09/P13 || Pagenkopf (truck trailer) |- | W09/P72 || De Tomaso Automobili (Capricorn) |- | W09/R06 || RUF |- | W09/R14 || Rancke (truck trailer) |- | W09/R27 || Gebr. Recker Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer) |- | W09/R30 || Reisch (truck trailer) |- | W09/R38 || Rewaco |- | W09/SG0 || Sileo (bus) |- | W09/SG1 || SEKA (truck trailer) |- | W09/S24 || Sommer (truck trailer) |- | W09/S25 || Spermann (truck trailer) |- | W09/S27 || Schröder (truck trailer) |- | W09/W11 || Wilken (truck trailer) |- | W09/W14 || Weka (truck trailer) |- | W09/W16 || Wellmeyer (truck trailer) |- | W09/W20 || Kurt Willig GmbH & Co. KG (truck trailer) |- | W09/W29 || Wiese (truck trailer) |- | W09/W35 || Wecon GmbH (truck trailer) |- | W09/W46 || WT-Metall (trailer) |- | W09/W59 || Wiesmann |- | W09/W70 || Wüllhorst (truck trailer) |- | W09/W86 || Web Trailer GmbH (truck trailer) |- | W09/004 || ORTEN Fahrzeugbau (truck trailer) |- | W1A || smart |- | W1H || Freightliner Econic |- | W1K || Mercedes-Benz car |- | W1N || Mercedes-Benz SUV |- | W1T || Mercedes-Benz truck |- | W1V || Mercedes-Benz van |- | W1W || Mercedes-Benz MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) (North America) |- | W1X || Mercedes-Benz incomplete vehicle (North America) |- | W1Y || Mercedes-Benz truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) (North America) |- | W1Z || Mercedes-Benz "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) (North America) |- | W2W || Freightliner Sprinter MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) |- | W2X || Freightliner Sprinter incomplete vehicle |- | W2Y || Freightliner Sprinter truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) |- | W2Z || Freightliner Sprinter "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) |- | XDN || Mercedes Sprinter Classic made by GAZ (Russia) |- | XD2 || CTTM Cargoline (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | XEA || AmberAvto (Avtotor) (Russia) |- | XE2 || AMKAR Automaster (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | XF9/B24 || NK Trailers (truck trailer) (Greece) |- | XF9/D44 || Militsis (trailer) (Greece) |- | XF9/J03 || Christos Nezis (truck trailer) (Greece) |- | XF9/J63 || Kaoussis (truck trailer) (Greece) |- | XG3 || Petros Petropoulos Group - Ecoshift NOOS electric motorscooters (Greece) |- | XG4|| Mpitis (trailer) (Greece) |- | XG5 || Stavropoulos trailers (Greece) |- | XG6 || MGK Hellenic Motor motorcycles (Greece) |- | XG8 || Gorgolis SA motorcycles (Greece) |- | XG9/B01 || Sfakianakis bus Greece |- | XG9/H33 || Rappas Trailer (Greece) |- | XG9/H51 || Eurotrailer Tourlakopoulos (trailer) (Greece) |- | XG9/H92 || Diamantis N. & Co. (trailer) (Greece) |- | XΗ9/B21 || Hellenic Vehicle Industry - ELVO bus Greece |- | XH9/H08 || Poseidonas Litsakis (trailer) (Greece) |- | XH9/H34 || Flexi-Wheels (trailer) (Greece) |- | XJY || Bonum (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | XJ4 || PKTS (PK Transportnye Sistemy) bus (Russia) |- | XKM || Volgabus (Russia) |- | XLA || DAF Bus International |- | XLB || Volvo Car B.V./NedCar B.V. (Volvo Cars) |- | XLC || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Netherlands |- | XLD || Pacton Trailers B.V. |- | XLE || Scania Netherlands |- | XLH || Hapert (trailer) |- | XLJ || Anssems (trailer) |- | XLK || Burg Trailer Service BV (truck trailer) |- | XLR || DAF Trucks & Leyland DAF |- | XLU || Henra (trailer) |- | XLV || DAF Bus |- | XLW || Terberg Benschop BV |- | XL3 || Ebusco |- | XL4 ||Lightyear |- | XL9/001 || ESVE BV (truck trailers) |- | XL9/002 || Jumbo Groenewegen (truck trailers) |- | XL9/003 || Autobusfabriek Bova BV |- | XL9/004 || G.S. Meppel (truck trailers) |- | XL9/007|| Broshuis BV (truck trailer) |- | XL9/010|| Ginaf Trucks |- | XL9/014 || Contar (truck trailer) |- | XL9/017 || Van Eck (truck trailer) |- | XL9/021 || Donkervoort Cars |- | XL9/033 || Wijer (trailer) |- | XL9/039 || Talson (truck trailer) |- | XL9/042 || Den Oudsten Bussen |- | XL9/052 || Witteveen (trailer) |- | XL9/055 || Fripaan (truck trailer) |- | XL9/067 || HTF (truck trailer) |- | XL9/068 || Vogelzang (truck trailer) |- | XL9/069 || Kraker (truck trailer) |- | XL9/070 || Veldhuizen (truck trailers) |- | XL9/073 || Zwalve (truck trailers) |- | XL9/074 || Draco (truck trailers) |- | XL9/081 || EBO van Weel (truck trailers) |- | XL9/084 || Vocol (truck trailers) |- | XL9/089 || Meijvo (trailers) |- | XL9/092 || Bulthuis (truck trailers) |- | XL9/103 || D-TEC (truck trailers) |- | XL9/109|| Groenewold Carrosseriefabriek B.V. (car transporter) |- | XL9/150 || Univan (truck trailer) |- | XL9/251 || Spierings Mobile Cranes |- | XL9/320 || VDL Bova bus |- | XL9/348 || HOKA (trailer) |- | XL9/355 || Berdex (truck trailer) |- | XL9/363 || Spyker |- | XL9/423 || Tijhof (trailer) |- | XL9/461 || BK Market Trailers (trailer) |- | XL9/495 || BE-Combi (truck trailer) |- | XL9/508 || Talson (truck trailer) |- | XL9/527 || GINAF |- | XL9/530 || Ebusco |- | XL9/611 || Zocon (trailer) |- | XMC || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors (LHD) |- | XMD || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors (RHD) |- | XMG || VDL Bus International |- | XMR || Nooteboom Trailers |- | XM4 || RAVO Holding B.V. (sweeper) |- | XNB || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors made by Pininfarina (Colt CZC convertible - RHD) |- | XNC || NedCar B.V. Mitsubishi Motors made by Pininfarina (Colt CZC convertible - LHD) |- | XNJ || Broshuis (truck trailer) |- | XNL || VDL Bus & Coach |- | XNT || Pacton Trailers B.V. (truck trailer) |- | XN1 || Kraker Trailers Axel B.V. (truck trailer) |- | XPN || Knapen Trailers |- | XPP || Atec Trailers |- | XP7 || Tesla Europe (based in the Netherlands) (Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg) |- | XRP || Proline (trailer) |- | XRY || D-TEC (truck trailer) |- | XR7 || Qarry |- | XTA || Lada / AvtoVAZ (Russia) |- | XTB || Moskvitch / AZLK (Russia) |- | XTC || KAMAZ (Russia) |- | XTD || LuAZ (Ukraine) |- | XTE || ZAZ (Ukraine) |- | XTF || GolAZ (Russia) |- | XTH || GAZ (Russia) |- | XTJ || Lada Oka made by SeAZ (Russia) |- | XTK || IzhAvto (Russia) |- | XTM || MAZ (Belarus); used until 1997 |- | XTP || Ural (Russia) |- | XTS || ChMZAP (truck trailer) |- | XTT || UAZ / Sollers (Russia) |- | XTU || Trolza, previously ZiU (Russia) |- | XTW || LAZ (Ukraine) |- | XTY || LiAZ (Russia) |- | XTZ || ZiL (Russia) |- | XUF || General Motors Russia |- | XUS || Nizhegorodets (minibus) (Russia) |- | XUU || Avtotor (Russia, Chevrolet SKD, Kaiyi Auto) |- | XUV || Avtotor (DFSK, SWM) |- | XUZ || InterPipeVAN (truck trailer) |- | XU6 || Avtodom (minibus) (Russia) |- | XVG || MARZ (bus) (Russia) |- | XVU || Start (truck trailer) |- | XW7 || Toyota Motor Manufacturing Russia |- | XW8 || Volkswagen Group Russia |- | XWB || UZ-Daewoo/GM Uzbekistan/Ravon/UzAuto Motors (Uzbekistan) |- | XWB || Avtotor (Russia, BAIC SKD) |- | XWE || Avtotor (Russia, Hyundai-Kia SKD) |- | XWF || Avtotor (Russia, Chevrolet Tahoe/Opel/Cadillac/Hummer SKD) |- | XX3 || Ujet Manufacturing (Luxembourg) |- | XZB || SIMAZ (bus) (Russia) |- | XZE || Specpricep (truck trailer) |- | XZG || Great Wall Motor (Haval Motor Rus) |- | XZP || Gut Trailer (truck trailer) |- | XZT || FoxBus (minibus) (Russia) |- | X1D || RAF (Rīgas Autobusu Fabrika) |- | X1E || KAvZ (Russia) |- | X1F || NefAZ (Russia) |- | X1M || PAZ (Russia) |- | X1P || Ural (Russia) |- | X2L || Fox Trailer (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | X21 || Diesel-S (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | X4K || Volgabus (Volzhanin) (Russia) |- | X4T || Sommer (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | X4X || Avtotor (Russia, BMW SKD) |- | X5A || UralSpetzTrans (trailer) (Russia) |- | X6D || VIS-AVTO (Russia) |- | X6S || TZA (truck trailer) (Russia) |- | X7L || Renault AvtoFramos (1998-2014), Renault Russia (2014-2022), Moskvitch (2022-) (Russia) |- | X7M || [[../Hyundai/VIN Codes|Hyundai]] & Vortex (rebadged Chery) made by TagAZ (Russia) |- | X89/AD4 || ВМЗ (VMZ) bus |- | X89/BF8 || Rosvan bus |- | X89/CU2 || EvoBus Russland (bus) |- | X89/DJ2 || VMK (bus) |- | X89/EY4 || Brabill (minibus) |- | X89/FF6 || Lotos (bus) |- | X89/FY1 || Sherp |- | X8J || IMZ-Ural Ural Motorcycles |- | X8U || Scania Russia |- | X9F || Ford Motor Company ZAO |- | X9L || GM-AvtoVAZ |- | X9N || Samoltor (minibus) |- | X9P || Volvo Vostok ZAO Volvo Trucks |- | X9W || Brilliance, Lifan made by Derways |- | X9X || Great Wall Motors |- | X96 || GAZ |- | X99/000 || Marussia |- | X90 || GRAZ (truck trailer) |- | X0T || Tonar (truck trailer) |- | YAF || Faymonville (special transport trailers) |- | YAG || Syma aanhangwagenbouw BV (trailers) |- | YAM || MAX Trailer (truck trailers) |- | YAR || Toyota Motor Europe (based in Belgium) used for Toyota ProAce, Toyota ProAce City and Toyota ProAce Max made by PSA/Stellantis |- | YA2 || Atlas Copco Group |- | YA5 || Renders (truck trailers) |- | YA9/ || Lambrecht Constructie NV (truck trailers) |- | YA9/111 || OVA (truck trailer) |- | YA9/121 || Atcomex (truck trailer) |- | YA9/128 || EOS (bus) |- | YA9/139 || ATM Maaseik (truck trailer) |- | YA9/168 || Forthomme s.a. (truck trailer) |- | YA9/169 || Automobiles Gillet |- | YA9/180 || EOS (bus) |- | YA9/191 || Stokota (truck trailers) |- | YA9/195 || Denolf & Depla (minibus) |- | YBC || Toyota Supra (Fifth generation for Europe) |- | YBD || Addax Motors |- | YBW || Volkswagen Belgium |- | YB1 || Volvo Trucks Belgium (truck) |- | YB2 || Volvo Trucks Belgium (bus chassis) |- | YB3 || Volvo Trucks Belgium (incomplete vehicle) |- | YB4 || LAG Trailers N.V. (truck trailer) |- | YB6 || Jonckheere (VDL Belgium) |- | YCM || Mazda Motor Logistics Europe (based in Belgium) used for European-market Mazda 121 made by Ford in UK |- | YC1 || Honda Belgium NV (motorcycle) |- | YC3 || Eduard Trailers |- | YD3 || Chateau Caravans (Belgium) |- | YE1 || Van Hool (trailers) (Belgium) |- | YE2 || Van Hool (buses) (Belgium) |- | YE6 || STAS (truck trailer) |- | YE7 || Turbo's Hoet (truck trailer) |- | YF1 || Närko (truck trailer) (Finland) |- | YF3 || NTM (truck trailer) (Finland) |- | YF9/050 || JYKI (truck trailer) (Finland) |- | YGU || JJ-Trailer (trailer) (Finland) |- | YH1 || Solifer (caravans) |- | YH2 || BRP Finland (Lynx snowmobiles) |- | YH4 || Fisker Automotive (Fisker Karma) built by Valmet Automotive |- | YK1 || Saab-Valmet Finland |- | YK2, YK7 || Sisu Auto |- | YK9/003 || Kabus (bus) |- | YK9/008 || Lahden Autokori (-2013), SOE Busproduction Finland (2014-2024) (bus) |- | YK9/016 || Linkker (bus) |- | YSC || Cadillac BLS (made by Saab) |- | YSM || Polestar cars |- | YSP || Volta Trucks AB |- | YSR || Polestar SUV |- | YS2 || Scania commercial vehicles (Södertälje factory) |- | YS3 || Saab cars |- | YS4 || Scania buses and bus chassis until 2002 (Katrineholm factory) |- | YS5 || OmniNova (minibus) |- | YS7 || Solifer (recreational vehicles) |- | YS9/KV1 || Backaryd (minibus) |- | YTN || Saab made by NEVS |- | YT7 || Kabe (recreational vehicles) |- | YT9/007 || Koenigsegg |- | YT9/034 || Carvia |- | YU1 || Fogelsta, Brenderup Group (trailer) |- | YU7 || Husaberg (motorcycles) |- | YVV || WiMa 442 EV |- | YV1 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] cars |- | YV2 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] trucks |- | YV3 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] buses and bus chassis |- | YV4 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo]] SUV |- | YV5 || [[../Volvo/VIN Codes|Volvo Trucks]] incomplete vehicle |- | YYB || Tysse (trailer) (Norway) |- | YYC || Think Nordic (Norway) |- | YY9/017 || Skala Fabrikk (truck trailer) (Norway) |- | Y29/005 || Buddy Electric (Norway) |- | Y3D || MTM (truck trailer) (Belarus) |- | Y3F || Lida Buses Neman (Belarus) |- | Y3J || Belkommunmash (Belarus) |- | Y3K || Neman Bus (Belarus) |- | Y3M || MAZ (Belarus) |- | Y3W || VFV built by Unison (Belarus) |- | Y39/047 || Altant-M (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/051 || Bus-Master (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/052 || Aktriya (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/072 || Klassikbus (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/074 || Alterra (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/135 || EuroDjet (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/240 || Alizana (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/241 || RSBUS (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y39/323 || KF-AVTO (minibus) (Belarus) |- | Y4F || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Belarus |- | Y4K || Geely / BelGee (Belarus) |- | Y6B || Iveco (Ukraine) |- | Y6D || ZAZ / AvtoZAZ (Ukraine) |- | Y6E || LAZ (Ukraine) |- | Y6J || Bogdan group (Ukraine) |- | Y6L || Bogdan group including buses, Hyundai made by Bogdan (Ukraine) |- | Y6U || Škoda Auto made by Eurocar (Ukraine) |- | Y6W || PGFM (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y6Y || LEV (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y69/B19 || Stryi Avto (bus) (Ukraine) |- | Y69/B98 || VESTT (truck trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y69/C49 || TAD (truck trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y69/D75 || Barrel Dash (truck trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y7A || KrAZ trucks (Ukraine) |- | Y7B || Bogdan group (Ukraine) |- | Y7C || Great Wall Motors, Geely made by KrASZ (Ukraine) |- | Y7D || GAZ made by KrymAvtoGAZ (Ukraine) |- | Y7F || Boryspil Bus Factory (BAZ) (Ukraine) |- | Y7S || Korida-Tech (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y7W || Geely made by KrASZ (Ukraine) |- | Y7X || ChRZ - Ruta (minibus) (Ukraine) |- | Y79/A23 || OdAZ (truck trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y79/B21 || Everlast (truck trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y79/B65 || Avtoban (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y8A || LAZ (Ukraine) |- | Y8H || UNV Leader (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y8S || Alekseevka Ximmash (truck trailer) |- | Y8X || GAZ Gazelle made by KrASZ (Ukraine) |- | Y89/A98 || VARZ (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y89/B75 || Knott (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y89/C65 || Electron (Ukraine) |- | Y9A || PAVAM (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y9H || LAZ (Ukraine) |- | Y9M || AMS (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y9T || Dnipro (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y9W || Pragmatec (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y9Z || Lada, Renault made in Ukraine |- | Y99/B32 || Santey (trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y99/E21 || Zmiev-Trans (truck trailer) (Ukraine) |- | Y99/C79 || Electron (bus) (Ukraine) |- | ZAA || Autobianchi |- | ZAA || Alfa Romeo Junior 2024- |- | ZAC || Jeep, Dodge Hornet |- | ZAH || Rolfo SpA (car transporter) |- | ZAJ || Trigano SpA; Roller Team recreational vehicles |- | ZAM || [[../Maserati/VIN Codes|Maserati]] |- | ZAP || Piaggio/Vespa/Gilera |- | ZAR || Alfa Romeo car |- | ZAS || Alfa Romeo Alfasud & Sprint through 1989 |- | ZAS || Alfa Romeo SUV 2018- |- | ZAX || Zorzi (truck trailer) |- | ZA4 || Omar (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/A12 || [[../Lamborghini/VIN Codes|Lamborghini]] through mid-2003 (including LM002) |- | ZA9/A17 || Carrozzeria Luigi Dalla Via (bus) |- | ZA9/A18 || De Simon (bus) |- | ZA9/A33 || Bucher Schörling Italia (sweeper) |- | ZA9/A47 || Silver Car (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/B09 || Mauri Bus System |- | ZA9/B34 || Mistrall Siloveicoli (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/B45 || Bolgan (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/B49 || OMSP Macola (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/B95 || Carrozzeria Autodromo Modena (bus) |- | ZA9/C38 || Dulevo (sweeper) |- | ZA9/D38 || Cizeta Automobili SRL |- | ZA9/D39 || [[../Bugatti/VIN Codes|Bugatti Automobili S.p.A]] |- | ZA9/D50 || Italdesign Giugiaro |- | ZA9/E15 || Tecnobus Industries S.r.l. |- | ZA9/E73 || Sitcar (bus) |- | ZA9/E88 || Cacciamali (bus) |- | ZA9/F16 || OMT (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/F21 || FGM (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/F48 || Rampini Carlo S.p.A. (bus) |- | ZA9/F76 || Pagani Automobili S.p.A. |- | ZA9/G97 || EPT Horus (bus) |- | ZA9/H02 || O.ME.P.S. (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/H44|| Green-technik by Green Produzione s.r.l. (machine trailer) |- | ZA9/J21 || VRV (truck trailer) |- | ZA9/J93 || Barbi (bus) |- | ZA9/K98 || Esagono Energia S.r.l. |- | ZA9/M09 || Italdesign Automobili Speciali |- | ZA9/M27 || Dallara Stradale |- | ZA9/M91 || Automobili Pininfarina |- | ZA9/180 || De Simon (bus) |- | ZA0 || Acerbi (truck trailer) |- | ZBA || Piacenza (truck trailer) |- | ZBB || Bertone |- | ZBD || InBus |- | ZBN || Benelli |- | ZBW || Rayton-Fissore Magnum |- | ZB3 || Cardi (truck trailer) |- | ZCB || E. Bartoletti SpA (truck trailer) |- | ZCF || Iveco / Irisbus (Italy) |- | ZCG || Cagiva SpA / MV Agusta |- | ZCG || Husqvarna Motorcycles Under MV Agusta ownership |- | ZCM || BredaMenarinibus / Menarinibus / IIA (Industria Italiana Autobus) |- | ZCN || Astra Veicoli Industriali S.p.A. |- | ZCV || Vibreti (truck trailer) |- | ZCZ || BredaBus |- | ZC1 || AnsaldoBreda S.p.A. |- | ZC2 || Chrysler TC by Maserati |- | ZDC || Honda Italia Industriale SpA |- | ZDF || [[../Ferrari/VIN Codes|Ferrari]] Dino |- | ZDJ || ACM Biagini |- | ZDM || Ducati Motor Holdings SpA |- | ZDT || De Tomaso Modena SpA |- | ZDY || Cacciamali |- | ZD0 || Yamaha Motor Italia SpA & Belgarda SpA |- | ZD3 || Beta Motor |- | ZD4 || Aprilia |- | ZD5 || Casalini |- | ZEB || Ellebi (trailer) |- | ZEH || Trigano SpA (former SEA Group); McLouis & Mobilvetta recreational vehicles |- | ZES || Bimota |- | ZEX || TM Racing (motorcycle) |- | ZE5 || Carmosino (truck trailer) |- | ZFA || Fiat |- | ZFB || Fiat MPV/SUV & Ram Promaster City |- | ZFC || Fiat truck (Fiat Ducato for Mexico, Ram 1200) |- | ZFE || KL Motorcycle |- | ZFF || [[../Ferrari/VIN Codes|Ferrari]] |- | ZFJ || Carrozzeria Pezzaioli (truck trailer) |- | ZFM || Fantic Motor |- | ZFR || Pininfarina |- | ZF4 || Qvale |- | ZGA || Iveco Bus |- | ZGP || Merker (truck trailer) |- | ZGU || Moto Guzzi |- | ZG2 || FAAM (commercial vehicle) |- | ZHU || Husqvarna Motorcycles Under Cagiva ownership |- | ZHW || [[../Lamborghini/VIN Codes|Lamborghini]] (Mid-2003 – ) |- | ZHZ || Menci SpA (truck trailer) |- | ZH5 || FB Mondial (motorcycle) |- | ZJM || Malaguti |- | ZJN || Innocenti |- | ZJT || Italjet |- | ZKC || Ducati Energia Free Duck (electric quadricycle) |- | ZKH || Husqvarna Motorcycles Srl Under BMW ownership |- | ZLA || Lancia |- | ZLF || Tazzari GL SpA |- | ZLM || Moto Morini srl |- | ZLV || Laverda |- | ZNN || Energica |- | ZN0 || SWM Motorcycles S.r.l. |- | ZN3 || Iveco Defence |- | ZN6 || Maserati SUV |- | ZPB || [[../Lamborghini/VIN Codes|Lamborghini]] SUV |- | ZPY || DR Automobiles |- | ZP6 || XEV |- | ZP8 || Regis Motors |- | ZRG || Tazzari GL Imola SpA |- | ZR1 || Microlino |- | ZSG || [[../Ferrari/VIN Codes|Ferrari]] SUV |- | ZX1 || TAM (Tovarna Avtomobilov Maribor) bus (Slovenia) |- | ZX9/KU0 || K-Bus / Kutsenits (bus) (Slovenia) |- | ZX9/DUR || TAM bus (Slovenia) |- | ZX9/TV0 || TAM (Tovarna Vozil Maribor) bus (Slovenia) |- | ZY1 || Adria (recreational vehicles) (Slovenia) |- | ZY9/002 || Gorica (truck trailer) (Slovenia) |- | ZZ1 || Tomos motorcycle (Slovenia) |- | Z29/555 || Vozila FLuid (truck trailer) (Slovenia) |- | Z39/008 || Autogalantas (truck trailer) (Lithuania) |- | Z39/009 || Patikima Linija / Rimo (truck trailer) (Lithuania) |- | Z6F || Ford Sollers (Russia) |- | Z7C || Luidor (bus) (Russia) |- | Z7N || KAvZ (bus) (Russia) |- | Z7T || RoAZ (bus) (Russia) |- | Z7X || Isuzu Rus (Russia) |- | Z76 || SEMAZ (Kazakhstan) |- | Z8M || Marussia (Russia) |- | Z8N || Nissan Manufacturing Rus (Russia) |- | Z8T || PCMA Rus (Peugeot, Citroen, Mitsubishi) (Russia) |- | Z8Y || Nasteviya (bus) (Russia) |- | Z9B || KuzbassAvto (Hyundai bus) (Russia) |- | Z9M || Mercedes-Benz Trucks Vostok (Russia) |- | Z9N || Samotlor-NN (Iveco) (Russia) |- | Z94 || Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Rus (2008-2023), Solaris Auto - AGR Automotive (2023-) (Russia) |- | Z07 || Volgabus (Russia) |- | 1A4 1A8 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2006–2009 only |- | 1A9/007 || Advance Mixer Inc. |- | 1A9/111 || Amerisport Inc. (federalized late model DeTomaso Pantera) |- | 1A9/398 || Ameritech (federalized McLaren F1 & Bugatti EB110) |- | 1A9/569 || American Custom Golf Cars Inc. (AGC) |- | 1AC || American Motors Corporation MPV |- | 1AF || American LaFrance truck |- | 1AJ || Ajax Manufacturing (truck trailer) |- | 1AM || American Motors Corporation car & Renault Alliance 1983 only |- | 1BN || Beall Trailers (truck trailer) |- | 1B3 || Dodge car 1981–2011 |- | 1B4 || Dodge MPV/SUV 1981–2002 |- | 1B6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 1981–2002 |- | 1B7 || Dodge truck 1981–2002 |- | 1B9/133 || Buell Motorcycle Company through mid-1995 |- | 1B9/274 || Brooks Brothers Trailers |- | 1B9/275 || Boydstun Metal Works (truck trailer) |- | 1B9/285 || Boss Hoss Cycles |- | 1B9/374 || Big Dog Custom Motorcycles |- | 1B9/975 || Motus Motorcycles |- | 1BA || Blue Bird Corporation bus |- | 1BB || Blue Bird Wanderlodge MPV |- | 1BD || Blue Bird Corporation incomplete vehicle |- | 1BL || Balko, Inc. |- | 1C3 || Chrysler brand car 1981–2011 |- | 1C3 || Chrysler Group (all brands) car (including Lancia) 2012- |- | 1C4 || Chrysler brand MPV 1990–2005 |- | 1C4 || Chrysler Group (all brands) MPV 2012– |- | 1C6 || Chrysler Group (all brands) truck 2012– |- | 1C8 || Chrysler brand MPV 2001–2005 |- | 1C9/257 || CEI Equipment Company (truck trailer) |- | 1C9/291 || CX Automotive |- | 1C9/496 || Carlinville Truck Equipment (truck trailer) |- | 1C9/535 || Chance Coach (bus) |- | 1C9/772 || Cozad (truck trailer) |- | 1C9/971 || Cool Amphibious Manufacturers International |- | 1CM || Checker Motors Corporation |- | 1CU || Cushman Haulster (Cushman division of Outboard Marine Corporation) |- | 1CY || Crane Carrier Company |- | 1CY || Battle Motors, Inc. |- | 1D3 || Dodge truck 2002–2009 |- | 1D4 || Dodge MPV/SUV 2003–2011 only |- | 1D7 || Dodge truck 2002–2011 |- | 1D8 || Dodge MPV/SUV 2003–2009 only |- | 1D9/008 || KME Fire Apparatus |- | 1D9/791 || Dennis Eagle, Inc. |- | 1DW || Stoughton Trailers (truck trailer) |- | 1E9/007 || E.D. Etnyre & Co. (truck trailer) |- | 1E9/190 || Electric Transit Inc. (trolleybus) |- | 1E9/363 || E-SUV LLC (E-Ride Industries) |- | 1E9/456 || Electric Motorsport (GPR-S electric motorcycle) |- | 1E9/526 || Epic TORQ |- | 1E9/581 || Vetter Razor |- | 1EU || Eagle Coach Corporation (bus) |- | 1FA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] car |- | 1FB || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) |- | 1FC || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] stripped chassis made by Ford |- | 1FD || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] incomplete vehicle |- | 1FM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] MPV/SUV |- | 1FT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] truck |- | 1FU || Freightliner (truck) |- | 1FV || Freightliner (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1F1 || Ford SUV - Limousine (through 2009) |- | 1F6 || Ford stripped chassis made by Detroit Chassis LLC |- | 1F9/037 || Federal Motors Inc. |- | 1F9/140 || Ferrara Fire Apparatus (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1F9/458 || Faraday Future prototypes |- | 1F9/FT1 || FWD Corp. |- | 1F9/ST1 || Seagrave Fire Apparatus |- | 1F9/ST2 || Seagrave Fire Apparatus |- | 1G || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] USA |- | 1G0 || GMC "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–1986 |- | 1G0 || GMC Rapid Transit Series (RTS) bus 1981–1984 |- | 1G0 || Opel/Vauxhall car 2007–2017 |- | 1G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] car |- | 1G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] car |- | 1G3 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Oldsmobile]] car |- | 1G4 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] car |- | 1G5 || GMC MPV/SUV 1981–1986 |- | 1G6 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Cadillac]] car |- | 1G7 || Pontiac car only sold by GM Canada |- | 1G8 || Chevrolet MPV/SUV 1981–1986 |- | 1G8 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Saturn]] car 1991–2010 |- | 1G9/492 || GreenPower Motor Company incomplete vehicle |- | 1G9/495 || Google & Waymo |- | 1GA || Chevrolet "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) |- | 1GB || Chevrolet incomplete vehicles |- | 1GC || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] truck |- | 1GD || GMC incomplete vehicles |- | 1GE || Cadillac incomplete vehicle |- | 1GF || Flxible bus |- | 1GG || Isuzu pickup trucks made by GM |- | 1GH || GMC Rapid Transit Series (RTS) bus 1985–1986 |- | 1GH || Oldsmobile MPV/SUV 1990–2004 |- | 1GH || Holden Acadia 2019–2020 |- | 1GJ || GMC "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1987– |- | 1GK || GMC MPV/SUV 1987– |- | 1GM || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] MPV |- | 1GN || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] MPV/SUV 1987- |- | 1GR || Great Dane Trailers (truck trailer) |- | 1GT || [[../GM/VIN Codes|GMC]] Truck |- | 1GY || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Cadillac]] SUV |- | 1HA || Chevrolet incomplete vehicles made by Navistar International |- | 1HD || Harley-Davidson & LiveWire |- | 1HF || Honda motorcycle/ATV/UTV |- | 1HG || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio |- | 1HS || International Trucks & Caterpillar Trucks truck |- | 1HT || International Trucks & Caterpillar Trucks & Chevrolet Silverado 4500HD, 5500HD, 6500HD incomplete vehicle |- | 1HV || IC Bus incomplete bus |- | 1H9/674 || Hines Specialty Vehicle Group |- | 1JC || Jeep SUV 1981–1988 (using AMC-style VIN structure) |- | 1JJ || Wabash (truck trailer) |- | 1JT || Jeep truck 1981–1988 (using AMC-style VIN structure) |- | 1JU || Marmon Motor Company |- | 1J4 || Jeep SUV 1989–2011 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure) |- | 1J7 || Jeep truck 1989–1992 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure) |- | 1J8 || Jeep SUV 2002–2011 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure) |- | 1K9/058 || Kovatech Mobile Equipment (fire engine) |- | 1LH || Landoll (truck trailer) |- | 1LJ || Lincoln incomplete vehicle |- | 1LN || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] car |- | 1LV || Lectra Motors |- | 1L0 || Lufkin Trailers |- | 1L1 || Lincoln car – limousine |- | 1L9/155 || LA Exotics |- | 1L9/234 || Laforza |- | 1MB || Mercedes-Benz Truck Co. |- | 1ME || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] car |- | 1MR || Continental Mark VI & VII 1981–1985 & Continental sedan 1982–1985 |- | 1M0 || John Deere Gator |- | 1M1 || Mack Truck USA (truck) |- | 1M2 || Mack Truck USA (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1M3 || Mack Truck USA (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1M4 || Mack Truck USA |- | 1M8 || Motor Coach Industries (bus) |- | 1M9/089 || Mauck Special Vehicles (bus) |- | 1M9/682 || Mosler Automotive |- | 1M9/816 || Proterra Through mid-2019 |- | 1N4 || Nissan car |- | 1N6 || Nissan truck |- | 1N9/019 || Neoplan USA |- | 1N9/084 || Eldorado National (California) |- | 1N9/140 || North American Bus Industries (bus) |- | 1N9/393 || Nikola Corporation (truck) |- | 1NK || Kenworth (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1NL || Gulf Stream Coach (recreational vehicles) |- | 1NN || Monon made by Evans Products Co. (truck trailer) |- | 1NP || Peterbilt (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1NX || Toyota car made by NUMMI |- | 1P3 || Plymouth car |- | 1P4 || Plymouth MPV/SUV |- | 1P7 || Plymouth Scamp |- | 1P9/038 || Hawk Vehicles, Inc. (Trihawk motorcycles) |- | 1P9/213 || Panoz |- | 1P9/255 || Pinson Truck Equipment Company (truck trailer) |- | 1PM || Polar Tank Trailer (truck trailer) |- | 1PT || Trailmobile Trailer Corporation (truck trailer) |- | 1PY || John Deere USA |- | 1RF || Roadmaster, Monaco Coach Corporation |- | 1RN || Reitnouer (truck trailer) |- | 1R9/956 || Reede Fabrication and Design (motorcycles) |- | 1ST || Airstream (recreational vehicles) |- | 1S1 || Strick Trailers (truck trailer) |- | 1S9/003 || Sutphen Corporation (fire engines - truck) |- | 1S9/009|| Superior Trailer Works (truck trailer) |- | 1S9/098 || Scania AB (Scania CN112 bus made in Orange, CT) |- | 1S9/842 || Saleen S7 |- | 1S9/260 || Stairs Welding RL (truck trailer) |- | 1S9/901 || Suckerpunch Sallys, LLC |- | 1S9/944 || SSC North America |- | 1TD || Timpte (truck trailer) |- | 1TK || Trail King (truck trailer) |- | 1TD || Transcraft Corporation (truck trailer) |- | 1T7 || Thomas Built Buses |- | 1T8 || Thomas Built Buses |- | 1T9/072 || The Trailer Co. (truck trailer) |- | 1T9/717 || Thunder Mountain Custom Cycles |- | 1T9/825 || TICO Manufacturing Company (truck) |- | 1T9/899 || Tomcar USA |- | 1T9/970 || Three Two Chopper |- | 1TC || Coachmen Recreational Vehicle Co., LLC |- | 1TU || Transportation Manufacturing Corporation |- | 1UJ || Jayco, Inc. |- | 1UT || AM General military trucks, Jeep DJ made by AM General |- | 1UY || Utility Trailer (truck trailer) |- | 1VH || Orion Bus Industries |- | 1VW || Volkswagen car |- | 1V1 || Volkswagen truck |- | 1V2 || Volkswagen SUV |- | 1V9/048 || Vector Aeromotive |- | 1V9/113 || Vantage Vehicle International Inc (low-speed vehicle) |- | 1V9/190 || Vanderhall Motor Works |- | 1WT || Winnebago Industries |- | 1WU || White Motor Company (truck) |- | 1WV 1WW || Winnebago Industries |- | 1WX 1WY || White Motor Company (incomplete vehicle) |- | 1W1 || Wilson Trailer Co. (truck trailer) |- | 1W8 || Witzco (truck trailer) |- | 1W9/010 || Weld-It Company (truck trailer) |- | 1W9/485 || Wheego Electric Cars |- | 1W9/488 || Certified Stainless Services Inc. DBA West-Mark (truck trailer) (2010 & later) |- | 1XA || Excalibur Automobile Corporation |- | 1XK || Kenworth (truck) |- | 1XM || Renault Alliance/GTA/Encore 1984–1987 |- | 1XP || Peterbilt (truck) |- | 1Y1 || Chevrolet/Geo car made by NUMMI |- | 1YJ || Rokon International, Inc. |- | 1YV || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mazda made by Mazda Motor Manufacturing USA/AutoAlliance International]] |- | 1ZV || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford made by Mazda Motor Manufacturing USA/AutoAlliance International]] |- | 1ZW || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury made by AutoAlliance International]] |- | 1Z3 1Z7 || Mitsubishi Raider |- | 1Z9/170 || [[w:Orange County Choppers|Orange County Choppers]] |- | 10B || Brenner Tank (truck trailer) |- | 10R || E-Z-GO |- | 10T || Oshkosh Corporation |- | 11H || Hendrickson Mobile Equipment, Inc. (fire engines - incomplete vehicle) |- | 12A || Avanti |- | 137 || AM General Hummer & Hummer H1 |- | 13N || Fontaine (truck trailer) |- | 15G || Gillig bus |- | 16C || Clenet Coachworks |- | 16W || Certified Stainless Services Inc. DBA West-Mark (truck trailer) (prior to 2010) |- | 16X || Vixen 21 motorhome |- | 17N || John Deere incomplete vehicle (RV chassis) |- | 19U || Acura car made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio |- | 19V || Acura car made by Honda Manufacturing of Indiana |- | 19X || Honda car made by Honda Manufacturing of Indiana |- | 2A3 || Imperial |- | 2A4 2A8 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2006–2011 only |- | 2AY 2AZ || Hino |- | 2BC || Jeep Wrangler (YJ) 1987–1988 (using AMC-style VIN structure) |- | 2BP || Ski-Doo |- | 2BV || Can-Am & Bombardier ATV |- | 2BW || Can-Am Commander E LSV |- | 2BX || Can-Am Spyder |- | 2BZ || Can-Am Freedom Trailer for Can-Am Spyder |- | 2B1 || Orion Bus Industries |- | 2B3 || Dodge car 1981–2011 |- | 2B4 || Dodge MPV 1981–2002 |- | 2B5 || Dodge "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–2002 |- | 2B6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 1981–2002 |- | 2B7 || Dodge truck 1981–2002 |- | 2B9/001 || BWS Manufacturing (truck trailer) |- | 2C1 || Geo/Chevrolet car made by CAMI Automotive |- | 2C3 || Chrysler brand car 1981–2011 |- | 2C3 || Chrysler Group (all brands) car (including Lancia) 2012- |- | 2C4 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2000–2005 |- | 2C4 || Chrysler Group (all brands) MPV (including Lancia Voyager & Volkswagen Routan) 2012- |- | 2C7 || Pontiac car made by CAMI Automotive only sold by GM Canada |- | 2C8 || Chrysler brand MPV/SUV 2001–2005 |- | 2C9/145 || Campagna Motors |- | 2C9/197 || Canadian Electric Vehicles |- | 2CC || American Motors Corporation MPV |- | 2CG || Asüna/Pontiac SUV made by CAMI Automotive only sold by GM Canada |- | 2CK || GMC Tracker SUV made by CAMI Automotive only sold by GM Canada 1990–1991 only |- | 2CK || Pontiac Torrent SUV made by CAMI Automotive 2006–2009 only |- | 2CM || American Motors Corporation car |- | 2CN || Geo/Chevrolet SUV made by CAMI Automotive 1990–2011 only |- | 2CT || GMC Terrain SUV made by CAMI Automotive 2010–2011 only |- | 2D4 || Dodge MPV 2003–2011 only |- | 2D6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 2003 |- | 2D7 || Dodge truck 2003 |- | 2D8 || Dodge MPV 2003–2011 only |- | 2DG || Ontario Drive & Gear |- | 2DM || Di-Mond Trailers (truck trailer) |- | 2DN || Dynasty Electric Car Corporation |- | 2EZ || Electra Meccanica Vehicles Corp. (Solo) |- | 2E3 || Eagle car 1989–1997 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure) |- | 2E4 || 2011 Lancia MPV (Voyager) |- | 2E9/080 || Electra Meccanica Vehicles Corp. (Solo) |- | 2FA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] car |- | 2FH || Zenn Motor Co., Ltd. (low-speed vehicle) |- | 2FM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] MPV/SUV |- | 2FT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] truck |- | 2FU || Freightliner |- | 2FV || Freightliner |- | 2FW || Sterling Trucks (truck-complete vehicle) |- | 2FY || New Flyer |- | 2FZ || Sterling Trucks (incomplete vehicle) |- | 2Gx || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] Canada |- | 2G0 || GMC "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–1986 |- | 2G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] car |- | 2G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] car |- | 2G3 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Oldsmobile]] car |- | 2G4 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] car |- | 2G5 || GMC MPV 1981–1986 |- | 2G5 || Chevrolet BrightDrop / BrightDrop Zevo truck 2023- |- | 2G6 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Cadillac]] car |- | 2G7 || Pontiac car only sold by GM Canada |- | 2G8 || Chevrolet MPV 1981–1986 |- | 2GA || Chevrolet "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) |- | 2GB || Chevrolet incomplete vehicles |- | 2GC || Chevrolet truck |- | 2GD || GMC incomplete vehicles |- | 2GE || Cadillac incomplete vehicle |- | 2GH || GMC GM New Look bus & GM Classic series bus |- | 2GJ || GMC "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1987– |- | 2GK || GMC MPV/SUV 1987– |- | 2GN || Chevrolet MPV/SUV 1987- |- | 2GT || GMC truck |- | 2HG || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing |- | 2HH || Acura car made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing |- | 2HJ || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] truck made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing |- | 2HK || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] MPV/SUV made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing |- | 2HM || Hyundai Canada |- | 2HN || Acura SUV made by Honda of Canada Manufacturing |- | 2HS || International Trucks truck |- | 2HT || International Trucks incomplete vehicle |- | 2J4 || Jeep Wrangler (YJ) 1989–1992 (using Chrysler-style VIN structure) |- | 2L1 || Lincoln incomplete vehicle – limo |- | 2LD || Triple E Canada Ltd. |- | 2LJ || Lincoln incomplete vehicle – hearse |- | 2LM || Lincoln SUV |- | 2LN || Lincoln car |- | 2M1 || Mack Trucks |- | 2M2 || Mack Trucks |- | 2ME || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] car |- | 2MG || Motor Coach Industries (Produced from Sept. 1, 2008 on) |- | 2MH || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] incomplete vehicle |- | 2MR || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] MPV |- | 2M9/044 || Westward Industries |- | 2M9/058 || Motor Coach Industries |- | 2NK || Kenworth incomplete vehicle |- | 2NP || Peterbilt incomplete vehicle |- | 2NV || Nova Bus |- | 2P3 || Plymouth car |- | 2P4 || Plymouth MPV 1981–2000 |- | 2P5 || Plymouth "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) 1981–1983 |- | 2P9/001 || Prevost 1981–1995 |- | 2PC || Prevost 1996- |- | 2S2 || Suzuki car made by CAMI Automotive |- | 2S3 || Suzuki SUV made by CAMI Automotive |- | 2TU || Tri-Star Industries Limited |- | 2T1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] car made by TMMC |- | 2T2 || Lexus SUV made by TMMC |- | 2T3 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] SUV made by TMMC |- | 2T9/206 || Triple E Canada Ltd. |- | 2V4 || Volkswagen Routan made by Chrysler Canada |- | 2V8 || Volkswagen Routan made by Chrysler Canada |- | 2W9/044 || Westward Industries |- | 2WK || Western Star truck |- | 2WL || Western Star incomplete vehicle |- | 2WM || Western Star incomplete vehicle |- | 2XK || Kenworth truck |- | 2XM || Eagle Premier 1988 only (using AMC-style VIN structure) |- | 2XP || Peterbilt truck |- | 3A4 3A8 || Chrysler brand MPV 2006–2010 only |- | 3A9/050 || MARGO (truck trailer) |- | 3AK || Freightliner Trucks |- | 3AL || Freightliner Trucks |- | 3AW || Fruehauf de Mexico (truck trailer) |- | 3AX || Scania Mexico |- | 3BE || Scania Mexico (buses) |- | 3BJ || Western Star 3700 truck made by DINA S.A. |- | 3BK || Kenworth incomplete vehicle |- | 3BM || Motor Coach Industries bus made by DINA S.A. |- | 3BP || Peterbilt incomplete vehicle |- | 3B3 || Dodge car 1981–2011 |- | 3B4 || Dodge SUV 1986–1993 |- | 3B6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 1981–2002 |- | 3B7 || Dodge truck 1981–2002 |- | 3C3 || Chrysler brand car 1981–2011 |- | 3C3 || Chrysler Group (all brands) car (including Fiat) 2012- |- | 3C4 || Chrysler brand MPV 2001–2005 |- | 3C4 || Chrysler Group (all brands) MPV (including Fiat) 2012- |- | 3C6 || Chrysler Group (all brands) truck 2012– |- | 3C7 || Chrysler Group (all brands) incomplete vehicle 2012– |- | 3C8 || Chrysler brand MPV 2001–2005 |- | 3CA || Chrysler brand MPV 2001 (PT Cruiser w/serial# 232057-265662) |- | 3CE || Volvo Buses de Mexico |- | 3CG || KTMMEX S.A. de C.V. |- | 3CZ || Honda SUV made by Honda de Mexico |- | 3D2 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 2007–2009 |- | 3D3 || Dodge truck 2006–2009 |- | 3D4 || Dodge SUV 2009–2011 |- | 3D6 || Dodge incomplete vehicle 2003–2011 |- | 3D7 || Dodge truck 2002–2011 |- | 3EL || ATRO (truck trailer) |- | 3E4 || 2011 Fiat SUV (Freemont) |- | 3FA || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] car |- | 3FC || Ford stripped chassis made by Ford & IMMSA |- | 3FE || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Mexico |- | 3FM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] MPV/SUV |- | 3FN || Ford F-650/F-750 made by Blue Diamond Truck Co. (truck) |- | 3FR || Ford F-650/F-750 & Ford LCF made by Blue Diamond Truck Co. (incomplete vehicle) |- | 3FT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] truck |- | 3F6 || Sterling Bullet |- | 3G || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] Mexico |- | 3G0 || Saab 9-4X 2011 |- | 3G0 || Holden Equinox 2018–2020 |- | 3G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] car |- | 3G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] car |- | 3G4 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] car |- | 3G5 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Buick]] SUV |- | 3G7 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] SUV |- | 3GA || JAC models assembled by Giant Motors in Mexico |- | 3GC || Chevrolet truck |- | 3GK || GMC SUV |- | 3GM || Holden Suburban |- | 3GN || Chevrolet SUV |- | 3GP || Honda Prologue EV made by GM |- | 3GS || Saturn SUV |- | 3GT || GMC truck |- | 3GY || Cadillac SUV |- | 3H1 || Honda motorcycle/UTV |- | 3H3 || Hyundai de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. for Hyundai Translead (truck trailers) |- | 3HA || International Trucks incomplete vehicle |- | 3HC || International Trucks truck |- | 3HD || Acura SUV made by Honda de Mexico |- | 3HG || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] car made by Honda de Mexico |- | 3HS || International Trucks & Caterpillar Trucks truck |- | 3HT || International Trucks & Caterpillar Trucks incomplete vehicle |- | 3HV || International incomplete bus |- | 3JB || BRP Mexico (Can-Am ATV/UTV & Can-Am Ryker) |- | 3KM || Kia/Hyundai MPV/SUV made by KMMX |- | 3KP || Kia/Hyundai car made by KMMX |- | 3LN || Lincoln car |- | 3MA || Mercury car (1988-1995) |- | 3MD || Mazda de Mexico car (Mazda 2) |- | 3ME || Mercury car (1996-2011) |- | 3MF || BMW M car |- | 3MG || Isuzu Motors de Mexico |- | 3MJ || Mazda CX-3 (Mazda de Mexico) |- | 3MV || Mazda de Mexico SUV (Mazda CX-30) |- | 3MW || BMW car |- | 3MY || Toyota car made by Mazda de Mexico Vehicle Operation |- | 3MZ || Mazda de Mexico car (Mazda 3) |- | 3N1 || Nissan Mexico car |- | 3N6 || Nissan Mexico truck & Chevrolet City Express |- | 3N8 || Nissan Mexico MPV |- | 3NS || Polaris Industries ATV |- | 3NE || Polaris Industries UTV |- | 3P3 || Plymouth car |- | 3PC || Infiniti SUV made by COMPAS |- | 3TM || Toyota truck made by TMMBC |- | 3TY || Toyota truck made by TMMGT |- | 3VV || Volkswagen Mexico SUV |- | 3VW || Volkswagen Mexico car |- | 3WK || Kenworth truck |- | 3WP || Peterbilt truck |- | 4A3 || Mitsubishi Motors car |- | 4A4 || Mitsubishi Motors SUV |- | 4B3 || Dodge car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory |- | 4B9/038 || BYD Coach & Bus LLC |- | 4C3 || Chrysler car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory |- | 4C6 || Reinke Manufacturing Company (truck trailer) |- | 4C9/272 || Christini Technologies (motorcycle) |- | 4C9/561 || Czinger |- | 4C9/626 || Canoo Inc. |- | 4CD || Oshkosh Chassis Division incomplete vehicle (RV chassis) |- | 4DR || IC Bus |- | 4E3 || Eagle car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory |- | 4EN || E-ONE, Inc. (fire engines - truck) |- | 4F2 || Mazda SUV made by Ford |- | 4F4 || Mazda truck made by Ford |- | 4G1 || Chevrolet Cavalier convertible made by Genasys L.C. – a GM/ASC joint venture |- | 4G2 || Pontiac Sunfire convertible made by Genasys L.C. – a GM/ASC joint venture |- | 4G3 || Toyota Cavalier made by GM |- | 4G5 || General Motors EV1 |- | 4GD || WhiteGMC Brigadier 1988–1989 made by GM |- | 4GD || Opel/Vauxhall Sintra |- | 4GL || Buick incomplete vehicle |- | 4GT || Isuzu incomplete vehicle built by GM |- | 4JG || [[../Mercedes-Benz/VIN Codes|Mercedes-Benz]] SUV |- | 4J8 || LBT, Inc. (truck trailer) |- | 4KB || Chevrolet W-Series incomplete vehicle (gas engine only) made by GM |- | 4KD || GMC W-Series incomplete vehicle (gas engine only) made by GM |- | 4KE || U.S. Electricar Consulier |- | 4KL || Isuzu N-Series incomplete vehicle (gas engine only) built by GM |- | 4LM || Capacity of Texas (truck) |- | 4M2 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Mercury]] MPV/SUV |- | 4MB || Mitsubishi Motors |- | 4ML || Oshkosh Trailer Division |- | 4MZ || Buell Motorcycle Company |- | 4N2 || Nissan Quest made by Ford |- | 4NU || Isuzu Ascender made by GM |- | 4P1 || Pierce Manufacturing Inc. USA |- | 4P3 || Plymouth car made by Diamond-Star Motors factory 1990–1994 |- | 4P3 || Mitsubishi Motors SUV made by Mitsubishi Motor Manufacturing of America 2013–2015 for export only |- | 4RK || Nova Bus & Prevost made by Nova Bus (US) Inc. |- | 4S1 || Isuzu truck made by Subaru Isuzu Automotive |- | 4S2 || Isuzu SUV made by Subaru Isuzu Automotive & 2nd gen. Holden Frontera made by SIA |- | 4S3 || [[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]] car |- | 4S4 || [[../Subaru/VIN Codes|Subaru]] SUV/MPV |- | 4S6 || Honda SUV made by Subaru Isuzu Automotive |- | 4S7 || Spartan Motors incomplete vehicle |- | 4S9/197 || Smith Electric Vehicles |- | 4S9/345 || Satellite Suites (trailer) |- | 4S9/419 || Spartan Motors truck |- | 4S9/454 || Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus passenger car |- | 4S9/520 || Signature Autosport, LLC (Osprey Custom Cars) |- | 4S9/542 || Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus SCG Boot (M.P.V.) |- | 4S9/544 || Scuderia Cameron Glickenhaus passenger car |- | 4S9/559 || Spartan Fire, LLC truck (formerly Spartan ER) |- | 4S9/560 || Spartan Fire, LLC incomplete vehicle (formerly Spartan ER) |- | 4S9/569 || SC Autosports, LLC (Kandi) |- | 4TA || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] truck made by NUMMI |- | 4T1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] car made by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky |- | 4T3 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] MPV/SUV made by Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky |- | 4T4 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] car made by Subaru of Indiana Automotive |- | 4T9/208 || Xos, Inc. |- | 4T9/228 || Lumen Motors |- | 4UF || Arctic Cat Inc. |- | 4US || BMW car |- | 4UZ || Freightliner Custom Chassis Corporation & <br /> gas-powered Mitsubishi Fuso trucks assembled by Freightliner Custom Chassis & <br /> Thomas Built Buses FS-65 & Saf-T-Liner C2 |- | 4V0 || Crossroads RV (recreational vehicles) |- | 4V1 || WhiteGMC (truck) |- | 4V2 || WhiteGMC (incomplete vehicle) |- | 4V3 || Volvo Trucks North America (truck) |- | 4V4 || Volvo Trucks North America (truck) |- | 4V5 || Volvo Trucks North America (incomplete vehicle) |- | 4V6 || Volvo Trucks North America (truck) |- | 4VA || Volvo Trucks North America (truck) |- | 4VE || Volvo Trucks North America (incomplete vehicle) |- | 4VG || Volvo Trucks North America (truck) |- | 4VH || Volvo Trucks North America (incomplete vehicle) |- | 4VM || Volvo Trucks North America (incomplete vehicle) |- | 4VZ || Spartan Motors/The Shyft Group (incomplete vehicle – bare chassis only) |- | 4WW || Wilson Trailer Sales |- | 4W1 || '24+ Chevrolet Suburban HD made by GM Defense for US govt. in Concord, NC |- | 4W5 || Acura ZDX EV made by GM |- | 4XA || Polaris Inc. |- | 4X4 || Forest River |- | 4YD || KeyStone RV Company (recreational vehicle) |- | 4YM || Carry-On Trailer, Inc. |- | 4YM || Anderson Manufacturing (trailer) |- | 4Z3 || American LaFrance truck |- | 43C || Consulier |- | 44K || HME Inc. (fire engines - incomplete vehicle) (HME=Hendrickson Mobile Equipment) |- | 46G || Gillig incomplete vehicle |- | 46J || Federal Motors Inc |- | 478 || Honda ATV |- | 480 || Sterling Trucks (truck) |- | 49H || Sterling Trucks (incomplete vehicle) |- | 5AS || Global Electric Motorcars (GEM) 1999-2011 |- | 5AX || Armor Chassis (truck trailer) |- | 5A4 || Load Rite Trailers Inc. |- | 5BP || Solectria |- | 5BZ || Nissan "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) |- | 5B4 || Workhorse Custom Chassis, LLC incomplete vehicle (RV chassis) |- | 5CD || Indian Motorcycle Company of America (Gilroy, CA) |- | 5CX || Shelby Series 1 |- | 5DF || Thomas Dennis Company LLC |- | 5DG || Terex Advance Mixer |- | 5EH || Excelsior-Henderson Motorcycle |- | 5EO || Cottrell (truck trailer) |- | 5FC || Columbia Vehicle Group (Columbia, Tomberlin) (low-speed vehicles) |- | 5FN || Honda MPV/SUV made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama |- | 5FP || Honda truck made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama |- | 5FR || Acura SUV made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama |- | 5FT || Feeling Trailers |- | 5FY || New Flyer |- | 5GA || Buick MPV/SUV |- | 5GD || Daewoo G2X |- | 5GN || Hummer H3T |- | 5GR || Hummer H2 |- | 5GT || Hummer H3 |- | 5GZ || Saturn MPV/SUV |- | 5G8 || Holden Volt |- | 5HD || Harley-Davidson for export markets |- | 5HT || Heil Trailer (truck trailer) |- | 5J5 || Club Car |- | 5J6 || Honda SUV made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio |- | 5J8 || Acura SUV made by Honda of America Mfg. in Ohio |- | 5KB || Honda car made by Honda Manufacturing of Alabama |- | 5KJ || Western Star Trucks truck |- | 5KK || Western Star Trucks truck |- | 5KM || Vento Motorcycles |- | 5KT || Karavan Trailers |- | 5L1 || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] SUV - Limousine (2004–2009) |- | 5L5 || American IronHorse Motorcycle |- | 5LD || Ford & Lincoln incomplete vehicle – limousine (2010–2014) |- | 5LM || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] SUV |- | 5LT || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Lincoln]] truck |- | 5MZ || Buell Motorcycle Company for export markets |- | 5N1 || Nissan & Infiniti SUV |- | 5N3 || Infiniti SUV |- | 5NH || Forest River |- | 5NM || Hyundai SUV made by HMMA |- | 5NP || Hyundai car made by HMMA |- | 5NT || Hyundai truck made by HMMA |- | 5PV || Hino incomplete vehicle made by Hino Motors Manufacturing USA |- | 5RJ || Android Industries LLC |- | 5RX || Heartland Recreational Vehicles |- | 5S3 || Saab 9-7X |- | 5SA || Suzuki Manufacturing of America Corp. (ATV) |- | 5SX || American LaFrance incomplete vehicle (Condor) |- | 5TB || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] truck made by TMMI |- | 5TD || Toyota MPV/SUV & Lexus TX made by TMMI |- | 5TE || Toyota truck made by NUMMI |- | 5TF || Toyota truck made by TMMTX |- | 5TU || Construction Trailer Specialist (truck trailer) |- | 5UM || BMW M car |- | 5UX || BMW SUV |- | 5VC || Autocar incomplete vehicle |- | 5VF || American Electric Vehicle Company (low-speed vehicle) |- | 5VP || Victory Motorcycles |- | 5V8 || Vanguard National (truck trailer) |- | 5WE || IC Bus incomplete vehicle |- | 5XX || Kia car made by KMMG |- | 5XY || Kia/Hyundai SUV made by KMMG |- | 5YA || Indian Motorcycle Company (Kings Mountain, NC) |- | 5YF || Toyota car made by TMMMS |- | 5YJ || Tesla, Inc. passenger car (only used for US-built Model S and Model 3 starting from Nov, 1st 2021) |- | 5YM || BMW M SUV |- | 5YN || Cruise Car, Inc. |- | 5Y2 || Pontiac Vibe made by NUMMI |- | 5Y4 || Yamaha Motor Motor Mfg. Corp. of America (ATV, UTV) |- | 5ZT || Forest River (recreational vehicles) |- | 5ZU || Greenkraft (truck) |- | 5Z6 || Suzuki Equator (truck) made by Nissan |- | 50E || Lucid Motors passenger car |- | 50G || Karma Automotive |- | 516 || Autocar truck |- | 51R || Brammo Motorcycles |- | 522 || GreenGo Tek (low-speed vehicle) |- | 523 || VPG (The Vehicle Production Group) |- | 52C || GEM subsidiary of Polaris Inc. |- | 537 || Azure Dynamics Transit Connect Electric |- | 538 || Zero Motorcycles |- | 53G || Coda Automotive |- | 53T || Think North America in Elkhart, IN |- | 546 || EBR |- | 54C || Winnebago Industries travel trailer |- | 54D || Isuzu & Chevrolet commercial trucks built by Spartan Motors/The Shyft Group |- | 54F || Rosenbauer |- | 55S || Mercedes-Benz car |- | 56K || Indian Motorcycle International, LLC (Polaris subsidiary) |- | 573 || Grand Design RV (truck trailer) |- | 57C || Maurer Manufacturing (truck trailer) |- | 57R || Oreion Motors |- | 57S || Lightning Motors Corp. (electric motorcycles) |- | 57W || Mobility Ventures |- | 57X || Polaris Slingshot |- | 58A || Lexus car made by TMMK (Lexus ES) |- | 6AB || MAN Australia |- | 6AM || Jayco Corp. (RVs) |- | 6F1 || Ford |- | 6F2 || Iveco Trucks Australia Ltd. |- | 6F4 || Nissan Motor Company Australia |- | 6F5 || Kenworth Australia |- | 6FM || Mack Trucks Australia |- | 6FP || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Australia |- | 6G1 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]]-Holden (post Nov 2002) & Chevrolet & Vauxhall Monaro & VXR8 |- | 6G2 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Pontiac]] Australia (GTO & G8) |- | 6G3 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]] Chevrolet Caprice PPV & SS performance sedan 2014-2017 |- | 6H8 || [[../GM/VIN Codes|General Motors]]-Holden (pre Nov 2002) |- | 6KT || BCI Bus |- | 6MM || Mitsubishi Motors Australia |- | 6MP || Mercury Capri 1991-1994 |- | 6T1 || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Motor Corporation Australia |- | 6T9 || Privately Imported car (VIN issued by Victoria) or Trailer in Australia |- | 6U9 || Privately Imported car in Australia |- | 6ZZ || Privately Imported car in Australia |- | 7AB || MAN New Zealand |- | 7AT || VIN assigned by the New Zealand Transport Authority Waka Kotahi from 29 November 2009 |- | 7A1 || Mitsubishi New Zealand |- | 7A3 || Honda New Zealand |- | 7A4 || Toyota New Zealand |- | 7A5 || Ford New Zealand |- | 7A7 || Nissan New Zealand |- | 7A8 || VIN assigned by the New Zealand Transport Authority Waka Kotahi before 29 November 2009 |- | 7B2 || Nissan Diesel bus New Zealand |- | 7FA || Honda SUV made by Honda Manufacturing of Indiana |- | 7FC || Rivian truck |- | 7F7 || Arcimoto, Inc. |- | 7GZ || GMC incomplete vehicles made by Navistar International |- | 7G0 || Faraday Future |- | 7G2 || Tesla, Inc. truck (used for Nevada-built Semi Trucks & Texas-built Cybertruck) |- | 7H4 || Hino truck |- | 7H8 || Cenntro Electric Group Limited low-speed vehicle |- | 7JD || Volvo Cars SUV |- | 7JR || Volvo Cars passenger car |- | 7JZ || Proterra From mid-2019 on |- | 7KG || Vanderhall Motor Works |- | 7KY || Dorsey (truck trailer) |- | 7MM || Mazda SUV made by MTMUS (Mazda-Toyota Joint Venture) |- | 7MU || Toyota SUV made by MTMUS (Mazda-Toyota Joint Venture) |- | 7MW || Cenntro Electric Group Limited truck |- | 7MZ || HDK electric vehicles |- | 7NA || Navistar Defense |- | 7NY || Lordstown Motors |- | 7PD || Rivian SUV |- | 7RZ || Electric Last Mile Solutions |- | 7SA || Tesla, Inc. (US-built MPVs (e.g. Model X, Model Y)) |- | 7SU || Blue Arc electric trucks made by The Shyft Group |- | 7SV || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] SUV made by TMMTX |- | 7SX || Global Electric Motorcars (WAEV) 2022- |- | 7SY || Polestar SUV |- | 7TN || Canoo |- | 7UU || Lucid Motors MPV/SUV |- | 7UZ || Kaufman Trailers (trailer) |- | 7VV || Ree Automotive |- | 7WE || Bollinger Motors incomplete vehicle |- | 7YA || Hyundai MPV/SUV made by HMGMA |- | 7Z0 || Zoox |- | 722 || Isuzu North America Corp. (incomplete vehicle - medium duty) |- | 8AB || Mercedes Benz truck & bus (Argentina) |- | 8AC || Mercedes Benz vans (for South America) |- | 8AD || Peugeot Argentina |- | 8AE || Peugeot van |- | 8AF || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Argentina |- | 8AG || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Argentina |- | 8AJ || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Argentina |- | 8AK || Suzuki Argentina |- | 8AN || Nissan Argentina |- | 8AP || Fiat Argentina |- | 8AT || Iveco Argentina |- | 8AW || Volkswagen Argentina |- | 8A1 || Renault Argentina |- | 8A3 || Scania Argentina |- | 8BB || Agrale Argentina S.A. |- | 8BC || Citroën Argentina |- | 8BN || Mercedes-Benz incomplete vehicle (North America) |- | 8BR || Mercedes-Benz "bus" (van with more than 3 rows of seats) (North America) |- | 8BT || Mercedes-Benz MPV (van with 2 or 3 rows of seats) (North America) |- | 8BU || Mercedes-Benz truck (cargo van with 1 row of seats) (North America) |- | 8CH || Honda motorcycle |- | 8C3 || Honda car/SUV |- | 8G1 || Automotores Franco Chilena S.A. Renault |- | 8GD || Automotores Franco Chilena S.A. Peugeot |- | 8GG || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Chile |- | 8LD || General Motors OBB - Chevrolet Ecuador |- | 8LF || Maresa (Mazda) |- | 8LG || Aymesa (Hyundai Motor & Kia) |- | 8L4 || Great Wall Motors made by Ciudad del Auto (Ciauto) |- | 8XD || Ford Motor Venezuela |- | 8XJ || Mack de Venezuela C.A. |- | 8XV || Iveco Venezuela C.A. |- | 8Z1 || General Motors Venezolana C.A. |- | 829 || Industrias Quantum Motors S.A. (Bolivia) |- | 9BD || Fiat Brazil & Dodge, Ram made by Fiat Brasil |- | 9BF || [[../Ford/VIN Codes|Ford]] Brazil |- | 9BG || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Brazil |- | 9BH || Hyundai Motor Brasil |- | 9BM || Mercedes-Benz Brazil car, SUV, commercial truck & bus |- | 9BN || Mafersa |- | 9BR || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Brazil |- | 9BS || Scania Brazil |- | 9BV || Volvo Trucks |- | 9BW || Volkswagen Brazil |- | 9BY || Agrale S.A. |- | 9C2 || Moto Honda Da Amazonia Ltda. |- | 9C6 || Yamaha Motor Da Amazonia Ltda. |- | 9CD || Suzuki (motorcycles) assembled by J. Toledo Motos do Brasil |- | 9DF || Puma |- | 9DW || Kenworth & Peterbilt trucks made by Volkswagen do Brasil |- | 9EZ || homemade or handbuilt vehicles |- | 92H || Origem Brazil |- | 932 || Harley-Davidson Brazil |- | 935 || Citroën Brazil |- | 936 || Peugeot Brazil |- | 937 || Dodge Dakota |- | 93C || Chevrolet SUV [Tracker] or pickup [Tornado, Montana, S10] (sold in Mexico, made in Brazil) |- | 93H || [[../Honda/VIN Codes|Honda]] Brazil car/SUV |- | 93K || Volvo Trucks |- | 93P || Volare |- | 93S || Navistar International |- | 93R || [[../Toyota/VIN Codes|Toyota]] Brazil |- | 93U || Audi Brazil 1999–2006 |- | 93W || Fiat Ducato made by Iveco 2000–2016 |- | 93V || Navistar International |- | 93X || Souza Ramos – Mitsubishi Motors / Suzuki Jimny |- | 93Y || Renault Brazil |- | 93Z || Iveco |- | 94D || Nissan Brazil |- | 94N || RWM Brazil |- | 94T || Troller Veículos Especiais |- | 95P || CAOA Hyundai & CAOA Chery |- | 95V || Dafra Motos (motorscooters from SYM) & Ducati, KTM, & MV Agusta assembled by Dafra |- | 95V || BMW motorcycles assembled by Dafra Motos 2009–2016 |- | 95Z || Buell Motorcycle Company assembled by Harley-Davidson Brazil |- | 953 || VW Truck & Bus / MAN Truck & Bus |- | 96P || Kawasaki |- | 97N || Triumph Motorcycles Ltd. |- | 988 || Jeep, Ram [Rampage], and Fiat [Toro] (made at the Goiana plant) |- | 98M || BMW car/SUV |- | 98P || DAF Trucks |- | 98R || Chery |- | 99A || Audi 2016- |- | 99H || Shineray |- | 99J || Jaguar Land Rover |- | 99K || Haojue & Kymco assembled by JTZ Indústria e Comércio de Motos |- | 99L || BYD |- | 99Z || BMW Motorrad (Motorcycle assembled by BMW 2017-) |- | 9FB || Renault Colombia (Sofasa) |- | 9FC || Compañía Colombiana Automotriz S.A. (Mazda) |- | 9GA || [[../GM/VIN Codes|Chevrolet]] Colombia (GM Colmotores S.A.) |- | 9UJ || Chery assembled by Chery Socma S.A. (Uruguay) |- | 9UK || Lifan (Uruguay) |- | 9UT || Dongfeng trucks made by Nordex S.A. |- | 9UW || Kia made by Nordex S.A. |- | 9VC || Fiat made by Nordex S.A. (Scudo, 2025 Titano) |- | 9V7 || Citroen made by Nordex S.A. (Jumpy) |- | 9V8 || Peugeot made by Nordex S.A. (Expert) |} ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} b3ak6mfdu06aznwur13xf97t1jtb1vo 0 142017 4635055 4634841 2026-05-10T03:33:54Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8 */ 4635055 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'13 R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belt + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'12 SLK-Class, '10-'12 SL-Class, '11-'12 SLS AMG) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'12 C-Class, '10-'12 E-Class sedan, '11-'12 E-Class wagon, '10-'12 E-Class coupe, '10-'12 CLS-Class, '10-'12 S-Class, '10-'12 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * C seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners for outboard seats + load limiters for front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('11-'12 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/3 rows) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16- GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} eo6drhmqrsc5k8unoukqjv5jl3kf008 4635067 4635055 2026-05-10T06:43:07Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8 */ 4635067 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'13 R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belts + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'18 SLC-Class, '10-'18 SL-Class, '11-'15 SLS AMG, '16-'18 AMG GT) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('14-'18 CLA-Class, '14-'17 B-Class Electric, '10-'18 C-Class, '10-'18 E-Class sedan, '11-'18 E-Class wagon, '10-'18 E-Class coupe, '18- E-Class cabriolet, '10-'18 CLS-Class, '10-'18 S-Class, '10-'14 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * F seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row ('11-'17 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/3 rows) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16- GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} bbrp8d2pgy8iaxlqdosxfh2pcdzgicn 4635093 4635067 2026-05-10T09:21:12Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8 */ 4635093 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'13 R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belts + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'18 SLC-Class, '10-'18 SL-Class, '11-'15 SLS AMG, '16-'18 AMG GT) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('14-'18 CLA-Class, '14-'17 B-Class Electric, '10-'18 C-Class, '10-'18 E-Class sedan, '11-'18 E-Class wagon, '10-'18 E-Class coupe, '18- E-Class cabriolet, '10-'18 CLS-Class, '10-'18 S-Class, '10-'14 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * F seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row ('11-'17 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/3 rows) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16- GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} mswti8m83e0svz9sgew0bf1sw0n9li0 4635094 4635093 2026-05-10T09:22:12Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 5, Body Style: */ 4635094 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belts + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'18 SLC-Class, '10-'18 SL-Class, '11-'15 SLS AMG, '16-'18 AMG GT) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('14-'18 CLA-Class, '14-'17 B-Class Electric, '10-'18 C-Class, '10-'18 E-Class sedan, '11-'18 E-Class wagon, '10-'18 E-Class coupe, '18- E-Class cabriolet, '10-'18 CLS-Class, '10-'18 S-Class, '10-'14 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * F seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row ('11-'17 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/3 rows) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16- GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} 7fhavakpp5pj79rvlv51lk74iw8rp2o 4635097 4635094 2026-05-10T09:56:26Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8 */ 4635097 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belts + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'18 SLC-Class, '10-'18 SL-Class, '11-'15 SLS AMG, '16-'18 AMG GT) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('14-'18 CLA-Class, '14-'17 B-Class Electric, '10-'18 C-Class, '10-'18 E-Class sedan, '11-'18 E-Class wagon, '10-'18 E-Class coupe, '18- E-Class cabriolet, '10-'18 CLS-Class, '10-'18 S-Class, '10-'14 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * F seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row ('11-'17 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '16-'18 GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/3 rows) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'18 GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} q8yh8w16e4nrlrqufjcbqkwcx5f09ef 4635098 4635097 2026-05-10T10:03:47Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8 */ 4635098 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belts + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'18 SLC-Class, '10-'18 SL-Class, '11-'15 SLS AMG, '16-'18 AMG GT) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('14-'18 CLA-Class, '14-'17 B-Class Electric, '10-'18 C-Class, '10-'18 E-Class sedan, '11-'18 E-Class wagon, '10-'18 E-Class coupe, '18- E-Class cabriolet, '10-'18 CLS-Class, '10-'18 S-Class, '10-'14 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * F seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row ('11-'17 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '16-'18 GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'16 GL-Class w/3 rows, '17-'18 GLS-Class) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'18 GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} t0y86mijqi5k39h8k94tusesz4b9vyz 4635099 4635098 2026-05-10T10:07:02Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8 */ 4635099 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} Mercedes-Benz uses the following VIN formats: (Note) This chart is not applicable to Mercedes-Benz products made for markets other than North America. European/World market cars use a different system for encoding VIN numbers. ==1960-1980== Position 1-3 - chassis code (e.g. 107, 116, 123, etc.) Position 4-6 - model type (e.g. 024, 032, 033, 036, 044, 045, etc.) Position 7 - 1=LH Drive (made in Germany), 2=RH Drive (made in Germany), 5=LH Drive CKD, 6=RH Drive CKD (Complete Knocked Down, assembled outside Germany)1 Position 8 - 0=Manual transmission, 1=Hydraulic clutch, 2= Automatic transmission 2 (Alphabetics indicate Plant of Manufacture i.e.: A = Sindelfingen) Position 9-14 - Construction serial number 10704312006193 ==Passenger Vehicles 1981-== ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * W1K Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * W1N Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDB Daimler-Benz AG (DaimlerChrysler after 1998) (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz or Maybach passenger car) * WDC DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * WDD DaimlerChrysler AG (Daimler AG after 2007) (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * WMX Mercedes-AMG (not used in North America) * 4JG Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz SUV) * 55S Mercedes-Benz U.S. International (Mercedes-Benz passenger car) * 9BM Mercedes-Benz Brazil car & SUV ===Position 4, Model or Series:=== * A W123 300-Class * B R107 SL-Class * B C107 SLC-Class * C W126/C126 S-Class * D W201 190-Class * E W124 300-Class/E-Class * F R129 SL-Class * G W140/C140 S-Class, C140 CL-Class * H W202 C-Class * J W210 E-Class * K R170 SLK-Class * L C208/A208 CLK-Class * N W220 S-Class * P C215 CL-Class * R W203 C-Class * S R230 SL-Class * T C209/A209 CLK-Class * U W211 E-Class * W R171 SLK-Class *---------------------------------- * A C199/R199/Z199 SLR McLaren * D C219 CLS-Class * E C216 CL-Class * F W245 B-Class (Canada only) * G W204 C-Class * H W212/S212 E-Class sedan/wagon * J R231 SL-Class * K C207/A207 E-Class coupe/convertible * L C218 CLS-Class * M W246 B-Class (Canada only) * N W221 S-Class * P R172 SLK-Class/SLC-Class * R C197/R197 SLS AMG * S C117 CLA-Class * U W222 S-Class sedan * V W240 Maybach 57/62 * V N242 B-Class Electric * W W205 C-Class * X C217/A217 S-Class coupe/convertible * Y C190/R190 AMG GT coupe/roadster * Z W213/S213/X213 E-Class sedan/wagon/All-Terrain wagon * 1 C238/A238 E-Class coupe/convertible * 2 C257 CLS-Class * 3 V177 A-Class sedan * 3 W177 A-Class hatchback (Canada only) * 5 C118 CLA-Class * 6 W223 S-Class sedan * 7 X290 AMG GT 4-door coupe *---------------------------------- * A W206 C-Class * C V297 EQS-Class sedan * E V295 EQE-Class sedan * F C174 CLA-Class sedan EV * L W214/X214 E-Class sedan/All-Terrain wagon * M C236/A236 CLE-Class coupe/convertible * R C192 AMG GT coupe * V R232 SL-Class *---------------------------------- * A W163 M-Class * B W164 M-Class * B X164 GL-Class * C W251 R-Class * D W166 M-Class/GLE-Class * D X166 GL-Class/GLS-Class * D X296 EQS-Class SUV * E C292 GLE-Class Coupe * F W167/C167 GLE-Class * F X167 GLS-Class * G X204 GLK-Class * 0 X253/C253 GLC-Class * G X294 EQE-Class SUV * K X254/C254 GLC-Class * T X156 GLA-Class * Y W463 G-Class * W W465 G-Class * 4 H247 GLA-Class * 4 X247 GLB-Class * 9 X243 EQB-Class ===Position 5, Body Style:=== Passenger Cars: * B = Long Body * F = Sedan ('96+ E-Class, '01+ C-Class, '06 S-Class [S350], Maybach 57) * F = 5-door hatchback (Canada only: '19-'22 A-Class) * G = Sedan Long Wheelbase ('00+ S-Class, Maybach 62) * G = Sedan ('19-'22 A-Class sedan) * G = Electric Sedan ('23+ EQE sedan) * G = Electric hatchback Sedan ('22+ EQS sedan) * H = Wagon ('98-'09, '11- E-Class wagon, '02-'05 C-Class wagon, Canada only: '19-'21 C-Class wagon) * H = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] ('06-'11, '13-'19 B-Class [gas engine] - Canada only) * J = 2-door Coupe ('98-'09 CLK-Class Coupe, '12-'15, '17-'23 C-Class coupe, '10-'23 E-Class coupe, '24- CLE-Class coupe, '00-'14 CL-Class, '15-'21 S-Class coupe, '05-'07 SLR McLaren coupe, '11-'15 SLS AMG coupe, '16-'21, '24- AMG GT coupe) * J = 4-door Coupe ('06-'23 CLS-Class, '14- CLA-Class) * K = Cabriolet/Roadster ('99-'09 CLK-Class Cabriolet, '17-'23 C-Class Cabriolet, '11-'23 E-Class Cabriolet, '24- CLE-Class Cabriolet, '17-'21 S-Class Cabriolet, '98-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'20 SLC-Class, '03+ SL-Class, '08-'09 SLR McLaren roadster, '12-'15 SLS AMG roadster, '18-'21 AMG GT roadster) * N = "Coupe" [3-door hatchback] ('02-'05 C-Class Sport Coupe) * P = "Sedan" [5-door hatchback/compact minivan] (B-Class Electric) * X = 4-door Sedan Extra-Long Wheelbase ('16+ Maybach S-Class) * X = 4-door Coupe [5-door hatchback] ('19- AMG GT 4-door Coupe) * X = Cabriolet/Roadster ('26+ Maybach SL680) SUVs: * A = 4-door MPV ('12-'15 M-Class, '16-'19 GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('98-'11 M-Class) * B = 4-door MPV ('20-' GLE-Class wagon) * B = 4-door MPV ('06-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class) * C = 4-door MPV ('10-'24 G-Class) * D = 4-door MPV ('16-'19, '21- GLE-Class Coupe) * F = 4-door MPV ('07-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class) * G = 4-door MPV ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'22 GLC-Class wagon) * G = 4-door MPV ('15-'20 GLA-Class) * H = 4-door MPV ('25- G550, G63 AMG) * J = 4-door MPV ('17- GLC-Class Coupe) * M = 4-door MPV ('20- GLB-Class, '22- EQB-Class) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- GLC-Class wagon) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQE-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('23- EQS-Class SUV) * M = 4-door MPV ('25- G580 EQ [EV]) * N = 4-door MPV ('21- GLA-Class) * R = 4-door MPV ('02-'09 G-Class) * X = 4-door MPV ('24- Maybach EQS680 SUV) On older models, this indicated the engine type, through much of the 1990s and into the 2000's for some models: * A = Gasoline (190 Class '84-'93, C-Class '94-'00, 300 Class '81, '86-'93, E-Class '94-'95, S-Class '81-'99, CL-Class '98-'99, SL-Class '81-'02, SLC '81) * B = Diesel (190 Class '84-'89, 300 Class '81-'85, '87, '90-'93, E-Class '95, S-Class '81-'87, '90-'95) * D = 4Matic Gasoline ('90-'93 300E 4Matic, 300TE 4Matic) * M = AMG Gasoline ('95-'97 C36 AMG only) ===Positions 6–7, Model within the series:=== '''V177:'''<br> following 3G in pos. 4-5: *4E = A220 sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4F = A220 4Matic sedan ['19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic sedan ['20-'21 & in Canada: '22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W177:'''<br> following 3F in pos. 4-5: *4G = A250 hatchback [Canada only: '19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = A250 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '19-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG A35 4Matic hatchback [Canada only: '20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) '''W245:'''<br> following FH in pos. 4-5: *33 = B200 [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *3D = B200 [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve M266.980 I4 *34 = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '06-'09] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *3E = B200 Turbo [Canada only: '10-'11] 2.0-liter SOHC 8-valve turbo M266.980 I4 *8G = B-Class F-Cell (hydrogen fuel cell) '''W246:'''<br> following MH in pos. 4-5: *4E = B250 [Canada only: '13-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 *4G = B250 4Matic [Canada only: '15-'19] 2.0-liter DOHC 16-valve turbo M270 I4 '''N242:'''<br> following VP in pos. 4-5: *9A = B-Class Electric Drive ['14-'15], B250e ['16-'17] (Tesla front electric motor, Lithium-ion battery pack, fwd, 177 hp) '''C117:'''<br> following SJ in pos. 4-5: *4E = CLA250 sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = CLA45 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''C118:'''<br> following 5J in pos. 4-5: *4G = CLA250 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = CLA250 sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = CLA250 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG CLA35 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG CLA45 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) *5E = AMG CLA45 S 4Matic sedan ['24-'26] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''C174:'''<br> following FJ in pos. 4-5: *1D = CLA250+ EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 268 hp) *4E = CLA350 4Matic EV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 349 hp) '''W201:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 190E 2.3 ['84-'86] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *28 = 190E 2.3 ['87-'88, '91-'93] (2.3-liter SOHC, 8 valve M102 I4) *29 = 190E 2.6 ['87-'93] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *34 = 190E 2.3-16 ['86-'87] (2.3-liter DOHC, 16 valve M102 I4) following DB in pos. 4-5: *22 = 190D 2.2 ['84-'85] (2.2-liter OM601 diesel I4) *26 = 190D 2.5 ['86-'89] (2.5-liter OM602 diesel I5) *28 = 190D 2.5 Turbo ['87] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) '''W202:'''<br> following HA in pos. 4-5: *22 = C220 ['94-'96] (2.2-liter M111 I4) *23 = C230 ['97-'98] (2.3-liter M111 I4) *24 = C230 Kompressor ['99-'00] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *28 = C280 ['94-'97] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *29 = C280 ['98-'00] (2.8-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *33 = C43 AMG ['98-'00] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113.944 V8) following HM in pos. 4-5: *36 = C36 AMG ['95-'97] (3.6-liter M104 AMG I6) '''W203/S203/CL203:'''<br> following RF in pos. 4-5: *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Sedan ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *52 = C230 Sport Sedan ['06-'07] (2.5-liter M272 90° V6) *54 = C280 sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *61 = C240 sedan ['01-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 sedan ['01-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *65 = C32 AMG sedan ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve supercharged M112 90° V6) *76 = C55 AMG ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *81 = C240 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *87 = C350 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *92 = C280 4Matic sedan ['06-'07] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) following RH in pos. 4-5: *61 = C240 wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *64 = C320 wagon ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *81 = C240 4Matic wagon ['03-'05] (2.6-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *84 = C320 4Matic wagon ['03-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) following RN in pos. 4-5: *47 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['02] (2.3-liter supercharged M111 I4) *40 = C230 Kompressor Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (1.8-liter supercharged M271 I4) *64 = C320 Sport Coupe ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W204/C204:'''<br> following GF in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 sedan ['12-'14] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *54 = C300 sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = C300 sedan ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = C350 sedan ['08-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = C350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = C350 sedan ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *77 = C63 AMG sedan ['08-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = C63 AMG sedan ['10-'14], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *81 = C300 4Matic sedan ['08-'09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8B = C300 4Matic sedan ['10-'12] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *8A = C300 4Matic sedan ['13-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) following GJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = C250 coupe ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *5H = C350 coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *7H = C63 AMG coupe ['12-'15], C63 AMG Black Series coupe ['12-'13], C63 AMG Edition 507 ['14-'15] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *8J = C350 4Matic coupe ['12-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''W205/S205/C205/A205:'''<br> following WF in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic sedan ['15-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4H = C350e sedan ['16-'18] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8D = C300 sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = C400 4Matic sedan ['15] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = C450 AMG Sport 4Matic sedan ['16], AMG C43 4Matic sedan ['17-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S sedan ['15-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WH in pos. 4-5: *4K = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic wagon [Canada: '19-'21] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) following WJ in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic coupe ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 coupe ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S coupe ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following WK in pos. 4-5: *4J = C300 convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = C300 4Matic convertible ['17-'18] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = C300 convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = C300 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG C43 4Matic convertible ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8G = AMG C63 convertible ['17-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8H = AMG C63 S convertible ['17-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W206:'''<br> following AF in pos. 4-5: *4G = C300 sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = C300 4Matic sedan ['22-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG C43 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG C63 S E Performance 4Matic sedan ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W123/S123/C123:'''<br> following AA in pos. 4-5: *33 = 280E ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) *53 = 280CE ['81] (2.7-liter DOHC, 12-valve M110.984 I6) following AB in pos. 4-5: *23 = 240D ['81-'83] (2.4-liter OM616 diesel I4) *30 = 300D ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *33 = 300D Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *50 = 300CD ['81] (3.0-liter OM617 diesel I5) *53 = 300CD Turbodiesel ['82-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *93 = 300TD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) '''W124/S124/C124/A124:'''<br> following EA in pos. 4-5: *26 = 260E ['87-'89], 300E 2.6 ['90-'92] (2.6-liter M103 I6) *28 = 300E 2.8 ['93] (2.8-liter M104 I6) *30 = 300E ['86-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 300E ['93], E320 sedan ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *34 = 400E ['92-'93], E420 sedan ['94-'95] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *36 = 500E ['92-'93], E500 sedan ['94] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *50 = 300CE ['88-'89] (3.0-liter SOHC, 12 valve M103 I6) *51 = 300CE ['90-'92] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *52 = 300CE coupe ['93], E320 coupe ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *66 = 300CE convertible ['93], E320 convertible ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *90 = 300TE ['88-'92] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *92 = 300TE ['93], E320 wagon ['94-'95] (3.2-liter M104 I6) following EB in pos. 4-5: *28 = 300D 2.5 Turbo ['90-'93] (2.5-liter OM602 turbodiesel I5) *31 = E300 Diesel ['95] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *33 = 300D Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *93 = 300TD Turbo ['87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) following ED in pos. 4-5: *30 = 300E 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *90 = 300TE 4Matic ['90-'93] (3.0-liter M103 I6) '''W210/S210:'''<br> following JF in pos. 4-5: *20 = E300 Diesel ['96-'97] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 diesel I6) *25 = E300 Turbodiesel ['98-'99] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM606 turbodiesel I6) *55 = E320 ['96-'97] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *65 = E320 sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = E420 ['97] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *70 = E430 ['98-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = E55 AMG ['99-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['98-'02] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E430 4Matic ['00-'02] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following JH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''W211/S211:'''<br> following UF in pos. 4-5: *26 = E320 CDI sedan ['05-'06] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM648 turbodiesel I6) *22 = E320 Bluetec sedan ['07-'09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *65 = E320 sedan ['03-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *70 = E500 sedan ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = E550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = E55 AMG sedan ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic sedan ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic sedan ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic sedan ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *90 = E550 4Matic sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) following UH in pos. 4-5: *65 = E320 wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = E350 wagon ['06] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *76 = E55 AMG wagon ['05-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = E63 AMG wagon ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *82 = E320 4Matic wagon ['04-'05] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *83 = E500 4Matic wagon ['04-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *87 = E350 4Matic wagon ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) '''W212/S212:'''<br> following HF in pos. 4-5: *2E = E350 Bluetec sedan ['11-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = E250 Bluetec sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = E350 sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7H = E63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7E = E63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8B = E300 4Matic sedan [Canada only: '12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 - detuned version) *8H = E350 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic sedan ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *9A = E550 4Matic sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *9B = E550 4Matic sedan ['12-'14, Canada only: '15-'16] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = E63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'15] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9F = E400 Hybrid sedan ['13-'15] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *9H = E250 Bluetec 4Matic sedan ['14-'16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve turbodiesel I4) following HH in pos. 4-5: *8H = E350 4Matic wagon ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = E350 4Matic wagon ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic wagon [Canada only: '15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7E = E63 AMG wagon ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = E63 AMG S 4Matic wagon ['14-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W213/S213:'''<br> following ZF in pos. 4-5: *4J = E300 sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = E300 4Matic sedan ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = E350 sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = E350 4Matic sedan ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6G = E400 4Matic sedan ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic sedan ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5K = E450 4Matic sedan ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG E43 4Matic sedan ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic sedan ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) following ZH in pos. 4-5: *6G = E400 4Matic wagon ['17-'18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic wagon ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6A = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG E63 S 4Matic wagon ['18-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W214/S214:'''<br> following LF in pos. 4-5: *4G = E350 sedan ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = E350 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = E450 4Matic sedan ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ sedan ['25-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following LH in pos. 4-5: *6F = E450 4Matic All-Terrain wagon ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6D = AMG E53e 4Matic+ wagon ['26-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C219:'''<br> following DJ in pos. 4-5: *75 = CLS500 sedan ['06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLS550 sedan ['07-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = CLS550 sedan ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLS55 AMG sedan ['06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *77 = CLS63 AMG sedan ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = CLS63 AMG sedan ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C218:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *6F = CLS400 sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = CLS400 4Matic sedan ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = CLS550 sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = CLS63 AMG sedan ['12-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7G = CLS63 AMG S 4Matic sedan ['14-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *9B = CLS550 4Matic sedan ['12-'18] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9C = CLS63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C257:'''<br> following 2J in pos. 4-5: *5J = CLS450 sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = CLS450 4Matic sedan ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG CLS53 4Matic sedan ['19-'21] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X290:'''<br> following 7X in pos. 4-5: *5K = AMG GT43 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GT53 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GT63 S 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['19-'21, '23] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ 4-Door Coupe ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''V295:'''<br> following EG in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic sedan ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic sedan ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''W126/V126//C126:'''<br> following CA in pos. 4-5: *24 = 300SE ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *25 = 300SEL ['88-'91] (3.0-liter M103 I6) *32 = 380SE ['84-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *33 = 380SEL ['81-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *35 = 420SEL ['86-'91] (4.2-liter M116 V8) *37 = 500SEL ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *39 = 560SEL ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) *43 = 380SEC ['82-'83] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *44 = 500SEC ['84-'85] (5.0-liter M117 V8) *45 = 560SEC ['86-'91] (5.5-liter M117 V8) following CB in pos. 4-5: *20 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['81-'85] (3.0-liter OM617 turbodiesel I5) *25 = 300SDL Turbodiesel ['86-'87] (3.0-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *34 = 350SD Turbodiesel ['91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) *35 = 350SDL Turbodiesel ['90-'91] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''W140/V140/C140:'''<br> following GA in pos. 4-5: *32 = 300SE ['92-'93], S320 sedan SWB ['94-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *33 = S320 sedan LWB ['95-'99] (3.2-liter M104 I6) *42 = 400SE ['92] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *43 = 400SEL ['93], S420 ['94-'99] (4.2-liter M119 V8) *51 = 500SEL ['92-'93], S500 sedan ['94-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *57 = 600SEL ['92-'93], S600 sedan ['94-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) *70 = 500SEC ['93], S500 coupe ['94-'97], CL500 ['98-'99] (5.0-liter M119 V8) *76 = 600SEC ['93], S600 coupe ['94-'97], CL600 ['98-'99] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) following GB in pos. 4-5: *34 = 300SD Turbodiesel ['92-'93], S350 Turbodiesel ['94-'95] (3.4-liter OM603 turbodiesel I6) '''V220:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *70 = S430 ['00-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *73 = S55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = S55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = S500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = S600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = S600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = S65 AMG ['06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *83 = S430 4Matic ['03-'06] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *84 = S500 4Matic ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W220:'''<br> following NF in pos. 4-5: *67 = S350 ['06] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) '''C215:'''<br> following PJ in pos. 4-5: *73 = CL55 AMG ['01-'02] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *75 = CL500 ['00-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *78 = CL600 ['01-'02] (5.8-liter SOHC, 36-valve M137 V12) *76 = CL600 ['03-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = CL65 AMG ['05-'06] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''V221:'''<br> following NG in pos. 4-5: *71 = S550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = S550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7D = S550 ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *76 = S600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = S600 ['10-'13] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = S63 AMG ['08-09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = S63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = S63 AMG ['11-'13] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = S65 AMG ['07-09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = S65 AMG ['10-'13] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *8D = S350 Bluetec 4Matic ['12-'13] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *86 = S550 4Matic ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = S550 4Matic ['10-'11] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = S550 4Matic ['12-'13] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *9F = S400 Hybrid ['10-'13] (Mild Hybrid: 3.5-liter M272 90° Atkinson-cycle V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C216:'''<br> following EJ in pos. 4-5: *71 = CL550 ['07-'08] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *76 = CL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *7G = CL600 ['10-'14] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = CL63 AMG ['08-'09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7H = CL63 AMG ['10] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7E = CL63 AMG ['11-'14] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *79 = CL65 AMG ['08-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = CL65 AMG ['10-'14] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *86 = CL550 4Matic ['09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *8G = CL550 4Matic ['10] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *9E = CL550 4Matic ['11-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''V222:'''<br> following UG in pos. 4-5: *6D = S550 Plug-in Hybrid ['15], S550e ['16-'17] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7D = S560e ['19-'20] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6G = S450 sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6E = S450 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8C = S550 sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *8F = S550 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['14-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7G = S600 sedan ['15-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *7K = S65 AMG sedan ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''X222:'''<br> following UX in pos. 4-5: *8F = Mercedes-Maybach S550 4Matic sedan ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = Mercedes-Maybach S560 4Matic sedan ['18-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S600 sedan ['16-'17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M277 V12) *8A = Mercedes-Maybach S650 sedan ['18-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''C217:'''<br> following XJ in pos. 4-5: *8F = S550 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8G = S560 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG coupe ['15-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''A217:'''<br> following XK in pos. 4-5: *8C = S550 convertible ['17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8D = S560 convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['17] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *8J = S63 AMG 4Matic convertible ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7K = S65 AMG convertible ['17-'20] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S650 convertible ['17] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 AMG V12) '''V223:'''<br> following 6G in pos. 4-5: *6D = S500 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6K = S580e 4Matic sedan ['23-] (PHEV: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7G = S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8C = AMG S63 E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''Z223:'''<br> following 6X in pos. 4-5: *7G = Mercedes-Maybach S580 4Matic sedan ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *7K = Mercedes-Maybach S680 4Matic sedan ['22-] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''V297:'''<br> following CG in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 329 hp) *2D = EQS450+ sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic sedan ['23-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['22-'23] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 516 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic sedan ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *5F = AMG EQS 4Matic+ sedan ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W240:'''<br> following VF in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 57 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 57 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 57S ['06-'09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 57S ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 57S ['11-'12] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''V240:'''<br> following VG in pos. 4-5: *78 = Maybach 62 ['04-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *7J = Maybach 62 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.950 V12) *79 = Maybach 62S ['07-'09], 62S Landaulet ('09) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7K = Maybach 62S ['10], 62S Landaulet ('10) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S Zeppelin ['10] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) *7H = Maybach 62S ['11-'12], 62S Landaulet ('11-'12) (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M285.980 V12) '''C208/A208:'''<br> following LJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['98-'02 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['99-'02 coupe] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['01-'02 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) following LK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['99-'03 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *70 = CLK430 ['00-'03 convertible] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = CLK55 AMG ['02 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''C209/A209:'''<br> following TJ in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['03-'05 coupe] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 coupe] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['03-'06 coupe] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 coupe] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['03-'05 coupe] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG Black Series ['08 coupe] (6.2-liter M156 V8) following TK in pos. 4-5: *65 = CLK320 ['04-'05 convertible] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *56 = CLK350 ['06-'09 convertible] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = CLK500 ['04-'06 convertible] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = CLK550 ['07-'09 convertible] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *76 = CLK55 AMG ['04-'06 convertible] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = CLK63 AMG ['07-'08 convertible] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''C207/A207:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 coupe ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E400 4Matic coupe ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 coupe ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 coupe ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *8J = E350 4Matic coupe ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) following KK in pos. 4-5: *5G = E350 convertible ['11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5K = E350 convertible ['12-'14] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6F = E400 convertible ['15-'17] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7C = E550 convertible ['11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7D = E550 convertible ['12-'17] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) '''C238/A238:'''<br> following 1J in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic coupe ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic coupe ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic coupe ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic coupe ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following 1K in pos. 4-5: *6F = E400 convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = E400 4Matic convertible ['18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6H = E450 convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6J = E450 4Matic convertible ['19-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *5J = E450 convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = E450 4Matic convertible ['21-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG E53 4Matic convertible ['19-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C236/A236:'''<br> following MJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following MK in pos. 4-5: *4H = CLE300 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = CLE450 4Matic convertible ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6C = AMG CLE53 4Matic convertible ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''R170:'''<br> following KK in pos. 4-5: *47 = SLK230 Kompressor ['98-'00] (2.3-liter M111.973 supercharged I4) *49 = SLK230 Kompressor ['01-'04] (2.3-liter M111.983 supercharged I4) *65 = SLK320 ['01-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *66 = SLK32 AMG ['02-'04] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 supercharged 90° V6) '''R171:'''<br> following WK in pos. 4-5: *54 = SLK280 ['06-'08], SLK300 ['09] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *5E = SLK300 ['10-'11] (3.0-liter M272 90° V6) *56 = SLK350 ['05-'08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *58 = SLK350 ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5J = SLK350 ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *73 = SLK55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *7D = SLK55 AMG ['10] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''R172:'''<br> following PK in pos. 4-5: *4H = SLK250 ['12-'15] (1.8-liter turbocharged GDI M271 I4) *3J = SLK300 ['16], SLC300 ['17-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *5H = SLK350 ['12-'16] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SLC43 AMG ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin-turbocharged M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = SLK55 AMG ['12-'16] (5.5-liter M152 GDI V8) '''R107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *45 = 380SL ['81-'85] (3.8-liter M116 V8) *48 = 560SL ['86-'89] (5.5-liter M117 V8) '''C107:'''<br> following BA in pos. 4-5: *25 = 380SLC ['81] (3.8-liter M116 V8) '''R129:'''<br> following FA in pos. 4-5: *61 = 300SL ['90-'93] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *63 = SL320 ['94-'97] (3.2-liter DOHC, 24 valve M104 I6) *66 = 500SL ['90-'92] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *67 = 500SL ['93], SL500 ['94-'98] (5.0-liter DOHC, 32-valve M119 V8) *68 = SL500 ['99-'02] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *76 = 600SL ['93], SL600 ['94-'02] (6.0-liter DOHC, 48-valve M120 V12) '''R230:'''<br> following SK in pos. 4-5: *75 = SL500 ['03-'06] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = SL550 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *7B = SL550 ['11-'12] (5.5-liter DOHC, 32-valve M273 V8) *74 = SL55 AMG ['03-'06] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *72 = SL55 AMG ['07-'08] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *70 = SL63 AMG ['09] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *7A = SL63 AMG ['11-'12] (6.2-liter DOHC, 32-valve M156 V8) *76 = SL600 ['04-'06] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *77 = SL600 ['07-'09] (5.5-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 V12) *79 = SL65 AMG ['05-'09], SL65 AMG Black Series ['09] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) *7K = SL65 AMG ['11] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M275 AMG V12) '''R231:'''<br> following JK in pos. 4-5: *6F = SL400 ['15-'16] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6G = SL450 ['17-'20] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = SL550 ['13-'20] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = SL63 AMG ['13-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7K = SL65 AMG ['13-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''R232:'''<br> following VK in pos. 4-5: *5A = AMG SL43 ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG SL55 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8B = AMG SL63 4Matic+ ['22-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG SL63 S E Performance 4Matic+ ['24-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) following VX in pos. 4-5: *8B = Maybach SL680 4Matic ['26-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C199/R199:'''<br> following AJ in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren coupe ['05-'07] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) following AK in pos. 4-5: *76 = SLR McLaren roadster ['08-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M155 V8) '''C197/R197:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG coupe ['11-'12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT coupe ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7H = SLS AMG Black Series coupe ['14] (6.2-liter M159 V8) following RK in pos. 4-5: *7H = SLS AMG roadster ['12] (6.2-liter M159 V8) *7J = SLS AMG GT roadster ['13-'15] (6.2-liter M159 V8) '''C190:'''<br> following YJ in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT 2-d coupe (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *AJ = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT 2-d coupe S ['16-'19] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT 2-d coupe C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d coupe R Pro ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8B = AMG GT 2-d coupe Black Series ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 LS2 GDI flat-plane crank V8) '''R190:'''<br> following YK in pos. 4-5: *7H = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['17-'20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT roadster (base model) ['21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *8A = AMG GT roadster C ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) *7K = AMG GT 2-d roadster R ['20] (4.0-liter twin turbo M178 GDI V8) '''C192:'''<br> following RJ in pos. 4-5: *4C = AMG GT43 coupe ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 2 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GT55 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *7J = AMG GT63 4Matic+ coupe ['24-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8C = AMG GT63 S E Performance 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8J = AMG GT63 Pro 4Matic+ coupe ['25-] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X156:'''<br> following TG in pos. 4-5: *4E = GLA250 ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *4G = GLA250 4Matic ['15-'20] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M270 I4) *5C = GLA45 AMG 4Matic ['15-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI AMG M133 I4) '''H247:'''<br> following 4N in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLA250 ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLA250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLA250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLA35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5D = AMG GLA45 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection AMG M139 I4) '''X247:'''<br> following 4M in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLB250 ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4G = GLB250 ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *4H = GLB250 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['21-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4) *5B = AMG GLB35 4Matic ['24-'26] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M260 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X243:'''<br> following 9M in pos. 4-5: *0C = EQB250+ ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 front motor, Fwd, 188 hp) *0K = EQB300 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 225 hp) *1D = EQB350 4Matic ['22-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) '''X204:'''<br> following GG in pos. 4-5: *0E = GLK250 Bluetec 4Matic ['13-'15] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5G = GLK350 2wd ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = GLK350 2wd ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *8H = GLK350 4Matic ['10-'12] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8J = GLK350 4Matic ['13-'15] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) '''X253:'''<br> following 0G in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLC300 2wd ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *4K = GLC300 4Matic ['16-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8D = GLC300 2wd ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic ['20-'22] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *5E = GLC350e 4Matic ['18-'19] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 114 hp electric motor, 8.7 kWh lithium-ion battery) *5D = GLC350e 4Matic ['20] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4 + 121 hp electric motor, 13.5 kWh lithium-ion battery) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['17-'22] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''C253:'''<br> following 0J in pos. 4-5: *4K = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M274 I4) *8E = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *6E = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'23] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *8J = AMG GLC63 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8K = AMG GLC63 S 4Matic Coupe ['18-'21] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''X254:'''<br> following KM in pos. 4-5: *4G = GLC300 2wd ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4H = GLC300 4Matic ['23-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5G = GLC350e 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''C254:'''<br> following KJ in pos. 4-5: *4H = GLC300 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = AMG GLC43 4Matic Coupe ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8A = AMG GLC63 S E Performance 4Matic Coupe ['25-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged port/direct injection M139 I4 + 3 electric motors, lithium-ion battery) '''W163:'''<br> following AB in pos. 4-5: *54 = ML320 ['98-'03] (3.2-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *57 = ML350 ['03-'05] (3.7-liter SOHC, 18-valve M112 90° V6) *72 = ML430 ['99-'01] (4.3-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *74 = ML55 AMG ['00-'03] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *75 = ML500 ['02-'05] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) '''W164:'''<br> following BB in pos. 4-5: *22 = ML320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = ML320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = ML350 Bluetec ['10-'11] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = ML350 2wd ['09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5G = ML350 2wd ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *86 = ML350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *8G = ML350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *75 = ML500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *72 = ML550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *7C = ML550 ['10-'11] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *77 = ML63 AMG ['07-'09] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *7H = ML63 AMG ['10-'11] (6.2-liter M156 V8) *9F = ML450 Hybrid 4Matic ['10-'11] (2-Mode Hybrid: 3.5-liter Atkinson-cycle M272 90° V6 + 2 electric motors, Nickel–metal hydride battery) '''W166:'''<br> following DA in pos. 4-5: *2E = ML350 Bluetec ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE350d [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *0E = ML250 Bluetec ['15], GLE300d ['16] (2.1-liter DOHC, 16 valve OM651 turbodiesel I4) *5J = ML350 2wd ['13-'15], GLE350 2wd ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5H = ML350 4Matic ['12-'15], GLE350 4Matic ['16-'18] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *5G = ML400 4Matic ['15], GLE400 4Matic ['16-'17 & '19, Canada only: '18] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *6D = GLE550e 4Matic ['16-'18] (PHEV: 3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic [Canada only: '16], AMG GLE43 4Matic ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = ML550 ['12-'14 & '15 in Canada], GLE550 [Canada only: '16-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = ML63 AMG ['12-'15], AMG GLE63 ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLE63 S ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''C292:'''<br> following ED in pos. 4-5: *2E = GLE350d Coupe [Canada only: '16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *6E = GLE450 AMG Sport 4Matic Coupe ['16], AMG GLE43 4Matic Coupe ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7F = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['16-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''W167:'''<br> following FB in pos. 4-5: *4J = GLE350 2wd ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4K = GLE350 4Matic ['20-'23] (2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M264 I4) *4E = GLE350 2wd ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4F = GLE350 4Matic ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *4G = GLE450e 4Matic ['24-] (PHEV: 2.0-liter turbocharged GDI M254 I4 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5K = GLE450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLE580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLE580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''C167:'''<br> following FD in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLE450 Coupe [Canada only: '22-'24, US & Canada: '25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *6B = AMG GLE53 Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLE63 S Coupe ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X294:'''<br> following GM in pos. 4-5: *2B = EQE350+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 288 hp) *2B = EQE320+ SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 315 hp) *1C = EQE350 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 288 hp) *1C = EQE320 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 315 hp) *2C = EQE500 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp) *5D = AMG EQE 4Matic+ SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 617 hp) '''V251:'''<br> following CB in pos. 4-5: *22 = R320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = R320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = R350 Bluetec ['10-'12 & '13 in Canada] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *56 = R350 2wd ['08] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *65 = R350 4Matic ['06-'09] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *6F = R350 4Matic ['10-'11] (3.5-liter M272 90° V6) *5H = R350 4Matic ['12 & '13 in Canada] (3.5-liter M276 60° GDI V6) *75 = R500 ['06-'07] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *77 = R63 AMG ['07] (6.2-liter M156 V8) '''X164:'''<br> following BF in pos. 4-5: *22 = GL320 CDI ['07-'08] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *25 = GL320 Bluetec ['09] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *2F = GL350 Bluetec ['10-'12] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *71 = GL450 ['07-'09] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *7B = GL450 ['10-'12] (4.7-liter M273 V8) *86 = GL550 ['08-'09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *8G = GL550 ['10-'12] (5.5-liter M273 V8) '''X166:'''<br> following DF in pos. 4-5: *2E = GL350 Bluetec ['13-'16] (3.0-liter DOHC, 24 valve OM642 72° turbodiesel V6) *7C = GL450 ['13-'14] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8 - detuned version) *6E = GL450 ['15-'16], GLS450 ['17-'19] (3.0-liter twin turbo M276 60° GDI V6) *7D = GL550 ['13-'16], GLS550 ['17-'19] (4.7-liter twin turbo M278 GDI V8) *7E = GL63 AMG ['13-'16] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = AMG GLS63 ['17-'19] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) '''X167:'''<br> following FF in pos. 4-5: *5K = GLS450 ['20-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8G = GLS580 ['20-'23] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8F = GLS580 ['24-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8H = Mercedes-Maybach GLS600 ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *8K = AMG GLS63 4MATIC+ ['21-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''X296:'''<br> following DM in pos. 4-5: *2D = EQS450+ SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS450 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *2E = EQS400 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 355 hp) *4E = EQS580 4Matic SUV ['23-'25] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) *4E = EQS550 4Matic SUV ['26-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp) '''Z296:'''<br> following DX in pos. 4-5: *5F = Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 4Matic SUV ['24-] (battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 649 hp) '''W463 (1st gen.):'''<br> following YR in pos. 4-5 ('02-'09) or following YC in pos. 4-5 ('10-'18): *49 = G500 ['02-'08] (5.0-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *37 = G550 ['09] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3H = G550 ['10-'15] (5.5-liter M273 V8) *3K = G550 ['16-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *5F = G550 4x4² ['17-'18] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *46 = G55 AMG ['03-'04] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve M113 V8) *71 = G55 AMG ['05-'09] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7B = G55 AMG ['10-'11] (5.4-liter SOHC, 24-valve supercharged M113K V8) *7D = G63 AMG ['13-'18] (5.5-liter twin turbo M157 GDI V8) *7F = G65 AMG ['16-'18] (6.0-liter SOHC, 36-valve twin turbo M279 V12) '''W463 (2nd gen.):'''<br> following YC in pos. 4-5: *6B = G550 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M176 GDI V8) *7H = AMG G63 ['19-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) *8A = AMG G63 4x4² ['22-'24] (4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8) '''W465:'''<br> following WH in pos. 4-5: *1A = G550 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 3.0-liter turbo/e-supercharged M256 GDI I6 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) *5A = AMG G63 ['25-] (EQ Boost 48v Mild Hybrid: 4.0-liter twin turbo M177 GDI V8 + electric motor, lithium-ion battery) '''N465:'''<br> following WM in pos. 4-5: *0A = G580 with EQ Technology ['25-] (battery-electric, 4 motors, 4wd, 579 hp) ===Position 8=== Passenger cars - Restraint system: * A 3-point seat belts for outboard passengers, center rear lap belt * B seat belt + emergency pretensioners for front passenger seat & driver-side front airbag * C seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats * D seat belt + emergency pretensioners for both front seats, driver-side front air bag and knee bolster * E seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (SL-Class does not have rear seats) * F seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt (SL-Class & SLK-Class do not have rear seats) ['96-'98 210-series E-class sedan, '98-'99 210-series E-class wagon, '96- R129 SL-Class, '98- R170 SLK-Class] * G seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear lap belt (CL-Class & CLK-Class do not have center rear seat position) ['97-'99 140-series S-class, '98-'00 202-series C-Class, '98-'02 208-series CLK-Class coupe, '99-'03 208-series CLK-Class convertible] * H seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['99 210-series E-Class sedan] * J seat belt + emergency pretensioners, driver and passenger front air bags and knee bolsters, front door-mounted side-impact airbags, front to rear side curtain airbags, outboard rear 3-point belts, center rear 3-point belt ['00- 210-series E-Class, '00- 220-series S-Class, '00- 215-series CL-Class, '01- 203-series C-Class, '03- 209-series CLK-Class coupe] * A seat belts + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for both front seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row <br> ('10-'16 SLK-Class, '17-'18 SLC-Class, '10-'18 SL-Class, '11-'15 SLS AMG, '16-'18 AMG GT) * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('14-'18 CLA-Class, '14-'17 B-Class Electric, '15-'18 GLA45 AMG, '10-'18 C-Class, '10-'18 E-Class sedan, '11-'18 E-Class wagon, '10-'18 E-Class coupe, '18- E-Class cabriolet, '10-'18 CLS-Class, '10-'18 S-Class, '10-'14 CL-Class, '10-'12 Maybach) * F seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st row ('11-'17 E-Class cabriolet) SUVs - GVWR ('98-'09): * E = Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('98-'09 M-Class, '02-'09 G-Class, '06-'09 R-Class, '07-'09 GL-Class) SUVs ('10-) Restraint system: * B seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st & 2nd rows ('15-'18 GLA250, '10-'15 GLK-Class, '10-'15 M-Class, '16-'18 GLE-Class, '10-'12 R-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 GL-Class w/2 rows, '10-'15 G-Class) * E seat belts for all seats + emergency pretensioners/load limiters for outboard seats, driver and passenger front air bags, inflatable side protection systems for 1st, 2nd, & 3rd rows ('10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class w/3 rows, '10-'16 GL-Class w/3 rows, '17-'18 GLS-Class) GVWR: * Class C: 4001-5000 lbs. ('15- GLA250) * Class D: 5001-6000 lbs. ('10-'15 GLK-Class, '16-'18 GLC-Class) * Class E: 6001-7000 lbs. ('10-'15 M-Class, '16- GLE-Class, '10-'12 & '13 in Canada R-Class, '10-'12 GL-Class, '10-'12 G-Class) * Class F: 7001-8000 lbs. ('13-'16 GL-Class, '17- GLS-Class, '13- G-Class) * Class H: 9001-10,000 lbs. ('10-'16 G-Class w/optional armoring) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * A-D: Sindelfingen, Germany * E: Sindelfingen, Germany (through 2000) * E: Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil (from 2001) * E: Mishawaka, Indiana, US (AM General plant) ('16-'17 R-Class for China) * F-H: Bremen, Germany * J, K: Rastatt, Germany * L: Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia (HICOM Automotive Manufacturers plant) * M: Woking, England, UK (SLR McLaren) (McLaren Automotive plant) * N, P: Kecskemet, Hungary * R, S: East London, South Africa * T: Osnabrück, Germany (Karmann plant) * U: Sindelfingen, Germany * V: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet Automotive plant) * W: Aguascalientes, Mexico (COMPAS plant) * X: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant) * 1: Pune, Maharashtra, India For 4JG and 55S: * A, B, U: Vance, Alabama, US ===Positions 12–17, Serial Number=== ==Commercial Vehicles== Position 1-3 * VSA - Mercedes-Benz Espana SA (1st gen. Vito/V-Class - W638) * WDB - Daimler-Benz AG, DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG * WDF - DaimlerChrysler AG, Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Citan, Vito/V-Class & X-Class) * W1H - Freightliner Truck made in Germany by Daimler Truck (Freightliner Econic) * W1T - Daimler AG (Daimler Truck Holding AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz truck) * W1V - Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz Group AG from 2022) (Mercedes-Benz van) * W1W - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1X - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Y - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * W1Z - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD4 - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDA - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WD3 - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter or Metris) * WDZ - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter) * WD0 - Dodge Sprinter Truck 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WD1 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle (T1N) * WD2 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter Truck (T1N) * WD5 - Dodge (2003-2005) or Freightliner (2002-2005) Sprinter MPV (T1N) * WD6 - Freightliner Unimog Truck * WD7 - Freightliner Unimog Incomplete Vehicle * WD8 - Dodge Sprinter MPV 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDW - Dodge Sprinter Bus 2008-2009 (NCV3) * WDX - Dodge Sprinter Incomplete Vehicle 2005-2009 (T1N & NCV3) * WDR - Freightliner MPV * WDP - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * WDY - Freightliner Truck * WCD - Freightliner Bus * W2W - Freightliner MPV * W2X - Freightliner Incomplete Vehicle * W2Y - Freightliner Truck * W2Z - Freightliner Bus * 1MB - Mercedes-Benz Truck Co., Inc. (M-B Truck made in USA) (1981-1990) * 8AB - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Truck & Bus (for South America) * 8AC - Mercedes-Benz Argentina Van (for South America) * 8BT - Mercedes-Benz MPV (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BN - Mercedes-Benz Incomplete Vehicle (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BU - Mercedes-Benz Truck (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 8BR - Mercedes-Benz Bus (Mercedes-Benz Sprinter made in Argentina for export to N. America) * 9BM - Mercedes-Benz Brazil Truck & Bus (for South America) Position 4–6, Model *414 - Vaneo *415 - Mark 1 Citan *420 - Mark 2 Citan *447 - Mark 3 Vito *470 - X-Class *638 - Mark 1 Vito *639 - Mark 2 Vito *670 - Vario *901 - Sprinter T1N *902 - Sprinter T1N *903 - Sprinter T1N *904 - Sprinter T1N *905 - Sprinter T1N *906 - Sprinter NCV3 *907 - Sprinter VS30 (RWD) *910 - Sprinter VS30 (FWD) *930 - Actros Rigids *933 - Actros MP2 concrete mixer *934 - Actros MP2 tractor *944 - Axor Tractor *950 - Axor Rigids / Actros Mk1 Rigids *952 - Axor *954 - Actros Mk1 Tractor *956 - Econic *963 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Antos *964 - NEW ACTROS MP4 (Common-Rail engine) / Arocs *967 - Atego *970 - Atego *972 - Atego *976 - Atego Fire Position 7–9, Weight and Length code Position 10, Drive indicator *1 Left hand drive *2 Right hand drive Position 11, Plant code * E: Buenos Aires, Argentina * G: Barcelona, Spain (Nissan plant) (X-Class pickup) * N: Hampton, VA, US (For WMI 1MB) * N: Ludwigsfelde, Germany * P, R, S: Düsseldorf, Germany * T: Ladson, South Carolina, US * U: Maubeuge, France (Renault plant) (Citan, T-Class, EQT) * V: Wörth, Germany * 3: Vitoria, Spain * 4: Vitoria, Spain (When Position 1-3 is W1V) * 4: Wörth, Germany (Freightliner Unimog) * 5: Düsseldorf, Germany * 9: Ludwigsfelde, Germany Position 12–17, Serial Number Position 18, Check Digit ==External links== Online [http://www.vindecoderz.com/EN/Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Vito decoder] WDB1260251A336981 {{BookCat}} fgrvp9ht1lfrbufmvjdzrhcv2gbav14 0 177116 4635083 3231186 2026-05-10T08:19:53Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635083 wikitext text/x-wiki <TABLE id="Table8" cellSpacing="1" cellPadding="7" width="390" border="1"><TR> <TD colSpan="3" style="text-align:center;color:#ff0000">Singular</TD> <TD colSpan="3" style="text-align:center;color:#ff0000">Plural</TD></TR> <TR align="middle"> <TD style="width=:17%; color:#0000ff; font-size:medium;">Masculine</TD> <TD style="width=:17%; color:#0000ff; font-size:medium;">Neutral</TD> <TD style="width=:17%; color:#0000ff; font-size:medium;">Feminine</TD> <TD style="width=:17%; color:#0000ff; font-size:medium;">Masculine</TD> <TD style="width=:17%; color:#0000ff; font-size:medium;">Neutral</TD> <TD style="width=:17%; color:#0000ff; font-size:medium;">Feminine</TD> </TR><TR> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koji</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koje</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koja</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koji</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koja</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koje</TD> </TR><TR> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojeg</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojeg</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koje</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojih</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojih</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojih</TD></TR><TR> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojem</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojem</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojoj</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD></TR><TR> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koji</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koje</TD> <TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koju</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koje</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koja</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Koje</TD></TR><TR><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojem</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojem</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojoj</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojima</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojima</TD></TR><TR><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojom</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD><TD style="width:17%; font-size:medium">Kojim</TD> </TR> </TABLE> {{BookCat}} 16gmy56tfr5aa0jpsw6qgsh9e67k1nm 0 184194 4635072 4341750 2026-05-10T07:58:17Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635072 wikitext text/x-wiki Creative writing exercises can be a great way to practice your writing skills. Writing poetry, fiction, and memoir allows you to use your imagination and previous experiences, as well as practice your narrative, grammar, and punctuation skills. Though you may doubt yourself as a writer or feel unsettled at the idea of being creative, have confidence in yourself and know that you are already equipped to be a creative writer. You have a story to tell, and the following exercises will help discover and tell your personal stories. =Creative Writing= While other forms of writing ask that you to find research in external source before you begin, creative writing does not require this of you. More often than not, creative writing projects only require you to use your memory and imagination to tackle your project. This ability to just sit down and write without having to perform research allows you to practice writing whenever you want. You can try writing a poem on your coffee break or during a bus or subway ride. You can spend an afternoon writing a memoir about your favorite childhood pet, or you could begin to keep a journal where describe the events of your day, the weather, the books you are reading, or television shows you like to watch. For creative and personal writing, the possibilities are endless. Now you may be asking yourself if you have anything worth writing about, and the simple answers is yes you do! Every day provides an infinite number of topics to write about, whether that be having dinner with a friend, the taste of your coffee, or the beauty of a painting you saw in a museum. The activities in this section will help you jump-start your creativity, and before you know it you will have written some great poems, short stories, and memoirs. == Poetry == More so than any other form of writing, poetry is known for its ability to express ideas and emotions or tell stories using very few words. Though some poems can be long, in general the best poems are those that help us appreciate mankind and nature by condensing a scene or event into short poem full of details. With these poetry exercises, you will attempt to write poems that are short but specific. Like every other kind of writing, the most successful pieces of poetry help us clearly imagine what the poet is talking about by using concrete images or facts. The following exercises will also help you practice writing clear sentences, think about grammar, and practice using punctuation, but most of all have fun writing. ===Poetry Without Punctuation=== Have you ever got tired of having to use punctuation and wish you could write without having to worry about periods, commas, and quotations? Well many poets have become famous for writing pieces that do not use any punctuation to make their sentences clear. However do not be fooled, writing without punctuation can be just as difficult as writing with it. For this exercise, read Lucille Clifton's [http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poem.html?id=176011 "the garden of delight"] and then write a poem about a garden or park you like to visit without using any punctuation. Keep in mind that you want the reader to be able to easily understand the poem, so like Clifton insert line breaks or spaces to help the reader understand how to read the poem. Then on a separate piece of paper, try writing the same poem again, but this time use punctuation. Notice how the poem changes and the punctuation can help you. After you have written the second version of the poem, spend a few moments and journal about writing both poems. Which poem was easier to write? What made it easier to write? Do you like this poem better and why? Which do you think is easier for the reader to understand? Why? Be sure to have both poems in front of you when you journal so that you can easily compare them, noticing where you used punctuation in the second poem and how that might or might have clarified what you wrote in the first poem. ==Narrative and Memoir== === Defining ''Narrative'' and ''Memoir''=== * Narrative: <blockquote>Simply stated, narrative is a style of writing that tells a story. It can be fiction or nonfiction and is typically told from a first- or third-person point of view. Narratives can be in the form of short stories, poetry, personal essays, novels, monologues, folktales, fables, legends, etc. The characteristic hallmark of narrative is that there is a character or voice telling the reader or viewer "what happened," as with the "narrators" of most novels and short stories, and many movies or television programs. Well-known and popular TV examples of this would include the late 1980s/early 1990s drama, ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0094582/ The Wonder Years],'' or more recently the prime-time shows ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0285403/ Scrubs]'', and ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0410975/ Desperate Housewives]''. A narrative may or may not have dialogue, depending on whether or not the event or action taking place is simply an observation from a distance (like the narrator of a nature documentary) or, for instance, a kind of ''I said'' or ''he/she said'' situation (like J.D. Salinger's ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catcher_in_the_rye The Catcher in the Rye]'' and F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Gatsby The Great Gatsby]''). Some narratives have multiple narrators, or more than one character/voice, each of whom is responsible for either telling one part of a larger story, or who tell different versions of the same story. Several narrative examples of the use of multiple narrators can be found in William Faulkner's novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury The Sound and the Fury],'' Ernest J. Gaines's novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Gathering_of_Old_Men A Gathering of Old Men],'' and Akira Kurosawa's film ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042876/ Rashomon].'' </blockquote> * Memoir: <blockquote>Memoir is a specific type of narrative. It is autobiographical in nature but it is not meant to be as comprehensive as biography (which tells the ''entire'' life story of a person). Instead, a memoir is usually only a specific "slice" of one's life. The time span within a memoir is thus frequently limited to a single memorable event or moment, though it can also be used to tell about a longer series of events that make up a particular period of one's life (as in Cameron Crowe's film memoir ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0181875/ Almost Famous]''). It is narrative in structure, usually describing people and events that ultimately focuses on the emotional significance of the story to the one telling it. Generally, this emotional significance is the result of a resolution from the conflict within the story. Though a memoir is the retelling of a true account, it is not usually regarded as being completely true. After all, no one can faithfully recall every detail or bit of dialogue from an event that took place many years ago. Consequently, some creative license is granted by the reader to the memoirist recounting, say, a significant moment or events from his childhood some thirty years or more earlier. (However, the memoirist who assumes too much creative license without disclosing that fact is vulnerable to censure and public ridicule if his deception is found out, as recently happened with James Frey and his alleged memoir, ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_Little_Pieces A Million Little Pieces].'') Furthermore, names of people and places are often changed in a memoir to protect those who were either directly or indirectly involved in the lives and/or event(s) being described.</blockquote> === Common Approaches === Below you will find some typical writing prompts that will allow you to begin writing a narrative or memoir. Remember to stay focused and to tell a story when writing in this genre. * "Write about someone significant in your life." * "Write about the worst/best, most significant/exciting/boring day of your life." * "If you had a chance to talk with a historical/famous/legendary/etc. person, what would you talk about? Explain why." === Sample Assignment === There is not one right or best way to write a narrative or memoir. However, there are certainly better ways to write in this genre than others. Read the following short samples of an "excellent," "needs a little work," and "needs a lot of work" narrative writing assignment! Because it should be a narrative, remember that the writer should be telling a story. All grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors should be cleared up when editing. See [[Basic Writing/Editing]] for more help. So the focus will be on content. Assignment: "Write about someone significant in your life." '''Needs a lot of work:''' <blockquote> My mom is a significant person in my life. She has always taken good care of me. She looks after my family and does a lot of hard work. My family couldn't make it without my mom. I really love my mom a lot because of all she has done for me. She's a great person. I tell my mom everything. She is probably my closest friend. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555><em>This narrative needs a lot of work. There are very few specific details. Questions that need to be answered are: How does she take good care of you? What kind of hard work does she do? Why is she a great person? What kind of a person is she? What does she do with the information you give her? What kind of sacrifices has she made for the family? </em></span></blockquote> <blockquote><span style="color:#555555><em>Answering these questions will really improve the writing. The audience wants to know as much interesting information as you can tell them about this topic. Think about all the details you see and hear in a movie or really good book. You don't need to reach that level, but that should be your goal. Giving some specific, personal examples will help the audience understand the writing and enjoy reading it. See the next example for a better response to this assignment. </em></span></blockquote> '''Needs a little work:''' <blockquote> When I was young, I didn't get along very well with my mom. We used to fight a lot and I just didn't understand her. She always seemed to be in my business and trying to snoop around. I've always had really dry eyes. Sometimes they water to compensate or get really red because they're so dry. My mom used to think I'd been crying and bug me to death asking me if someone had hurt my feelings at school! I was a teenager! </blockquote> <blockquote>But now me and my mom are best friends. I tell her everything and she tells me everything. Sometimes we still disagree, but we've learned to understand and respect each other. We're very different people, but I don't know what I'd do without my mom. She has always supported me and stood behind whatever I've wanted to do or be. She's my biggest fan. In my mom's eyes, I could be the next great world leader, or a famous ballerina, or the first astronaut to live on Mars. It took me a while to realize just how significant my mom is to me, but now that I know, nothing will ever change the way I feel about her. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This narrative is better than the first one because it has more details and gives some specific examples regarding the writer's relationship to her mom. However, it still needs a little work because even more details could be provided to give the reader a clearer picture of their relationship. For example, the reader doesn't know what has changed in this relationship that led to the two of them becoming like "best friends."</em></span></blockquote> '''Excellent:''' <blockquote> When I was a teenager, I didn't get along very well with my mom. It seemed like we fought on a daily basis and we rarely if ever understood where the other was coming from. I felt so separate from her and it was impossible to tell her about my problems because all she would ever do is freak out.<br> <br> I remember one particular fight in perfect clarity. We were having one of our good days - that should've been the first warning sign. I was helping her weed the flower beds, telling her about a conversation that I had had with my boyfriend's mom the previous night. When I was finished telling her about the advice that Janice shared with me about how to reconcile with a friend of mine, my mom grew very quiet. I asked her if something was wrong but she continued to stare at a stubborn dandelion in the middle of her peony bed.<br> <br> Finally, she looked up at me. Frustration and anger filled her face and tears spilled down her cheeks. "How come you never come to me anymore?" she spat. "Why do you have to go to other moms to talk about your problems? Am I not good enough?"<br> <br> I didn't really know what to say. I tried to reason with her, explaining that it's normal for teenagers to talk to other parents about personal problems, but all she did was storm off.<br> <br> That was the day that I realized how much my mom actually meant to me. I knew from her reaction that she felt devalued and even though we had our issues, I also knew that I had a great mom. She had always taken care of me, provided for me, and as a young child, she was my best friend. I wanted that back and from that day on, the two of us worked on communicating better and getting to know each other all over again. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This is an excellent example of a narrative because it provides necessary details to help the reader understand the relationship between the mother and daughter. In the "needs a little work" example, the writer did not explain how the mom and daughter became "best friends." This is an important and significant detail. It is important to explain the important details as much as possible in a story. To continue this writing, the writer will probably give another example of how things were after they began to understand each other better. This will give the audience a clear picture of the progress of the relationship.</em></span></blockquote> === Examples: === The following are example compositions written for an assignment where students were asked to write narrative descriptions about a day they consider to be one of their worst. (Note: Even though two of the following three examples have death as a theme, personal narratives and memoirs can just as easily be written about smaller, less dramatic events from one's life.) '''Example 1:''' <blockquote>It was the worst day of my life, and it was only 10:00am. Sitting in my dorm room sobbing into the phone, my mom tried to calm me down. But she couldn't erase the pain and misery, hurt and disappointment I was currently feeling. What had gone wrong? Why was everyone against me? How would I get through the rest of the day... the week with my injuries? Let me start from the beginning.<br> <br> It was a cold, blustery day at Evangel University. I had spent the last few days preparing for a presentation for my Children's Literature class, and I would soon go to the preschool just down the road to teach a lesson for the preschoolers. I had made beautiful little magnetic snowflakes that the students could take home with them. The snowflakes went along with the story I'd be reading in about an hour.<br> <br> I was completely prepared and had spent a lot of time thinking through the lesson and carefully paying attention to detail. As I was about to leave, I recognized how miserably cold it was outside and wondered if I could find a ride, even though the preschool was actually on campus. I asked my roommate if I could borrow her car, knowing there was little chance since it was a leased vehicle and her dad had forbidden her to let anyone drive it. But I thought it wouldn't hurt to ask. She turned me down. She also wasn't able to take me because she had to go to class herself. She apologized, but didn't seem too sympathetic. (What really irked me was that I found out later that she had let her boyfriend borrow her car for a much longer drive than the one I needed to take! I've since forgiven her... I think.)<br> <br> Next I tried to call my brother, but couldn't get a hold of him. He was probably in class as well. Due to the early hour, most everyone was in class, so no one else was around to ask either. So I bundled up in my warmest, flannel-lined overalls and fur coat and trekked down to the preschool. The snow swirled around me in fury and I was near to tears with my own inner-fury at my roommate who could have helped me avoid this situation.<br> <br> Gladly arriving at the preschool, I barged in ready to teach my well-prepared lesson, only to discover that another classmate was there teaching her lesson. I couldn't believe it! I knew I had written down the correct date, but something went wrong. The regular teachers didn't have time to fill me in that day, so instead of teaching my beautifully created lesson, I left to trudge back up the hill in the angry snow. Tears streaming down my face, I arrived back at the dorm. I was wearing my clunky wooden clogs and ran up the stairs as I had done a thousand times before. But I slipped... </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example is a memoir because it's a slice of life as opposed to a complete autobiography. It shows a picture of one day in the life of this person. It is the emotional retelling of a story from the narrator's perspective. Notice that the narrator does not focus on relationships or events surrounding this one event, but just on the event itself. The focus is all of the details that caused this day to be the worst of this person's life. If other threads such as the relationship with the roommate or details about the Children's Literature class had been added, the focus would have been lost in the muddle of too many details. </em></span></blockquote> <blockquote><span style="color:#555555"><em>In a memoir, the focus must stay tight. Think of taking a picture with a camera. Think about what you want to be in the picture and what would distract from the picture. Have you ever taken a picture where there was a lot of white space at the top and what was supposed to be the focus: the people, are just tiny dots at the bottom? This is what happens to a story when the focus is too broad. See the [[Basic Writing/Invention]] section of this book wikitext for help on narrowing your topic. </em></span></blockquote> '''Example 2:''' <blockquote>On my worst day I was supposed to get up early so I could get out to my folks’ house on account that my mama needed me to help her take our old dog to the vet. My mama needed my help because she’s not a very big person and our dog is really big. She also has a bad knee. My mama, I mean, not the dog. Well anyway our dog is one of them Great Pyrenees, a great big white monster of a thing, and she’s got arthritis in her hips and spine something bad. So my mama had to make an appointment to have her put down because our dog couldn’t even stand to eat or pee anymore. That’s how bad off she was, you see.<br> <br> So here I was supposed to get up early to help my mama load the dog into her car and my alarm doesn’t go off. Luckily I wake up on my own and I’m not all that late yet so I hurry up and get dressed and run out of the house to my truck. Then I take off towards my folks’ house kind of fast because I’m already behind schedule and I’m about half way there when all of a sudden I get a flat tire. Making matters worse is the fact that it’s raining outside, been raining all night in fact and I guess that’s why my alarm didn’t work. So I pull half into the ditch because the road doesn’t have a shoulder and of course the flat tire is on the passenger side which means that I have to work in the mud. Even worse my little bottle jack won’t lift the truck on account it keeps sinking into the ground. Well lately I’d had some bricks in the bed of my pick-up but when I go to get them out they aren’t there. Now I’m pissed because I’m late, I’ve got a flat tire, I can’t get the jack to work because it’s raining and the ground is too soft, and some jackass has stolen a handful of worthless bricks from the bed of my truck. This on top of the fact that our old dog’s got to be put down and my mama needs me to be there. Still determined to make it, I root around in the ditch till I find a couple of rocks I can put under the jack. I finally get my tire changed but by then I’m soaked to the bone and covered in mud, which means that I get my seat all wet and muddy too.<br> <br> Finally I make it out to my folks’ place and my mama is sitting in the front yard with our dog and holding an umbrella over her. I can plainly see that she’s in pretty bad shape, worse than the last time I saw her. The dog, I mean, not my mama, although she’s looking pretty down herself. She doesn’t bother to ask why I’m all wet and muddy, so I know things are bad for sure. When I try to pick our old dog up to put her in the back of my mama’s Jimmy she yelps real loud and snaps at me. I decided then and there that getting her to the vet wasn’t going to work. She was too heavy and in too much pain to be messing with. So I went and got my old red wagon out of my dad’s shop and carefully my mama and me lifted her onto it.<br> <br> My mama knew what had to be done and so she says her goodbyes to our old dog. Then I roll her slowly around the house to where we’ve buried other pets in the past and I dig a fairly large hole. When I am finished I sit on the ground beside the old red wagon and talk to our dog for a bit, tell her what she’s meant to me all these years and that I am going to miss her. I’d rather not say what happened after that other than I like to believe she understood it all and that it came as a relief to her.<br> <br> When I get back to my place later I realize that I’d left in such a hurry earlier that I’d locked myself out of the house. It had stopped raining by then, though, so I just sit for a while in a lawn chair there on my porch. Then I look over and see the bricks still lying there where I’d stacked them a few days before and forgotten. Suddenly I start laughing then and can’t stop, keep laughing till tears run down my cheeks. Looking back on it now that seems pretty weird since it had been such a terrible day. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example, like the one above it, is also memoir. It is similar in that it also describes a day in the writer's life and is necessarily limited only to those details that are relevant to the story and that move the narrative forward. A good exercise, though, might be to examine how these two samples from the same genre are different. Do both sound as if they are spoken by the same "voice"? What details from each might you use to argue the speakers' gender? Does either "sound" female/male? Also note that Example 2 reads much more like spoken language--is that appropriate for this genre, or should the writer have written in a more academic or formal manner?</em></span></blockquote> '''Example 3:''' <blockquote>I was standing in the middle of Dollar Tree, leaning on my cart, when I said, "What?" to my mom telling me about my little black cat, Baby, being found dead a few days earlier. "Baby's dead, honey." I couldn't say anything. What could I say? I had been the one to take her to the farm thinking that she would adjust and be happier as a farm cat. Besides, I had too many cats, six actually, and Baby and Ginger had been the most logical choices to relocate. Both of them were unhappy living in such a small environment with four other cats. Baby suffered from anxiety problems and Ginger just wanted more territory. She was always so bitchy, hissing like she owned everything and everyone. Adorable, yes, but incredibly bitchy. Baby just wanted to be alone, or with me. The only way I could get her to come out of hiding is if I'd sing to her - any song with her name in it. Her favorite one was the one from the movie ''Dirty Dancing'' "Ba-byyy, ohh-ohhh ba-byyy, my sweet ba-byyy, you're the one. . ." When I'd sing it to her, she'd roll 'round on the floor and rub against me as if to say, "I reeeaaallly love you!" I'll never be able to listen to that song without missing her now.<br> <br> "Honey, are you alright?" my mom asked quietly. No, I'm not alright. I knew something was wrong. I had a feeling several days ago - one of those feelings that tell you something is wrong, but I chose to ignore it. "How did she die?" I ask, trying to keep my emotions under control. It's no use though, tears start streaking my face and Dollar Tree customers are beginning to stare. "They found her dead in the cabin," mom said, her voice choking, "I'm so sorry, hon." "She was still in the cabin?!" I practically shout into the phone. "I thought Laura picked her up to take her to her house." Mom grew quiet. After a few moments she said, "They never could catch her. Dad said that they looked for her every day. They moved the furniture and everything but they couldn't find her. Now they think that maybe she might have climbed behind the fridge to hide."<br> <br> I was livid, but I knew it would just kill mom and dad if I blamed them for this. Despite this fact, I had to ask one last question, "Mom, why didn't you guys call me and tell me that you were having problems with her? I could've come home to take care of her. I told you that I smelled natural gas or something on the day that we dropped her off at the cabin. Why didn't someone call me?!" At this point I was hysterical and customers were steering their shopping carts way around me. When my mom finally answered her comforting voice was gone. Replacing it was one of defense and insensitivity. "We did the best we could! Dad's been so depressed lately and this almost pushed him over the edge. He knows how much you love your cats and he's blaming himself. It's not his fault and it's not yours either! Do you hear me?" <br> <br> All I could do was cry. I didn't want to hurt them, but I just couldn't understand why they chose not to call me. And I do blame myself. I knew that something was wrong, and knowing that she was alone in that cabin for two weeks, going through god knows what, thinking god knows what, well it just killed me inside. I was filled with guilt. I had rescued her as a baby, beaten and left for dead and now, seven years later I just pawn her off on someone else and she dies alone? I don't even want to know how much pain she may have been in. How in the world will I deal with the guilt of knowing that all of this could've been avoided? How?</blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><pan style="color:#555555"><em>This example is also similar to the above examples so the same comments apply. It is a narrative memoir, however there are two elements within this memoir that set it apart from the above examples. First of all, it includes dialogue which is somewhat tricky when writing. The most important thing to remember is that dialogue should sound natural - like the voice of the person speaking. Practice saying it out loud as if reading a script for an audition. Also, when using dialogue make sure the reader can understand who is saying what.<br> <br>Another element that was included in this example was a specific use of stylized writing during the recitation of Baby's favorite song and her response to that song. This style of writing is becoming more popular in mainstream writing - especially comedic novels. An example of this style of writing can be found throughout the novel, <U>The Nanny Diaries</U>, by Emma McLaughlin and Nicola Kraus.</em></span></blockquote> {{BookCat}} e2rqt94akq08irhd0564kfeo2p4c1kq 4635073 4635072 2026-05-10T07:58:32Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635073 wikitext text/x-wiki Creative writing exercises can be a great way to practice your writing skills. Writing poetry, fiction, and memoir allows you to use your imagination and previous experiences, as well as practice your narrative, grammar, and punctuation skills. Though you may doubt yourself as a writer or feel unsettled at the idea of being creative, have confidence in yourself and know that you are already equipped to be a creative writer. You have a story to tell, and the following exercises will help discover and tell your personal stories. =Creative Writing= While other forms of writing ask that you to find research in external source before you begin, creative writing does not require this of you. More often than not, creative writing projects only require you to use your memory and imagination to tackle your project. This ability to just sit down and write without having to perform research allows you to practice writing whenever you want. You can try writing a poem on your coffee break or during a bus or subway ride. You can spend an afternoon writing a memoir about your favorite childhood pet, or you could begin to keep a journal where describe the events of your day, the weather, the books you are reading, or television shows you like to watch. For creative and personal writing, the possibilities are endless. Now you may be asking yourself if you have anything worth writing about, and the simple answers is yes you do! Every day provides an infinite number of topics to write about, whether that be having dinner with a friend, the taste of your coffee, or the beauty of a painting you saw in a museum. The activities in this section will help you jump-start your creativity, and before you know it you will have written some great poems, short stories, and memoirs. == Poetry == More so than any other form of writing, poetry is known for its ability to express ideas and emotions or tell stories using very few words. Though some poems can be long, in general the best poems are those that help us appreciate mankind and nature by condensing a scene or event into short poem full of details. With these poetry exercises, you will attempt to write poems that are short but specific. Like every other kind of writing, the most successful pieces of poetry help us clearly imagine what the poet is talking about by using concrete images or facts. The following exercises will also help you practice writing clear sentences, think about grammar, and practice using punctuation, but most of all have fun writing. ===Poetry Without Punctuation=== Have you ever got tired of having to use punctuation and wish you could write without having to worry about periods, commas, and quotations? Well many poets have become famous for writing pieces that do not use any punctuation to make their sentences clear. However do not be fooled, writing without punctuation can be just as difficult as writing with it. For this exercise, read Lucille Clifton's [http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poem.html?id=176011 "the garden of delight"] and then write a poem about a garden or park you like to visit without using any punctuation. Keep in mind that you want the reader to be able to easily understand the poem, so like Clifton insert line breaks or spaces to help the reader understand how to read the poem. Then on a separate piece of paper, try writing the same poem again, but this time use punctuation. Notice how the poem changes and the punctuation can help you. After you have written the second version of the poem, spend a few moments and journal about writing both poems. Which poem was easier to write? What made it easier to write? Do you like this poem better and why? Which do you think is easier for the reader to understand? Why? Be sure to have both poems in front of you when you journal so that you can easily compare them, noticing where you used punctuation in the second poem and how that might or might have clarified what you wrote in the first poem. ==Narrative and Memoir== === Defining ''Narrative'' and ''Memoir''=== * Narrative: <blockquote>Simply stated, narrative is a style of writing that tells a story. It can be fiction or nonfiction and is typically told from a first- or third-person point of view. Narratives can be in the form of short stories, poetry, personal essays, novels, monologues, folktales, fables, legends, etc. The characteristic hallmark of narrative is that there is a character or voice telling the reader or viewer "what happened," as with the "narrators" of most novels and short stories, and many movies or television programs. Well-known and popular TV examples of this would include the late 1980s/early 1990s drama, ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0094582/ The Wonder Years],'' or more recently the prime-time shows ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0285403/ Scrubs]'', and ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0410975/ Desperate Housewives]''. A narrative may or may not have dialogue, depending on whether or not the event or action taking place is simply an observation from a distance (like the narrator of a nature documentary) or, for instance, a kind of ''I said'' or ''he/she said'' situation (like J.D. Salinger's ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catcher_in_the_rye The Catcher in the Rye]'' and F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Gatsby The Great Gatsby]''). Some narratives have multiple narrators, or more than one character/voice, each of whom is responsible for either telling one part of a larger story, or who tell different versions of the same story. Several narrative examples of the use of multiple narrators can be found in William Faulkner's novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury The Sound and the Fury],'' Ernest J. Gaines's novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Gathering_of_Old_Men A Gathering of Old Men],'' and Akira Kurosawa's film ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0042876/ Rashomon].'' </blockquote> * Memoir: <blockquote>Memoir is a specific type of narrative. It is autobiographical in nature but it is not meant to be as comprehensive as biography (which tells the ''entire'' life story of a person). Instead, a memoir is usually only a specific "slice" of one's life. The time span within a memoir is thus frequently limited to a single memorable event or moment, though it can also be used to tell about a longer series of events that make up a particular period of one's life (as in Cameron Crowe's film memoir ''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0181875/ Almost Famous]''). It is narrative in structure, usually describing people and events that ultimately focuses on the emotional significance of the story to the one telling it. Generally, this emotional significance is the result of a resolution from the conflict within the story. Though a memoir is the retelling of a true account, it is not usually regarded as being completely true. After all, no one can faithfully recall every detail or bit of dialogue from an event that took place many years ago. Consequently, some creative license is granted by the reader to the memoirist recounting, say, a significant moment or events from his childhood some thirty years or more earlier. (However, the memoirist who assumes too much creative license without disclosing that fact is vulnerable to censure and public ridicule if his deception is found out, as recently happened with James Frey and his alleged memoir, ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_Little_Pieces A Million Little Pieces].'') Furthermore, names of people and places are often changed in a memoir to protect those who were either directly or indirectly involved in the lives and/or event(s) being described.</blockquote> === Common Approaches === Below you will find some typical writing prompts that will allow you to begin writing a narrative or memoir. Remember to stay focused and to tell a story when writing in this genre. * "Write about someone significant in your life." * "Write about the worst/best, most significant/exciting/boring day of your life." * "If you had a chance to talk with a historical/famous/legendary/etc. person, what would you talk about? Explain why." === Sample Assignment === There is not one right or best way to write a narrative or memoir. However, there are certainly better ways to write in this genre than others. Read the following short samples of an "excellent," "needs a little work," and "needs a lot of work" narrative writing assignment! Because it should be a narrative, remember that the writer should be telling a story. All grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors should be cleared up when editing. See [[Basic Writing/Editing]] for more help. So the focus will be on content. Assignment: "Write about someone significant in your life." '''Needs a lot of work:''' <blockquote> My mom is a significant person in my life. She has always taken good care of me. She looks after my family and does a lot of hard work. My family couldn't make it without my mom. I really love my mom a lot because of all she has done for me. She's a great person. I tell my mom everything. She is probably my closest friend. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555><em>This narrative needs a lot of work. There are very few specific details. Questions that need to be answered are: How does she take good care of you? What kind of hard work does she do? Why is she a great person? What kind of a person is she? What does she do with the information you give her? What kind of sacrifices has she made for the family? </em></span></blockquote> <blockquote><span style="color:#555555><em>Answering these questions will really improve the writing. The audience wants to know as much interesting information as you can tell them about this topic. Think about all the details you see and hear in a movie or really good book. You don't need to reach that level, but that should be your goal. Giving some specific, personal examples will help the audience understand the writing and enjoy reading it. See the next example for a better response to this assignment. </em></span></blockquote> '''Needs a little work:''' <blockquote> When I was young, I didn't get along very well with my mom. We used to fight a lot and I just didn't understand her. She always seemed to be in my business and trying to snoop around. I've always had really dry eyes. Sometimes they water to compensate or get really red because they're so dry. My mom used to think I'd been crying and bug me to death asking me if someone had hurt my feelings at school! I was a teenager! </blockquote> <blockquote>But now me and my mom are best friends. I tell her everything and she tells me everything. Sometimes we still disagree, but we've learned to understand and respect each other. We're very different people, but I don't know what I'd do without my mom. She has always supported me and stood behind whatever I've wanted to do or be. She's my biggest fan. In my mom's eyes, I could be the next great world leader, or a famous ballerina, or the first astronaut to live on Mars. It took me a while to realize just how significant my mom is to me, but now that I know, nothing will ever change the way I feel about her. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This narrative is better than the first one because it has more details and gives some specific examples regarding the writer's relationship to her mom. However, it still needs a little work because even more details could be provided to give the reader a clearer picture of their relationship. For example, the reader doesn't know what has changed in this relationship that led to the two of them becoming like "best friends."</em></span></blockquote> '''Excellent:''' <blockquote> When I was a teenager, I didn't get along very well with my mom. It seemed like we fought on a daily basis and we rarely if ever understood where the other was coming from. I felt so separate from her and it was impossible to tell her about my problems because all she would ever do is freak out.<br> <br> I remember one particular fight in perfect clarity. We were having one of our good days - that should've been the first warning sign. I was helping her weed the flower beds, telling her about a conversation that I had had with my boyfriend's mom the previous night. When I was finished telling her about the advice that Janice shared with me about how to reconcile with a friend of mine, my mom grew very quiet. I asked her if something was wrong but she continued to stare at a stubborn dandelion in the middle of her peony bed.<br> <br> Finally, she looked up at me. Frustration and anger filled her face and tears spilled down her cheeks. "How come you never come to me anymore?" she spat. "Why do you have to go to other moms to talk about your problems? Am I not good enough?"<br> <br> I didn't really know what to say. I tried to reason with her, explaining that it's normal for teenagers to talk to other parents about personal problems, but all she did was storm off.<br> <br> That was the day that I realized how much my mom actually meant to me. I knew from her reaction that she felt devalued and even though we had our issues, I also knew that I had a great mom. She had always taken care of me, provided for me, and as a young child, she was my best friend. I wanted that back and from that day on, the two of us worked on communicating better and getting to know each other all over again. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This is an excellent example of a narrative because it provides necessary details to help the reader understand the relationship between the mother and daughter. In the "needs a little work" example, the writer did not explain how the mom and daughter became "best friends." This is an important and significant detail. It is important to explain the important details as much as possible in a story. To continue this writing, the writer will probably give another example of how things were after they began to understand each other better. This will give the audience a clear picture of the progress of the relationship.</em></span></blockquote> === Examples: === The following are example compositions written for an assignment where students were asked to write narrative descriptions about a day they consider to be one of their worst. (Note: Even though two of the following three examples have death as a theme, personal narratives and memoirs can just as easily be written about smaller, less dramatic events from one's life.) '''Example 1:''' <blockquote>It was the worst day of my life, and it was only 10:00am. Sitting in my dorm room sobbing into the phone, my mom tried to calm me down. But she couldn't erase the pain and misery, hurt and disappointment I was currently feeling. What had gone wrong? Why was everyone against me? How would I get through the rest of the day... the week with my injuries? Let me start from the beginning.<br> <br> It was a cold, blustery day at Evangel University. I had spent the last few days preparing for a presentation for my Children's Literature class, and I would soon go to the preschool just down the road to teach a lesson for the preschoolers. I had made beautiful little magnetic snowflakes that the students could take home with them. The snowflakes went along with the story I'd be reading in about an hour.<br> <br> I was completely prepared and had spent a lot of time thinking through the lesson and carefully paying attention to detail. As I was about to leave, I recognized how miserably cold it was outside and wondered if I could find a ride, even though the preschool was actually on campus. I asked my roommate if I could borrow her car, knowing there was little chance since it was a leased vehicle and her dad had forbidden her to let anyone drive it. But I thought it wouldn't hurt to ask. She turned me down. She also wasn't able to take me because she had to go to class herself. She apologized, but didn't seem too sympathetic. (What really irked me was that I found out later that she had let her boyfriend borrow her car for a much longer drive than the one I needed to take! I've since forgiven her... I think.)<br> <br> Next I tried to call my brother, but couldn't get a hold of him. He was probably in class as well. Due to the early hour, most everyone was in class, so no one else was around to ask either. So I bundled up in my warmest, flannel-lined overalls and fur coat and trekked down to the preschool. The snow swirled around me in fury and I was near to tears with my own inner-fury at my roommate who could have helped me avoid this situation.<br> <br> Gladly arriving at the preschool, I barged in ready to teach my well-prepared lesson, only to discover that another classmate was there teaching her lesson. I couldn't believe it! I knew I had written down the correct date, but something went wrong. The regular teachers didn't have time to fill me in that day, so instead of teaching my beautifully created lesson, I left to trudge back up the hill in the angry snow. Tears streaming down my face, I arrived back at the dorm. I was wearing my clunky wooden clogs and ran up the stairs as I had done a thousand times before. But I slipped... </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example is a memoir because it's a slice of life as opposed to a complete autobiography. It shows a picture of one day in the life of this person. It is the emotional retelling of a story from the narrator's perspective. Notice that the narrator does not focus on relationships or events surrounding this one event, but just on the event itself. The focus is all of the details that caused this day to be the worst of this person's life. If other threads such as the relationship with the roommate or details about the Children's Literature class had been added, the focus would have been lost in the muddle of too many details. </em></span></blockquote> <blockquote><span style="color:#555555"><em>In a memoir, the focus must stay tight. Think of taking a picture with a camera. Think about what you want to be in the picture and what would distract from the picture. Have you ever taken a picture where there was a lot of white space at the top and what was supposed to be the focus: the people, are just tiny dots at the bottom? This is what happens to a story when the focus is too broad. See the [[Basic Writing/Invention]] section of this book wikitext for help on narrowing your topic. </em></span></blockquote> '''Example 2:''' <blockquote>On my worst day I was supposed to get up early so I could get out to my folks’ house on account that my mama needed me to help her take our old dog to the vet. My mama needed my help because she’s not a very big person and our dog is really big. She also has a bad knee. My mama, I mean, not the dog. Well anyway our dog is one of them Great Pyrenees, a great big white monster of a thing, and she’s got arthritis in her hips and spine something bad. So my mama had to make an appointment to have her put down because our dog couldn’t even stand to eat or pee anymore. That’s how bad off she was, you see.<br> <br> So here I was supposed to get up early to help my mama load the dog into her car and my alarm doesn’t go off. Luckily I wake up on my own and I’m not all that late yet so I hurry up and get dressed and run out of the house to my truck. Then I take off towards my folks’ house kind of fast because I’m already behind schedule and I’m about half way there when all of a sudden I get a flat tire. Making matters worse is the fact that it’s raining outside, been raining all night in fact and I guess that’s why my alarm didn’t work. So I pull half into the ditch because the road doesn’t have a shoulder and of course the flat tire is on the passenger side which means that I have to work in the mud. Even worse my little bottle jack won’t lift the truck on account it keeps sinking into the ground. Well lately I’d had some bricks in the bed of my pick-up but when I go to get them out they aren’t there. Now I’m pissed because I’m late, I’ve got a flat tire, I can’t get the jack to work because it’s raining and the ground is too soft, and some jackass has stolen a handful of worthless bricks from the bed of my truck. This on top of the fact that our old dog’s got to be put down and my mama needs me to be there. Still determined to make it, I root around in the ditch till I find a couple of rocks I can put under the jack. I finally get my tire changed but by then I’m soaked to the bone and covered in mud, which means that I get my seat all wet and muddy too.<br> <br> Finally I make it out to my folks’ place and my mama is sitting in the front yard with our dog and holding an umbrella over her. I can plainly see that she’s in pretty bad shape, worse than the last time I saw her. The dog, I mean, not my mama, although she’s looking pretty down herself. She doesn’t bother to ask why I’m all wet and muddy, so I know things are bad for sure. When I try to pick our old dog up to put her in the back of my mama’s Jimmy she yelps real loud and snaps at me. I decided then and there that getting her to the vet wasn’t going to work. She was too heavy and in too much pain to be messing with. So I went and got my old red wagon out of my dad’s shop and carefully my mama and me lifted her onto it.<br> <br> My mama knew what had to be done and so she says her goodbyes to our old dog. Then I roll her slowly around the house to where we’ve buried other pets in the past and I dig a fairly large hole. When I am finished I sit on the ground beside the old red wagon and talk to our dog for a bit, tell her what she’s meant to me all these years and that I am going to miss her. I’d rather not say what happened after that other than I like to believe she understood it all and that it came as a relief to her.<br> <br> When I get back to my place later I realize that I’d left in such a hurry earlier that I’d locked myself out of the house. It had stopped raining by then, though, so I just sit for a while in a lawn chair there on my porch. Then I look over and see the bricks still lying there where I’d stacked them a few days before and forgotten. Suddenly I start laughing then and can’t stop, keep laughing till tears run down my cheeks. Looking back on it now that seems pretty weird since it had been such a terrible day. </blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example, like the one above it, is also memoir. It is similar in that it also describes a day in the writer's life and is necessarily limited only to those details that are relevant to the story and that move the narrative forward. A good exercise, though, might be to examine how these two samples from the same genre are different. Do both sound as if they are spoken by the same "voice"? What details from each might you use to argue the speakers' gender? Does either "sound" female/male? Also note that Example 2 reads much more like spoken language--is that appropriate for this genre, or should the writer have written in a more academic or formal manner?</em></span></blockquote> '''Example 3:''' <blockquote>I was standing in the middle of Dollar Tree, leaning on my cart, when I said, "What?" to my mom telling me about my little black cat, Baby, being found dead a few days earlier. "Baby's dead, honey." I couldn't say anything. What could I say? I had been the one to take her to the farm thinking that she would adjust and be happier as a farm cat. Besides, I had too many cats, six actually, and Baby and Ginger had been the most logical choices to relocate. Both of them were unhappy living in such a small environment with four other cats. Baby suffered from anxiety problems and Ginger just wanted more territory. She was always so bitchy, hissing like she owned everything and everyone. Adorable, yes, but incredibly bitchy. Baby just wanted to be alone, or with me. The only way I could get her to come out of hiding is if I'd sing to her - any song with her name in it. Her favorite one was the one from the movie ''Dirty Dancing'' "Ba-byyy, ohh-ohhh ba-byyy, my sweet ba-byyy, you're the one. . ." When I'd sing it to her, she'd roll 'round on the floor and rub against me as if to say, "I reeeaaallly love you!" I'll never be able to listen to that song without missing her now.<br> <br> "Honey, are you alright?" my mom asked quietly. No, I'm not alright. I knew something was wrong. I had a feeling several days ago - one of those feelings that tell you something is wrong, but I chose to ignore it. "How did she die?" I ask, trying to keep my emotions under control. It's no use though, tears start streaking my face and Dollar Tree customers are beginning to stare. "They found her dead in the cabin," mom said, her voice choking, "I'm so sorry, hon." "She was still in the cabin?!" I practically shout into the phone. "I thought Laura picked her up to take her to her house." Mom grew quiet. After a few moments she said, "They never could catch her. Dad said that they looked for her every day. They moved the furniture and everything but they couldn't find her. Now they think that maybe she might have climbed behind the fridge to hide."<br> <br> I was livid, but I knew it would just kill mom and dad if I blamed them for this. Despite this fact, I had to ask one last question, "Mom, why didn't you guys call me and tell me that you were having problems with her? I could've come home to take care of her. I told you that I smelled natural gas or something on the day that we dropped her off at the cabin. Why didn't someone call me?!" At this point I was hysterical and customers were steering their shopping carts way around me. When my mom finally answered her comforting voice was gone. Replacing it was one of defense and insensitivity. "We did the best we could! Dad's been so depressed lately and this almost pushed him over the edge. He knows how much you love your cats and he's blaming himself. It's not his fault and it's not yours either! Do you hear me?" <br> <br> All I could do was cry. I didn't want to hurt them, but I just couldn't understand why they chose not to call me. And I do blame myself. I knew that something was wrong, and knowing that she was alone in that cabin for two weeks, going through god knows what, thinking god knows what, well it just killed me inside. I was filled with guilt. I had rescued her as a baby, beaten and left for dead and now, seven years later I just pawn her off on someone else and she dies alone? I don't even want to know how much pain she may have been in. How in the world will I deal with the guilt of knowing that all of this could've been avoided? How?</blockquote> <blockquote><b>*</b><span style="color:#555555"><em>This example is also similar to the above examples so the same comments apply. It is a narrative memoir, however there are two elements within this memoir that set it apart from the above examples. First of all, it includes dialogue which is somewhat tricky when writing. The most important thing to remember is that dialogue should sound natural - like the voice of the person speaking. Practice saying it out loud as if reading a script for an audition. Also, when using dialogue make sure the reader can understand who is saying what.<br> <br>Another element that was included in this example was a specific use of stylized writing during the recitation of Baby's favorite song and her response to that song. This style of writing is becoming more popular in mainstream writing - especially comedic novels. An example of this style of writing can be found throughout the novel, <U>The Nanny Diaries</U>, by Emma McLaughlin and Nicola Kraus.</em></span></blockquote> {{BookCat}} c5uw4jfharbud3zwd0hrtmf0842v21e 0 190412 4635076 4631062 2026-05-10T08:05:27Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635076 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Bishop's Gambit: Cozio Defence| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd|= |pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|= | | | | | |nd| | |= | | | | | | | | |= | | |bl| |pl|pd| | |= | | | | | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl|= |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl|= }} = = ===3...Nf6=== ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Bc4 Nf6''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th style="text-align:left;font-size:smaller;">4</th> <th style="text-align:left;font-size:smaller;">5</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>[[4. Nc3|Nc3]]<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>[[4. d3|d3]]<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} * Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. {{ISBN|0-8129-3084-3}}. {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} fygt2q1y569qutjfxjj20qbbeln0rr1 0 190735 4635060 3229642 2026-05-10T05:13:23Z ~2026-28275-95 3582528 /* Old Indian */ 4635060 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Old Indian| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd|= |pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|pd|= | | | |pd| |nd| | |= | | | | | | | | |= | | |pl|pl| | | | |= | | |nl| | | | | |= |pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl|pl|= |rl| |bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= || }} =Old Indian= ===3. Nc3=== ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 d6 3. Nc3''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...Nbd7|Nbd7]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...e5|e5]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...g6|g6]]</td> <td>e4<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> </table>{{Chess/board | fen = r1bqkbnr/pppp1ppp/2n5/4p3/2B1P3/5N2/PPPP1PPP/RNBQK2R b KQkq - 3 3 }} '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4'''{{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{ChessStub}} m4sxe2twm5dqz0whovwxvq3l3rjg4sv 4635061 4635060 2026-05-10T05:18:44Z ~2026-28275-95 3582528 4635061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Old Indian| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd|= |pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|pd|= | | | |pd| |nd| | |= | | | | | | | | |= | | |pl|pl| | | | |= | | |nl| | | | | |= |pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl|pl|= |rl| |bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= || }} =Old Indian= ===3. Nc3=== ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 d6 3. Nc3''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...Nbd7|Nbd7]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...e5|e5]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...g6|g6]]</td> <td>e4<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> </table> == Italian Game == {{Chess/board | fen = r1bqkbnr/pppp1ppp/2n5/4p3/2B1P3/5N2/PPPP1PPP/RNBQK2R b KQkq - 3 3 }} '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4'''{{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{ChessStub}} npphtuucm7ldc81g886ooj53pi46nmt 4635082 4635061 2026-05-10T08:16:50Z JCrue 2226064 Rejected the last 2 text changes (by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-28275-95|~2026-28275-95]]) and restored revision 3229642 by PokestarFan 4635082 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Old Indian| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd|= |pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|pd|= | | | |pd| |nd| | |= | | | | | | | | |= | | |pl|pl| | | | |= | | |nl| | | | | |= |pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl|pl|= |rl| |bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= || }} =Old Indian= ===3. Nc3=== ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 d6 3. Nc3''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...Nbd7|Nbd7]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...e5|e5]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...g6|g6]]</td> <td>e4<br>&nbsp;</td> <td>+/=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{ChessStub}} annukw6dcc09iao4hqhm0rvbyx28f5g 0 224604 4634991 4609781 2026-05-09T17:44:49Z Tanbiruzzaman 3419451 Removed wikinews, the project was closed ([[Special:PermanentLink/30328679#Board_of_Trustees_Approves_Closure_of_Wikinews|see discussion]]), added wikifunctions 4634991 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src=":Main Page/Sisters/styles.css" /> <div style="float:left; width:100%; margin-top:10px; text-align:center; clear:both;"></div> <div style="text-align:center">Wikibooks is hosted by the [[w:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]], which also hosts:</div> {{plainlist}} <ul id="sister-projects-list"> <li> <div>[[File:Wikiversity logo 2017.svg|41px|link=v:|Wikiversity]]</div> <div>'''[[v:|Wikiversity]]'''<br />Learning resources</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg|41px|link=w:|Wikipedia]]</div> <div>'''[[w:|Wikipedia]]'''<br />Encyclopedia</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg|41px|link=wikt:|Wiktionary]]</div> <div>'''[[wikt:|Wiktionary]]'''<br />Dictionary and thesaurus</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|35px|link=q:|Wikiquote]]</div> <div>'''[[q:|Wikiquote]]'''<br />Quotations</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikisource-logo.svg|35px|link=s:|Wikisource]]</div> <div>'''[[s:|Wikisource]]'''<br />Documents</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikispecies-logo.svg|35px|link=wikispecies:|Wikispecies]]</div> <div>'''[[wikispecies:|Wikispecies]]'''<br />Species directory</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg|35px|link=voy:|Wikivoyage]]</div> <div>'''[[wikivoyage:|Wikivoyage]]'''<br />Travel guide</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|47px|link=wikidata:|Wikidata]]</div> <div>'''[[wikidata:|Wikidata]]'''<br />Knowledge database</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Commons-logo.svg|31px|link=commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]</div> <div>'''[[commons:|Commons]]'''<br />Media repository</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikifunctions-logo.svg|31px|link=f:|Wikifunctions]]</div> <div>'''[[f:|Wikifunctions]]'''<br />Free programming functions</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:Wikimedia Community Logo.svg|35px|link=m:|Meta-Wiki]]</div> <div>'''[[m:|Meta-Wiki]]'''<br />Wikimedia project coordination</div> </li> <li> <div>[[File:MediaWiki-2020-icon.svg|35px|link=mw:|MediaWiki]]</div> <div>'''[[mw:|MediaWiki]]'''<br />Wiki software development</div> </li> </ul> {{endplainlist}} <div style="clear:both; border-top:1px solid rgb(167, 215, 249); text-align:center; padding-top:5px;"> {{Donate}} </div><includeonly> [[af:]] [[ang:]] [[ar:]] [[az:]] [[be:]] [[bg:]] [[bn:]] [[bs:]] [[ca:]] [[cs:]] [[cv:]] [[cy:]] [[da:]] [[de:]] [[el:]] [[eo:]] [[es:]] [[et:]] [[eu:]] [[fa:]] [[fi:]] [[fr:]] [[fy:]] [[gl:]] [[he:]] [[hi:]] [[hr:]] [[hu:]] [[hy:]] [[ia:]] [[id:]] [[ie:]] [[is:]] [[it:]] [[ja:]] [[ka:]] [[kk:]] [[km:]] [[ko:]] [[ku:]] [[ky:]] [[la:]] [[li:]] [[lt:]] [[mg:]] [[mk:]] [[ml:]] [[mr:]] [[ms:]] [[ne:]] [[nl:]] [[no:]] [[oc:]] [[pa:]] [[pl:]] [[pt:]] [[ro:]] [[ru:]] [[sa:]] [[si:]] [[sk:]] [[sl:]] [[sq:]] [[sr:]] [[sv:]] [[ta:]] [[te:]] [[tg:]] [[th:]] [[tl:]] [[tr:]] [[tt:]] [[uk:]] [[ur:]] [[vi:]] [[zh:]]</includeonly><noinclude> [[Category:Main page|Sisters]] [[fr:Modèle:Projets Wikimedia]] </noinclude> rej3zdc4dszkmpjusayq6xia44zy3m7 0 274498 4635100 4634933 2026-05-10T10:38:18Z Jeff1138 301139 4635100 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Introduction== AROS supports hard disks and optical drives attached to several interfaces: * [[#NVMe M.2 SSD (M key)]] on the pci-e bus * [[#SATA]] aka Serial ATA or AHCI (IDE compatibility mode used in most cases) * IDE (also known as ATA, [[#PATA]] or Parallel ATA) * USB * SCSI limited ==PCI-e== ===NVMe M.2 SSD (M key)=== *Controller and firmware *DRAM better having if heavy workloads but not necessary for gaming *Cache like SLC HMB techniques *NAND (Main storage area with MLC, TLC or QLC versions of varying life expectancy) SSDs, USB flash drive, SD and Micro SD Cards have a limited amount of write cycles, therefore guaranteed to fail randomly and suddenly at any time. All SSDs are prone to corrupt firmware due to poor quality NAND where both the data and the firmware resides. The drive tends to go read only when too many errors occur before complete failure. That is up to 10 years for things like memory cards and USB sticks. In general, unless there is a firmware design issue, cheap materials used, stress like bending or overheating causing cold solder joints, an SSD can last a long time if minimal writing activity takes place but eventually if flash isn't written to, it degrades. Catch 22. Dram and cache are not the same thing. Dram stores the ssds indexes and metadata for faster data retrieval and wear leveling. The cache keeps part of the nand memory as SLC storage which can be written to faster. Basically all ssds will have a dynamic SLC cache where it will decrease as the drive fills up. Cache controller designs that are DRAM less use the internal SRAM cache in the controller to cache the NAND mapping table. It just requires a different mapping table design since SRAM caches are much smaller than DRAM. Ultimately the mapping table is still stored in NAND. General rule of thumb: the cheaper an SSD, the higher the likelihood it uses lower quality flash chips so sudden failing NAND, problematic controller chips (e.g. SandForce), outsourced firmware. Generic brand like old SP, Corsair or Crucial may be recoverable whilst major brands Samsung, Intel and Western Digital are impossible due to firmware encryption and customizations. Recommend sticking with older Silicon Motion or Phison controllers if possible. A ssd isn't good because it has dram or bad because it doesn't. Other things should be taken into account like sustained writes so check the TPU write intensive usage See [https://www.techpowerup.com/ssd-specs/ here] for more information {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="15%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="30%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->Unnamed | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 to - SM2259XT2 SM2263XT MAS0902 MAP1202 YS9082HP RM1135 RTS5765 PS3111 |- | <!--Brand-->Unnamed OEMs | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 to date - Realtek RTS5765/66 controller + Micron 96L (B27A) |- | <!--Brand-->Acer Predator GM7 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Acer drives built by Biwin, that also supplies HP, Maxio MAP1602A no DRAM so HMB, YMTC 128L TLC, |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA M.2 NVME IM2P33F8, IM2S3168 SSD | <!--Model-->IM2P33F8-512GD | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - industrial 12L 3D TLC NAND flash Supports LDPC ECC, RAID Engine, and SLC Cache End-to-End (E2E) Data Path Protection with Host Memory Buffer (HMB) i.e. DRAMless |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG SX8200 Pro M.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ASX8200PNP1TTC | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 NVM Express 1.3 SN2262G later SN2262EN chipset - |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA 256GB GEN4 x4 NVMe PCIe M2 2230 SSD | <!--Model-->SM2P41C3-256GC2 DP/N 0KM1Y6 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 consumer |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG GAMMIX S50 Lite | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Silicon Motion SM2267XT dramless |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG ATOM 50 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Innogrit RainierQX IG5220 |- | <!--Brand-->Adata Legend 710 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Legend 900 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->BiWin PCIe Gen3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Innogrit IG5216 controller, no DRAM so HMB which appears to be the standard - |- | <!--Brand-->BiWin NV7200 PCIe 4.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 SM2263XT |- | <!--Brand-->Biwin NV7400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force LE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force Series MP500 MP510 M.2 NVMe PCIe Gen 3 x4 SSD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 PS5012-E12-27 from Phison, 64-layer TLC Toshiba BiCS flash, may have dram cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Phison E16 on DRAM DDR4 with Micron 96L QLC - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Elite | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E16 and Bics DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Pro XT, PRO LPX, PRO NH PCIe4 | <!--Model-->CSSD-F1000GBMP600ECS Elite, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 DRAMless SSD controller Phison PS5026-E26, BiCS6 162L QLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Core XT | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison and Bics QLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP700 Pro PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model-->CSSD-F1000GBMP700PNH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P1 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 QLC NAND but a controller with a DRAM cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P2 M.2 2280 Gen3 x4 NVM-express | <!--Model-->CT1000P2SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 dram-less Phison PS5013-E13-31 on 96-layer QLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P3 Plus M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->CT1000P3PSSD8 CT2000P3PSSD801 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with Host Memory Buffer HMB tech to use a small bit of system RAM as DRAM cache and Micron 176-layer QLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P3 M.2 nvme SSD | <!--Model-->CT2000P3SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with no DRAM so HMB and 176-Layer Micron QLC (N48R) - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P5 m.2 nvme PCIe 4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 runs hot - Crucial NVMe with DRAM LPDDR4 and Micron 96L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P5 Plus | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 some have DRAM cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T500 Gen4.0 nvme 2.0 | <!--Model-->CT1000T500SSD8, CT2000T500SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison PS5025-E25 with micron B58R 232-layer 3D TLC NAND and Micron LPDDR4 DRAM cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T700 Gen5 SSD | <!--Model-->CT1000T700SSD3, CT2000T700SSD3 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 SSD controller Phison PS5026-E26, Micron 232-layer NAND with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P310 M.2 2280 NVMe PCIe Gen4 SSD | <!--Model-->CT2000P310SSD801 (2Tb), | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 DRAM-less Phison E27T Micron 232-layer NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T705 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 dramless Phison SSD controller |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T710 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 SMI SM2508 SSD controller dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN605 PCIe Gen3 x4 interface, NVMe 1.3 support | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN660 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN760 PCIe Gen4 x4 M.2 NVMe 1.4 interface | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 gets hot |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN870 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 no dram Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN855 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S500 pro PCIe Gen3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 MaxioTech MAP1202A-F1C with YMTC 128L and pseudo-SLC cache |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S660 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S880/R | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S770 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Fikwot founded in 2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX550 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN501 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->FIKWOT FN950 FN955 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 MAP1602 (at 1600 MT/s) flash YMTC TLC no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX991 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->FW-FX991-2TB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN960 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN970 m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Geil ZEN ITH m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->S3-240GB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Gigabyte Aorus Gen4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Phison E16 and Toshiba 96-layer TLC (triple-level cell) BiCS4 NAND flash - DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Gigabyte Aorus 10000 PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM LPDDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->HP EX950 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HP FX900 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dram less |- | <!--Brand-->HP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Integral M2 Series NVME M.2 2280 PCIe Gen 3x4 | <!--Model-->INSSD500GM280NM2 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Inland Professional TLC E12S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E18 |- | <!--Brand-->Inland Gaming performance Plus m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E16 controller and TLC flash |- | <!--Brand-->Inland TD510 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM DDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->intel SSD Pro 7600p Series M.2 80mm 2280 PCIe 3.0 x4, 3D TLC | <!--Model-->SSDPEKKF512GB, SSDPEKKF256G8L, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel 660p m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ssdpeknw010tb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 SMI SM2263 controller with 1GB DRAM cache and 1TB of Intel QLC NAND similar to crucial P1 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.solidigm.com/support-page/warranty-rma/ka-00032.html Solidigm formerly Intel] 670p | <!--Model-->SSDPEKNU010TZ | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 256 MB DDR3L cache and 12-140 GB SLC-Cache QLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Intel P4511 m.2 nvme PCIe3.1 x4 22110 110mm | <!--Model-->SSDPELKX020T8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 very long |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A1000 NVME PCIE M2 2280 SSD | <!--Model-->SA1000M8/480G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A2000 NVME PCIE M2 2280 SSD | <!--Model-->SA2000M8/250G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston KC3000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s [https://www.kingston.com/en/support/technical/ksm-firmware-update Firmware Rev. EIFK31.7 (07-08-2024) update for] PS5018-E18 PCIe 4.0 x4 NVMe controller and Micron’s 176L TLC NAND flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV1 m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model-->SNV1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 entry-level consumer DRAMless Phison E13T or Silicon Motion 4-channel SM2263XT - one brand TLC up to 1Tb and QLC after - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV2 | <!--Model-->SNV2 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 entry-level, first SMI SM2267XT or Phison E19T and later SMI SM2269XT or Phison E21T with various flash memory |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston FURY Renegade m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 [https://www.kingston.com/en/support/technical/ksm-firmware-update Firmware Rev. EIFK31.7 (07-08-2024) update for] Phison E18 controller, Micron 176L nand and ddr4 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV3 | <!--Model-->SNV3S/500G, SNV3S/1000G, SNV3S/2000G, SNV3S/4000G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 entry-level, SMI SM2268XT2 or Phison E27T controller with BiCS6 TLC or QLC flash - dramless so hmb - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) XG4? M2 2280 NVMe PCIe SSD | <!--Model-->THNSF5512GPUK, THNSN51T02DUK, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 Phison has done custom controller work for Kioxia, and Kioxia has also worked with SMI and InnoGrit (the latter more recently). Kioxia label their controllers as their own but these are largely rebadged. |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) XG5 for Data Centres | <!--Model-->KXG5 KXG50ZNV1T02 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 nanya ddr3 dram? with 64-layer BiCS 3D flash memory |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG6 OEM m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->KXG60ZNV512G, KXG60ZNV1T02, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 TC58NCP090GSD with DRAM NANYA LPDDR3 and Toshiba BiCS FLASH 96-layer 3D TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> *KBG40ZNS128G, KBG40ZNS256G, KBG40ZNS512G, KBG40ZNS1T02 *KBG40ZNT256G, *KBG40ZNV1T02 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - no dram but NVMe's Host Memory Buffer (HMB) i.e. portion of the system's RAM for caching - Toshiba's 96-Layer BiCS FLASH - seems Windows UASP driver and the JMS583 chipset interacts badly with the Kioxia BG4 - early firmware upgrade to prevent overheating hot - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG7 | <!--Model-->KXG70ZNV1T0G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 - might need firmware update on early 2tb 4tb versions - controller with sk hynix dram and tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->KIOXIA EXCERIA PLUS G2 SSD series PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison PS5012-E12S-32 aka TC58NC1201GST 4-channel controller along with KIOXIA proprietary 96-layer 3D TLC and "MG2h" version has BiCS4.5 which is faster than launch BiCS4 - - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG8 OEM m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 TC58NC0L1XGSD with DRAM LPDDR4 and 112-Layer Kioxia BiCS5 TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG5 | <!--Model-->KGB50ZNV256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 HMB buffer |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG6 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->KIOXIA EXCERIA PLUS G3 SSD series PCIe 4.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 has hmb, like most dram-less nvmes KIOXIA |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar 1TB SSD M.2 NVME 1.4 Gen3x4 M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->NM610Pro | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NM620 *IG5216 (worse?) not great original 96L *MAP1202 YMTC up to 232L, or 176L Micron, TLC for the 1TB | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 a few versions all DRAM-less, |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NM790 SSD M.2 PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Maxio MAP1602 no DRAM so HMB with 232-Layer YMTC TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->EQ790 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Maxio MAP1602, no DRAM so HMB, Flash Memory 232-Layer YMTC TLC, |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Liteon M.2 NVME 512GB SSD 2280 | <!--Model-->CAZ-51282512-Q11 DP/N 0K64PG | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SMI controller |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2200S m.2 nvme 2200 series | <!--Model-->MTFDHBA256TCK, MTFDHBA512TCK | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 for a time, Micron controller with 64L TLC 3D Nand [https://www.dell.com/support/home/en-uk/drivers/driversdetails?driverid=3jg3g BSOD occurred as CRITICAL_PROCESS_DIED] before self applied firmware [https://support.lenovo.com/us/en/downloads/ds119265-nvme-solid-state-drive-firmware-update-utility-for-windows-10-64-bit-thinkpad apparently it is related to the power management that disconnects the Micron SSD] |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2300 m.2 nvme Gen 3 x4 | <!--Model-->MTFDHBA256TDV P/N M02626-001, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 3400 M.2 NVME SSD Gen4 | <!--Model-->MTFDKBA512TFH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - no cache |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2450 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 E19T |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2600 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Phison's PS5029-E29T SSD controller with Micron 276-layer G9 QLC NAND in a DRAMless - Adaptive Write Technology (AWT) using various NAND modes (SLC, TLC, and QLC) as a dynamic cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->MSI Spatium S270 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->MSI Spatium M450 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s E19T controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV2000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV5000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV7000 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico J10 J-10 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico D10 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico e3500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico O7000 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P300 m.2 nvme pcie 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot Viper VP4300 Lite M.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2230 Gen3 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2140 CS2342 Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Raydisk 1T 2280 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 no dram, Memory QLC Intel 144 layer. Chip Realtek |- | <!--Brand-->Raydisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket Nano 2242 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 4.0 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->SB-2130-512, SB-2280-1TB, SB-Rocket-NVME4-HTSK-2TB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E16 controller and TLC flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 4.0 PLUS m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->SB-RKT4P-1TB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E1? controller and TLC flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 5 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Phison E25 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM951 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZVLV1T | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 950 PRO PM961 M.2 2280 NVMe 1.3 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> *MZ-VKW5120 *MZ-VLW2560 MZVLW256HEHP-000L7, MZ-VLW5120, MZ-SLW1T00 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - possibly 512M LPDDR3 Samsung K4E4E324EE-ECCF cache - Polaris (S4LP077X01-8030) unit with Samsung 48-layer TLC V-NAND V3 flash Samsung K90MGY8S7M-CCK0 - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 960 Pro SM961 M.2 PCi-e NVMe SSD 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-V6P1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 Polaris (S4LP077X01-8030) controller Samsung 48-layer multi-level cell (MLC) V-NAND, pseudo-SLC cache or LPDDR3-1866 Samsung K4E8E304EE-EGCF |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM981 2280 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> *Rev 0 MZ-VLB256A, MZ-VLB512A, MZ-VLB1T0A, *Rev 0 MZ-VLB2560, MZ-VLB5120 P/N MZVLB512HAJQ, MZ-VLB1T00, *Rev ? MZ-VLB256B, MZ-VLB512B, MZ-VLB1T0B, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - tlc flash with SSD controller Samsung Phoenix (S4LR020) - pseudo-SLC cache hybrid SLC Samsung’s TurboWrite - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM981a 2280 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLB5120 P/N MZVLB512HBJQ-000L7, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 - tlc flash with SSD controller Samsung Phoenix (S4LR020) - pseudo-SLC cache |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM991 NVMe M.2 SSD 2242 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLQ2560 MZVLQ256HBJD-000H1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM991a NVMe M.2 SSD 2242 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLQ256B MZVLQ256HBJD-00BH1, MZ-9LQ256C, MZ-VLQ512B MZVLQ512HBLU, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 970 EVO Plus m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Samsung Phoenix on Samsung LPDDR4 dram and 2 Samsung 9x-layer V-NAND TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 980 EVO Plus | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 980 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V8P1T0BW, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 originally made in Korea ([https://semiconductor.samsung.com/consumer-storage/support/tools/ 2tb firmware issues] with versions starting with 3) and year later Vietnam - DRAM |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 EVO m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V9E2T0BW, MZ-V9E1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Samsung Piccolo no DRAM so HMB Samsung 133-Layer TLC (V6P) and Samsung 133-Layer TLC (V6P) - |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM9A1 SSD M.2 2280 PCIe NVME Gen4x4 | <!--Model-->MZ-VL25120 MZVL2512HCJQ, MZVL21T00 MZVL21T0HCLR-00BL2, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 might be OEM variant of the 980 Pro |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM9B1 SSD M.2 2280 PCIe NVME Gen4x4 | <!--Model--> *2023 MZ9L4256HCJQ-00BD1 MZ-9L4256A, , *2025 MZ-VL42560, MZ-VL45120, MZ-VL421T, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 SSD controller is Marvell 88SS1322 Whistler Plus, no DRAM cache and Samsung 128-layer TLC NAND flash |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 EVO Plus m.2 nvme2.0 | <!--Model-->MZ-V9S2T0BW, MZ-V9S1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Samsung Piccolo with no DRAM so HMB and Samsung 236-Layer (V8) TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V9P2T0BW, MZ-V9P1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 2tb early firmware issue - Samsung Pascal with DRAM LPDDR4 and 176-Layer V-NAND TLC - has had firmware design issues, causing premature failure - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 9100 PRO PCIe Gen5 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 510 G3 x4 nvme | <!--Model--> *ZP1000GM30001, *ZP500GM30021 P/N 2NT308-300, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 bad early batch - Phison E12 STXYP0160031 on SK Hynix DRAM DDR4 with Kioxia BiCS3 64L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda Q5 | <!--Model-->ZP500CV30001,ZP250CV30001,ZP1000CV30001 P/N 2ZK307-881,ZP2000CV30001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 PS5013-E13-31 from Phison, no DRAM cache and QLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 515 | <!--Model-->ZP500GV30001,ZP250GV30001,ZP1000GV30001,ZP2000GV30001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 no dram and qlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate FireCuda 520 SSD M.2 PCIe Gen4 ×4 NVMe 1.4 | <!--Model-->ZP2000GM30002, ZP1000GM30002, ZP500GM30002 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E16 and Toshiba 96-layer TLC (triple-level cell) BiCS4 NAND flash DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 520N m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ZP2000GV3A012, ZP1000GV3A012 and ZP500GV3A012 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 530 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ZP500GM3A013, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison PS5018-E18 on DRAM DDR4 with Micron 176L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate | <!--Model-->ZP1000CV3A002, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 540 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM LPDDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 530R | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power UD85 m.2 nvme PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 [http://vlo.name:3000/ssdtool/ firmware tools] |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power UD90 PCIe 4.0 nvme | <!--Model-->SP250GBP44UD9005, SP500GBP44UD9005, SP01KGBP44UD9005, SP02KGBP44UD9005, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with no DRAM so HMB and 176-Layer Micron TLC (B47R) but later no name QLC nand instead - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A60 A80 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 various originally an E12 drive with 64L Toshiba NAND, then had variations with E12S and SM2262EN as well as random 64L/96L, now it comes with a MAP1001A controller by Maxio and some YMTC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power US75 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC501 M.2 m.2 NVMe PCIe Gen3 SSD | <!--Model--> *Rev0 HFM256GDHTNG-8510B SSS0L24764, HFM256GDJTNG-8310A, *Rev1 HFM256GDHTNG-8310A SSS0Q68673, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 bad batch early - |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC511 512GB NVMe PCIe M2 2230 SSD | <!--Model-->HFM256GDJTNI-82A0A HFM512GDGTNI-82A0A D P/N 0TG8T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 no dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix BC711 PCIe Gen3 x4 | <!--Model-->HFM001TD3JX013N, HFM512GD3JX013N, HFM256GD3JX013N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 okay but no dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix PC711 m.2 2280 PCIe Gen3 x4 | <!--Model--> *HFS001TDE9X073N, HFS512GDE9X073N, HFS256GDE9X073N *HFS001TDE9X080N, HFS512GDE9X080N, HFS256GDE9X081N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix SC210 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix PC601 PCIe 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - Cepheus Plus YCN34PTA0FR Controller and 48L TLC Flash, pseudo-SLC cache and LPDDR4-3733 SK Hynix H9HCNNN8KUMLHR-NME dram - |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix PC401 3rd gen PCIe | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 bad batch early - |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix Gold P31 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 SK hynix’s proprietary Cepheus controller |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix SK500 Gen 4 (x4) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix Platinum P41 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Aries SSD controller with 176-Layer TLC flash - SK hynix LPDDR4 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix PC801 PCIe Gen4 x4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->HFS001TEJ9X101N, HFS512GEJ9X101N, HFS256GEJ9X101N, HFS002TEJ9X101N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC901 m.2 nvme PCIe Gen4 2230 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Silicon Motion SM2269XT with no DRAM so HMB buffer cache - SK Hynix 176-layer TLC NAND flash 1TB only - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Team | <!--Model-->TM8PS7512G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup MP34 | <!--Model-->MP34 256GB, MP34 512GB, MP34 1TB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 good Phison E12 with DRAM NANYA DDR3L and Toshiba BiCS 3 64L TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force Cardea A440 PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison PS5018-E18 NVMe 1.4 controller and Micron’s 96L TLC with SK hynix 8Gb DDR4 chips but not OPAL-compliant AES 256-bit |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group TForce Cardea A440 Lite PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 dram-less E27T controller and 162L TLC but not OPAL-compliant AES 256-bit |- | <!--Brand-->teamgroup Team Z44L m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s E19T controller |- | <!--Brand-->teamgroup Team MP44L m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E21T no DRAM so HMB with 176-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Team MP33Q | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 - dramless maxio MAP1202 with TLC (MP33) or QLC (MP33Q) - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group QX GE Pro m.2 nvme PCIe5 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 innogit IG5666 with QLC 3D 232L nand with DRAM - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force G70 Pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 InnoGrit IG5236 (Rainier) with DRAM and NAND YMTC TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force Cardea Z540 m.2 nvme PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Phison E26 controller and 232L TLC and DRAM - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE110S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 TS128GMTE110S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE220S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 TS2TMTE220S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND with DRAM Cache |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE300S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2230 TS256GMTE300S TS512GMTE300S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND, 1G and 2G get hot |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE400S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 mlc nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TWSC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TWSC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Union Memory (Shenzhen) AM6672 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->union memory AM6A0 Gen4 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Verbatim V15000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SN500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN720 M.2 2280 NVME PCIE for Data Centers | <!--Model-->SDAQNTW-512G-1001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 to 2021 |- | <!--Brand-->WDC SN520 2230 Gen3 x2 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 to 2020 |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital ix sn530 M.2 NVME PCIE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 industrial sandisk controller and firmware, as well as 96-layer 3D TLC NAND memory that can work in TLC or SLC mode - |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN730 Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 M.2 NVME | <!--Model-->SDBPNTY-1T00, SDBPNTY-512G-1012, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 to 2021 DRAM Cache DDR4-2666 CL18 Micron MT40A512M16LY-075:E (D9WFH) with Controller WD 20-82-00705-A2 Triton MP28 and NAND Flash Toshiba BiCS4 60082 512G (Rebranded by SanDisk) TLC 96-layer |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN750 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 64-layer 3D stacked NAND with 3 bits per cell TLC (Triple Level Cell) with 256MB of skhynix DRAM cache for every 250GB |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN850 m.2 nvme Gen4 PHY | <!--Model-->WDS100T1X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Sandisk G2 controller with Micron DDR4 cache - new nCache 4.0 slc cache total dynamic capacity spans one-third (300GB on 1TB) with a small static SLC cache (12GB on 1TB) from the Kioxia BiCS4 96L TLC 96-layer NAND flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN550 Blue M.2 NVME PCIE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - various controllers and NANDs |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SN810 NVMe SSD 2280 Gen4 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 slc cache - laptop oem only no retail version - |- | <!--Brand-->WD SN850X | <!--Model-->WDS100T2X0E, WDS200T2X0E, WDS400T2X0E, WDS800T2X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 issues with early ssd firmware and AMD Zen 3 X570 and X670E chipsets - Sandisk A101000291-82 controller with 112-layer TLC and DDR4 DRAM cache |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Blue SN570 single-sided M.2 2280 (80mm) PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless - WD/SanDisk SSD controller with BiCS 5 3D NAND TLC 112-layer NAND flash memory - |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Black SN770 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->WDS100T3X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless cache with TLC |- | <!--Brand-->WD Green SN350 m.2 NVMe SSD | <!--Model-->WDS100T3G0C, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 DRAM-less cache with SanDisk controller and QLC (quad-level cell) NAND |- | <!--Brand-->WD_BLACK SN750 SE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Phison E19T, dramless |- | <!--Brand-->WD SN740 M.2 (2230) PCIe 4.0 x4 2280 | <!--Model-->SDDQTQD-1T00, SDDPNQD-, SDDPNQD-256G-2006, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless with SSD controller WD Sandisk 20-82-10081-A1 Polaris MP16+ with Toshiba BiCS5 112-layer TLC NAND flash |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Blue SN580 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 dramless SanDisk controller with (HMB) and 112-Layer Kioxia TLC (BiCS5) |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SN5000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN8100 / Sandisk Optimus GX Pro 8100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Optimus GX 5100 7100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2026 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Optimus GX Pro 850X | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2026 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Zhitai (Yangtze Memory) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === Mini SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand-->Biwin PCIe 4×2 NVMe 1.3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 GPDwin5 and Oneplayer Superx hybrid - 3D TLC - LGA packaging - V1 slide tray mechanism - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- |} ==SATA== Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI), a programming interface for SATA host controllers. Platforms supporting AHCI may take advantage of performance features such as no master/slave designation for SATA devices — each device is treated as a master — and hardware-assisted native command queuing. AHCI may but not often also provides usability enhancements such as Hot-Plug (Desktop and Mobile Only). AHCI requires appropriate software support (e.g., an AHCI driver) AHCI, the underlying protocol for SATA, only supports one queue with 32 commands. The issue with AHCI is that it's going to take a pile of test hardware just to figure out all the different bugs in all the motherboard chipsets and add-on PCI cards that 'kinda' implement AHCI. Not to mention Silicon Image, which took a very different approach from Intel's AHCI in their SATA controllers. === SATA 7mm 2.5inch SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA 240GB Ultimate SU630 2.5" | <!--Model-->ASU630SS-240GQ-R | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su650 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU650SS240GTR | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su800 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU800 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SMI SM2258 controller with Micron 3D TLC NAND but low performance when data fills the SLC cache - slow write speed - |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su680 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU680SS240GTR | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Apacer AS340 Panther | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Apacer AS350 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M225 SSD 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2009 sata2 3gbp/s |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial C300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2010 sata3 6gbps - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2011 Marvell 88SS9174-BKK2 processor, 25nm MLC NAND flash and 128MB dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M500 120Gb to 960Gb | <!--Model-->CT250M500SSD1, CT500M500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M550 120G to 1T | <!--Model-->CT250M550SSD1, CT500M550SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) BX100 | <!--Model-->CT500BX100SSD1, CT1000BX100SSD1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 - no dram - Silicon Motion SM2246EN and ATA version ACS-2 - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache Micron controller and nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial MX200 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) BX300 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dramless cache - Micron ex Tidal controller and TLC nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) bx500 2.5inch | <!--Model-->CT240BX500SSD1, CT480BX500SSD1, CT960BX500SSD1, CT1000BX500SSD1, CT2000BX500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SM2258XT 4channel later SM2259XT paired with Micron’s latest 64-Layer 3D TLC flash but dramless SLC cache (part of the tlc flash) - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX500 | <!--Model-->CT250MX500SSD1, CT500MX500SSD1, CT1000MX500SSD1, CT2000MX500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - dram cache from 256M to 2G - discontinued end of 2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S101 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - no dram cache, Hynix memory 3dv7-176l 176 layer QLC (one chip), either raymx rm1135, SM2259XT controller or Realtek rts5735dlq |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang ranxiana S102 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S101Q 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Fikwot founded in 2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX815 Standard 2.5inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FS810 Ultra 2.5inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hypertec FirestormLite 2.5inch | <!--Model-->S240GHS3-M or SDSSD240GB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hypertech | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral V2 Plus 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD 520 Series 2.5 inch SATA 6Gb/s 2.5" SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SSDSC2CW240A3, SSDSC2CW480A3, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 LSI SandForce SF2281, Flash Memory Intel Synchronous 25nm MLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Intel Pro Series 1500 | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BF180A4L SSD0E38417, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel S3610 Series 2.5" 400GB 6GBPS SATA SSD | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BX400G4R | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 data center |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD Pro 5400s 512 GB | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KF512H6 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3510 Series MLC 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDS2BB400G6, SSDSC2BB480G6R, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3520 Series MLC 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BB800G7, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3710 Series 800GB 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BA800G4P, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 server |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD 545S Series 256GB 512GB | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KW256G8X1, SSDSC2KW512G8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.solidigm.com/support-page/warranty-rma/ka-00032.html Solidigm formerly Intel] SSD DC S4500 240GB 2.5inch - HP Enterprise | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KB240G7P | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingspec P3-512 P3-1T0 P3-2TO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston SSDNow 300 | <!--Model-->SV300S37A/240G, SV300S37A/120G, SV300S37A/60G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 dramless - lsi sandforce SF2281 or JMicron JMF662 controller with Toshiba MLC or Intel MLC |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A400 120G to 960Gb 2.5inch | <!--Model-->SA400S37/240G SBFK61K1, SA400S37/480G, SA400S37/960G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 half case sized ssd 4 x FH64B08UCT1-60 64G - t6 security torx into metal case - dram less - poor write speeds - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia formerly Toshiba HG6 2.5in | <!--Model--> *9.5mm THNSNJ512GBSU, THNSNJ256GBSU, THNSNJ128GBSU *7mm THNSNJ512GCSU THNSNJ512GCSY, THNSNJ256GCSU THNSNJ256GCSY, THNSNJ128GCSU THNSNJ128GCSY | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NS100 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model-->LNS100-1TRB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - Marvell 88NV1120 Artemis, a DRAM cache is not available and pseudo-SLC. Micron 64-layer TLC NAND flash 4 chips @ 512 Gbit TS7512G181 (Rebranded by Lexar) (256G) - 4 nand flash chips Lexar/TST22T181/ B1924 and one controller: Lexar DM918/NOD43 1907 (512G) - |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NQ100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - DM928 controller which operates without a DRAM buffer. Two 128GB Micron NAND flash chips |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LiteOn | <!--Model-->LCS-128L9S-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 no dram - sata2 - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Matrix 256Gb 512GB SATA 2.5in SSD | <!--Model-->MIS512GSDS, MIS256GSDS | <!--Work MSDos-->UP TO 550MB/S | <!--Work GPT-->UP TO 500MB/S | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 1100 | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK2T0TBN-1AR1ZA | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 1300 2TB 1300 2.5" | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK2T0TDL-1AW1ZABHA | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2010 - old sdd - TLC nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Micron RealSSD C400 2.5inch | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK256MAM-1K12 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Mushkin Reactor | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC flash |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac SA500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico Y-20 Y20 2.5 inch sata SHENZHEN ORICO TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Orico S500-Pro s500pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Origin Storage Inception TLC830 Pro Series 2.5in SATA III SSD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3D tlc flash nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P210 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> qlc flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P220 | <!--Model-->P220S2TB25 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> flash nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Plextor M6V | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS900 2.5 in sata SSD | <!--Model-->SSD7CS900-480-PB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2311, CS3030 and Pro Elite SSDs | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung SM PM | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->PM871a or PM871b? SM/PM = 2-bit or 3-bit MLC. PM = 3-bit MLC = TLC. 8 = generation = 8xx, 7 = model = 850 EVO (in this case), 1 = usage (e.g. 3 = datacenter). a/b = revision or type of flash, the 850 EVO had multiple revisions including at least three types of flash (32L, 48L, 64L) so a = 32/48L, b = 64L. At lower capacities it might use different flash, for example the 256GB SM951 utilizies 2D/planar while the higher capacities use 3D. OEM drives tend to have different, optimized firmware, so performance will not be the same |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-7TE120 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM851 2.5in sata | <!--Model-->MZ-7TE5120 P/N MZ7TE512HMHP, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-75E120, MZ-75E500 (P/N MZ7LN500) to MZ-75E4T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 Samsung MGX controller (S4LN062X01) up to 500GB capacities whilst Samsung MEX controller (3-core) beyond - Samsung TLC 3D V‐NAND 48 and later 64 layers and possibility of 256MB, 512MB or 1GB LPDDR2-1066 DRAM chip - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 PRO | <!--Model-->MZ-7KE1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871a 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model-->MZ-7LN512A P/N MZ7LN512HMJP, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) contoller with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM883 1.92TB | <!--Model-->MZ-7LH1T90 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) - 1gb LPDDR4-1866 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-76E1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) contoller with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 QVO | <!--Model-->MZ-76Q1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 870 QVO 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 870 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-7LN56F, MZ-77E1T0 P/N MZ7L31TOHBLB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 beware of bad batch early death - uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - Samsung MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871b | <!--Model-->MZ7LN256HCHP-000H1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - Samsung MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Ultra 3D/Extreme Pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 SandForce SF-2281 dram |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Ultra Plus | <!--Model-->SDSSDHP-256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 Marvell SS889175 processor with SanDisk's 19nm NAND and 128MB Samsung DDR2 DRAM chip |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Z300s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - Marvell 88SS9188 Marvell 88SS9187 with SanDisk 64Gbit 19nm MLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x300s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Plus | <!--Model-->SDSSDA-240G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 pseudo SLC cache dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Z400s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - Silicon Motion SM2246XT DRAM-less - budget end of market - |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - 4 NAND packages and marvell controller 88ss1074 on blue pcb - 512MB DDR3L-1600 Micron DRAM - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate BarraCuda Q1 SSD | <!--Model-->ZA240CV10001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A55 2.5in sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 dramless A55 started with the Phison S10 but later the S11 i.e. Phison PS3111-S11-13 controller and 96-layer TLC NAND flash memory with a pseudo-SLC cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power Ace A55 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand-->sk hynix | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 sandforce controller - |- | <!--Brand-->sk Hynix SH910A | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - Link_A_Media (LAMD) controller with eight 256Gbit H27QEGDVEBLR NAND 20nm hynix MLC - SK hynix H5PS1G83JFA DRAM - |- | <!--Brand-->sk Hynix SC300 | <!--Model-->HFS256G32MND-3210A, HFS256G32MND-3312A, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 - red strip around edges - 8-channel controller SK hynix LM87810AA-A0 with DDR2 buffer chip and four pieces of 16nm hynix MLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix Canvas SL300 series 2.5in SSD *3110A SL301STD *3210A *3300A *3310A | <!--Model-->HFS500G32TND, HFS256G32TNE, HFS128G32TNF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 TLC - consumer line red in corners - SK hynix LM878100AA (HFS256G32MND-3312A) later SH87820BB and NAND 16nm hynix TLC - 256mb dram |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix Canvas SC3 series 2.5in SSD *N1A0A , , *N1A1A *N1A2A SC308STD, *N2A0A , , SC311STD | <!--Model-->HFS512G32TNF-N2A0A, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - red in corners - no dram and no SLC cache - Hynix ex Link_A_Media Devices (LAMD) SH87820BB 2c but poor mixed workload ability MLC - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Team EX2 GX2 Elite QX | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->TEAMGROUP AX2 2.5 Inch SATA III Solid State Drive SSD | <!--Model-->T253A3512G0C101, T253A3001T0C101, T253A3002T0C101, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 3D NAND TLC |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup TF Vulcan Z 2.5in sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dramless smi2259xt 128L tlc nand - |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup T-Force Vulcan ZQLC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram-less smi2259xt qlc 144L nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Topesel | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend 220S 2.5in | <!--Model-->TS120GSSD220S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 3D TLC without dram |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend SSD230S 2.5in | <!--Model-->TS256GSSD230S TS512GSSD230S TS1TSSD230S TS2TSSD230S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 3D TLC NAND with DRAM Cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Viathan | <!--Model-->S001T3V | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Red SA500 NAS | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SA510 250Gb to 4Tb | <!--Model-->WDS400T3B0A WDS200T3B0A WDS100T3B0A WDS500G3B0A WDS250G3B0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SSD 2.5" | <!--Model-->WDS240G1G0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Green 200Gb to 2Tb | <!--Model-->WDS200T2G0A WDS100T3G0A WDS480G2G0A WDS240G2G0A WDS120G2G0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - cheap and slow ssd - |- | <!--Brand-->WD SA530 | <!--Model-->SDASB8Y-256G SD9SB8W, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.xray-disk.com xraydisk] 2.5 inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> from the manufacturer only - Phsion/SMI(2258XT)/Realtek/Yeestor |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Xum | <!--Model-->hx256gssdsata3 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Yottamaster | <!--Model-->Y3000 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> PCie 3.0 |- | <!--Brand-->Yottamaster | <!--Model-->Y7000 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> PCIe 4.0 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |} === SATA M.2 (M and B key) === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA M.2 2280 Sata | <!--Model-->AXNS381E-128GM-B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S201 m.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->S201 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN203 m.2 sata (oldtan, twipps, teexin aka Shenzhen Pingfan "Ordinary" Road Technology Co., Ltd) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 lifespan not long Maxio MAP + YMTC 128L |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Foresee (Shenzhen Longsys) | <!--Model-->YSM80CD-128G YSDE128G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - 88nv1120-bt22 T3WU030 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral 2242 120G | <!--Model-->INSSD120GM242 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Integral M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->INSSD256GM.26M2280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Integral 256GB/512GB/1TB/2TB | <!--Model-->INSSD1TM280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 netac rebrand - no dram cache - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel Pro ‎545S 2280 | <!--Model-->SSDSCKKF256G8H | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> no dram, TLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Intel | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intenso M.2 internalSSD SATA III 1 TB | <!--Model-->Top | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A400 m.2 | <!--Model-->SA400M8/240G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 entry level ssd 4 x FH64B08UCT1-60 64G - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston | <!--Model-->RBU-SNS8350DES3128GP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston V300 | <!--Model-->SV300S3505AG | <!--Work MSDos-->{{yes}} | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Nightly Build 2014-09-18 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LITEON SATA 128GB | <!--Model-->CV3-8D128-11 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LITEON | <!--Model-->CV1-8B256-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lite-On | <!--Model-->L8H-256V2G-HP L8H-128V2G-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 2016 nanya nt5c864m16fp-dh |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LSI | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 SF37000 controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model-->M550 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 Marvell 88SS9189 SATA controller |- | <!--Brand-->Micron M600 enterprise m.2 sata up to 512GB | <!--Model-->MTFDDAV256MBF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 Marvell 88SS9189 SATA controller, DRAM chip 256MB 533MHz LPDDR2, NAND for the 256GB drive MT29F1T08CQCCBG2-10:C 16nm MLC NAND each 128GB package |- | <!--Brand-->MICRON 1100 M.2 SATA 6Gb/s 2280 | <!--Model-->MTFDDAV256TBN HP P/N 903109-001, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico Y20M-2242 | <!--Model-->Y20M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM841 M.2 sata3 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-NTD2560/0L9 MZNTD256HAGL-000L9 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung CM871 Rev 0 | <!--Model-->MZNLF128HCHP-000H1 MZ-NLF1280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871a m.2 Sata | <!--Model-->MZNLN256HMHQ, NLN512A P/N MZNLN512HMJP-000H1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 TLC |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM871b | <!--Model-->MZNLN128HAHQ-000H1, MZNLN256HAJQ MZ-NLN256F MZ-NLN256C, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM881 | <!--Model-->MZ-NLH1280 MZNLH128HBHQ-000H1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SanDisk X300 M.2 sata 2280 80mm SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SD7SN6S-256G-1006 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk X400 SSD M.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->SD8SN8U-128G-1006, SD8SN8U-256G-1006, SD8SN8U-512-1006, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 SSD controller Marvell 88SS1074 four channel supports variety of NAND and up to 512MB DDR3L-1600 Micron DRAM cache - |- | <!--Brand-->SanDisk X600 M.2 SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SD9SN8W-128G-1006 SD9TN8W-256G-1006 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->SANDISK X110 DELL 6T4HK M.2 2260 | <!--Model-->SD6SP1M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix SC300 | <!--Model-->SC308M280S HFS128G39TND | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 SH87820BB controller - No dram buffer - multi-level cell (MLC) NAND |- | <!--Brand-->SK HYNIX | <!--Model-->SC311 HFS256G39TNF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK HYNIX | <!--Model-->SC401 HFS256G39TNH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A55 M.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->A55 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TEAMGROUP Team MS30 SSD M.2 Sata 2280 | <!--Model-->TM8PS7001T0C101 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba RC100 (retail version of BG3) | <!--Model-->KBG30ZMV256G, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba HG6 m.2 | <!--Model-->THNSNJ512GDNU THNSNJ512G8NY, THNSNJ256GDNU THNSNJ256G8NY, THNSNJ128GDNU THNSNJ128G8NY, THNSNJ256GVNU THNSNJ128GVNU, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA SSD M.2 2280 256GB | <!--Model-->KSG50ZMV256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG6 | <!--Model-->KSG60ZMG256G, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model-->400 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS32GMTS400S TS64GMTS400S TS128GMTS400S | <!--Model-->400S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> DDR3 dram cache and mlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model-->M.2 SSD 600 (2260), M.2 SSD 800S (2280) | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> mlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS120GMTS420S TS240GMTS420S TS480GMTS420S | <!--Model-->420S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> can run hot slc cache |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS256GMTS430S TS512GMTS430S | <!--Model-->430S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache - 3d tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2280 TS120GMTS820S TS240GMTS820S TS960GMTS820S | <!--Model-->820S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3D nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2280 TS256GMTS830S TS512GMTS830S TS1TMTS830S TS4TMTS830S | <!--Model-->830S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SATA SSD m.2 2280 120GB to 480Gb | <!--Model-->WDS480G2G0B WDS240G2G0B WDS120G2G0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 made in malaysia |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SATA SSD m.2 2280 240Gb to | <!--Model-->WDS240G3G0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 made in |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SA510 M.2 SATA 250Gb to 2Tb | <!--Model-->WDS200T3B0B WDS100T3B0B WDS500G3B0B WDS250G3B0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Red 500GB 1TB 2TB | <!--Model-->SA500 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->union memory AM610 m.2 sata | <!--Model-->SSS0R27339, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === mSATA SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fangxiang S301 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingchuxing | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model-->INSSD256GMSA MO-300 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc 3d nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron enterprise | <!--Model-->M600 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico ZH-10 ZH10 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 EVO 1.8inch msata | <!--Model-->MZ-M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 EVO 1.8in | <!--Model-->MZ-M5E120BW, MZ-M5E250BW, MZ-M5E500BW, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM851 1.8" msata | <!--Model-->MZ-MTE256D P/N MZ-MTMTE256HMHP, MZ-MTE1T00, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO 1.8inch msata | <!--Model-->MZ-MM6E250BW, MZ-M6E500BW, MZ-M6E1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend TS64GMSA370S | <!--Model-->MSA370S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend TS64GMSA230S | <!--Model-->230S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3d tlc nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA 2.5inch Laptop Hard Disks === ====7mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP628230-01 500Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP552605-01 250Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP693440-01 500Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Z5K320 Z5K500-500 Z5K100 series * 2013 HTS545050A7E380 HTS * 2015 HTS545050A7E680 HTS | <!--Model-->HTS 320GB 500Gb 1Tb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Z7K320 Z7K500 series | <!--Model-->HTS725050A7E630 320Gb HTS725050A7E635 500Gb 7200rpm | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> avoid if it does not have the DCM code |- | <!--Brand-->HGST 1T 5400rpm | <!--Model-->HTS541010B7E610 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 128m cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Momentus Thin | <!--Model-->ST500LT012 ST320LT012. ST250LT012 500Gb 320gb 250gb 2014 5.4K rpm | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Thin SSHD 5400RPM Sata 2.5" | <!--Model-->ST500LM000 500GB, ST500LM001, ST500LM020 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 up to 64M cache and with 8GB NAND Flash |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate MomentusThin-B Video 2.5 HDD * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 | <!--Model-->ST500VT000 500GB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->SEAGATE Baracuda 2.5 5400 | <!--Model-->ST2000LM015 (2Gb), ST1000LM049 (1Tb), ST500LM030 (500Gb) | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Barracuda Pro | <!--Model-->ST1000LM048 ST1000LM035 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> up to 128MB cache |- | <!--Brand-->SEAGATE FireCuda Compute 2.5 | <!--Model-->ST500LX025 ST1000LX015 ST2000LX001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 8GB NAND Commercial Multilevel Cell (cMLC), 128MB buffer and 5400-RPM spindle speed up to 140 MB/s |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 2.5in | <!--Model-->MQ04ABF100 1TB 5400 RPM 2018 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA MQ01ACF | <!--Model-->MQ01ACF050 500GB 7200rpm 2020 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->western digital wd blue 500G 8meg cache 5400rpm * 2014 Rev T0 * 2015 Rev T1 | <!--Model-->wd5000lpvx | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012-2015 sequential 2MB block transfers 110 MB/s reading and writing - |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital 2.5" WD Blue Slim | <!--Model-->WD10SPCX 1TB Nov 2016 | <!--Work MSDos-->{{Yes|hdd under partition table msdos/pc, boots on bios machines, will not on uefi machine}} | <!--Work GPT-->{{Unk|untested hdd under gpt partition protocol scheme, not booting on uefi}} | <!--Tested under-->AROS One 1.8 USB |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD5000LUCX 500Gb 5400rpm 16mb cache Rev Y0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 2017 Malaysia |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====9.5mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->MHW2040BH | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 40gig |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->MHY2080BH | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 80gig |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | MHW2120B | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST bought by WD mid-2012 5K1000-1000 | <!--Model-->HTS721010A9E630 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST bought by WD mid-2012 5K1000-1000 | <!--Model-->HTS541010A9E662 type TS5SAF100 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Travelstar 5K500.B-320 | <!--Model-->HTS545025B9SA02 HTS545032B9A300 HTS545040B9A300 HTS545050B9A300 250Gb 320Gb 400Gb 500Gb 5400rpm | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST 1TB 7200rpm | <!--Model-->HTS721010A9E630 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung bought by Seagate late 2011 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung Spinpoint with Seagate HD REV A (Jan 2014) | <!--Model-->ST1000LM024 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung Spinpoint with Seagate 9.5mm * 2013 Rev A HN-M500MBB/I * 2014 Rev B HN-M500MBB/SP4 * 2015 Rev B HN-M500MBB/P4C | <!--Model-->ST500LM012 (500M) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Momentus 5400.3 | <!--Model-->ST9160821AS | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 160gig |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SSHD 1t | <!--Model-->ST1000LM014, ST1000LM028, ST1000LM015 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 8g nand flash |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SSHD 1T | <!--Model-->ST1000LX001 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 32G nand flash |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MK2555GSX HDD2H24 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 250g 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MK5065GSX - 500GB 5400RPM SATA 3Gb/s 8MB Cache 2.5-Inch | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MKxx59GSXP, eg Toshiba MK6459GSXP 640GB 2011 | <!--Work-->{{yes}} | <!--Tested under-->Icaros 2.2 with uses Advanced Format (AF) in 4,096 bytes per sector. Compatibility with legacy, 512 bytes through AF emulation techniques, called 512e |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba (2013 to 2016) | <!--Model-->MQ01ABD100 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba (2015 to 2020) *2013 *2014 *2015 AA50/AX0D5A *2016 AA60/AX0E1A * *2017 AGM AA01/AX002V *2018 AGS AA70/AX0G1A *2020 AA71/AX0G1A | <!--Model-->MQ01ABD050 500meg | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MQ04ABF100 1TB 5400 RPM 2013 | <!--Work-->{{Yes}} | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA | <!--Model-->MQ04ABD200 2TB 5400 RPM 128MB Cache SATA 6.0Gb/s | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD7500BPVX 2013 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WESTERN DIGITAL 1TB 2.5" SATA DRIVE 5400 rpm, 8MB cache | <!--Model-->WD10JPVX-80JC3T0 (OCT 2014) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , uses Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand-->WDC Western Digital Blue 1TB SATA 2.5" Hard Drive 5400 rpm, 8MB cache | <!--Model-->WD10JPVX-08JC3T6 (Jun 2017) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD10JPCX 1Tb | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital * 2019 | <!--Model-->WD10JUCT 1TB (1000GB) 2019 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Western Digital Scorpio Black * 2010 * 2014 | <!--Model-->WD5000BEKT, WD5000BPKX-22HPJT0, WD5000BPKT, | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 16m cache, 7200rpm thailand then malaysia |- | <!--Brand-->WD Western Digital Black * 2016 | <!--Model-->WD2500LPLX, WD3200LPLX, WD5000LPLX SMR: WD5000LPSX, WD10SPSX | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 32m cache , 7200rpm SATA-III malaysia |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA 2.5in NON-Laptop Hard Disks === ====11mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu 160GB 250GB 300GB | <!--Model-->MHX2160BT, MHX2250BT, MHX2300BT | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model-->TP00640GB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====12.5mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====15mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate 1TB IBM System X 15mm 2.5" SATA | <!--Model-->ST91000640NS 81Y9731 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA Laptop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->HL-DT-ST DVDRAM | <!--Model-->GSA T50L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT10N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage BD-Rom DVD Rewriter | <!--Model-->CT10N AFCK101 LGE-DMCT10A(B) | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 5v 12.7mm fails early |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi LG | <!--Model-->GT20L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009/2010 5v 1.3A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Hitachi / LG | <!--Model-->GT30N GT32N GT30L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT40N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT50N GT51N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT90N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL | <!--Model-->GU70N (HP/Dell), | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 5v 1.8A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL | <!--Model-->GUD0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.8A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model-->GTA0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS Super Multi DVD Writer *Rev 101 *rev 102 2015 factory GH | <!--Model-->GUC0N (ALOK113) MSIP-REM-HLD-GUA0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 9.5mm - flaky and dies quickly - |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data | <!--Model-->GTC0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 12.7mm 5V 1.8a - |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS | <!--Model-->BU20N (S05JH) KCC-REM-HLD-BU10N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS Super Multi DVD Writer | <!--Model-->GUD1N (S05JH) (S05NT) KCC-REM-HLD-GU90N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2017-2018 9.5mm 5v 1.8a - slow access - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->Uj870a Uj880 UJ890 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8A0 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic MATSHITA 12.7mm SATA DVD | <!--Model-->UJ8B0 (Asus K53S), | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 12.7mm 5v 1.5a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8B1 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 5v 1.5a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8C0, UJ8C1, UJ8C2 9.5mm, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 2013 5v 1.6a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic Precision Devices Co Ltd | <!--Model-->UJ8D0, UJ8D1 KCC-REM-PPD-UJ8D1 HP 657534-TC2, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013 ok lifeline, |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8E2Q | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8FB | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.5a 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic Blu-Ray DVD Writer Slimline | <!--Model-->UJ260 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DC-8A2SH, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8A3S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8A4SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On | <!--Model-->DS-8A5LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On DVD-ROM | <!--Model-->DS-8DBSH1148 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 12.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On | <!--Model-->DU-8A6SH (HP) | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.5A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips and LiteOn | <!--Model-->DS-8A8SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 1.5a 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DS-8A9SH DS8A9SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DS-8ABSH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD DVD/CD Rewritable Drive | <!--Model-->DU-8A5LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 9.5mm 5v 1.5a - |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8ACSH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD Philips | <!--Model-->da-8aesh11b, DA-8AESH-24B | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2019 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Pioneer | <!--Model-->DVR-TD09TBG | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7580s, AD-7581s SOK-AD-7580S(B), AD-7583s, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008-2010 5V 1.5A |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc SATA DVD | <!--Model-->AD-7561S, AD-7560S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7 MM |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc | <!--Model-->AD-7585H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7mm cleaning the laser lens inside the drive with a liquid lens cleaner. Also check the lens carrier slides freely from one extreme to the other inside the drive without sticking |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD7590s, AD-7591s, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7700s, AD-7710h, AD-7701H, AD-7703S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc | <!--Model-->AD-7760H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 1.5A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7711H AD-7740H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.5mm 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-S208B Ver BB Rev 00 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba TSSTCorp Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-S083C Ver C Rev 03 /BEBE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 5v 1.5a 12.7 mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology Corp | <!--Model-->TS-L633 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 5v 1.3A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-208FB/BEBE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 12.7mm 5v 1.3a - feels cheap and flaky in use - |- | <!--Brand-->TSST Toshiba Samsung Corp. | <!--Model-->SU-208FB/TFJF KCC-REM-TSS-SU208 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013-2014 9.5mm 5v 1.3a - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |} === [https://www.backblaze.com/cloud-storage/resources/hard-drive-test-data SATA Desktop 3.5inch Hard Disks] === Datasheets with the SMR (overlapped packing Shingled Magnetic Recording) and CMR (faster Conventional Magnetic Recording) parts <pre> WD: https://documents.westerndigital.com/content/dam/doc-library/en_us/assets/public/western-digital/product/internal-drives/wd-blue-hdd/product-brief-western-digital-wd-blue-pc-hdd.pdf Seagate: https://www.seagate.com/content/dam/seagate/migrated-assets/www-content/datasheets/pdfs/3-5-barracudaDS1900-14-2007US-en_US.pdf Toshiba: https://storage.toshiba.com/docs/support-docs/P300-SalesSheet_English_Web_r2.pdf </pre> {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Seagate Barracuda 7200.9 | ST3160812AS, ST3160212AS | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 - Capacity: 160 GB - Speed: 7200RPM - Cache: 8 MB - Interface: SATA2 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Barracuda LP Green 5400rpm | <!--Model-->ST1000DL002 1TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SkyHawk Surveillance HDD ST4000VX000 Series | <!--Model-->ST4000VX013 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Baracuda Compute | <!--Model-->ST500DM009 2F110A-500 / 02PKVY / 2PKVY (500m), | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> - SATA III (6Gb/s) - Format 3.5" - 32MB Cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate CMR | <!--Model-->ST1000DM010 ST500DM009 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate 2TB SMR | <!--Model-->ST2000DM008 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SMR | <!--Model-->ST8000DM004 ST6000DM003 ST4000DM004 ST3000DM007 ST2000DM005 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 5400rpm | <!--Model-->HDWD220 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 7200rpm | <!--Model-->HDWD320 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba P300 CMR | <!--Model-->HDWD130XZSTA HDWD130UZSVA, HDWD120XZSTA HDWD120UZSVA, HDWD110XZSTA HDWD110UZSVA | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital 2010 | <!--Model-->WD20EARS Green 2TB 5400rpm 64mb cache | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD20EFRX WD40EFRX 5400rpm | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital | <!--Model-->WD4002FFWD | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD80EAAZ WD80EAZZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD20EARZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD40EZAZ, WD60EZAZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SMR | <!--Model-->WD20EARZ, WD20EZAZ - 2TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SMR | <!--Model-->WD40EZAX - 4TB, WD60EZAX - 6TB, WD80EZAX - 8TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA Desktop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- |} ==PATA== === IDE Desktop Hard Disks === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | M1624TAU | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | IBM | DHEA-38451 | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SP40A2H | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Seagate | ST3160215ACE | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Seagate | ST32122A | {{maybe}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Western Digital | WD102AA | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Western Digital | WD200 | {{maybe}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === IDE Laptop Hard Disks === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | MHV2040AH | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Toshiba | MK2011GAP | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === IDE Desktop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Compaq | CR-594-BCQ | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | CRD-8322B(CP1) | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | CRD-8484B(AM2A) | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | LTN-485 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Creative | CD220E | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Hitachi-LG | GDA-4120B | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | LG | CRD-8400B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Lite-On | LTN486S | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Mitsumi | CRMC-FX4830T | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | CDR-1700B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | DV-5800A | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | ND-2100A | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | NR-7900A | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Philips | DVD8631 | {{no}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | Samsung | SC-148 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SCR-2030 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SM-348B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Sony | CDU601 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Sony | CDU611-25 | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Toshiba | SD-M1202 | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |} === IDE Laptop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->H-L Hitachi LG | <!--Model-->GCC-4244N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2006 |- | Hitachi-LG | GCCT10N | {{yes}} | {{Maybe|FryingPan WRITE seems to have no problem with data sections (track 1) - combos with audio sections (track 2) white screens aros eventually}} | AspireOS Xenon with 25th Jan 2014 self update kernel |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | Philips | SDR089 | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | TSSTcorp | TS-L462C TS-L462D | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | 2005 Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | TSSTcorp | TS-L632H | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | Sony | DW-Q58A | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | Sony Optiarc | AD-7540A | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->Optiarc DVD RW AD-7560A IDE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7590A | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |} == SCSI == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} NVMe accepts up to 64,000 queues with up to 64,000 commands each. o4thdhj6qqpbajweesuyryytfyhabqa 4635101 4635100 2026-05-10T10:54:15Z Jeff1138 301139 4635101 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Introduction== AROS supports hard disks and optical drives attached to several interfaces: * [[#NVMe M.2 SSD (M key)]] on the pci-e bus * [[#SATA]] aka Serial ATA or AHCI (IDE compatibility mode used in most cases) * IDE (also known as ATA, [[#PATA]] or Parallel ATA) * USB * SCSI limited ==PCI-e== ===NVMe M.2 SSD (M key)=== *Controller and firmware *DRAM better having if heavy workloads but not necessary for gaming *Cache like SLC HMB techniques *NAND (Main storage area with MLC, TLC or QLC versions of varying life expectancy) SSDs, USB flash drive, SD and Micro SD Cards have a limited amount of write cycles, therefore guaranteed to fail randomly and suddenly at any time. All SSDs are prone to corrupt firmware due to poor quality NAND where both the data and the firmware resides. The drive tends to go read only when too many errors occur before complete failure. That is up to 10 years for things like memory cards and USB sticks. In general, unless there is a firmware design issue, cheap materials used, stress like bending or overheating causing cold solder joints, an SSD can last a long time if minimal writing activity takes place but eventually if flash isn't written to, it degrades. Catch 22. Dram and cache are not the same thing. Dram stores the ssds indexes and metadata for faster data retrieval and wear leveling. The cache keeps part of the nand memory as SLC storage which can be written to faster. Basically all ssds will have a dynamic SLC cache where it will decrease as the drive fills up. Cache controller designs that are DRAM less use the internal SRAM cache in the controller to cache the NAND mapping table. It just requires a different mapping table design since SRAM caches are much smaller than DRAM. Ultimately the mapping table is still stored in NAND. General rule of thumb: the cheaper an SSD, the higher the likelihood it uses lower quality flash chips so sudden failing NAND, problematic controller chips (e.g. SandForce), outsourced firmware. Generic brand like old SP, Corsair or Crucial may be recoverable whilst major brands Samsung, Intel and Western Digital are impossible due to firmware encryption and customizations. Recommend sticking with older Silicon Motion or Phison controllers if possible. A ssd isn't good because it has dram or bad because it doesn't. Other things should be taken into account like sustained writes so check the TPU write intensive usage See [https://www.techpowerup.com/ssd-specs/ here] for more information {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="15%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="30%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->Unnamed | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 to - SM2259XT2 SM2263XT MAS0902 MAP1202 YS9082HP RM1135 RTS5765 PS3111 |- | <!--Brand-->Unnamed OEMs | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 to date - Realtek RTS5765/66 controller + Micron 96L (B27A) |- | <!--Brand-->Acer Predator GM7 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Acer drives built by Biwin, that also supplies HP, Maxio MAP1602A no DRAM so HMB, YMTC 128L TLC, |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA M.2 NVME IM2P33F8, IM2S3168 SSD | <!--Model-->IM2P33F8-512GD | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - industrial 12L 3D TLC NAND flash Supports LDPC ECC, RAID Engine, and SLC Cache End-to-End (E2E) Data Path Protection with Host Memory Buffer (HMB) i.e. DRAMless |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG SX8200 Pro M.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ASX8200PNP1TTC | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 NVM Express 1.3 SN2262G later SN2262EN chipset - |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA 256GB GEN4 x4 NVMe PCIe M2 2230 SSD | <!--Model-->SM2P41C3-256GC2 DP/N 0KM1Y6 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 consumer |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG GAMMIX S50 Lite | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Silicon Motion SM2267XT dramless |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG ATOM 50 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Innogrit RainierQX IG5220 |- | <!--Brand-->Adata Legend 710 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Legend 900 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->BiWin PCIe Gen3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Innogrit IG5216 controller, no DRAM so HMB which appears to be the standard - |- | <!--Brand-->BiWin NV7200 PCIe 4.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 SM2263XT |- | <!--Brand-->Biwin NV7400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force LE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force Series MP500 MP510 M.2 NVMe PCIe Gen 3 x4 SSD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 PS5012-E12-27 from Phison, 64-layer TLC Toshiba BiCS flash, may have dram cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Phison E16 on DRAM DDR4 with Micron 96L QLC - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Elite | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E16 and Bics DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Pro XT, PRO LPX, PRO NH PCIe4 | <!--Model-->CSSD-F1000GBMP600ECS Elite, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 DRAMless SSD controller Phison PS5026-E26, BiCS6 162L QLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Core XT | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison and Bics QLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP700 Pro PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model-->CSSD-F1000GBMP700PNH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P1 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 QLC NAND but a controller with a DRAM cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P2 M.2 2280 Gen3 x4 NVM-express | <!--Model-->CT1000P2SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 dram-less Phison PS5013-E13-31 on 96-layer QLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P3 Plus M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->CT1000P3PSSD8 CT2000P3PSSD801 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with Host Memory Buffer HMB tech to use a small bit of system RAM as DRAM cache and Micron 176-layer QLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P3 M.2 nvme SSD | <!--Model-->CT2000P3SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with no DRAM so HMB and 176-Layer Micron QLC (N48R) - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P5 m.2 nvme PCIe 4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 runs hot - Crucial NVMe with DRAM LPDDR4 and Micron 96L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P5 Plus | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 some have DRAM cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T500 Gen4.0 nvme 2.0 | <!--Model-->CT1000T500SSD8, CT2000T500SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison PS5025-E25 with micron B58R 232-layer 3D TLC NAND and Micron LPDDR4 DRAM cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T700 Gen5 SSD | <!--Model-->CT1000T700SSD3, CT2000T700SSD3 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 SSD controller Phison PS5026-E26, Micron 232-layer NAND with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P310 M.2 2280 NVMe PCIe Gen4 SSD | <!--Model-->CT2000P310SSD801 (2Tb), | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 DRAM-less Phison E27T Micron 232-layer NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T705 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 dramless Phison SSD controller |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T710 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 SMI SM2508 SSD controller dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN605 PCIe Gen3 x4 interface, NVMe 1.3 support | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN660 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN760 PCIe Gen4 x4 M.2 NVMe 1.4 interface | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 gets hot |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN870 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 no dram Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN855 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S500 pro PCIe Gen3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 MaxioTech MAP1202A-F1C with YMTC 128L and pseudo-SLC cache |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S660 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S880/R | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S770 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Fikwot founded in 2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX550 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN501 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->FIKWOT FN950 FN955 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 MAP1602 (at 1600 MT/s) flash YMTC TLC no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX991 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->FW-FX991-2TB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN960 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN970 m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Geil ZEN ITH m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->S3-240GB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Gigabyte Aorus Gen4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Phison E16 and Toshiba 96-layer TLC (triple-level cell) BiCS4 NAND flash - DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Gigabyte Aorus 10000 PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM LPDDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->HP EX950 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HP FX900 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dram less |- | <!--Brand-->HP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Integral M2 Series NVME M.2 2280 PCIe Gen 3x4 | <!--Model-->INSSD500GM280NM2 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Inland Professional TLC E12S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E18 |- | <!--Brand-->Inland Gaming performance Plus m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E16 controller and TLC flash |- | <!--Brand-->Inland TD510 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM DDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->intel SSD Pro 7600p Series M.2 80mm 2280 PCIe 3.0 x4, 3D TLC | <!--Model-->SSDPEKKF512GB, SSDPEKKF256G8L, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel 660p m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ssdpeknw010tb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 SMI SM2263 controller with 1GB DRAM cache and 1TB of Intel QLC NAND similar to crucial P1 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.solidigm.com/support-page/warranty-rma/ka-00032.html Solidigm formerly Intel] 670p | <!--Model-->SSDPEKNU010TZ | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 256 MB DDR3L cache and 12-140 GB SLC-Cache QLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Intel P4511 m.2 nvme PCIe3.1 x4 22110 110mm | <!--Model-->SSDPELKX020T8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 very long |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A1000 NVME PCIE M2 2280 SSD | <!--Model-->SA1000M8/480G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A2000 NVME PCIE M2 2280 SSD | <!--Model-->SA2000M8/250G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston KC3000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s [https://www.kingston.com/en/support/technical/ksm-firmware-update Firmware Rev. EIFK31.7 (07-08-2024) update for] PS5018-E18 PCIe 4.0 x4 NVMe controller and Micron’s 176L TLC NAND flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV1 m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model-->SNV1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 entry-level consumer DRAMless Phison E13T or Silicon Motion 4-channel SM2263XT - one brand TLC up to 1Tb and QLC after - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV2 | <!--Model-->SNV2 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 entry-level, first SMI SM2267XT or Phison E19T and later SMI SM2269XT or Phison E21T with various flash memory |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston FURY Renegade m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 [https://www.kingston.com/en/support/technical/ksm-firmware-update Firmware Rev. EIFK31.7 (07-08-2024) update for] Phison E18 controller, Micron 176L nand and ddr4 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV3 | <!--Model-->SNV3S/500G, SNV3S/1000G, SNV3S/2000G, SNV3S/4000G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 entry-level, SMI SM2268XT2 or Phison E27T controller with BiCS6 TLC or QLC flash - dramless so hmb - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) XG4? M2 2280 NVMe PCIe SSD | <!--Model-->THNSF5512GPUK, THNSN51T02DUK, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 Phison has done custom controller work for Kioxia, and Kioxia has also worked with SMI and InnoGrit (the latter more recently). Kioxia label their controllers as their own but these are largely rebadged. |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) XG5 for Data Centres | <!--Model-->KXG5 KXG50ZNV1T02 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 nanya ddr3 dram? with 64-layer BiCS 3D flash memory |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG6 OEM m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->KXG60ZNV512G, KXG60ZNV1T02, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 TC58NCP090GSD with DRAM NANYA LPDDR3 and Toshiba BiCS FLASH 96-layer 3D TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> *KBG40ZNS128G, KBG40ZNS256G, KBG40ZNS512G, KBG40ZNS1T02 *KBG40ZNT256G, *KBG40ZNV1T02 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - no dram but NVMe's Host Memory Buffer (HMB) i.e. portion of the system's RAM for caching - Toshiba's 96-Layer BiCS FLASH - seems Windows UASP driver and the JMS583 chipset interacts badly with the Kioxia BG4 - early firmware upgrade to prevent overheating hot - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG7 | <!--Model-->KXG70ZNV1T0G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 - might need firmware update on early 2tb 4tb versions - controller with sk hynix dram and tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->KIOXIA EXCERIA PLUS G2 SSD series PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison PS5012-E12S-32 aka TC58NC1201GST 4-channel controller along with KIOXIA proprietary 96-layer 3D TLC and "MG2h" version has BiCS4.5 which is faster than launch BiCS4 - - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG8 OEM m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 TC58NC0L1XGSD with DRAM LPDDR4 and 112-Layer Kioxia BiCS5 TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG5 | <!--Model-->KGB50ZNV256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 HMB buffer |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG6 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->KIOXIA EXCERIA PLUS G3 SSD series PCIe 4.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 has hmb, like most dram-less nvmes KIOXIA |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar 1TB SSD M.2 NVME 1.4 Gen3x4 M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->NM610Pro | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NM620 *IG5216 (worse?) not great original 96L *MAP1202 YMTC up to 232L, or 176L Micron, TLC for the 1TB | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 a few versions all DRAM-less, |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NM790 SSD M.2 PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Maxio MAP1602 no DRAM so HMB with 232-Layer YMTC TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->EQ790 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Maxio MAP1602, no DRAM so HMB, Flash Memory 232-Layer YMTC TLC, |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Liteon M.2 NVME 512GB SSD 2280 | <!--Model-->CAZ-51282512-Q11 DP/N 0K64PG | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SMI controller |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2200S m.2 nvme 2200 series | <!--Model-->MTFDHBA256TCK, MTFDHBA512TCK | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 for a time, Micron controller with 64L TLC 3D Nand [https://www.dell.com/support/home/en-uk/drivers/driversdetails?driverid=3jg3g BSOD occurred as CRITICAL_PROCESS_DIED] before self applied firmware [https://support.lenovo.com/us/en/downloads/ds119265-nvme-solid-state-drive-firmware-update-utility-for-windows-10-64-bit-thinkpad apparently it is related to the power management that disconnects the Micron SSD] |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2300 m.2 nvme Gen 3 x4 | <!--Model-->MTFDHBA256TDV P/N M02626-001, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 3400 M.2 NVME SSD Gen4 | <!--Model-->MTFDKBA512TFH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - no cache |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2450 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 E19T |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2600 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Phison's PS5029-E29T SSD controller with Micron 276-layer G9 QLC NAND in a DRAMless - Adaptive Write Technology (AWT) using various NAND modes (SLC, TLC, and QLC) as a dynamic cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->MSI Spatium S270 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->MSI Spatium M450 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s E19T controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV2000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV5000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV7000 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico J10 J-10 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico D10 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico e3500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico O7000 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P300 m.2 nvme pcie 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot Viper VP4300 Lite M.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2230 Gen3 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2140 CS2342 Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Raydisk 1T 2280 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 no dram, Memory QLC Intel 144 layer. Chip Realtek |- | <!--Brand-->Raydisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket Nano 2242 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 4.0 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->SB-2130-512, SB-2280-1TB, SB-Rocket-NVME4-HTSK-2TB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E16 controller and TLC flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 4.0 PLUS m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->SB-RKT4P-1TB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E1? controller and TLC flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 5 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Phison E25 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM951 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZVLV1T | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 950 PRO PM961 M.2 2280 NVMe 1.3 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> *MZ-VKW5120 *MZ-VLW2560 MZVLW256HEHP-000L7, MZ-VLW5120, MZ-SLW1T00 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - possibly 512M LPDDR3 Samsung K4E4E324EE-ECCF cache - Polaris (S4LP077X01-8030) unit with Samsung 48-layer TLC V-NAND V3 flash Samsung K90MGY8S7M-CCK0 - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 960 Pro SM961 M.2 PCi-e NVMe SSD 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-V6P1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 Polaris (S4LP077X01-8030) controller Samsung 48-layer multi-level cell (MLC) V-NAND, pseudo-SLC cache or LPDDR3-1866 Samsung K4E8E304EE-EGCF |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM981 2280 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> *Rev 0 MZ-VLB256A, MZ-VLB512A, MZ-VLB1T0A, *Rev 0 MZ-VLB2560, MZ-VLB5120 P/N MZVLB512HAJQ, MZ-VLB1T00, *Rev ? MZ-VLB256B, MZ-VLB512B, MZ-VLB1T0B, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - tlc flash with SSD controller Samsung Phoenix (S4LR020) - pseudo-SLC cache hybrid SLC Samsung’s TurboWrite - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM981a 2280 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLB5120 P/N MZVLB512HBJQ-000L7, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 - tlc flash with SSD controller Samsung Phoenix (S4LR020) - pseudo-SLC cache |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM991 NVMe M.2 SSD 2242 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLQ2560 MZVLQ256HBJD-000H1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM991a NVMe M.2 SSD 2242 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLQ256B MZVLQ256HBJD-00BH1, MZ-9LQ256C, MZ-VLQ512B MZVLQ512HBLU, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 970 EVO Plus m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Samsung Phoenix on Samsung LPDDR4 dram and 2 Samsung 9x-layer V-NAND TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 980 EVO Plus | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 980 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V8P1T0BW, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 originally made in Korea ([https://semiconductor.samsung.com/consumer-storage/support/tools/ 2tb firmware issues] with versions starting with 3) and year later Vietnam - DRAM |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 EVO m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V9E2T0BW, MZ-V9E1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Samsung Piccolo no DRAM so HMB Samsung 133-Layer TLC (V6P) and Samsung 133-Layer TLC (V6P) - |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM9A1 SSD M.2 2280 PCIe NVME Gen4x4 | <!--Model-->MZ-VL25120 MZVL2512HCJQ, MZVL21T00 MZVL21T0HCLR-00BL2, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 might be OEM variant of the 980 Pro |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM9B1 SSD M.2 2280 PCIe NVME Gen4x4 | <!--Model--> *2023 MZ9L4256HCJQ-00BD1 MZ-9L4256A, , *2025 MZ-VL42560, MZ-VL45120, MZ-VL421T, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 SSD controller is Marvell 88SS1322 Whistler Plus, no DRAM cache and Samsung 128-layer TLC NAND flash |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 EVO Plus m.2 nvme2.0 | <!--Model-->MZ-V9S2T0BW, MZ-V9S1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Samsung Piccolo with no DRAM so HMB and Samsung 236-Layer (V8) TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V9P2T0BW, MZ-V9P1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 2tb early firmware issue - Samsung Pascal with DRAM LPDDR4 and 176-Layer V-NAND TLC - has had firmware design issues, causing premature failure - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 9100 PRO PCIe Gen5 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 510 G3 x4 nvme | <!--Model--> *ZP1000GM30001, *ZP500GM30021 P/N 2NT308-300, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 bad early batch - Phison E12 STXYP0160031 on SK Hynix DRAM DDR4 with Kioxia BiCS3 64L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda Q5 | <!--Model-->ZP500CV30001,ZP250CV30001,ZP1000CV30001 P/N 2ZK307-881,ZP2000CV30001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 PS5013-E13-31 from Phison, no DRAM cache and QLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 515 | <!--Model-->ZP500GV30001,ZP250GV30001,ZP1000GV30001,ZP2000GV30001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 no dram and qlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate FireCuda 520 SSD M.2 PCIe Gen4 ×4 NVMe 1.4 | <!--Model-->ZP2000GM30002, ZP1000GM30002, ZP500GM30002 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E16 and Toshiba 96-layer TLC (triple-level cell) BiCS4 NAND flash DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 520N m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ZP2000GV3A012, ZP1000GV3A012 and ZP500GV3A012 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 530 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ZP500GM3A013, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison PS5018-E18 on DRAM DDR4 with Micron 176L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate | <!--Model-->ZP1000CV3A002, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 540 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM LPDDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 530R | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power UD85 m.2 nvme PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 [http://vlo.name:3000/ssdtool/ firmware tools] |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power UD90 PCIe 4.0 nvme | <!--Model-->SP250GBP44UD9005, SP500GBP44UD9005, SP01KGBP44UD9005, SP02KGBP44UD9005, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with no DRAM so HMB and 176-Layer Micron TLC (B47R) but later no name QLC nand instead - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A60 A80 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 various originally an E12 drive with 64L Toshiba NAND, then had variations with E12S and SM2262EN as well as random 64L/96L, now it comes with a MAP1001A controller by Maxio and some YMTC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power US75 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC501 M.2 m.2 NVMe PCIe Gen3 SSD | <!--Model--> *Rev0 HFM256GDHTNG-8510B SSS0L24764, HFM256GDJTNG-8310A, *Rev1 HFM256GDHTNG-8310A SSS0Q68673, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 bad batch early - |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC511 512GB NVMe PCIe M2 2230 SSD | <!--Model-->HFM256GDJTNI-82A0A HFM512GDGTNI-82A0A D P/N 0TG8T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 no dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix BC711 PCIe Gen3 x4 | <!--Model-->HFM001TD3JX013N, HFM512GD3JX013N, HFM256GD3JX013N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 okay but no dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix PC711 m.2 2280 PCIe Gen3 x4 | <!--Model--> *HFS001TDE9X073N, HFS512GDE9X073N, HFS256GDE9X073N *HFS001TDE9X080N, HFS512GDE9X080N, HFS256GDE9X081N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix SC210 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix PC601 PCIe 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - Cepheus Plus YCN34PTA0FR Controller and 48L TLC Flash, pseudo-SLC cache and LPDDR4-3733 SK Hynix H9HCNNN8KUMLHR-NME dram - |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix PC401 3rd gen PCIe | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 bad batch early - |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix Gold P31 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 SK hynix’s proprietary Cepheus controller |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix SK500 Gen 4 (x4) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix Platinum P41 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Aries SSD controller with 176-Layer TLC flash - SK hynix LPDDR4 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix PC801 PCIe Gen4 x4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->HFS001TEJ9X101N, HFS512GEJ9X101N, HFS256GEJ9X101N, HFS002TEJ9X101N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC901 m.2 nvme PCIe Gen4 2230 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Silicon Motion SM2269XT with no DRAM so HMB buffer cache - SK Hynix 176-layer TLC NAND flash 1TB only - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Team | <!--Model-->TM8PS7512G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup MP34 | <!--Model-->MP34 256GB, MP34 512GB, MP34 1TB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 good Phison E12 with DRAM NANYA DDR3L and Toshiba BiCS 3 64L TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force Cardea A440 PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison PS5018-E18 NVMe 1.4 controller and Micron’s 96L TLC with SK hynix 8Gb DDR4 chips but not OPAL-compliant AES 256-bit |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group TForce Cardea A440 Lite PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 dram-less E27T controller and 162L TLC but not OPAL-compliant AES 256-bit |- | <!--Brand-->teamgroup Team Z44L m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s E19T controller |- | <!--Brand-->teamgroup Team MP44L m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E21T no DRAM so HMB with 176-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Team MP33Q | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 - dramless maxio MAP1202 with TLC (MP33) or QLC (MP33Q) - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group QX GE Pro m.2 nvme PCIe5 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 innogit IG5666 with QLC 3D 232L nand with DRAM - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force G70 Pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 InnoGrit IG5236 (Rainier) with DRAM and NAND YMTC TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force Cardea Z540 m.2 nvme PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Phison E26 controller and 232L TLC and DRAM - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE110S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 TS128GMTE110S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE220S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 TS2TMTE220S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND with DRAM Cache |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE300S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2230 TS256GMTE300S TS512GMTE300S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND, 1G and 2G get hot |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE400S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 mlc nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TWSC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TWSC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Union Memory (Shenzhen) AM6672 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->union memory AM6A0 Gen4 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Verbatim V15000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SN500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN720 M.2 2280 NVME PCIE for Data Centers | <!--Model-->SDAQNTW-512G-1001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 to 2021 |- | <!--Brand-->WDC SN520 2230 Gen3 x2 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 to 2020 |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital ix sn530 M.2 NVME PCIE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 industrial sandisk controller and firmware, as well as 96-layer 3D TLC NAND memory that can work in TLC or SLC mode - |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN730 Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 M.2 NVME | <!--Model-->SDBPNTY-1T00, SDBPNTY-512G-1012, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 to 2021 DRAM Cache DDR4-2666 CL18 Micron MT40A512M16LY-075:E (D9WFH) with Controller WD 20-82-00705-A2 Triton MP28 and NAND Flash Toshiba BiCS4 60082 512G (Rebranded by SanDisk) TLC 96-layer |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN750 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 64-layer 3D stacked NAND with 3 bits per cell TLC (Triple Level Cell) with 256MB of skhynix DRAM cache for every 250GB |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN850 m.2 nvme Gen4 PHY | <!--Model-->WDS100T1X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Sandisk G2 controller with Micron DDR4 cache - new nCache 4.0 slc cache total dynamic capacity spans one-third (300GB on 1TB) with a small static SLC cache (12GB on 1TB) from the Kioxia BiCS4 96L TLC 96-layer NAND flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN550 Blue M.2 NVME PCIE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - various controllers and NANDs |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SN810 NVMe SSD 2280 Gen4 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 slc cache - laptop oem only no retail version - |- | <!--Brand-->WD SN850X | <!--Model-->WDS100T2X0E, WDS200T2X0E, WDS400T2X0E, WDS800T2X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 issues with early ssd firmware and AMD Zen 3 X570 and X670E chipsets - Sandisk A101000291-82 controller with 112-layer TLC and DDR4 DRAM cache |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Blue SN570 single-sided M.2 2280 (80mm) PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless - WD/SanDisk SSD controller with BiCS 5 3D NAND TLC 112-layer NAND flash memory - |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Black SN770 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->WDS100T3X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless cache with TLC |- | <!--Brand-->WD Green SN350 m.2 NVMe SSD | <!--Model-->WDS100T3G0C, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 DRAM-less cache with SanDisk controller and QLC (quad-level cell) NAND |- | <!--Brand-->WD_BLACK SN750 SE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Phison E19T, dramless |- | <!--Brand-->WD SN740 M.2 (2230) PCIe 4.0 x4 2280 | <!--Model-->SDDQTQD-1T00, SDDPNQD-, SDDPNQD-256G-2006, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless with SSD controller WD Sandisk 20-82-10081-A1 Polaris MP16+ with Toshiba BiCS5 112-layer TLC NAND flash |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Blue SN580 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 dramless SanDisk controller with (HMB) and 112-Layer Kioxia TLC (BiCS5) |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SN5000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN8100 / Sandisk Optimus GX Pro 8100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Optimus GX 5100 7100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2026 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Optimus GX Pro 850X | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2026 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Zhitai (Yangtze Memory) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === Mini SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand-->Biwin PCIe 4×2 NVMe 1.3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 GPDwin5 and Oneplayer Superx hybrid - 3D TLC - LGA packaging - V1 slide tray mechanism - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- |} ==SATA== Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI), a programming interface for SATA host controllers. Platforms supporting AHCI may take advantage of performance features such as no master/slave designation for SATA devices — each device is treated as a master — and hardware-assisted native command queuing. AHCI may but not often also provides usability enhancements such as Hot-Plug (Desktop and Mobile Only). AHCI requires appropriate software support (e.g., an AHCI driver) AHCI, the underlying protocol for SATA, only supports one queue with 32 commands. The issue with AHCI is that it's going to take a pile of test hardware just to figure out all the different bugs in all the motherboard chipsets and add-on PCI cards that 'kinda' implement AHCI. Not to mention Silicon Image, which took a very different approach from Intel's AHCI in their SATA controllers. === SATA 7mm 2.5inch SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA 240GB Ultimate SU630 2.5" | <!--Model-->ASU630SS-240GQ-R | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su650 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU650SS240GTR | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su800 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU800 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SMI SM2258 controller with Micron 3D TLC NAND but low performance when data fills the SLC cache - slow write speed - |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su680 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU680SS240GTR | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Apacer AS340 Panther | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Apacer AS350 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M225 SSD 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2009 sata2 3gbp/s |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial C300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2010 sata3 6gbps - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2011 Marvell 88SS9174-BKK2 processor, 25nm MLC NAND flash and 128MB dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M500 120Gb to 960Gb | <!--Model-->CT250M500SSD1, CT500M500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M550 120G to 1T | <!--Model-->CT250M550SSD1, CT500M550SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) BX100 | <!--Model-->CT500BX100SSD1, CT1000BX100SSD1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 - no dram - Silicon Motion SM2246EN and ATA version ACS-2 - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache Micron controller and nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial MX200 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) BX300 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dramless cache - Micron ex Tidal controller and TLC nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) bx500 2.5inch | <!--Model-->CT240BX500SSD1, CT480BX500SSD1, CT960BX500SSD1, CT1000BX500SSD1, CT2000BX500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SM2258XT 4channel later SM2259XT paired with Micron’s latest 64-Layer 3D TLC flash but dramless SLC cache (part of the tlc flash) - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX500 | <!--Model-->CT250MX500SSD1, CT500MX500SSD1, CT1000MX500SSD1, CT2000MX500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - dram cache from 256M to 2G - discontinued end of 2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S101 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - no dram cache, Hynix memory 3dv7-176l 176 layer QLC (one chip), either raymx rm1135, SM2259XT controller or Realtek rts5735dlq |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang ranxiana S102 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S101Q 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Fikwot founded in 2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX815 Standard 2.5inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FS810 Ultra 2.5inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hypertec FirestormLite 2.5inch | <!--Model-->S240GHS3-M or SDSSD240GB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hypertech | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral V2 Plus 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD 520 Series 2.5 inch SATA 6Gb/s 2.5" SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SSDSC2CW240A3, SSDSC2CW480A3, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 LSI SandForce SF2281, Flash Memory Intel Synchronous 25nm MLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Intel Pro Series 1500 | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BF180A4L SSD0E38417, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel S3610 Series 2.5" 400GB 6GBPS SATA SSD | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BX400G4R | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 data center |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD Pro 5400s 512 GB | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KF512H6 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3510 Series MLC 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDS2BB400G6, SSDSC2BB480G6R, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3520 Series MLC 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BB800G7, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3710 Series 800GB 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BA800G4P, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 server |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD 545S Series 256GB 512GB | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KW256G8X1, SSDSC2KW512G8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.solidigm.com/support-page/warranty-rma/ka-00032.html Solidigm formerly Intel] SSD DC S4500 240GB 2.5inch - HP Enterprise | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KB240G7P | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingspec P3-512 P3-1T0 P3-2TO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston SSDNow 300 | <!--Model-->SV300S37A/240G, SV300S37A/120G, SV300S37A/60G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 dramless - lsi sandforce SF2281 or JMicron JMF662 controller with Toshiba MLC or Intel MLC |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A400 120G to 960Gb 2.5inch | <!--Model-->SA400S37/240G SBFK61K1, SA400S37/480G, SA400S37/960G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 half case sized ssd 4 x FH64B08UCT1-60 64G - t6 security torx into metal case - dram less - poor write speeds - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia formerly Toshiba HG6 2.5in | <!--Model--> *9.5mm THNSNJ512GBSU, THNSNJ256GBSU, THNSNJ128GBSU *7mm THNSNJ512GCSU THNSNJ512GCSY, THNSNJ256GCSU THNSNJ256GCSY, THNSNJ128GCSU THNSNJ128GCSY | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NS100 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model-->LNS100-1TRB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - Marvell 88NV1120 Artemis, a DRAM cache is not available and pseudo-SLC. Micron 64-layer TLC NAND flash 4 chips @ 512 Gbit TS7512G181 (Rebranded by Lexar) (256G) - 4 nand flash chips Lexar/TST22T181/ B1924 and one controller: Lexar DM918/NOD43 1907 (512G) - |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NQ100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - DM928 controller which operates without a DRAM buffer. Two 128GB Micron NAND flash chips |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LiteOn | <!--Model-->LCS-128L9S-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 no dram - sata2 - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Matrix 256Gb 512GB SATA 2.5in SSD | <!--Model-->MIS512GSDS, MIS256GSDS | <!--Work MSDos-->UP TO 550MB/S | <!--Work GPT-->UP TO 500MB/S | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 1100 | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK2T0TBN-1AR1ZA | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 1300 2TB 1300 2.5" | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK2T0TDL-1AW1ZABHA | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2010 - old sdd - TLC nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Micron RealSSD C400 2.5inch | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK256MAM-1K12 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Mushkin Reactor | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC flash |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac SA500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico Y-20 Y20 2.5 inch sata SHENZHEN ORICO TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Orico S500-Pro s500pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Origin Storage Inception TLC830 Pro Series 2.5in SATA III SSD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3D tlc flash nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P210 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> qlc flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P220 | <!--Model-->P220S2TB25 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> flash nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Plextor M6V | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS900 2.5 in sata SSD | <!--Model-->SSD7CS900-480-PB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2311, CS3030 and Pro Elite SSDs | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung SM PM | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->PM871a or PM871b? SM/PM = 2-bit or 3-bit MLC. PM = 3-bit MLC = TLC. 8 = generation = 8xx, 7 = model = 850 EVO (in this case), 1 = usage (e.g. 3 = datacenter). a/b = revision or type of flash, the 850 EVO had multiple revisions including at least three types of flash (32L, 48L, 64L) so a = 32/48L, b = 64L. At lower capacities it might use different flash, for example the 256GB SM951 utilizies 2D/planar while the higher capacities use 3D. OEM drives tend to have different, optimized firmware, so performance will not be the same |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-7TE120 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM851 2.5in sata | <!--Model-->MZ-7TE5120 P/N MZ7TE512HMHP, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-75E120, MZ-75E500 (P/N MZ7LN500) to MZ-75E4T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 Samsung MGX controller (S4LN062X01) up to 500GB capacities whilst Samsung MEX controller (3-core) beyond - Samsung TLC 3D V‐NAND 48 and later 64 layers and possibility of 256MB, 512MB or 1GB LPDDR2-1066 DRAM chip - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 PRO | <!--Model-->MZ-7KE1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871a 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model-->MZ-7LN512A P/N MZ7LN512HMJP, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) contoller with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM883 1.92TB | <!--Model-->MZ-7LH1T90 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) - 1gb LPDDR4-1866 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-76E1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) contoller with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 QVO | <!--Model-->MZ-76Q1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 870 QVO 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 870 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-7LN56F, MZ-77E1T0 P/N MZ7L31TOHBLB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 beware of bad batch early death - uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - Samsung MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871b | <!--Model-->MZ7LN256HCHP-000H1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - Samsung MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Ultra 3D/Extreme Pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 SandForce SF-2281 dram |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Ultra Plus | <!--Model-->SDSSDHP-256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 Marvell SS889175 processor with SanDisk's 19nm NAND and 128MB Samsung DDR2 DRAM chip |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Z300s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - Marvell 88SS9188 Marvell 88SS9187 with SanDisk 64Gbit 19nm MLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x300s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Plus | <!--Model-->SDSSDA-240G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 pseudo SLC cache dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Z400s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - Silicon Motion SM2246XT DRAM-less - budget end of market - |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - 4 NAND packages and marvell controller 88ss1074 on blue pcb - 512MB DDR3L-1600 Micron DRAM - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate BarraCuda Q1 SSD | <!--Model-->ZA240CV10001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A55 2.5in sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 dramless A55 started with the Phison S10 but later the S11 i.e. Phison PS3111-S11-13 controller and 96-layer TLC NAND flash memory with a pseudo-SLC cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power Ace A55 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand-->sk hynix | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 sandforce controller - |- | <!--Brand-->sk Hynix SH910A | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - Link_A_Media (LAMD) controller with eight 256Gbit H27QEGDVEBLR NAND 20nm hynix MLC - SK hynix H5PS1G83JFA DRAM - |- | <!--Brand-->sk Hynix SC300 | <!--Model-->HFS256G32MND-3210A, HFS256G32MND-3312A, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 - red strip around edges - 8-channel controller SK hynix LM87810AA-A0 with DDR2 buffer chip and four pieces of 16nm hynix MLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix Canvas SL300 series 2.5in SSD *3110A SL301STD *3210A *3300A *3310A | <!--Model-->HFS500G32TND, HFS256G32TNE, HFS128G32TNF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 TLC - consumer line red in corners - SK hynix LM878100AA (HFS256G32MND-3312A) later SH87820BB and NAND 16nm hynix TLC - 256mb dram |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix Canvas SC3 series 2.5in SSD *N1A0A , , *N1A1A *N1A2A SC308STD, *N2A0A , , SC311STD | <!--Model-->HFS512G32TNF-N2A0A, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - red in corners - no dram and no SLC cache - Hynix ex Link_A_Media Devices (LAMD) SH87820BB 2c but poor mixed workload ability MLC - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Team EX2 GX2 Elite QX | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->TEAMGROUP AX2 2.5 Inch SATA III Solid State Drive SSD | <!--Model-->T253A3512G0C101, T253A3001T0C101, T253A3002T0C101, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 3D NAND TLC |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup TF Vulcan Z 2.5in sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dramless smi2259xt 128L tlc nand - |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup T-Force Vulcan ZQLC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram-less smi2259xt qlc 144L nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Topesel | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend 220S 2.5in | <!--Model-->TS120GSSD220S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 3D TLC without dram |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend SSD230S 2.5in | <!--Model-->TS256GSSD230S TS512GSSD230S TS1TSSD230S TS2TSSD230S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 3D TLC NAND with DRAM Cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Viathan | <!--Model-->S001T3V | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Red SA500 NAS | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SA510 250Gb to 4Tb | <!--Model-->WDS400T3B0A WDS200T3B0A WDS100T3B0A WDS500G3B0A WDS250G3B0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SSD 2.5" | <!--Model-->WDS240G1G0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Green 200Gb to 2Tb | <!--Model-->WDS200T2G0A WDS100T3G0A WDS480G2G0A WDS240G2G0A WDS120G2G0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - cheap and slow ssd - |- | <!--Brand-->WD SA530 | <!--Model-->SDASB8Y-256G SD9SB8W, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.xray-disk.com xraydisk] 2.5 inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> from the manufacturer only - Phsion/SMI(2258XT)/Realtek/Yeestor |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Xum | <!--Model-->hx256gssdsata3 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Yottamaster | <!--Model-->Y3000 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> PCie 3.0 |- | <!--Brand-->Yottamaster | <!--Model-->Y7000 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> PCIe 4.0 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |} === SATA M.2 (M and B key) === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA M.2 2280 Sata | <!--Model-->AXNS381E-128GM-B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S201 m.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->S201 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN203 m.2 sata (oldtan, twipps, teexin aka Shenzhen Pingfan "Ordinary" Road Technology Co., Ltd) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 lifespan not long Maxio MAP + YMTC 128L |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Foresee (Shenzhen Longsys) | <!--Model-->YSM80CD-128G YSDE128G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - 88nv1120-bt22 T3WU030 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral 2242 120G | <!--Model-->INSSD120GM242 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Integral M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->INSSD256GM.26M2280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Integral 256GB/512GB/1TB/2TB | <!--Model-->INSSD1TM280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 netac rebrand - no dram cache - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel Pro ‎545S 2280 | <!--Model-->SSDSCKKF256G8H | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> no dram, TLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Intel | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intenso M.2 internalSSD SATA III 1 TB | <!--Model-->Top | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A400 m.2 | <!--Model-->SA400M8/240G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 entry level ssd 4 x FH64B08UCT1-60 64G - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston | <!--Model-->RBU-SNS8350DES3128GP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston V300 | <!--Model-->SV300S3505AG | <!--Work MSDos-->{{yes}} | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Nightly Build 2014-09-18 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LITEON SATA 128GB | <!--Model-->CV3-8D128-11 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LITEON | <!--Model-->CV1-8B256-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lite-On | <!--Model-->L8H-256V2G-HP L8H-128V2G-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 2016 nanya nt5c864m16fp-dh |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LSI | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 SF37000 controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model-->M550 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 Marvell 88SS9189 SATA controller |- | <!--Brand-->Micron M600 enterprise m.2 sata up to 512GB | <!--Model-->MTFDDAV256MBF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 Marvell 88SS9189 SATA controller, DRAM chip 256MB 533MHz LPDDR2, NAND for the 256GB drive MT29F1T08CQCCBG2-10:C 16nm MLC NAND each 128GB package |- | <!--Brand-->MICRON 1100 M.2 SATA 6Gb/s 2280 | <!--Model-->MTFDDAV256TBN HP P/N 903109-001, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico Y20M-2242 | <!--Model-->Y20M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM841 M.2 sata3 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-NTD2560/0L9 MZNTD256HAGL-000L9 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung CM871 Rev 0 | <!--Model-->MZNLF128HCHP-000H1 MZ-NLF1280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871a m.2 Sata | <!--Model-->MZNLN256HMHQ, NLN512A P/N MZNLN512HMJP-000H1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 TLC |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM871b | <!--Model-->MZNLN128HAHQ-000H1, MZNLN256HAJQ MZ-NLN256F MZ-NLN256C, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM881 | <!--Model-->MZ-NLH1280 MZNLH128HBHQ-000H1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SanDisk X300 M.2 sata 2280 80mm SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SD7SN6S-256G-1006 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk X400 SSD M.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->SD8SN8U-128G-1006, SD8SN8U-256G-1006, SD8SN8U-512-1006, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 SSD controller Marvell 88SS1074 four channel supports variety of NAND and up to 512MB DDR3L-1600 Micron DRAM cache - |- | <!--Brand-->SanDisk X600 M.2 SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SD9SN8W-128G-1006 SD9TN8W-256G-1006 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->SANDISK X110 DELL 6T4HK M.2 2260 | <!--Model-->SD6SP1M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix SC300 | <!--Model-->SC308M280S HFS128G39TND | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 SH87820BB controller - No dram buffer - multi-level cell (MLC) NAND |- | <!--Brand-->SK HYNIX | <!--Model-->SC311 HFS256G39TNF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK HYNIX | <!--Model-->SC401 HFS256G39TNH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A55 M.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->A55 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TEAMGROUP Team MS30 SSD M.2 Sata 2280 | <!--Model-->TM8PS7001T0C101 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba RC100 (retail version of BG3) | <!--Model-->KBG30ZMV256G, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba HG6 m.2 | <!--Model-->THNSNJ512GDNU THNSNJ512G8NY, THNSNJ256GDNU THNSNJ256G8NY, THNSNJ128GDNU THNSNJ128G8NY, THNSNJ256GVNU THNSNJ128GVNU, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA SSD M.2 2280 256GB | <!--Model-->KSG50ZMV256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG6 | <!--Model-->KSG60ZMG256G, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model-->400 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS32GMTS400S TS64GMTS400S TS128GMTS400S | <!--Model-->400S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> DDR3 dram cache and mlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model-->M.2 SSD 600 (2260), M.2 SSD 800S (2280) | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> mlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS120GMTS420S TS240GMTS420S TS480GMTS420S | <!--Model-->420S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> can run hot slc cache |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS256GMTS430S TS512GMTS430S | <!--Model-->430S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache - 3d tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2280 TS120GMTS820S TS240GMTS820S TS960GMTS820S | <!--Model-->820S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3D nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2280 TS256GMTS830S TS512GMTS830S TS1TMTS830S TS4TMTS830S | <!--Model-->830S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SATA SSD m.2 2280 120GB to 480Gb | <!--Model-->WDS480G2G0B WDS240G2G0B WDS120G2G0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 made in malaysia |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SATA SSD m.2 2280 240Gb to | <!--Model-->WDS240G3G0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 made in |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SA510 M.2 SATA 250Gb to 2Tb | <!--Model-->WDS200T3B0B WDS100T3B0B WDS500G3B0B WDS250G3B0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Red 500GB 1TB 2TB | <!--Model-->SA500 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->union memory AM610 m.2 sata | <!--Model-->SSS0R27339, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === mSATA SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fangxiang S301 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingchuxing | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model-->INSSD256GMSA MO-300 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc 3d nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron enterprise | <!--Model-->M600 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico ZH-10 ZH10 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 EVO 1.8inch msata | <!--Model-->MZ-M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 EVO 1.8in | <!--Model-->MZ-M5E120BW, MZ-M5E250BW, MZ-M5E500BW, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM851 1.8" msata | <!--Model-->MZ-MTE256D P/N MZ-MTMTE256HMHP, MZ-MTE1T00, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO 1.8inch msata | <!--Model-->MZ-MM6E250BW, MZ-M6E500BW, MZ-M6E1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend TS64GMSA370S | <!--Model-->MSA370S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend TS64GMSA230S | <!--Model-->230S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3d tlc nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA 2.5inch Laptop Hard Disks === ====7mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP628230-01 500Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP552605-01 250Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP693440-01 500Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Z5K320 Z5K500-500 Z5K100 series * 2013 HTS545050A7E380 HTS * 2015 HTS545050A7E680 HTS | <!--Model-->HTS 320GB 500Gb 1Tb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Z7K320 Z7K500 series | <!--Model-->HTS725050A7E630 320Gb HTS725050A7E635 500Gb 7200rpm | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> avoid if it does not have the DCM code |- | <!--Brand-->HGST 1T 5400rpm | <!--Model-->HTS541010B7E610 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 128m cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Momentus Thin | <!--Model-->ST500LT012 ST320LT012. ST250LT012 500Gb 320gb 250gb 2014 5.4K rpm | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Thin SSHD 5400RPM Sata 2.5" | <!--Model-->ST500LM000 500GB, ST500LM001, ST500LM020 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 up to 64M cache and with 8GB NAND Flash |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate MomentusThin-B Video 2.5 HDD * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 | <!--Model-->ST500VT000 500GB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->SEAGATE Baracuda 2.5 5400 | <!--Model-->ST2000LM015 (2Gb), ST1000LM049 (1Tb), ST500LM030 (500Gb) | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Barracuda Pro | <!--Model-->ST1000LM048 ST1000LM035 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> up to 128MB cache |- | <!--Brand-->SEAGATE FireCuda Compute 2.5 | <!--Model-->ST500LX025 ST1000LX015 ST2000LX001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 8GB NAND Commercial Multilevel Cell (cMLC), 128MB buffer and 5400-RPM spindle speed up to 140 MB/s |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 2.5in | <!--Model-->MQ04ABF100 1TB 5400 RPM 2018 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA MQ01ACF | <!--Model-->MQ01ACF050 500GB 7200rpm 2020 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->western digital wd blue 500G 8meg cache 5400rpm * 2014 Rev T0 * 2015 Rev T1 | <!--Model-->wd5000lpvx | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012-2015 sequential 2MB block transfers 110 MB/s reading and writing - |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital 2.5" WD Blue Slim | <!--Model-->WD10SPCX 1TB Nov 2016 | <!--Work MSDos-->{{Yes|hdd under partition table msdos/pc, boots on bios machines, will not on uefi machine}} | <!--Work GPT-->{{Unk|untested hdd under gpt partition protocol scheme, not booting on uefi}} | <!--Tested under-->AROS One 1.8 USB |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD5000LUCX 500Gb 5400rpm 16mb cache Rev Y0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 2017 Malaysia |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====9.5mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->MHW2040BH | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 40gig |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->MHY2080BH | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 80gig |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | MHW2120B | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST bought by WD mid-2012 5K1000-1000 | <!--Model-->HTS721010A9E630 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST bought by WD mid-2012 5K1000-1000 | <!--Model-->HTS541010A9E662 type TS5SAF100 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Travelstar 5K500.B-320 | <!--Model-->HTS545025B9SA02 HTS545032B9A300 HTS545040B9A300 HTS545050B9A300 250Gb 320Gb 400Gb 500Gb 5400rpm | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST 1TB 7200rpm | <!--Model-->HTS721010A9E630 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung bought by Seagate late 2011 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung Spinpoint with Seagate HD REV A (Jan 2014) | <!--Model-->ST1000LM024 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung Spinpoint with Seagate 9.5mm * 2013 Rev A HN-M500MBB/I * 2014 Rev B HN-M500MBB/SP4 * 2015 Rev B HN-M500MBB/P4C | <!--Model-->ST500LM012 (500M) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Momentus 5400.3 | <!--Model-->ST9160821AS | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 160gig |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SSHD 1t | <!--Model-->ST1000LM014, ST1000LM028, ST1000LM015 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 8g nand flash |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SSHD 1T | <!--Model-->ST1000LX001 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 32G nand flash |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MK2555GSX HDD2H24 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 250g 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MK5065GSX - 500GB 5400RPM SATA 3Gb/s 8MB Cache 2.5-Inch | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MKxx59GSXP, eg Toshiba MK6459GSXP 640GB 2011 | <!--Work-->{{yes}} | <!--Tested under-->Icaros 2.2 with uses Advanced Format (AF) in 4,096 bytes per sector. Compatibility with legacy, 512 bytes through AF emulation techniques, called 512e |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba (2013 to 2016) | <!--Model-->MQ01ABD100 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba (2015 to 2020) *2013 *2014 *2015 AA50/AX0D5A *2016 AA60/AX0E1A * *2017 AGM AA01/AX002V *2018 AGS AA70/AX0G1A *2020 AA71/AX0G1A | <!--Model-->MQ01ABD050 500meg | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MQ04ABF100 1TB 5400 RPM 2013 | <!--Work-->{{Yes}} | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA | <!--Model-->MQ04ABD200 2TB 5400 RPM 128MB Cache SATA 6.0Gb/s | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD7500BPVX 2013 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WESTERN DIGITAL 1TB 2.5" SATA DRIVE 5400 rpm, 8MB cache | <!--Model-->WD10JPVX-80JC3T0 (OCT 2014) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , uses Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand-->WDC Western Digital Blue 1TB SATA 2.5" Hard Drive 5400 rpm, 8MB cache | <!--Model-->WD10JPVX-08JC3T6 (Jun 2017) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD10JPCX 1Tb | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital * 2019 | <!--Model-->WD10JUCT 1TB (1000GB) 2019 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Western Digital Scorpio Black * 2010 * 2014 | <!--Model-->WD5000BEKT, WD5000BPKX-22HPJT0, WD5000BPKT, | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 16m cache, 7200rpm thailand then malaysia |- | <!--Brand-->WD Western Digital Black * 2016 | <!--Model-->WD2500LPLX, WD3200LPLX, WD5000LPLX SMR: WD5000LPSX, WD10SPSX | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 32m cache , 7200rpm SATA-III malaysia |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA 2.5in NON-Laptop Hard Disks === ====11mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu 160GB 250GB 300GB | <!--Model-->MHX2160BT, MHX2250BT, MHX2300BT | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model-->TP00640GB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====12.5mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====15mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate 1TB IBM System X 15mm 2.5" SATA | <!--Model-->ST91000640NS 81Y9731 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA Laptop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->HL-DT-ST DVDRAM | <!--Model-->GSA T50L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT10N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage BD-Rom DVD Rewriter | <!--Model-->CT10N AFCK101 LGE-DMCT10A(B) | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 5v 12.7mm fails early |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi LG | <!--Model-->GT20L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009/2010 5v 1.3A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Hitachi / LG | <!--Model-->GT30N GT32N GT30L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT40N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT50N GT51N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT90N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL | <!--Model-->GU70N (HP/Dell), | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 5v 1.8A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL | <!--Model-->GUD0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.8A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model-->GTA0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS Super Multi DVD Writer *Rev 101 *rev 102 2015 factory GH | <!--Model-->GUC0N (ALOK113) MSIP-REM-HLD-GUA0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 9.5mm - flaky and dies quickly - |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data | <!--Model-->GTC0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 12.7mm 5V 1.8a - |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS | <!--Model-->BU20N (S05JH) KCC-REM-HLD-BU10N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS Super Multi DVD Writer | <!--Model-->GUD1N (S05JH) (S05NT) KCC-REM-HLD-GU90N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2017-2018 9.5mm 5v 1.8a - slow access - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->Uj870a Uj880 UJ890 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8A0 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic MATSHITA 12.7mm SATA DVD | <!--Model-->UJ8B0 (Asus K53S), | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 12.7mm 5v 1.5a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8B1 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 5v 1.5a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8C0, UJ8C1, UJ8C2 9.5mm, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 2013 5v 1.6a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic Precision Devices Co Ltd | <!--Model-->UJ8D0, UJ8D1 KCC-REM-PPD-UJ8D1 HP 657534-TC2, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013 ok lifeline, |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8E2Q | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8FB | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.5a 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic Blu-Ray DVD Writer Slimline | <!--Model-->UJ260 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DC-8A2SH, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8A3S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8A4SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On | <!--Model-->DS-8A5LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On DVD-ROM | <!--Model-->DS-8DBSH1148 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 12.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On | <!--Model-->DU-8A6SH (HP) | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.5A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips and LiteOn | <!--Model-->DS-8A8SH118C KCC-REM-PLD-DS-8A8LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 1.5a 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DS-8A9SH DS8A9SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DS-8ABSH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD DVD/CD Rewritable Drive | <!--Model-->DU-8A5LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 9.5mm 5v 1.5a - |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8ACSH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD Philips | <!--Model-->da-8aesh11b, DA-8AESH-24B | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2019 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Pioneer | <!--Model-->DVR-TD09TBG | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7580s, AD-7581s SOK-AD-7580S(B), AD-7583s, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008-2010 5V 1.5A |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc SATA DVD | <!--Model-->AD-7561S, AD-7560S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7 MM |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc | <!--Model-->AD-7585H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7mm cleaning the laser lens inside the drive with a liquid lens cleaner. Also check the lens carrier slides freely from one extreme to the other inside the drive without sticking |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD7590s, AD-7591s, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7700s, AD-7710h, AD-7701H, AD-7703S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc | <!--Model-->AD-7760H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 1.5A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7711H AD-7740H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.5mm 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-S208B Ver BB Rev 00 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba TSSTCorp Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-S083C Ver C Rev 03 /BEBE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 5v 1.5a 12.7 mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology Corp | <!--Model-->TS-L633 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 5v 1.3A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-208FB/BEBE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 12.7mm 5v 1.3a - tracking issues, feels cheap and flaky in use - |- | <!--Brand-->TSST Toshiba Samsung Corp. | <!--Model-->SU-208FB/TFJF KCC-REM-TSS-SU208 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013-2014 9.5mm 5v 1.3a - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |} === [https://www.backblaze.com/cloud-storage/resources/hard-drive-test-data SATA Desktop 3.5inch Hard Disks] === Datasheets with the SMR (overlapped packing Shingled Magnetic Recording) and CMR (faster Conventional Magnetic Recording) parts <pre> WD: https://documents.westerndigital.com/content/dam/doc-library/en_us/assets/public/western-digital/product/internal-drives/wd-blue-hdd/product-brief-western-digital-wd-blue-pc-hdd.pdf Seagate: https://www.seagate.com/content/dam/seagate/migrated-assets/www-content/datasheets/pdfs/3-5-barracudaDS1900-14-2007US-en_US.pdf Toshiba: https://storage.toshiba.com/docs/support-docs/P300-SalesSheet_English_Web_r2.pdf </pre> {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Seagate Barracuda 7200.9 | ST3160812AS, ST3160212AS | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 - Capacity: 160 GB - Speed: 7200RPM - Cache: 8 MB - Interface: SATA2 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Barracuda LP Green 5400rpm | <!--Model-->ST1000DL002 1TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SkyHawk Surveillance HDD ST4000VX000 Series | <!--Model-->ST4000VX013 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Baracuda Compute | <!--Model-->ST500DM009 2F110A-500 / 02PKVY / 2PKVY (500m), | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> - SATA III (6Gb/s) - Format 3.5" - 32MB Cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate CMR | <!--Model-->ST1000DM010 ST500DM009 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate 2TB SMR | <!--Model-->ST2000DM008 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SMR | <!--Model-->ST8000DM004 ST6000DM003 ST4000DM004 ST3000DM007 ST2000DM005 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 5400rpm | <!--Model-->HDWD220 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 7200rpm | <!--Model-->HDWD320 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba P300 CMR | <!--Model-->HDWD130XZSTA HDWD130UZSVA, HDWD120XZSTA HDWD120UZSVA, HDWD110XZSTA HDWD110UZSVA | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital 2010 | <!--Model-->WD20EARS Green 2TB 5400rpm 64mb cache | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD20EFRX WD40EFRX 5400rpm | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital | <!--Model-->WD4002FFWD | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD80EAAZ WD80EAZZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD20EARZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD40EZAZ, WD60EZAZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SMR | <!--Model-->WD20EARZ, WD20EZAZ - 2TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SMR | <!--Model-->WD40EZAX - 4TB, WD60EZAX - 6TB, WD80EZAX - 8TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA Desktop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- |} ==PATA== === IDE Desktop Hard Disks === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | M1624TAU | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | IBM | DHEA-38451 | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SP40A2H | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Seagate | ST3160215ACE | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Seagate | ST32122A | {{maybe}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Western Digital | WD102AA | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Western Digital | WD200 | {{maybe}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === IDE Laptop Hard Disks === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | MHV2040AH | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Toshiba | MK2011GAP | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === IDE Desktop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Compaq | CR-594-BCQ | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | CRD-8322B(CP1) | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | CRD-8484B(AM2A) | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | LTN-485 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Creative | CD220E | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Hitachi-LG | GDA-4120B | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | LG | CRD-8400B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Lite-On | LTN486S | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Mitsumi | CRMC-FX4830T | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | CDR-1700B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | DV-5800A | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | ND-2100A | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | NR-7900A | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Philips | DVD8631 | {{no}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | Samsung | SC-148 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SCR-2030 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SM-348B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Sony | CDU601 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Sony | CDU611-25 | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Toshiba | SD-M1202 | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |} === IDE Laptop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->H-L Hitachi LG | <!--Model-->GCC-4244N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2006 |- | Hitachi-LG | GCCT10N | {{yes}} | {{Maybe|FryingPan WRITE seems to have no problem with data sections (track 1) - combos with audio sections (track 2) white screens aros eventually}} | AspireOS Xenon with 25th Jan 2014 self update kernel |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | Philips | SDR089 | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | TSSTcorp | TS-L462C TS-L462D | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | 2005 Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | TSSTcorp | TS-L632H | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | Sony | DW-Q58A | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | Sony Optiarc | AD-7540A | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->Optiarc DVD RW AD-7560A IDE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7590A | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |} == SCSI == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} NVMe accepts up to 64,000 queues with up to 64,000 commands each. equgvz5e58tw3meine54uxxmdsflszn 4635102 4635101 2026-05-10T11:05:26Z Jeff1138 301139 4635102 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Introduction== AROS supports hard disks and optical drives attached to several interfaces: * [[#NVMe M.2 SSD (M key)]] on the pci-e bus * [[#SATA]] aka Serial ATA or AHCI (IDE compatibility mode used in most cases) * IDE (also known as ATA, [[#PATA]] or Parallel ATA) * USB * SCSI limited ==PCI-e== ===NVMe M.2 SSD (M key)=== *Controller and firmware *DRAM better having if heavy workloads but not necessary for gaming *Cache like SLC HMB techniques *NAND (Main storage area with MLC, TLC or QLC versions of varying life expectancy) SSDs, USB flash drive, SD and Micro SD Cards have a limited amount of write cycles, therefore guaranteed to fail randomly and suddenly at any time. All SSDs are prone to corrupt firmware due to poor quality NAND where both the data and the firmware resides. The drive tends to go read only when too many errors occur before complete failure. That is up to 10 years for things like memory cards and USB sticks. In general, unless there is a firmware design issue, cheap materials used, stress like bending or overheating causing cold solder joints, an SSD can last a long time if minimal writing activity takes place but eventually if flash isn't written to, it degrades. Catch 22. Dram and cache are not the same thing. Dram stores the ssds indexes and metadata for faster data retrieval and wear leveling. The cache keeps part of the nand memory as SLC storage which can be written to faster. Basically all ssds will have a dynamic SLC cache where it will decrease as the drive fills up. Cache controller designs that are DRAM less use the internal SRAM cache in the controller to cache the NAND mapping table. It just requires a different mapping table design since SRAM caches are much smaller than DRAM. Ultimately the mapping table is still stored in NAND. General rule of thumb: the cheaper an SSD, the higher the likelihood it uses lower quality flash chips so sudden failing NAND, problematic controller chips (e.g. SandForce), outsourced firmware. Generic brand like old SP, Corsair or Crucial may be recoverable whilst major brands Samsung, Intel and Western Digital are impossible due to firmware encryption and customizations. Recommend sticking with older Silicon Motion or Phison controllers if possible. A ssd isn't good because it has dram or bad because it doesn't. Other things should be taken into account like sustained writes so check the TPU write intensive usage See [https://www.techpowerup.com/ssd-specs/ here] for more information {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="15%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="30%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->Unnamed | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 to - SM2259XT2 SM2263XT MAS0902 MAP1202 YS9082HP RM1135 RTS5765 PS3111 |- | <!--Brand-->Unnamed OEMs | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 to date - Realtek RTS5765/66 controller + Micron 96L (B27A) |- | <!--Brand-->Acer Predator GM7 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Acer drives built by Biwin, that also supplies HP, Maxio MAP1602A no DRAM so HMB, YMTC 128L TLC, |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA M.2 NVME IM2P33F8, IM2S3168 SSD | <!--Model-->IM2P33F8-512GD | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - industrial 12L 3D TLC NAND flash Supports LDPC ECC, RAID Engine, and SLC Cache End-to-End (E2E) Data Path Protection with Host Memory Buffer (HMB) i.e. DRAMless |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG SX8200 Pro M.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ASX8200PNP1TTC | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 NVM Express 1.3 SN2262G later SN2262EN chipset - |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA 256GB GEN4 x4 NVMe PCIe M2 2230 SSD | <!--Model-->SM2P41C3-256GC2 DP/N 0KM1Y6 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 consumer |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG GAMMIX S50 Lite | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Silicon Motion SM2267XT dramless |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA XPG ATOM 50 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Innogrit RainierQX IG5220 |- | <!--Brand-->Adata Legend 710 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Legend 900 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->BiWin PCIe Gen3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Innogrit IG5216 controller, no DRAM so HMB which appears to be the standard - |- | <!--Brand-->BiWin NV7200 PCIe 4.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 SM2263XT |- | <!--Brand-->Biwin NV7400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force LE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force Series MP500 MP510 M.2 NVMe PCIe Gen 3 x4 SSD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 PS5012-E12-27 from Phison, 64-layer TLC Toshiba BiCS flash, may have dram cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Phison E16 on DRAM DDR4 with Micron 96L QLC - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair Force MP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Elite | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E16 and Bics DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Pro XT, PRO LPX, PRO NH PCIe4 | <!--Model-->CSSD-F1000GBMP600ECS Elite, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 DRAMless SSD controller Phison PS5026-E26, BiCS6 162L QLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP600 Core XT | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison and Bics QLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Corsair MP700 Pro PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model-->CSSD-F1000GBMP700PNH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P1 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 QLC NAND but a controller with a DRAM cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P2 M.2 2280 Gen3 x4 NVM-express | <!--Model-->CT1000P2SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 dram-less Phison PS5013-E13-31 on 96-layer QLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P3 Plus M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->CT1000P3PSSD8 CT2000P3PSSD801 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with Host Memory Buffer HMB tech to use a small bit of system RAM as DRAM cache and Micron 176-layer QLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P3 M.2 nvme SSD | <!--Model-->CT2000P3SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with no DRAM so HMB and 176-Layer Micron QLC (N48R) - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P5 m.2 nvme PCIe 4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 runs hot - Crucial NVMe with DRAM LPDDR4 and Micron 96L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P5 Plus | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 some have DRAM cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T500 Gen4.0 nvme 2.0 | <!--Model-->CT1000T500SSD8, CT2000T500SSD8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison PS5025-E25 with micron B58R 232-layer 3D TLC NAND and Micron LPDDR4 DRAM cache - beware win update kb5063878 kb5062660 preview - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T700 Gen5 SSD | <!--Model-->CT1000T700SSD3, CT2000T700SSD3 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 SSD controller Phison PS5026-E26, Micron 232-layer NAND with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial P310 M.2 2280 NVMe PCIe Gen4 SSD | <!--Model-->CT2000P310SSD801 (2Tb), | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 DRAM-less Phison E27T Micron 232-layer NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T705 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 dramless Phison SSD controller |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial T710 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 SMI SM2508 SSD controller dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN605 PCIe Gen3 x4 interface, NVMe 1.3 support | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN660 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN760 PCIe Gen4 x4 M.2 NVMe 1.4 interface | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 gets hot |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN870 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 no dram Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca EN855 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Ediloca | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S500 pro PCIe Gen3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 MaxioTech MAP1202A-F1C with YMTC 128L and pseudo-SLC cache |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S660 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S880/R | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S770 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Fikwot founded in 2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX550 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN501 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->FIKWOT FN950 FN955 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 MAP1602 (at 1600 MT/s) flash YMTC TLC no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX991 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->FW-FX991-2TB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN960 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN970 m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Maxio MAP1602 + YMTC 232L |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Geil ZEN ITH m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->S3-240GB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Gigabyte Aorus Gen4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Phison E16 and Toshiba 96-layer TLC (triple-level cell) BiCS4 NAND flash - DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Gigabyte Aorus 10000 PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM LPDDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->HP EX950 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HP FX900 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dram less |- | <!--Brand-->HP | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Integral M2 Series NVME M.2 2280 PCIe Gen 3x4 | <!--Model-->INSSD500GM280NM2 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Inland Professional TLC E12S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E18 |- | <!--Brand-->Inland Gaming performance Plus m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E16 controller and TLC flash |- | <!--Brand-->Inland TD510 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM DDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->intel SSD Pro 7600p Series M.2 80mm 2280 PCIe 3.0 x4, 3D TLC | <!--Model-->SSDPEKKF512GB, SSDPEKKF256G8L, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel 660p m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ssdpeknw010tb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 SMI SM2263 controller with 1GB DRAM cache and 1TB of Intel QLC NAND similar to crucial P1 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.solidigm.com/support-page/warranty-rma/ka-00032.html Solidigm formerly Intel] 670p | <!--Model-->SSDPEKNU010TZ | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 256 MB DDR3L cache and 12-140 GB SLC-Cache QLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Intel P4511 m.2 nvme PCIe3.1 x4 22110 110mm | <!--Model-->SSDPELKX020T8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 very long |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A1000 NVME PCIE M2 2280 SSD | <!--Model-->SA1000M8/480G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A2000 NVME PCIE M2 2280 SSD | <!--Model-->SA2000M8/250G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston KC3000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s [https://www.kingston.com/en/support/technical/ksm-firmware-update Firmware Rev. EIFK31.7 (07-08-2024) update for] PS5018-E18 PCIe 4.0 x4 NVMe controller and Micron’s 176L TLC NAND flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV1 m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model-->SNV1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 entry-level consumer DRAMless Phison E13T or Silicon Motion 4-channel SM2263XT - one brand TLC up to 1Tb and QLC after - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV2 | <!--Model-->SNV2 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 entry-level, first SMI SM2267XT or Phison E19T and later SMI SM2269XT or Phison E21T with various flash memory |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston FURY Renegade m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 [https://www.kingston.com/en/support/technical/ksm-firmware-update Firmware Rev. EIFK31.7 (07-08-2024) update for] Phison E18 controller, Micron 176L nand and ddr4 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston NV3 | <!--Model-->SNV3S/500G, SNV3S/1000G, SNV3S/2000G, SNV3S/4000G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 entry-level, SMI SM2268XT2 or Phison E27T controller with BiCS6 TLC or QLC flash - dramless so hmb - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) XG4? M2 2280 NVMe PCIe SSD | <!--Model-->THNSF5512GPUK, THNSN51T02DUK, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 Phison has done custom controller work for Kioxia, and Kioxia has also worked with SMI and InnoGrit (the latter more recently). Kioxia label their controllers as their own but these are largely rebadged. |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) XG5 for Data Centres | <!--Model-->KXG5 KXG50ZNV1T02 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 nanya ddr3 dram? with 64-layer BiCS 3D flash memory |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG6 OEM m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->KXG60ZNV512G, KXG60ZNV1T02, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 TC58NCP090GSD with DRAM NANYA LPDDR3 and Toshiba BiCS FLASH 96-layer 3D TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> *KBG40ZNS128G, KBG40ZNS256G, KBG40ZNS512G, KBG40ZNS1T02 *KBG40ZNT256G, *KBG40ZNV1T02 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - no dram but NVMe's Host Memory Buffer (HMB) i.e. portion of the system's RAM for caching - Toshiba's 96-Layer BiCS FLASH - seems Windows UASP driver and the JMS583 chipset interacts badly with the Kioxia BG4 - early firmware upgrade to prevent overheating hot - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG7 | <!--Model-->KXG70ZNV1T0G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 - might need firmware update on early 2tb 4tb versions - controller with sk hynix dram and tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->KIOXIA EXCERIA PLUS G2 SSD series PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison PS5012-E12S-32 aka TC58NC1201GST 4-channel controller along with KIOXIA proprietary 96-layer 3D TLC and "MG2h" version has BiCS4.5 which is faster than launch BiCS4 - - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia XG8 OEM m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 TC58NC0L1XGSD with DRAM LPDDR4 and 112-Layer Kioxia BiCS5 TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG5 | <!--Model-->KGB50ZNV256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 HMB buffer |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG6 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->KIOXIA EXCERIA PLUS G3 SSD series PCIe 4.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 has hmb, like most dram-less nvmes KIOXIA |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar 1TB SSD M.2 NVME 1.4 Gen3x4 M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->NM610Pro | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NM620 *IG5216 (worse?) not great original 96L *MAP1202 YMTC up to 232L, or 176L Micron, TLC for the 1TB | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 a few versions all DRAM-less, |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NM790 SSD M.2 PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Maxio MAP1602 no DRAM so HMB with 232-Layer YMTC TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->EQ790 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Maxio MAP1602, no DRAM so HMB, Flash Memory 232-Layer YMTC TLC, |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Liteon M.2 NVME 512GB SSD 2280 | <!--Model-->CAZ-51282512-Q11 DP/N 0K64PG | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SMI controller |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2200S m.2 nvme 2200 series | <!--Model-->MTFDHBA256TCK, MTFDHBA512TCK | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 for a time, Micron controller with 64L TLC 3D Nand [https://www.dell.com/support/home/en-uk/drivers/driversdetails?driverid=3jg3g BSOD occurred as CRITICAL_PROCESS_DIED] before self applied firmware [https://support.lenovo.com/us/en/downloads/ds119265-nvme-solid-state-drive-firmware-update-utility-for-windows-10-64-bit-thinkpad apparently it is related to the power management that disconnects the Micron SSD] |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2300 m.2 nvme Gen 3 x4 | <!--Model-->MTFDHBA256TDV P/N M02626-001, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 3400 M.2 NVME SSD Gen4 | <!--Model-->MTFDKBA512TFH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - no cache |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2450 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 E19T |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 2600 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Phison's PS5029-E29T SSD controller with Micron 276-layer G9 QLC NAND in a DRAMless - Adaptive Write Technology (AWT) using various NAND modes (SLC, TLC, and QLC) as a dynamic cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->MSI Spatium S270 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->MSI Spatium M450 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s E19T controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV2000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV5000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac NV7000 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico J10 J-10 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico D10 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico e3500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico O7000 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P300 m.2 nvme pcie 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot Viper VP4300 Lite M.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2230 Gen3 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2140 CS2342 Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Raydisk 1T 2280 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 no dram, Memory QLC Intel 144 layer. Chip Realtek |- | <!--Brand-->Raydisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket Nano 2242 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 4.0 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->SB-2130-512, SB-2280-1TB, SB-Rocket-NVME4-HTSK-2TB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E16 controller and TLC flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 4.0 PLUS m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->SB-RKT4P-1TB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E1? controller and TLC flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Sabrent Rocket 5 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Phison E25 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM951 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZVLV1T | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 950 PRO PM961 M.2 2280 NVMe 1.3 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> *MZ-VKW5120 *MZ-VLW2560 MZVLW256HEHP-000L7, MZ-VLW5120, MZ-SLW1T00 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - possibly 512M LPDDR3 Samsung K4E4E324EE-ECCF cache - Polaris (S4LP077X01-8030) unit with Samsung 48-layer TLC V-NAND V3 flash Samsung K90MGY8S7M-CCK0 - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 960 Pro SM961 M.2 PCi-e NVMe SSD 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-V6P1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 Polaris (S4LP077X01-8030) controller Samsung 48-layer multi-level cell (MLC) V-NAND, pseudo-SLC cache or LPDDR3-1866 Samsung K4E8E304EE-EGCF |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM981 2280 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> *Rev 0 MZ-VLB256A, MZ-VLB512A, MZ-VLB1T0A, *Rev 0 MZ-VLB2560, MZ-VLB5120 P/N MZVLB512HAJQ, MZ-VLB1T00, *Rev ? MZ-VLB256B, MZ-VLB512B, MZ-VLB1T0B, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - tlc flash with SSD controller Samsung Phoenix (S4LR020) - pseudo-SLC cache hybrid SLC Samsung’s TurboWrite - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM981a 2280 PCI-Express 3.0 x4 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLB5120 P/N MZVLB512HBJQ-000L7, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 - tlc flash with SSD controller Samsung Phoenix (S4LR020) - pseudo-SLC cache |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM991 NVMe M.2 SSD 2242 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLQ2560 MZVLQ256HBJD-000H1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM991a NVMe M.2 SSD 2242 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-VLQ256B MZVLQ256HBJD-00BH1, MZ-9LQ256C, MZ-VLQ512B MZVLQ512HBLU, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 970 EVO Plus m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 Samsung Phoenix on Samsung LPDDR4 dram and 2 Samsung 9x-layer V-NAND TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 980 EVO Plus | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 980 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V8P1T0BW, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 originally made in Korea ([https://semiconductor.samsung.com/consumer-storage/support/tools/ 2tb firmware issues] with versions starting with 3) and year later Vietnam - DRAM |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 EVO m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V9E2T0BW, MZ-V9E1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Samsung Piccolo no DRAM so HMB Samsung 133-Layer TLC (V6P) and Samsung 133-Layer TLC (V6P) - |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM9A1 SSD M.2 2280 PCIe NVME Gen4x4 | <!--Model-->MZ-VL25120 MZVL2512HCJQ, MZVL21T00 MZVL21T0HCLR-00BL2, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 might be OEM variant of the 980 Pro |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM9B1 SSD M.2 2280 PCIe NVME Gen4x4 | <!--Model--> *2023 MZ9L4256HCJQ-00BD1 MZ-9L4256A, , *2025 MZ-VL42560, MZ-VL45120, MZ-VL421T, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 SSD controller is Marvell 88SS1322 Whistler Plus, no DRAM cache and Samsung 128-layer TLC NAND flash |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 EVO Plus m.2 nvme2.0 | <!--Model-->MZ-V9S2T0BW, MZ-V9S1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Samsung Piccolo with no DRAM so HMB and Samsung 236-Layer (V8) TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 990 Pro m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->MZ-V9P2T0BW, MZ-V9P1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 2tb early firmware issue - Samsung Pascal with DRAM LPDDR4 and 176-Layer V-NAND TLC - has had firmware design issues, causing premature failure - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 9100 PRO PCIe Gen5 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 510 G3 x4 nvme | <!--Model--> *ZP1000GM30001, *ZP500GM30021 P/N 2NT308-300, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 bad early batch - Phison E12 STXYP0160031 on SK Hynix DRAM DDR4 with Kioxia BiCS3 64L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda Q5 | <!--Model-->ZP500CV30001,ZP250CV30001,ZP1000CV30001 P/N 2ZK307-881,ZP2000CV30001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 PS5013-E13-31 from Phison, no DRAM cache and QLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 515 | <!--Model-->ZP500GV30001,ZP250GV30001,ZP1000GV30001,ZP2000GV30001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 no dram and qlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate FireCuda 520 SSD M.2 PCIe Gen4 ×4 NVMe 1.4 | <!--Model-->ZP2000GM30002, ZP1000GM30002, ZP500GM30002 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E16 and Toshiba 96-layer TLC (triple-level cell) BiCS4 NAND flash DDR4 DRAM buffer and TLC-based with SLC-mode cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 520N m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ZP2000GV3A012, ZP1000GV3A012 and ZP500GV3A012 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 530 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->ZP500GM3A013, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison PS5018-E18 on DRAM DDR4 with Micron 176L TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate | <!--Model-->ZP1000CV3A002, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 540 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 Phison E26 on DRAM LPDDR4 with 232-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Firecuda 530R | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power UD85 m.2 nvme PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 [http://vlo.name:3000/ssdtool/ firmware tools] |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power UD90 PCIe 4.0 nvme | <!--Model-->SP250GBP44UD9005, SP500GBP44UD9005, SP01KGBP44UD9005, SP02KGBP44UD9005, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Phison E21T with no DRAM so HMB and 176-Layer Micron TLC (B47R) but later no name QLC nand instead - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A60 A80 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 various originally an E12 drive with 64L Toshiba NAND, then had variations with E12S and SM2262EN as well as random 64L/96L, now it comes with a MAP1001A controller by Maxio and some YMTC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power US75 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 multiple variants with different NAND flash and/or controller like MAP1602A (F1C F2C uses NVMe 1.4, F3C U uses NVMe 2.0) and 232-layer TLC NAND flash, no dram |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC501 M.2 m.2 NVMe PCIe Gen3 SSD | <!--Model--> *Rev0 HFM256GDHTNG-8510B SSS0L24764, HFM256GDJTNG-8310A, *Rev1 HFM256GDHTNG-8310A SSS0Q68673, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 bad batch early - |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC511 512GB NVMe PCIe M2 2230 SSD | <!--Model-->HFM256GDJTNI-82A0A HFM512GDGTNI-82A0A D P/N 0TG8T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 no dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix BC711 PCIe Gen3 x4 | <!--Model-->HFM001TD3JX013N, HFM512GD3JX013N, HFM256GD3JX013N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 okay but no dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix PC711 m.2 2280 PCIe Gen3 x4 | <!--Model--> *HFS001TDE9X073N, HFS512GDE9X073N, HFS256GDE9X073N *HFS001TDE9X080N, HFS512GDE9X080N, HFS256GDE9X081N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix SC210 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix PC601 PCIe 3.0 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 - Cepheus Plus YCN34PTA0FR Controller and 48L TLC Flash, pseudo-SLC cache and LPDDR4-3733 SK Hynix H9HCNNN8KUMLHR-NME dram - |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix PC401 3rd gen PCIe | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 bad batch early - |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix Gold P31 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 SK hynix’s proprietary Cepheus controller |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix SK500 Gen 4 (x4) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 |- | <!--Brand-->SK hynix Platinum P41 m.2 nvme | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 Aries SSD controller with 176-Layer TLC flash - SK hynix LPDDR4 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix PC801 PCIe Gen4 x4 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->HFS001TEJ9X101N, HFS512GEJ9X101N, HFS256GEJ9X101N, HFS002TEJ9X101N | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix BC901 m.2 nvme PCIe Gen4 2230 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 Silicon Motion SM2269XT with no DRAM so HMB buffer cache - SK Hynix 176-layer TLC NAND flash 1TB only - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Team | <!--Model-->TM8PS7512G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup MP34 | <!--Model-->MP34 256GB, MP34 512GB, MP34 1TB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 good Phison E12 with DRAM NANYA DDR3L and Toshiba BiCS 3 64L TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force Cardea A440 PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison PS5018-E18 NVMe 1.4 controller and Micron’s 96L TLC with SK hynix 8Gb DDR4 chips but not OPAL-compliant AES 256-bit |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group TForce Cardea A440 Lite PCIe Gen4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 dram-less E27T controller and 162L TLC but not OPAL-compliant AES 256-bit |- | <!--Brand-->teamgroup Team Z44L m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison’s E19T controller |- | <!--Brand-->teamgroup Team MP44L m.2 nvme pcie | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Phison E21T no DRAM so HMB with 176-Layer Micron TLC |- | <!--Brand-->Team MP33Q | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 - dramless maxio MAP1202 with TLC (MP33) or QLC (MP33Q) - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group QX GE Pro m.2 nvme PCIe5 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 innogit IG5666 with QLC 3D 232L nand with DRAM - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force G70 Pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 InnoGrit IG5236 (Rainier) with DRAM and NAND YMTC TLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Team Group T-Force Cardea Z540 m.2 nvme PCIe 5.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 Phison E26 controller and 232L TLC and DRAM - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE110S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 TS128GMTE110S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE220S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 TS2TMTE220S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND with DRAM Cache |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE300S PCIe Gen3 x4 M.2 2230 TS256GMTE300S TS512GMTE300S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 3D TLC NAND, 1G and 2G get hot |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend MTE400S | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 mlc nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TWSC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TWSC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Union Memory (Shenzhen) AM6672 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->union memory AM6A0 Gen4 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Verbatim V15000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SN500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN720 M.2 2280 NVME PCIE for Data Centers | <!--Model-->SDAQNTW-512G-1001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 to 2021 |- | <!--Brand-->WDC SN520 2230 Gen3 x2 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 to 2020 |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital ix sn530 M.2 NVME PCIE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 industrial sandisk controller and firmware, as well as 96-layer 3D TLC NAND memory that can work in TLC or SLC mode - |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN730 Gen3 x4 M.2 2280 M.2 NVME | <!--Model-->SDBPNTY-1T00, SDBPNTY-512G-1012, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 to 2021 DRAM Cache DDR4-2666 CL18 Micron MT40A512M16LY-075:E (D9WFH) with Controller WD 20-82-00705-A2 Triton MP28 and NAND Flash Toshiba BiCS4 60082 512G (Rebranded by SanDisk) TLC 96-layer |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN750 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 64-layer 3D stacked NAND with 3 bits per cell TLC (Triple Level Cell) with 256MB of skhynix DRAM cache for every 250GB |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN850 m.2 nvme Gen4 PHY | <!--Model-->WDS100T1X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 Sandisk G2 controller with Micron DDR4 cache - new nCache 4.0 slc cache total dynamic capacity spans one-third (300GB on 1TB) with a small static SLC cache (12GB on 1TB) from the Kioxia BiCS4 96L TLC 96-layer NAND flash - |- | <!--Brand-->Western digital SN550 Blue M.2 NVME PCIE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - various controllers and NANDs |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SN810 NVMe SSD 2280 Gen4 x4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 slc cache - laptop oem only no retail version - |- | <!--Brand-->WD SN850X | <!--Model-->WDS100T2X0E, WDS200T2X0E, WDS400T2X0E, WDS800T2X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 issues with early ssd firmware and AMD Zen 3 X570 and X670E chipsets - Sandisk A101000291-82 controller with 112-layer TLC and DDR4 DRAM cache |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Blue SN570 single-sided M.2 2280 (80mm) PCIe 3.0 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless - WD/SanDisk SSD controller with BiCS 5 3D NAND TLC 112-layer NAND flash memory - |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Black SN770 m.2 nvme | <!--Model-->WDS100T3X0E, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless cache with TLC |- | <!--Brand-->WD Green SN350 m.2 NVMe SSD | <!--Model-->WDS100T3G0C, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 DRAM-less cache with SanDisk controller and QLC (quad-level cell) NAND |- | <!--Brand-->WD_BLACK SN750 SE | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 controller Phison E19T, dramless |- | <!--Brand-->WD SN740 M.2 (2230) PCIe 4.0 x4 2280 | <!--Model-->SDDQTQD-1T00, SDDPNQD-, SDDPNQD-256G-2006, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 dramless with SSD controller WD Sandisk 20-82-10081-A1 Polaris MP16+ with Toshiba BiCS5 112-layer TLC NAND flash |- | <!--Brand-->WD_Blue SN580 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 dramless SanDisk controller with (HMB) and 112-Layer Kioxia TLC (BiCS5) |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SN5000 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Black SN8100 / Sandisk Optimus GX Pro 8100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Optimus GX 5100 7100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2026 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Optimus GX Pro 850X | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2026 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Zhitai (Yangtze Memory) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === Mini SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand-->Biwin PCIe 4×2 NVMe 1.3 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 GPDwin5 and Oneplayer Superx hybrid - 3D TLC - LGA packaging - V1 slide tray mechanism - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2025 |- |} ==SATA== Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI), a programming interface for SATA host controllers. Platforms supporting AHCI may take advantage of performance features such as no master/slave designation for SATA devices — each device is treated as a master — and hardware-assisted native command queuing. AHCI may but not often also provides usability enhancements such as Hot-Plug (Desktop and Mobile Only). AHCI requires appropriate software support (e.g., an AHCI driver) AHCI, the underlying protocol for SATA, only supports one queue with 32 commands. The issue with AHCI is that it's going to take a pile of test hardware just to figure out all the different bugs in all the motherboard chipsets and add-on PCI cards that 'kinda' implement AHCI. Not to mention Silicon Image, which took a very different approach from Intel's AHCI in their SATA controllers. === SATA 7mm 2.5inch SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA 240GB Ultimate SU630 2.5" | <!--Model-->ASU630SS-240GQ-R | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su650 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU650SS240GTR | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su800 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU800 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SMI SM2258 controller with Micron 3D TLC NAND but low performance when data fills the SLC cache - slow write speed - |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA Ultimate Su680 2.5in | <!--Model-->ASU680SS240GTR | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Apacer AS340 Panther | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Apacer AS350 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M225 SSD 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2009 sata2 3gbp/s |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial C300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2010 sata3 6gbps - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M4 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2011 Marvell 88SS9174-BKK2 processor, 25nm MLC NAND flash and 128MB dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M500 120Gb to 960Gb | <!--Model-->CT250M500SSD1, CT500M500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial M550 120G to 1T | <!--Model-->CT250M550SSD1, CT500M550SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) BX100 | <!--Model-->CT500BX100SSD1, CT1000BX100SSD1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 - no dram - Silicon Motion SM2246EN and ATA version ACS-2 - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache Micron controller and nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial MX200 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) BX300 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dramless cache - Micron ex Tidal controller and TLC nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) bx500 2.5inch | <!--Model-->CT240BX500SSD1, CT480BX500SSD1, CT960BX500SSD1, CT1000BX500SSD1, CT2000BX500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 SM2258XT 4channel later SM2259XT paired with Micron’s latest 64-Layer 3D TLC flash but dramless SLC cache (part of the tlc flash) - |- | <!--Brand-->Crucial (Micron) MX500 | <!--Model-->CT250MX500SSD1, CT500MX500SSD1, CT1000MX500SSD1, CT2000MX500SSD1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - dram cache from 256M to 2G - discontinued end of 2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S101 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 - no dram cache, Hynix memory 3dv7-176l 176 layer QLC (one chip), either raymx rm1135, SM2259XT controller or Realtek rts5735dlq |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang ranxiana S102 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S101Q 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Fikwot founded in 2018 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FX815 Standard 2.5inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FS810 Ultra 2.5inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hypertec FirestormLite 2.5inch | <!--Model-->S240GHS3-M or SDSSD240GB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hypertech | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral V2 Plus 2.5inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD 520 Series 2.5 inch SATA 6Gb/s 2.5" SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SSDSC2CW240A3, SSDSC2CW480A3, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 LSI SandForce SF2281, Flash Memory Intel Synchronous 25nm MLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Intel Pro Series 1500 | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BF180A4L SSD0E38417, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel S3610 Series 2.5" 400GB 6GBPS SATA SSD | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BX400G4R | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 data center |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD Pro 5400s 512 GB | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KF512H6 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3510 Series MLC 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDS2BB400G6, SSDSC2BB480G6R, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3520 Series MLC 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BB800G7, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD DC S3710 Series 800GB 2.5" | <!--Model-->SSDSC2BA800G4P, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 server |- | <!--Brand-->Intel SSD 545S Series 256GB 512GB | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KW256G8X1, SSDSC2KW512G8 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.solidigm.com/support-page/warranty-rma/ka-00032.html Solidigm formerly Intel] SSD DC S4500 240GB 2.5inch - HP Enterprise | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KB240G7P | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingspec P3-512 P3-1T0 P3-2TO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston SSDNow 300 | <!--Model-->SV300S37A/240G, SV300S37A/120G, SV300S37A/60G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 dramless - lsi sandforce SF2281 or JMicron JMF662 controller with Toshiba MLC or Intel MLC |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A400 120G to 960Gb 2.5inch | <!--Model-->SA400S37/240G SBFK61K1, SA400S37/480G, SA400S37/960G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 half case sized ssd 4 x FH64B08UCT1-60 64G - t6 security torx into metal case - dram less - poor write speeds - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia formerly Toshiba HG6 2.5in | <!--Model--> *9.5mm THNSNJ512GBSU, THNSNJ256GBSU, THNSNJ128GBSU *7mm THNSNJ512GCSU THNSNJ512GCSY, THNSNJ256GCSU THNSNJ256GCSY, THNSNJ128GCSU THNSNJ128GCSY | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - no dram |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NS100 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model-->LNS100-1TRB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - Marvell 88NV1120 Artemis, a DRAM cache is not available and pseudo-SLC. Micron 64-layer TLC NAND flash 4 chips @ 512 Gbit TS7512G181 (Rebranded by Lexar) (256G) - 4 nand flash chips Lexar/TST22T181/ B1924 and one controller: Lexar DM918/NOD43 1907 (512G) - |- | <!--Brand-->Lexar NQ100 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - DM928 controller which operates without a DRAM buffer. Two 128GB Micron NAND flash chips |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LiteOn | <!--Model-->LCS-128L9S-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 no dram - sata2 - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Matrix 256Gb 512GB SATA 2.5in SSD | <!--Model-->MIS512GSDS, MIS256GSDS | <!--Work MSDos-->UP TO 550MB/S | <!--Work GPT-->UP TO 500MB/S | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 1100 | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK2T0TBN-1AR1ZA | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron 1300 2TB 1300 2.5" | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK2T0TDL-1AW1ZABHA | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2010 - old sdd - TLC nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Micron RealSSD C400 2.5inch | <!--Model-->MTFDDAK256MAM-1K12 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Mushkin Reactor | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC flash |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Netac SA500 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico Y-20 Y20 2.5 inch sata SHENZHEN ORICO TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Orico S500-Pro s500pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Origin Storage Inception TLC830 Pro Series 2.5in SATA III SSD | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3D tlc flash nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P210 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> qlc flash nand - |- | <!--Brand-->Patriot P220 | <!--Model-->P220S2TB25 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> flash nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Plextor M6V | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS900 2.5 in sata SSD | <!--Model-->SSD7CS900-480-PB | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY CS2311, CS3030 and Pro Elite SSDs | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung SM PM | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->PM871a or PM871b? SM/PM = 2-bit or 3-bit MLC. PM = 3-bit MLC = TLC. 8 = generation = 8xx, 7 = model = 850 EVO (in this case), 1 = usage (e.g. 3 = datacenter). a/b = revision or type of flash, the 850 EVO had multiple revisions including at least three types of flash (32L, 48L, 64L) so a = 32/48L, b = 64L. At lower capacities it might use different flash, for example the 256GB SM951 utilizies 2D/planar while the higher capacities use 3D. OEM drives tend to have different, optimized firmware, so performance will not be the same |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-7TE120 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM851 2.5in sata | <!--Model-->MZ-7TE5120 P/N MZ7TE512HMHP, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-75E120, MZ-75E500 (P/N MZ7LN500) to MZ-75E4T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 Samsung MGX controller (S4LN062X01) up to 500GB capacities whilst Samsung MEX controller (3-core) beyond - Samsung TLC 3D V‐NAND 48 and later 64 layers and possibility of 256MB, 512MB or 1GB LPDDR2-1066 DRAM chip - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 PRO | <!--Model-->MZ-7KE1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871a 2.5 inch sata | <!--Model-->MZ-7LN512A P/N MZ7LN512HMJP, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) contoller with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM883 1.92TB | <!--Model-->MZ-7LH1T90 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) - 1gb LPDDR4-1866 dram - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-76E1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND - Samsung MJX Maru (S4LR030) contoller with no dram as standard - |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO PRO | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 QVO | <!--Model-->MZ-76Q1T0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 used 64-layer QLC V-NAND |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 870 QVO 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 870 EVO | <!--Model-->MZ-7LN56F, MZ-77E1T0 P/N MZ7L31TOHBLB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 beware of bad batch early death - uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - Samsung MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871b | <!--Model-->MZ7LN256HCHP-000H1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2021 uses 9x layer 3D QLC V-NAND (or V-NAND 4-bit MLC Samsung), may have no DRAM cache - Samsung MKX 8-channel controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Ultra 3D/Extreme Pro | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 SandForce SF-2281 dram |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Ultra Plus | <!--Model-->SDSSDHP-256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 Marvell SS889175 processor with SanDisk's 19nm NAND and 128MB Samsung DDR2 DRAM chip |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Z300s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - Marvell 88SS9188 Marvell 88SS9187 with SanDisk 64Gbit 19nm MLC - |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x300 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x300s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Plus | <!--Model-->SDSSDA-240G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 pseudo SLC cache dramless |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk Z400s | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - Silicon Motion SM2246XT DRAM-less - budget end of market - |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk x400 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - 4 NAND packages and marvell controller 88ss1074 on blue pcb - 512MB DDR3L-1600 Micron DRAM - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate BarraCuda Q1 SSD | <!--Model-->ZA240CV10001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A55 2.5in sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 dramless A55 started with the Phison S10 but later the S11 i.e. Phison PS3111-S11-13 controller and 96-layer TLC NAND flash memory with a pseudo-SLC cache - |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power Ace A55 2.5in | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand-->sk hynix | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 sandforce controller - |- | <!--Brand-->sk Hynix SH910A | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 - Link_A_Media (LAMD) controller with eight 256Gbit H27QEGDVEBLR NAND 20nm hynix MLC - SK hynix H5PS1G83JFA DRAM - |- | <!--Brand-->sk Hynix SC300 | <!--Model-->HFS256G32MND-3210A, HFS256G32MND-3312A, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 - red strip around edges - 8-channel controller SK hynix LM87810AA-A0 with DDR2 buffer chip and four pieces of 16nm hynix MLC NAND - |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix Canvas SL300 series 2.5in SSD *3110A SL301STD *3210A *3300A *3310A | <!--Model-->HFS500G32TND, HFS256G32TNE, HFS128G32TNF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 TLC - consumer line red in corners - SK hynix LM878100AA (HFS256G32MND-3312A) later SH87820BB and NAND 16nm hynix TLC - 256mb dram |- | <!--Brand-->Sk Hynix Canvas SC3 series 2.5in SSD *N1A0A , , *N1A1A *N1A2A SC308STD, *N2A0A , , SC311STD | <!--Model-->HFS512G32TNF-N2A0A, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - red in corners - no dram and no SLC cache - Hynix ex Link_A_Media Devices (LAMD) SH87820BB 2c but poor mixed workload ability MLC - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Team EX2 GX2 Elite QX | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2023 |- | <!--Brand-->TEAMGROUP AX2 2.5 Inch SATA III Solid State Drive SSD | <!--Model-->T253A3512G0C101, T253A3001T0C101, T253A3002T0C101, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 3D NAND TLC |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup TF Vulcan Z 2.5in sata | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dramless smi2259xt 128L tlc nand - |- | <!--Brand-->TeamGroup T-Force Vulcan ZQLC | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 dram-less smi2259xt qlc 144L nand - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Topesel | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend 220S 2.5in | <!--Model-->TS120GSSD220S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 3D TLC without dram |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend SSD230S 2.5in | <!--Model-->TS256GSSD230S TS512GSSD230S TS1TSSD230S TS2TSSD230S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 3D TLC NAND with DRAM Cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Viathan | <!--Model-->S001T3V | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Red SA500 NAS | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SA510 250Gb to 4Tb | <!--Model-->WDS400T3B0A WDS200T3B0A WDS100T3B0A WDS500G3B0A WDS250G3B0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SSD 2.5" | <!--Model-->WDS240G1G0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Green 200Gb to 2Tb | <!--Model-->WDS200T2G0A WDS100T3G0A WDS480G2G0A WDS240G2G0A WDS120G2G0A | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 - cheap and slow ssd - |- | <!--Brand-->WD SA530 | <!--Model-->SDASB8Y-256G SD9SB8W, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand-->[https://www.xray-disk.com xraydisk] 2.5 inch | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> from the manufacturer only - Phsion/SMI(2258XT)/Realtek/Yeestor |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Xum | <!--Model-->hx256gssdsata3 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Yottamaster | <!--Model-->Y3000 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> PCie 3.0 |- | <!--Brand-->Yottamaster | <!--Model-->Y7000 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> PCIe 4.0 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |} === SATA M.2 (M and B key) === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->ADATA M.2 2280 Sata | <!--Model-->AXNS381E-128GM-B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fanxiang S201 m.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->S201 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fikwot FN203 m.2 sata (oldtan, twipps, teexin aka Shenzhen Pingfan "Ordinary" Road Technology Co., Ltd) | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 lifespan not long Maxio MAP + YMTC 128L |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Foresee (Shenzhen Longsys) | <!--Model-->YSM80CD-128G YSDE128G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 - 88nv1120-bt22 T3WU030 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral 2242 120G | <!--Model-->INSSD120GM242 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Integral M.2 2280 | <!--Model-->INSSD256GM.26M2280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Integral 256GB/512GB/1TB/2TB | <!--Model-->INSSD1TM280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 netac rebrand - no dram cache - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intel Pro ‎545S 2280 | <!--Model-->SSDSCKKF256G8H | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> no dram, TLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Intel | <!--Model-->SSDSC2KF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Intenso M.2 internalSSD SATA III 1 TB | <!--Model-->Top | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston A400 m.2 | <!--Model-->SA400M8/240G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 entry level ssd 4 x FH64B08UCT1-60 64G - |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston | <!--Model-->RBU-SNS8350DES3128GP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingston V300 | <!--Model-->SV300S3505AG | <!--Work MSDos-->{{yes}} | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->Nightly Build 2014-09-18 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LITEON SATA 128GB | <!--Model-->CV3-8D128-11 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LITEON | <!--Model-->CV1-8B256-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Lite-On | <!--Model-->L8H-256V2G-HP L8H-128V2G-HP | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 2016 nanya nt5c864m16fp-dh |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->LSI | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 SF37000 controller |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron | <!--Model-->M550 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 Marvell 88SS9189 SATA controller |- | <!--Brand-->Micron M600 enterprise m.2 sata up to 512GB | <!--Model-->MTFDDAV256MBF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 Marvell 88SS9189 SATA controller, DRAM chip 256MB 533MHz LPDDR2, NAND for the 256GB drive MT29F1T08CQCCBG2-10:C 16nm MLC NAND each 128GB package |- | <!--Brand-->MICRON 1100 M.2 SATA 6Gb/s 2280 | <!--Model-->MTFDDAV256TBN HP P/N 903109-001, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico Y20M-2242 | <!--Model-->Y20M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->Orico | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->202 |- | <!--Brand-->PNY | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM841 M.2 sata3 2280 | <!--Model-->MZ-NTD2560/0L9 MZNTD256HAGL-000L9 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 TLC |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung CM871 Rev 0 | <!--Model-->MZNLF128HCHP-000H1 MZ-NLF1280 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM871a m.2 Sata | <!--Model-->MZNLN256HMHQ, NLN512A P/N MZNLN512HMJP-000H1, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 TLC |- | <!--Brand-->SAMSUNG PM871b | <!--Model-->MZNLN128HAHQ-000H1, MZNLN256HAJQ MZ-NLN256F MZ-NLN256C, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM881 | <!--Model-->MZ-NLH1280 MZNLH128HBHQ-000H1 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SanDisk X300 M.2 sata 2280 80mm SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SD7SN6S-256G-1006 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Sandisk X400 SSD M.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->SD8SN8U-128G-1006, SD8SN8U-256G-1006, SD8SN8U-512-1006, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 SSD controller Marvell 88SS1074 four channel supports variety of NAND and up to 512MB DDR3L-1600 Micron DRAM cache - |- | <!--Brand-->SanDisk X600 M.2 SSD Solid State Drive | <!--Model-->SD9SN8W-128G-1006 SD9TN8W-256G-1006 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->SANDISK X110 DELL 6T4HK M.2 2260 | <!--Model-->SD6SP1M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK Hynix SC300 | <!--Model-->SC308M280S HFS128G39TND | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 SH87820BB controller - No dram buffer - multi-level cell (MLC) NAND |- | <!--Brand-->SK HYNIX | <!--Model-->SC311 HFS256G39TNF | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->SK HYNIX | <!--Model-->SC401 HFS256G39TNH | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Silicon Power A55 M.2 sata 2280 | <!--Model-->A55 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 - no dram - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TEAMGROUP Team MS30 SSD M.2 Sata 2280 | <!--Model-->TM8PS7001T0C101 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba RC100 (retail version of BG3) | <!--Model-->KBG30ZMV256G, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba HG6 m.2 | <!--Model-->THNSNJ512GDNU THNSNJ512G8NY, THNSNJ256GDNU THNSNJ256G8NY, THNSNJ128GDNU THNSNJ128G8NY, THNSNJ256GVNU THNSNJ128GVNU, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2018 |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA SSD M.2 2280 256GB | <!--Model-->KSG50ZMV256G | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2019 |- | <!--Brand-->Kioxia (Toshiba) BG6 | <!--Model-->KSG60ZMG256G, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model-->400 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS32GMTS400S TS64GMTS400S TS128GMTS400S | <!--Model-->400S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> DDR3 dram cache and mlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend | <!--Model-->M.2 SSD 600 (2260), M.2 SSD 800S (2280) | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> mlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS120GMTS420S TS240GMTS420S TS480GMTS420S | <!--Model-->420S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> can run hot slc cache |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2242 TS256GMTS430S TS512GMTS430S | <!--Model-->430S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache - 3d tlc nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2280 TS120GMTS820S TS240GMTS820S TS960GMTS820S | <!--Model-->820S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3D nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend M.2 SSD 2280 TS256GMTS830S TS512GMTS830S TS1TMTS830S TS4TMTS830S | <!--Model-->830S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> dram cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SATA SSD m.2 2280 120GB to 480Gb | <!--Model-->WDS480G2G0B WDS240G2G0B WDS120G2G0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2020 made in malaysia |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD Green SATA SSD m.2 2280 240Gb to | <!--Model-->WDS240G3G0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2022 made in |- | <!--Brand-->WD Blue SA510 M.2 SATA 250Gb to 2Tb | <!--Model-->WDS200T3B0B WDS100T3B0B WDS500G3B0B WDS250G3B0B | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Red 500GB 1TB 2TB | <!--Model-->SA500 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->union memory AM610 m.2 sata | <!--Model-->SSS0R27339, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === mSATA SSD === {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fangxiang S301 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Kingchuxing | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Integral | <!--Model-->INSSD256GMSA MO-300 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> tlc 3d nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Micron enterprise | <!--Model-->M600 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Orico ZH-10 ZH10 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2024 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 840 EVO 1.8inch msata | <!--Model-->MZ-M | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2015 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 850 EVO 1.8in | <!--Model-->MZ-M5E120BW, MZ-M5E250BW, MZ-M5E500BW, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung PM851 1.8" msata | <!--Model-->MZ-MTE256D P/N MZ-MTMTE256HMHP, MZ-MTE1T00, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2016 |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung 860 EVO 1.8inch msata | <!--Model-->MZ-MM6E250BW, MZ-M6E500BW, MZ-M6E1T0BW | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend TS64GMSA370S | <!--Model-->MSA370S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> MLC nand |- | <!--Brand-->Transcend TS64GMSA230S | <!--Model-->230S | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 3d tlc nand |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA 2.5inch Laptop Hard Disks === ====7mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP628230-01 500Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP552605-01 250Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->CP693440-01 500Gb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Z5K320 Z5K500-500 Z5K100 series * 2013 HTS545050A7E380 HTS * 2015 HTS545050A7E680 HTS | <!--Model-->HTS 320GB 500Gb 1Tb | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Z7K320 Z7K500 series | <!--Model-->HTS725050A7E630 320Gb HTS725050A7E635 500Gb 7200rpm | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> avoid if it does not have the DCM code |- | <!--Brand-->HGST 1T 5400rpm | <!--Model-->HTS541010B7E610 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under-->2017 128m cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Momentus Thin | <!--Model-->ST500LT012 ST320LT012. ST250LT012 500Gb 320gb 250gb 2014 5.4K rpm | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Thin SSHD 5400RPM Sata 2.5" | <!--Model-->ST500LM000 500GB, ST500LM001, ST500LM020 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2013 up to 64M cache and with 8GB NAND Flash |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate MomentusThin-B Video 2.5 HDD * 2014 * 2015 * 2016 * 2017 | <!--Model-->ST500VT000 500GB, | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2014 |- | <!--Brand-->SEAGATE Baracuda 2.5 5400 | <!--Model-->ST2000LM015 (2Gb), ST1000LM049 (1Tb), ST500LM030 (500Gb) | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Barracuda Pro | <!--Model-->ST1000LM048 ST1000LM035 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> up to 128MB cache |- | <!--Brand-->SEAGATE FireCuda Compute 2.5 | <!--Model-->ST500LX025 ST1000LX015 ST2000LX001 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 8GB NAND Commercial Multilevel Cell (cMLC), 128MB buffer and 5400-RPM spindle speed up to 140 MB/s |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 2.5in | <!--Model-->MQ04ABF100 1TB 5400 RPM 2018 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA MQ01ACF | <!--Model-->MQ01ACF050 500GB 7200rpm 2020 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Model | Work MSDos | Work GPT | Tested Under |- | <!--Brand-->western digital wd blue 500G 8meg cache 5400rpm * 2014 Rev T0 * 2015 Rev T1 | <!--Model-->wd5000lpvx | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under-->2012-2015 sequential 2MB block transfers 110 MB/s reading and writing - |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital 2.5" WD Blue Slim | <!--Model-->WD10SPCX 1TB Nov 2016 | <!--Work MSDos-->{{Yes|hdd under partition table msdos/pc, boots on bios machines, will not on uefi machine}} | <!--Work GPT-->{{Unk|untested hdd under gpt partition protocol scheme, not booting on uefi}} | <!--Tested under-->AROS One 1.8 USB |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD5000LUCX 500Gb 5400rpm 16mb cache Rev Y0 | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> 2017 Malaysia |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====9.5mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->MHW2040BH | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 40gig |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu | <!--Model-->MHY2080BH | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 80gig |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | MHW2120B | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST bought by WD mid-2012 5K1000-1000 | <!--Model-->HTS721010A9E630 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST bought by WD mid-2012 5K1000-1000 | <!--Model-->HTS541010A9E662 type TS5SAF100 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Travelstar 5K500.B-320 | <!--Model-->HTS545025B9SA02 HTS545032B9A300 HTS545040B9A300 HTS545050B9A300 250Gb 320Gb 400Gb 500Gb 5400rpm | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi Global Storage Technologies HGST 1TB 7200rpm | <!--Model-->HTS721010A9E630 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung bought by Seagate late 2011 | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung Spinpoint with Seagate HD REV A (Jan 2014) | <!--Model-->ST1000LM024 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung Spinpoint with Seagate 9.5mm * 2013 Rev A HN-M500MBB/I * 2014 Rev B HN-M500MBB/SP4 * 2015 Rev B HN-M500MBB/P4C | <!--Model-->ST500LM012 (500M) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Momentus 5400.3 | <!--Model-->ST9160821AS | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 160gig |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SSHD 1t | <!--Model-->ST1000LM014, ST1000LM028, ST1000LM015 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 8g nand flash |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SSHD 1T | <!--Model-->ST1000LX001 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 32G nand flash |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MK2555GSX HDD2H24 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 250g 5400rpm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MK5065GSX - 500GB 5400RPM SATA 3Gb/s 8MB Cache 2.5-Inch | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MKxx59GSXP, eg Toshiba MK6459GSXP 640GB 2011 | <!--Work-->{{yes}} | <!--Tested under-->Icaros 2.2 with uses Advanced Format (AF) in 4,096 bytes per sector. Compatibility with legacy, 512 bytes through AF emulation techniques, called 512e |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba (2013 to 2016) | <!--Model-->MQ01ABD100 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba (2015 to 2020) *2013 *2014 *2015 AA50/AX0D5A *2016 AA60/AX0E1A * *2017 AGM AA01/AX002V *2018 AGS AA70/AX0G1A *2020 AA71/AX0G1A | <!--Model-->MQ01ABD050 500meg | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba | <!--Model-->MQ04ABF100 1TB 5400 RPM 2013 | <!--Work-->{{Yes}} | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->TOSHIBA | <!--Model-->MQ04ABD200 2TB 5400 RPM 128MB Cache SATA 6.0Gb/s | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD7500BPVX 2013 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WESTERN DIGITAL 1TB 2.5" SATA DRIVE 5400 rpm, 8MB cache | <!--Model-->WD10JPVX-80JC3T0 (OCT 2014) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> , uses Advanced Format (AF) |- | <!--Brand-->WDC Western Digital Blue 1TB SATA 2.5" Hard Drive 5400 rpm, 8MB cache | <!--Model-->WD10JPVX-08JC3T6 (Jun 2017) | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD10JPCX 1Tb | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital * 2019 | <!--Model-->WD10JUCT 1TB (1000GB) 2019 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->WD Western Digital Scorpio Black * 2010 * 2014 | <!--Model-->WD5000BEKT, WD5000BPKX-22HPJT0, WD5000BPKT, | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 16m cache, 7200rpm thailand then malaysia |- | <!--Brand-->WD Western Digital Black * 2016 | <!--Model-->WD2500LPLX, WD3200LPLX, WD5000LPLX SMR: WD5000LPSX, WD10SPSX | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> 32m cache , 7200rpm SATA-III malaysia |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA 2.5in NON-Laptop Hard Disks === ====11mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Fujitsu 160GB 250GB 300GB | <!--Model-->MHX2160BT, MHX2250BT, MHX2300BT | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model-->TP00640GB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====12.5mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} ====15mm==== {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate 1TB IBM System X 15mm 2.5" SATA | <!--Model-->ST91000640NS 81Y9731 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA Laptop Optical Drives === Tested in usb port not hub with * *13fd:0840 Initio Corporation INIC-1618L SATA * {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand-->HL-DT-ST DVDRAM | <!--Model-->GSA T50L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT10N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage BD-Rom DVD Rewriter | <!--Model-->CT10N AFCK101 LGE-DMCT10A(B) | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 5v 12.7mm fails early |- | <!--Brand-->Hitachi LG | <!--Model-->GT20L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009/2010 5v 1.3A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Hitachi / LG | <!--Model-->GT30N GT32N GT30L | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT40N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT50N GT51N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data Storage | <!--Model-->GT90N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013 5v 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL | <!--Model-->GU70N (HP/Dell), | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 5v 1.8A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->HL | <!--Model-->GUD0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.8A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model-->GTA0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS Super Multi DVD Writer *Rev 101 *rev 102 2015 factory GH | <!--Model-->GUC0N (ALOK113) MSIP-REM-HLD-GUA0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 9.5mm - flaky and dies quickly - |- | <!--Brand-->HL Data | <!--Model-->GTC0N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 12.7mm 5V 1.8a - |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS | <!--Model-->BU20N (S05JH) KCC-REM-HLD-BU10N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->HLDS Super Multi DVD Writer | <!--Model-->GUD1N (S05JH) (S05NT) KCC-REM-HLD-GU90N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2017-2018 9.5mm 5v 1.8a - slow access - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->Uj870a Uj880 UJ890 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8A0 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic MATSHITA 12.7mm SATA DVD | <!--Model-->UJ8B0 (Asus K53S), | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 12.7mm 5v 1.5a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8B1 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2011 5v 1.5a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8C0, UJ8C1, UJ8C2 9.5mm, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 2013 5v 1.6a |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic Precision Devices Co Ltd | <!--Model-->UJ8D0, UJ8D1 KCC-REM-PPD-UJ8D1 HP 657534-TC2, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013 ok lifeline, |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8E2Q | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic | <!--Model-->UJ8FB | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.5a 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Panasonic Blu-Ray DVD Writer Slimline | <!--Model-->UJ260 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DC-8A2SH, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8A3S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8A4SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On | <!--Model-->DS-8A5LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On DVD-ROM | <!--Model-->DS-8DBSH1148 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 12.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips Lite-On | <!--Model-->DU-8A6SH (HP) | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2015 5v 1.5A 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Philips and LiteOn | <!--Model-->DS-8A8SH118C KCC-REM-PLD-DS-8A8LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 1.5a 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DS-8A9SH DS8A9SH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DS-8ABSH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD DVD/CD Rewritable Drive | <!--Model-->DU-8A5LH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2016 9.5mm 5v 1.5a - |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD | <!--Model-->DU-8ACSH | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->PLSD Philips | <!--Model-->da-8aesh11b, DA-8AESH-24B | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2019 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Pioneer | <!--Model-->DVR-TD09TBG | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7580s, AD-7581s SOK-AD-7580S(B), AD-7583s, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008-2010 5V 1.5A |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc SATA DVD | <!--Model-->AD-7561S, AD-7560S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7 MM |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc | <!--Model-->AD-7585H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7mm cleaning the laser lens inside the drive with a liquid lens cleaner. Also check the lens carrier slides freely from one extreme to the other inside the drive without sticking |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD7590s, AD-7591s, | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7700s, AD-7710h, AD-7701H, AD-7703S | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony Optiarc | <!--Model-->AD-7760H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2012 5v 1.5A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7711H AD-7740H | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 12.5mm 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-S208B Ver BB Rev 00 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2009 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba TSSTCorp Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-S083C Ver C Rev 03 /BEBE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 5v 1.5a 12.7 mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology Corp | <!--Model-->TS-L633 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2010 5v 1.3A 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba Samsung | <!--Model-->SN-208FB/BEBE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2014 12.7mm 5v 1.3a - tracking issues, feels cheap and flaky in use - |- | <!--Brand-->TSST Toshiba Samsung Corp. | <!--Model-->SU-208FB/TFJF KCC-REM-TSS-SU208 | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2013-2014 9.5mm 5v 1.3a - |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> 9.5mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |} === [https://www.backblaze.com/cloud-storage/resources/hard-drive-test-data SATA Desktop 3.5inch Hard Disks] === Datasheets with the SMR (overlapped packing Shingled Magnetic Recording) and CMR (faster Conventional Magnetic Recording) parts <pre> WD: https://documents.westerndigital.com/content/dam/doc-library/en_us/assets/public/western-digital/product/internal-drives/wd-blue-hdd/product-brief-western-digital-wd-blue-pc-hdd.pdf Seagate: https://www.seagate.com/content/dam/seagate/migrated-assets/www-content/datasheets/pdfs/3-5-barracudaDS1900-14-2007US-en_US.pdf Toshiba: https://storage.toshiba.com/docs/support-docs/P300-SalesSheet_English_Web_r2.pdf </pre> {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Seagate Barracuda 7200.9 | ST3160812AS, ST3160212AS | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 - Capacity: 160 GB - Speed: 7200RPM - Cache: 8 MB - Interface: SATA2 |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Barracuda LP Green 5400rpm | <!--Model-->ST1000DL002 1TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SkyHawk Surveillance HDD ST4000VX000 Series | <!--Model-->ST4000VX013 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate Baracuda Compute | <!--Model-->ST500DM009 2F110A-500 / 02PKVY / 2PKVY (500m), | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> - SATA III (6Gb/s) - Format 3.5" - 32MB Cache |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate CMR | <!--Model-->ST1000DM010 ST500DM009 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate 2TB SMR | <!--Model-->ST2000DM008 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate SMR | <!--Model-->ST8000DM004 ST6000DM003 ST4000DM004 ST3000DM007 ST2000DM005 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 5400rpm | <!--Model-->HDWD220 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba 7200rpm | <!--Model-->HDWD320 | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Toshiba P300 CMR | <!--Model-->HDWD130XZSTA HDWD130UZSVA, HDWD120XZSTA HDWD120UZSVA, HDWD110XZSTA HDWD110UZSVA | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital 2010 | <!--Model-->WD20EARS Green 2TB 5400rpm 64mb cache | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital WD | <!--Model-->WD20EFRX WD40EFRX 5400rpm | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital | <!--Model-->WD4002FFWD | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD80EAAZ WD80EAZZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD20EARZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital CMR | <!--Model-->WD40EZAZ, WD60EZAZ | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SMR | <!--Model-->WD20EARZ, WD20EZAZ - 2TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Western Digital SMR | <!--Model-->WD40EZAX - 4TB, WD60EZAX - 6TB, WD80EZAX - 8TB | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === SATA Desktop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- |} ==PATA== === IDE Desktop Hard Disks === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | M1624TAU | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | IBM | DHEA-38451 | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SP40A2H | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Seagate | ST3160215ACE | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Seagate | ST32122A | {{maybe}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Western Digital | WD102AA | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Western Digital | WD200 | {{maybe}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === IDE Laptop Hard Disks === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Fujitsu | MHV2040AH | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand-->HGST Hitachi Travelstar | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Samsung | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand-->Seagate | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Toshiba | MK2011GAP | {{yes}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} === IDE Desktop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | Compaq | CR-594-BCQ | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | CRD-8322B(CP1) | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | CRD-8484B(AM2A) | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Compaq | LTN-485 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Creative | CD220E | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Hitachi-LG | GDA-4120B | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | LG | CRD-8400B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Lite-On | LTN486S | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Mitsumi | CRMC-FX4830T | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | CDR-1700B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | DV-5800A | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | ND-2100A | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | NEC | NR-7900A | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Philips | DVD8631 | {{no}} | {{no}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | Samsung | SC-148 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SCR-2030 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Samsung | SM-348B | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Sony | CDU601 | {{yes}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Sony | CDU611-25 | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | Toshiba | SD-M1202 | {{no}} | {{n/a}} | Icaros Desktop 1.5.2 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested under--> |} === IDE Laptop Optical Drives === {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Reads ! width="10%" |Writes ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->H-L Hitachi LG | <!--Model-->GCC-4244N | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2006 |- | Hitachi-LG | GCCT10N | {{yes}} | {{Maybe|FryingPan WRITE seems to have no problem with data sections (track 1) - combos with audio sections (track 2) white screens aros eventually}} | AspireOS Xenon with 25th Jan 2014 self update kernel |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | Philips | SDR089 | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | TSSTcorp | TS-L462C TS-L462D | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | 2005 Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | TSSTcorp | TS-L632H | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 1.4 |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | Sony | DW-Q58A | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | Sony Optiarc | AD-7540A | {{yes}} | {{unk}} | Icaros Desktop 2.2 |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->Optiarc DVD RW AD-7560A IDE | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand-->Sony | <!--Model-->AD-7590A | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution-->2008 12.7mm |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Reads--> | <!--Writes--> | <!--Tested Distribution--> |} == SCSI == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} {| class="wikitable" width="70%" ! width="20%" |Brand ! width="20%" |Model ! width="10%" |Works MSDos/PC Bios ! width="10%" |Works GPT/UEFI ! width="20%" |Tested Distribution |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Work MSDos--> | <!--Work GPT--> | <!--Tested under--> |- |} NVMe accepts up to 64,000 queues with up to 64,000 commands each. 1zuzovqyzpfuxmi8o6g3pa8ss9j0gga 0 274789 4635071 4410610 2026-05-10T07:55:14Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635071 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigate|Prev=Cover Page|Next=Dedication}} __NOTOC__ = Table of Contents = <span style="font-size:x-small;">[[Basic Writing/Original TOC|Original TOC]]</span> == Front Matter == {{userboxtop|toptext=&nbsp;}} {{Book Search|prefix=Basic Writing}} {{userboxbottom}} * [[Basic Writing|Book Abstract]] * [[Basic Writing/Cover Page|Cover Page]] * [[Basic Writing/Table of Contents|Table of Contents]] * [[Basic Writing/Dedication|Dedication]] * [[Basic Writing/How to Turn the Page|How to Turn the Page]] &nbsp; == Part I - Process == [[Image:Comment.jpg|thumb|400 px|Sometimes writing takes time and help from others. Let this book help you get the most out of your writing class.]] * [[Basic Writing/Invention|Invention]] * [[Basic Writing/Drafting|Drafting]] * [[Basic Writing/Revising|Revising]] * [[Basic Writing/Editing|Editing]] * [[Basic Writing/Proofreading|Proofreading]] &nbsp; == Part II - Practice == * [[Basic Writing/Creative Writing|Creative Writing]] * [[Basic Writing/Writing about reading|Writing about reading]] * [[Basic Writing/Public Affairs writing|Public Affairs writing]] * [[Basic Writing/Investigative writing|Investigative writing]] &nbsp; == Part III - For the ESL Student and Others == * [[Basic Writing/Culture|Culture]] * [[Basic Writing/Spelling|Spelling]] * [[Basic Writing/Punctuation|Punctuation]] * [[Basic Writing/Transitions|Transitions]] &nbsp; == Back Matter == {{userboxtop|toptext=&nbsp;}} {{Book Search|prefix=Basic Writing}} {{userboxbottom}} * [[Basic Writing/Glossary|Glossary]] &nbsp; {{Navigate|Prev=Cover Page|Next=Dedication}} <span style="font-size:x-small">The starting Wiki code for this page was generated by the [[Wikipage]] wizard using this [[Basic Writing/xml/bookinfo|book config]] on Wednesday, June 27, 2012.</span> by8i3m7yf3i8nejy0jh0wbi1akknw3y 0 274792 4635069 3557250 2026-05-10T07:54:02Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635069 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigate|Prev=Dedication|Next=Part1}} __NOTOC__ == How to Turn the Page == <table border=0 align=center cellpadding=30><tr><td> <table border=2 cellpadding=30><tr><td> <center>[[File:How to turn the page.jpg]]</center> </td></tr></table> </td></tr></table> {{Navigate|Prev=Dedication|Next=Part1}} <span style="font-size:x-small">The starting Wiki code for this page was generated by the [[Wikipage]] wizard on Wednesday, June 27, 2012.</span> dbt4ni7xcd4qtzqmjy1obr4pd7xlxlw 4635070 4635069 2026-05-10T07:54:28Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635070 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigate|Prev=Dedication|Next=Part1}} __NOTOC__ == How to Turn the Page == <table border=0 align=center cellpadding=30><tr><td> <table border=2 cellpadding=30><tr><td> [[File:How to turn the page.jpg|center]] </td></tr></table> </td></tr></table> {{Navigate|Prev=Dedication|Next=Part1}} <span style="font-size:x-small">The starting Wiki code for this page was generated by the [[Wikipage]] wizard on Wednesday, June 27, 2012.</span> qprpkxroknw0yg7u0ijfjccazc60qcf 0 286123 4634978 4634918 2026-05-09T15:53:00Z Jeff1138 301139 4634978 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] ==Introduction== The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi. The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to "promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing." The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors). Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each new revision. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM manufacturer. * Pi 5 - Quad A76 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 4Gb 8Gb LPDDR4X * Pi 4 - Quad A72 VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 64 bit - VideoCore 4 * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit but more power consumed * Model B+ - lower power usage but same speed as the original Pis * Model A and B - * Compute 1 and 3 - industrial use <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold and updated Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2015 Pi 2 Model B - 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit core ARMv7 and the same VideoCore IV 3d GPU in a BCM 2836 with 1Gb RAM 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Pi Zero released 2016 Passed Sinclair total number of computer lines sold - around 7 million 2016 Pi 3 Model B - four 64 bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - bluetooth 4.1, wireless 802.11n and a dual VideoCore IV GPU - Broadcom BCM 2837 SOC 2016 Passed Amstrad PCW line in total sales - 8 million so will be the best selling computer range in the UK, later over 10 million 2016 Compute 3 launched BCM2837 Quad 64-bit Core 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4 core 1.4GHz A53 BCM2837B0 - wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ LITE Broadcom BCM2837B0, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC 1Gb DDR2 and emmc 2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711 quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE, 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C power, 2xVLI USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram, 2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 2021 Pi zero 2 w 64bit quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 w VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 2024 Pi-500 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 2025 Pi-500+ 2026 </pre> ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] with [https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/boot Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi] == Hardware == ===BCM2708(family)=== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board BCM2837 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ LAN7515 The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], ===BCM2711=== ===BCM2712=== ==Implemented so far...== # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one (3months) - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset (might still need a little work), and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an audio driver (a few weeks - independent of USB) # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # Improve the gfx driver add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # Improve the sdcard device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. ===Boot up === On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, ===Framebuffer - basic display=== RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. ===USB === * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] ===Audio === To follow... [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 ===Ethernet=== 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket ===GPIO === GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p ===GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration=== Sadly none yet == References == ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2013-05 Work put on hiatus * 2015-04 Work continues slowly with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume with adding BE big endian support as well] * 2023 NinjaCowboy The status of AROS native for RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plan to fix them). Got stuck on modifying the ABI (application binary interface) and adjusting binutils/gcc to support it wanted to have real executable files but got stuck a little. This change for the type of relocations embedded in ARM files and not sure if this very type is well supported, on the other hand without this change ARM version of AROS wouldn't work well. By reverting the change to ABI we could have a (somehow) working AROS on RasPi, but unfortunately still unstable. * Newer version with USB WIP [http://aros.sourceforge.net/download.php AROS ABIv1 snapshot/nightly] # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) ==== Hosted ==== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> siseof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make === Core Kernel === the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. I am even thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. === GPU === Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. I so far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . What I see on screen suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ? In the past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea. For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver .. The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless. Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/commit/e7bdc7e7b7f12b07aa24c739abb63721a872a53a arasan eMMC sdcard controller specific header which is not USB] and [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/commit/8bd19674084526a534ac11f7d4c51932e9ffe3d2 added prelim sdcard device]. [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/commit/9ab8217f61911fb8b7fd41bee46a992b4668ced1 do not set 4bit data mode, or enable acmd12/dma int's]. === Misc === ===Hosted=== ==== Linux ==== Change lxde to another sudo leafpad /etc/x11/xinit/xinitrc xorg.conf <pre> Section "Screen" Identifier "Default Screen" DefaultDepth 16 SubSection "Display" # Viewport 0 0 Depth 16 Modes "800x600" EndSubsection EndSection Section "Device" Option "Backingstore" Identifier "Card0" EndSection </pre> Will raspberrypi ARM programs run on other ARM archs and vice-versa ? If not I would like to use different cpu names for archs which are incompatible. All code compiled for at most armv6 with softfp float abi will work on all softfp ARM targets, including raspberry. Code compiled for hard-float ABI will not work on any softfp target. But then, hard-float abi uses -armhf- cpu name. keyboard or mouse not functioning or partly working lsmod kernel and modules (stored in /lib/modules/ get from https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware and click on ZIP button) have to be updated simultaneously sudo Apt-Get Update sudo Apt-Get Install <program > <program > cksfv joystick p7zip-full stopwatch mtpaint searchmonkey zip geany renameutils fbreader unrar-free mhwaveedit xpad milkytracker grafx par2 libreoffice epiphany-browser xbmc ace-of-penguins gweled black-box petris xmahjongg thrust fceu freesci frotz xgammon tuxpuck littlewizard xsoldier micropolis xbubble eboard&xboard (freezes) bomberclone OMXPlayer not responding or working with keyboard or no sound audio through HDMI LXterminal—command "OMXPlayer -o hdmi %f " hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. * Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM I was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic i found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so i do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that i have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? i fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but i ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time I built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point I built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and I don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but i think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but i don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. I'll try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...i changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Now i need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so i can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh I found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Though I don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. I try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. Please ignore the [http://www.aros.org/nightly.php deprecated unused ABI] [http://www.aeros-os.org/styled-11/index.html Hosted free on Linux for R Pi works well] rmvqgv0k3hckh4nnuo8pjork9ic8ia1 4634979 4634978 2026-05-09T15:53:50Z Jeff1138 301139 4634979 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] ==Introduction== The Raspberry Pi Foundation is a charity founded in May 2009 to promote the study of basic computer science in schools, and is responsible for developing a single-board computer called the Raspberry Pi. The Foundation is supported by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Broadcom. Its aim is to "promote the study of computer science and related topics, especially at school level, and to put the fun back into learning computing." The original Raspberry Pi 1 Model B computer went on sale in February 2012 and set a new standard shattering the dominance of the PC in the home and education markets. Millions in the various formats, A, B, A+, B+ and Compute have since been shipped worldwide. The original concept of the Raspberry Pi was for a computer board providing Internet access with up to 1080p HD graphics at very low cost. The boards provide a platform for children and adults from any background to acquire computer science knowledge and help develop the future World-Wide-Web and all things internet (IOT hub and bridges out to home network to cloud of sensors). Hobbyists and tech dabblers/tinkerers are the main purchases of the Pis (around half). The rest of the sales are split between education/industrial. While the Raspberry Pi boards were designed primarily for education, they have become very popular with manufacturers of embedded systems. The Raspberry Pi Foundation has ensured backwards compatibility with each new revision. The bare-bones Compute module is aimed specifically at the OEM manufacturer. * Pi 5 - Quad A76 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 4Gb 8Gb LPDDR4X * Pi 4 - Quad A72 VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 64 bit - VideoCore 4 * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit but more power consumed * Model B+ - lower power usage but same speed as the original Pis * Model A and B - * Compute 1, 3, 4 and 5 - industrial use <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold and updated Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2015 Pi 2 Model B - 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit core ARMv7 and the same VideoCore IV 3d GPU in a BCM 2836 with 1Gb RAM 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Pi Zero released 2016 Passed Sinclair total number of computer lines sold - around 7 million 2016 Pi 3 Model B - four 64 bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz - bluetooth 4.1, wireless 802.11n and a dual VideoCore IV GPU - Broadcom BCM 2837 SOC 2016 Passed Amstrad PCW line in total sales - 8 million so will be the best selling computer range in the UK, later over 10 million 2016 Compute 3 launched BCM2837 Quad 64-bit Core 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4 core 1.4GHz A53 BCM2837B0 - wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ LITE Broadcom BCM2837B0, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC 1Gb DDR2 and emmc 2019 Pi 4 Model B - BCM2711 quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE, 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C power, 2xVLI USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 1/2/4 GB ram, 2020 Silent Pi 4 upgrade with more USB-c psu support and PI400 1.8GHz inside keyboard 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 2021 Pi zero 2 w 64bit quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2023 Pi 5 BCM2712 Quad A76 w VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k displays from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5V 5A psu 2024 Pi-500 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 2025 Pi-500+ 2026 </pre> ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] with [https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/boot Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi] == Hardware == ===BCM2708(family)=== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board BCM2837 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ LAN7515 The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has very slowly risen. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and might benefit from active cooling (ie fan) if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], ===BCM2711=== ===BCM2712=== ==Implemented so far...== # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one (3months) - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset (might still need a little work), and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an audio driver (a few weeks - independent of USB) # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # Improve the gfx driver add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # Improve the sdcard device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. ===Boot up === On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, ===Framebuffer - basic display=== RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. ===USB === * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] ===Audio === To follow... [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 ===Ethernet=== 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket ===GPIO === GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p ===GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration=== Sadly none yet == References == ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2013-05 Work put on hiatus * 2015-04 Work continues slowly with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume with adding BE big endian support as well] * 2023 NinjaCowboy The status of AROS native for RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plan to fix them). Got stuck on modifying the ABI (application binary interface) and adjusting binutils/gcc to support it wanted to have real executable files but got stuck a little. This change for the type of relocations embedded in ARM files and not sure if this very type is well supported, on the other hand without this change ARM version of AROS wouldn't work well. By reverting the change to ABI we could have a (somehow) working AROS on RasPi, but unfortunately still unstable. * Newer version with USB WIP [http://aros.sourceforge.net/download.php AROS ABIv1 snapshot/nightly] # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load our arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) ==== Hosted ==== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> siseof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make === Core Kernel === the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. I am even thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. === GPU === Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS/OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs are a bit weird and far from optimal, especially MorphOS one, because it aims for m68k binary compatibility. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? I have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. I so far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (I have verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . What I see on screen suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Why did usbromstartup become HW-specific ? In the past i have done a big job separating kickstart into several parts. I have never got any responses, so i re-describe my idea. For now it loads the hs otg chipset driver .. The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). It's mandatory on PI since there are no other interface types - so being a separate package is irrelevant/pointless. Is Raspberry's USB controller non-HCI compliant? Actually i expect it to be compliant, then wouldn't it be better to make existing drivers discovering them? AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but I'm not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/commit/e7bdc7e7b7f12b07aa24c739abb63721a872a53a arasan eMMC sdcard controller specific header which is not USB] and [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/commit/8bd19674084526a534ac11f7d4c51932e9ffe3d2 added prelim sdcard device]. [http://repo.or.cz/w/AROS.git/commit/9ab8217f61911fb8b7fd41bee46a992b4668ced1 do not set 4bit data mode, or enable acmd12/dma int's]. === Misc === ===Hosted=== ==== Linux ==== Change lxde to another sudo leafpad /etc/x11/xinit/xinitrc xorg.conf <pre> Section "Screen" Identifier "Default Screen" DefaultDepth 16 SubSection "Display" # Viewport 0 0 Depth 16 Modes "800x600" EndSubsection EndSection Section "Device" Option "Backingstore" Identifier "Card0" EndSection </pre> Will raspberrypi ARM programs run on other ARM archs and vice-versa ? If not I would like to use different cpu names for archs which are incompatible. All code compiled for at most armv6 with softfp float abi will work on all softfp ARM targets, including raspberry. Code compiled for hard-float ABI will not work on any softfp target. But then, hard-float abi uses -armhf- cpu name. keyboard or mouse not functioning or partly working lsmod kernel and modules (stored in /lib/modules/ get from https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware and click on ZIP button) have to be updated simultaneously sudo Apt-Get Update sudo Apt-Get Install <program > <program > cksfv joystick p7zip-full stopwatch mtpaint searchmonkey zip geany renameutils fbreader unrar-free mhwaveedit xpad milkytracker grafx par2 libreoffice epiphany-browser xbmc ace-of-penguins gweled black-box petris xmahjongg thrust fceu freesci frotz xgammon tuxpuck littlewizard xsoldier micropolis xbubble eboard&xboard (freezes) bomberclone OMXPlayer not responding or working with keyboard or no sound audio through HDMI LXterminal—command "OMXPlayer -o hdmi %f " hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. * Hosted under ARM Linux which needs to be already installed [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.php current ABIv1] Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM I was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic i found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so i do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that i have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? i fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but i ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time I built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point I built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and I don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but i think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but i don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. I'll try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...i changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Now i need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so i can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh I found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Though I don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. I try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. Please ignore the [http://www.aros.org/nightly.php deprecated unused ABI] [http://www.aeros-os.org/styled-11/index.html Hosted free on Linux for R Pi works well] 9qfle3queu4e1s4c04cozeqia7wjuib 0 293156 4634960 4609400 2026-05-09T14:10:41Z CommonsDelinker 49843 Replacing Mp3.svg with [[File:Mp3_format_logo.svg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]:). 4634960 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Web-Based Multimedia== '''Overview''' [[File:Multimedia.png|thumb|Multimedia]] Whether you know it or not, you have seen multimedia and you should be semi familiar with it. Multimedia is exactly what is sounds like, It refers to the literal combination of multiple types of media. If you go to humble bundle.com<ref>https://www.humblebundle.com</ref> you will see an excellent assortment of multimedia. You have a countdown, which is your animation, you have images of the games you can get. When you click on an image you will get an expansion showing you a description and an embedded YouTube<ref>http://www.youtube.com</ref> video. Now that you understand the basics you can see all of the different uses of multimedia in your favorite websites. While this sounds great and having multimedia will make any site better, remember too much of anything is not good. Web-based multimedia, however, is a term used to describe the multimedia (sound, video, or animation, text and images) found within web pages. Similar to others, web-based multimedia pages display information requested by the user through hyperlinks. Multimedia web sites are interactive, often containing elements with which the visitor directly works. Examples of this would be playing or pausing a video clip or game, and controlling a 3D object. At one point, web-based multimedia was strictly limited as both computers and internet services were too slow to support it. Over time, the significant increase in computer and broadband connection speeds have Web-based multimedia possible, and the success of Web-based multimedia is growing rapidly. The vast majority of sites today feature some form of multimedia. For example, it is often used for advertising, as regular website content (TV shows and photos posted by TV networks or podcasts), informative videos of available products offered by companies, or as "user-generated content", such as videos uploaded to YouTube or pictures uploaded to [https://www.flickr.com Flickr]. <ref>http://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/index.html?nbId=7345&nbNodeId=1013914#!&parentId=1013939</ref> '''Web Based Multimedia Applications''' come in a wide variety and can be found all over the Internet. A website that contains more than one type of media is considered to be multimedia. Sites that contain sound, video, animation, and/or images alongside text fall into this category. Typically, these sites use multiple applications such as these to convey certain information to the viewer of the web page. Manufacturers might use photos and PDF based user's manuals to transfer key points of interest about their products to the viewers. In other cases, multimedia can be used as a teaching tool where visitors learn through instructional videos or a news site might use podcasts and television footage to update their readers through their websites. Images and sound are also employed by many musicians when visiting their sites alongside the text-based dates of their tour. Entertainment also plays a large factor in web based multimedia applications. With the rise of Internet video streaming, people can now watch their favorite t.v. shows when they have the free time to do so, and from anywhere there is an Internet connection. Websites like Netflix and Hulu use sound, video, and often thumbnail photo icons alongside their descriptive text of the shows available. Some things to keep in mind concerning these multimedia applications are Internet connection speed and bandwidth. Most of these video streaming websites; whether news, sports, or t.v. shows, etc. require a minimum broadband connection speed of 500Kbs for standard definition viewing. The minimum speed requirement increases as the definition increases and vice versa. Bandwidth plays an important role as well since some service providers put a cap on the amount of information that can be processed. Most "smart" phone service providers set a cap of 1Gb or 2Gb a month and charge additional fees if this ceiling is ignored. Considering that a standard definition, one hour t.v. show can be close to 200Mb, it is wise to pay attention to the bandwidth being consumed as this can rapidly add up.<ref>http://www.slideshare.net/kenshin1017/introduction-to-multimedia-4663053</ref> [[File:Lifejacket Instructions.jpg|thumb|Text instructions assisted by picture instructions]] There are many advantages that web-based multimedia can offer. One of the biggest benefits of web-based multimedia is that it can address many different types of learning styles. For example, when being taught how to make a paper airplane, someone may prefer written instructions, while someone else may prefer picture instructions. Multimedia can offer picture instructions with captions in order to meet both people’s learning styles. Another advantage of web-based multimedia is that it can make information more enjoyable and interesting to a user. Text-only information can get very boring, but multimedia could be implemented in order to spice up a web-page. For example, when learning where countries lay on a map, a simple picture might not portray the information in an enjoyable fashion. With multimedia, an interactive map could be created and used instead of a picture. An interactive map may be a more enjoyable way for a user to learn the material due to the fact that they must engage with the multimedia. Along with web-based multimedia’s advantages come disadvantages. One disadvantage of web-based multimedia is that it can be very costly and time consuming.<ref>Understanding Computers 14 ed. by Deborah Morley & Charles Parker</ref> Websites that use multimedia generally take more time and skill to develop than a text-based website. Businesses often hire someone to create and arrange multimedia on their webpages.<ref>http://computingclass6hishamuddin.blogspot.com/2012/07/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-using.html</ref> [[File:Augmented reality at Museu de Mataró linking to Catalan Wikipedia (18).JPG|thumb|Augmented reality app used at a museum]] '''Augmented Virtual Reality''' Augmented Virtual Reality is the augmenting or adding-on of certain computer-generated elements to the real world usually through a display. Augmented Virtual Reality can be applied to many different types of technologies and industries and is currently growing within e-commerce. Some companies, such as IKEA are using the technology of Augmented Virtual Reality to give consumers a better view of how furniture will look in their home. Other uses include the application of Augmented Reality within the automobile industry. Certain manufacturers are utilizing the technology within windshields. This is known as Head-Up-Display and is used to allow drivers to see their MPH, fuel gage, and many other information that you would need while driving, without forcing them to take their eyes off the road. Another use of Augmented Virtual Reality is with Google Glass. Google Glass allows users to have all the features of a phone within a display on their glasses and with the use of voice commands. Also, some developments are being made to incorporate Augmented Virtual Reality within the medical field. Although Augmented Virtual Reality is a recent development, it is being used more and more within many devices and will possibly be a social normality within a few years.<ref>http://www.vidhyalive.com/ </ref> ==Multimedia Elements== ===The Five Multimedia Elements=== [[File:Gyro.gif|thumb|Animation]] Text, image, audio, video, and animation are the five multimedia elements. The first multimedia element is text. Text is the most common multimedia element. The text expresses the information the developer is trying to get across to their viewers. Even though pictures grab the viewers’ attention, text is a good idea to include, as well, just in case the picture does not load. The second multimedia element is an image. An image catches the viewers’ attention much more quickly than just plain, old text. Almost every multimedia application contains images. The most common images are JPEGS and PNGs. Also, Photoshop and Paint.NET create high tech visual effects which are common with images. The third multimedia element is audio. Most of the time, audio files are deployed using plug-in media players. A few audio formats include RealAudio, MIDI, Wave, WMA, and MP3. The developer will compress the format to shorten the time. Before the file is downloaded, one can stream the audio. The fourth multimedia element is video. The web is the most common place where videos are seen concerning multimedia elements. A few digital video formats are Flash, MPEG, AVI, WMV, and QuickTime. Streaming digital videos can increase the speed of the playback. Developers use videos to hold on to the viewers’ attention. The fifth multimedia website is animation. Animation draws in the younger crowd. adobe flash is the most common tool for creating these animations. Animations are the most creative and fun multimedia element! <ref>http://smallbusiness.chron.com/5-components-multimedia-28279.html</ref> ====Serif vs. Sans-Serif Fonts & Font Choice==== [[File:Greek letter omega serif+sans.svg|left|100px|thumb|A serif font, on top, and a sans-serif font, on the bottom.]] All fonts, or typefaces, are either serif or sans-serif. "Serif" is Latin for "with feet," while "sans-serif" is Latin for "without feet", and that is the difference: serif fonts have small lines, or serifs, at the bottom of the letters, as if the letters have feet. Sans-serif fonts lack these "feet."<ref>http://graphicdesign.stackexchange.com/tags/serif/info</ref> Times New Roman is the most common and easily recognizable serif font, while the most common and recognizable sans-serif fonts are Arial, Helvetica, and Comic Sans MS. There is some disagreement about whether serif fonts are easier to read than sans-serif ones, or vice versa, but in general, serif fonts are preferred for large bodies of text, especially on physical, printed , while sans-serif fonts are preferred for smaller things, such as headlines, and electronic messages.<ref>http://www.fonts.com/content/learning/fontology/level-2/making-type-choices/serif-v-sans-for-text</ref> Even past the question of whether to use a serif vs a sans-serif font, one should be careful about which ''specific'' font one is using. Different typefaces carry different connotations. A potentially more formal font, such as Times New Roman, would not be suited to something more informal like an invitation to a young child's birthday party; likewise, an informal font like Comic Sans would be very inappropriate for formal messages. When choosing a font, consider the purpose of the message and the audience. ===Video=== [[File:Video Camera.JPG|thumb|120px|left|Video Camera]] Video provides a powerful impact in a multimedia program. It starts with continuous event and breaks it up to frames, whereas an animation starts with frames. Video formats are made up of container and codec(s). The container describes the structure of the file like where the various pieces are stored, how they are interleaved, and which codecs are used by which pieces. A codec is a way of compressing the file to decrease file size, while maintaining quality.<ref>http://www.slideshare.net/shortcomp/4-multimedia-elements-video</ref> Some of the most common video file formats are Audio-Video Interleave (.avi), Flash Video Format (.flv), Moving Picture Experts Group 2 (.mp2), Moving Picture Experts Group 4 (.mp4), QuickTime (.mov), and Windows Media Video (.wmv).<ref>http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_media.asp</ref> In multimedia applications, the digital video is gaining popularity because the video clips can be edited easily, it can be stored like any other files in the computer and the quality of the video can still be maintained, and the video can be transferred within a computer network which allows non-linear editing in any part of the video.<ref>http://www.slideshare.net/azmankadir/multimedia-element-presentation</ref> Just like in audio, in streaming video the traveling information is a stream of data from a server. In 2006, people watched more than a million streaming videos a day on YouTube.<ref>http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/basics/streaming-video-and-audio.htm</ref> ====JPEG, GIF, and PNG Formatting==== [[File:Chameleon GIF.GIF|thumb|Chameleon GIF]] GIF and PNG are two different formats which images are available in. GIF simply means Graphics Interchange Format and is typically used for animations and sometimes single images as well. The images are compressed or made smaller; they are using what is called loss-less data compression. This compression makes it so that the image does not lose quality even if it is compressed due to its ability to have uniformed color with well-defined edges. A GIF is not the best quality format for images because of its limit of colors, which is one of the reasons that PNG was created. PNG are Portable Network Graphics. Their ability to compress is higher quality and allows for alpha transparency, which is basically creating the image with a background so that it looks transparent either partially or fully.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_compositing</ref> They can store more color depth but also take up more space than GIFs in some cases. In cases where this does not apply it is because their ability to have better compression in 8-bit data ends up being smaller than GIFs.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Interchange_Format</ref> PNGs are unlike GIFs because they do not support animations, and are a single-image based format.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics</ref> These formats are used in many Web pages today and are both arguably as important. [[File:Flower stock photo.jpg|thumb|Example of a .jpg image]] The Joint Photographic Experts Group committee created the file format that is otherwise known as JPEG. JPEG is a technique and file format used to compress color images, digital photos, and other digital graphics. Many users who store photographs on their computer will recognize the JPEG file extension recognized as “.jpeg”, or “jpg”. The file size of a selected image can be optimized for different uses, otherwise known as editing a photo to the desired sizes. The file format does so by using a type of compression of the image known as “lossy compression”. The definition of lossy compression is defined as the ability for the image to decrease in file size, taking away a slight decrease in image quality. JPEG files are widely used by consumers as a way to save photos on their computer to view at their desire. However, a user may have interest in sharing these images through e-mail, or a website. As considering using a JPEG file on a website or through email, a user must consider the file size in comparison to the amount of quality of the image. For instance, if a user is interested in posting a photograph on a website of theirs, they must consider file size and formatting. Also, with e-mail, a user must consider the quality of the image they will be sending. The higher the quality of the image being sent, the larger the file size must be. If a user is sending this file over their cellular phone, it may require the use of more data to send a larger file size.<ref>http://graphicdesign.about.com/od/Definitions/g/Jpg-Files.htm</ref> ===Audio=== [[File:Mp3 format logo.svg|thumb|Mp3|alt=Mp3 format logo.svg]] There are many different types of audio files, and the each have their of distinct advantages. The most ubiquitous audio file is the MP3. MP3’s have become the standard audio files on most devices and on most websites. The advantage of MP3 file over different formats is their small size. MP3 files can be compressed, as they do not contain the inaudible sections of an audio track. While this results in good quality audio, while taking up a small amount of space, in certain situation, audio quality can suffer. The compression of MP3 file can distort vocal sounds, and can result in a ‘tinny’ sound. Because, some computers, primarily Windows-based PC’s use WAV files to store audio files. These files are uncompressed, so they take up a large amount of space, but they are of better quality than most MP3 files. As most desktop PC’s have room to spare, better audio quality is substitutes for more space used. Another file type common on windows computers is WMA. This format is optimized for use by Windows Media Player. Is primary advantage is that is copyright protected, but it can only be used on Windows Media Player. Another common audio file is DCT. This type of file is encrypted, and used for medical applications where patient confidentiality is needed.<ref>http://www.nch.com.au/acm/formats.html</ref> ==Multimedia Web Design== ===Basic Design Principles=== The main thing about designing a website is that the whole point is to create a site that is interesting and will bring customers or people to look at it. Not only that, but you have to keep it interesting; people don't want to see the same things on a website at all times. It needs to be updated and changed as time passes. Another important thing to remember is that many people aren't that tech savvy. It is important to keep the website somewhat simplistic. Confusing websites draw people away. It is important to make sure your webpages load quickly, which can be done by choosing multimedia elements carefully and to modify them as necessary, like optimizing photos to make them run as efficient as possible. Nowadays another important thing to consider when creating a website is whether or not people are going to be able to view it from other devices such as their phones, their tablets, or whatever else. It may be beneficial to also create a mobile version of the site. Its important to look at what browser people can use for this website. Some sites have certain features that can only be accessed by certain browsers, it is important to make sure to use features that work well on all common browsers. It would also be beneficial to use features that don't require plug-ins. When people visit a site they are not going to want to have to install something just to go on the site or to access something on the site. It is also important to look at the size of the page content.<ref>http://desktoppub.about.com/od/designprinciples/</ref> You want to be sure that your information can be seen on all computer screens. [[File:Web Design and Development.png|thumb|Web Design and Development]] Web site design can be extremely time consuming and costly. Successful businesses and agencies typically have both the time and the money to have intricate web sites designed. However, for a company just starting out, those things may not be available yet. Fortunately, there are many sites today that offer free website design. Some great sites that offer this are Wix.com, Weebly.com, Yola.com and Moonfruit.com. This could be a great way for a brand new company or organization to be able to get their name out on the web and begin getting some recognition. These free sites make it easy for one who may not know much about web design, as they typically offer easy to use templates and offer step by step instruction along the way to guide one through the design process. Although the web design site is free, users will first have to purchase a domain name. These are available at companies such as GoDaddy, Register.com, Domaine.com and Dyn.com. After purchasing a domain name, it is time for the user to begin filling his site with content. The user has a great deal of freedom in customizing his site to contain the elements desired. Many of the sites mentioned earlier also provide tutorials to help get the site up and running. After the design of the website is complete, the creator can now publish it and get ready for some recognition. It is important for the creator to update the website often and to market the site as much as possible. For any organization or company that may be just getting off its feet, deciding to use a free site to do its web design might be a good option, and with so many sites offering this service, it seems silly not to.<ref>http://www.wikihow.com/Create-a-Free-Website</ref> ===Using Flow Charts, Page Layouts, and Storyboards=== When talking about website design, a flowchart is used to show how different web pages relate to each other. A flowchart is basically a map of the website. There can be links between the lines of the flowchart to take you where you want to go. When designing a website, you can make it as simple or as complicated as you want. Oftentimes, the flowchart is designed in the early stages of the website because it provides a good building ground for the website.<ref>http://www.edrawsoft.com/flow-chart-design.php</ref> Page layout is used in the designing of a website. Typically people create two page layouts; one for the home page and one for all the other pages. This is when you design where you want the different logos, like the home page button, and its when you decide how visually exciting you want your website. While it’s important to make it visually interesting, it is also important to keep it simple so that it does not get too confusing.<ref>http://designshack.net/articles/layouts/10-rock-solid-website-layout-examples/</ref> Storyboards are also something commonly used in website design. Storyboards are a series of pictures that depict what is going to happen on each screen. They are typically used when creating something animated.<ref>http://www.fastcodesign.com/1672917/the-8-steps-to-creating-a-great-storyboard</ref> ====How to Start a Storyboard==== There are a few steps to take to make a great storyboard for a web site design. It is important to bring your ideas even if you think they are not that good. Next you need to draw them out on paper; One paper is faster and you can always toss it away if it doesn't look the way you want. Additionally it is good to use paper because on paper anyone can add to the design and you do not have to have a lot of experience making web sites. After drawing it out next is to find a focus from those drawings to make sure that each part of the website is completed. Following, take notes to see if there is anything that needs to be added. After that take the drawings that are completed and put them in a mind map to see the website more visually. Then critique the storyboard and make adjustments to the design. It is also important that other people look at it as well so you can various opinions on the storyboard.<ref>http://www.fastcodesign.com/1672917/the-8-steps-to-creating-a-great-storyboard</ref> When the storyboard is all finished make sure that the navigation, site structure, and content are done well. For navigation it is important to have everything at least a click away, at the maximum it should be 3. For site structure check if it is too complex and that there are visuals, glossary, table of contents, and or an index. The content should be understandable, creative, and flow together. Google.com<ref>http://public.wsu.edu/~ericsson/story_bd.html</ref> ===Navigational Design Considerations=== [[File:Refreshable Braille display.jpg|thumb|Braille Display]] While creating a Web site, it is important not to overlook small details. The structure of the site is the most significant part for easy navigation. Headlines and main menus need to be organized in a way that is understandable for users. Many experts and Internet users agree that it should only take up to three mouse clicks to return to the main page and to search more easily. Different forms that are used in Web sites include search boxes, drop-down menus, site maps, text-based hyperlinks, navigation bars, and menu tabs. Images can also be another hyperlink to transfer to another page on the site. It is crucial that the Web site has the same links in the same location as the previous page. Things would get confusing if the user had to look over each navigation button every time they entered a new area on the site. Long Web pages should be separated into shorter, more concise pages to avoid loading and scrolling. On many Websites today users will see “Back to Top” to navigate back to the top of the page, mostly on long Web pages. Most importantly, a link to the Home Page should be listed on every Web page according to the Web site.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_navigation</ref> ===Access Considerations=== Device Compatibility and Assistive Technology should be taken into consideration while creating a multimedia Web site. As our society grows with more ways to reach the Internet than just the computer, Web site creators need to be aware of the fact that the public is using their Web sites on Smartphones, Tablets, iPads, and much more. The layout may be different on these smaller devices than would a desktop computer. Sites are now creating multiple ways to work with any form of technology. With stricter disability laws being put into place, we have started to think about different ways to inform the physically disabled via the Internet on Web sites. Braille display <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refresh able_braille_display</ref> and screen readers <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_reader</ref> are just some of the newly advanced technology that can be used. Alternative text <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Alternative_text_for_images</ref> can be used, which is a text description for a web page image. These text descriptions of images are valuable for vision impaired users of the web site. [[File:Plage-braille.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Refreshable Braille Display]] Refreshable Braille Displays are an electronic device, connected to a computer via a serial or USB cable, which uses small metal or plastic pins that move up and down to display braille characters so a blind person can read what is displayed visually on the computer.<ref>http://www.afb.org/info/living-with-vision-loss/for-job-seekers/careerconnect-virtual-worksites/retail-worksite-for-blind-users/refreshable-braille-display-3652/12345</ref> The “refreshable” quality means that the braille display is constantly changing as the user scrolls the mouse around the web page or document. The user can move the mouse around by through either the command keys or cursor routing keys located on the device, or through Windows and screen reader commands.<ref>http://www.afb.org/ProdBrowseCatResults.asp?CatID=43</ref> Typically screen reading software, or just a screen reader, is used in conjunction with a digital braille display to give the ultimate experience for people with vision loss. A screen reader translates information on a web site into electronic text, which is sent to a speech synthesizer (so output is heard audibly) or to the refreshable braille display. The only thing that the screen reader cannot read is graphics; this is why it is important to include descriptions of pictures and “hover-over” captions when designing a web page to be sensitive to those with vision disabilities.<ref>http://www.afb.org/info/screen-reading-technology/5</ref> While some may only need the speech synthesizer, most prefer to have the refreshable braille display because it provides direct access to information and thus increases efficiency in completing tasks; allows the user to check spelling, grammar, and formatting of their own input and is quiet, so it can be used anywhere without it be being disturbing to others. Refreshable Braille Displays come in 40, 70, and 80 character displays and can range from $3,500 to $15,000 depending on the character display.<ref>http://www.afb.org/ProdBrowseCatResults.asp?CatID=43</ref> ==Creating a Web Site using HTML, XML, XHTML, CSSs== <h3>'''''HTML'''''</h3> [[File:HTML Tags.png|thumb|HTML Tags <ref>http://www.compapp.dcu.ie/~humphrys/Notes/Internet/index.html</ref>]] HTML or Hypertext Markup Language is mostly used to create webpages. HTML is a code made up of small pieces called ''tags''. Tags are small pieces of the HTML code that give commands to the computer on how to format whatever it is linked to. tags begin with a less than symbol (<), then the command is written, then closed with a greater than symbol (>). That is the beginning tag. Next the text it applies to is inserted. Then, the tag is ended with a less than symbol (<), followed by a common slash (/), then the same command code as it began with, then a greater than symbol (>). So, your basic code will look something like this: ''''' </(insert code)> Applied Text Here </(insert code)> '''''. There are so many different things you can do with HTML. You can <mark>highlight text</mark> <mark style="background:lightblue">(even in different colors)</mark>, you can <span style="color:red">make text different colors</span>, you can <abbr title="Create Definitions or Captions that Appear upon Rollover">(Hover Mouse Here)</abbr>, as well as '''bold face''' or ''italicize'' text. These are just some of the basic modifications that can be created by using HTML formatting.There are even ways to insert images as well hyperlinks. Here I have inserted [//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Computer_Information_Systems= A Link to Our Wikibook Homepage] and even the pictures you see to the right. The possibilities are almost endless when using HTML. The biggest problem with HTML is that most people do not want to take the time to sit down and learn all of the little codes and specifications. It is very useful when trying to organize webpages once it is mastered. HTML allows users the ability to manage where images, videos, animations, and text formatting are all located. It is a very powerful and useful design tool and something that seems to be somewhat overlooked and taken for granted. [[File:Html5-source-code.svg|left|thumb|HTML5 source code]] The newest version of HTML is HTML5, which is being created to replace both HTML and XHTML. HTML5 is designed to be simpler and many things have changed or added to the coding for HTML5. The DOCTYPE and character encoding declarations have both changed to be simpler to code. Along with new declarations have come new elements for semantics, controls, graphics, and multimedia because more and more websites are becoming more complex with more information being packed into a website. Some of the new semantic elements include <header> and <footer>, which make it easier for a web designer to indicate where a new page will begin and end. New controls for HTML5 markup language include the date, time, and a calendar to help users be more aware. The biggest addition for HTML5 is the <audio> and <video> multimedia elements, because a multitude of users love to be able to listen or watch something that is useful on the website. This is especially true for e-commerce websites because potential buyers would like to be able to see a product in use, which can be shown through a video. All in all, HTML5 is a newer markup language that simplifies the coding for web designers and also makes their websites more appealing to look at.<ref>http://www.w3schools.com/html/html5_intro.asp</ref> ===A Brief History Of CSS=== To make your website truly stand out, it needs a sense of style greater than what HTML and its ilk can provide. This is where CSSs come into play. CSSs stand for Cascading Style Sheets, and they offer a way to not only specifically style a Web page but even the entire Web site to which it belongs. Before CSSs there had been individuals who created style sheets for their own purposes but thought it unnecessary to publish their developed syntax, believing that each browser should decide how best to display pages to its users. When Web page writers issued complaints that they couldn't customize more deeply, they were generally ignored, forced to deal with browsers that offered consistently fewer options for the sake of streamlining. To address this, a Norwegian by the name of Hakon Wium Lie offered a first draft of Cascading HTML Style Sheets in 1994. He couldn't have imagined how popular his development would become.<ref>http://www.w3.org/Style/LieBos2e/history/</ref> CSSs offer plenty of room for style without being needlessly complicated like some of its rival setups, such as DSSSL. The easiest way to describe what makes CCS stand out as a language is how it works to separate the content of a page from its display.<ref>http://mashable.com/2012/10/24/css-for-dummies/</ref> CSS3 is the most popular variation of CSS right now, but number 4 is already growing in notoriety. ===XML and XHTML=== [[File:Xhtml.png|thumb|A part of a Webpage written in XHTML.]] Similar, yet very different than HTML, another type of markup language is called Extensible Markup Language, a universal format for structured documents and data on the Web. The biggest difference between the two markup languages is the fact that HTML describes presentation, whereas XML describes content. Simply, HTML describes the actual content such as text and graphic images, but only in terms of how it is to be displayed and interacted with. On the other hand, XML describes the content in terms of ''what'' data is being described. To do so, XML tags are then assigned to pieces of data. Once the data is tagged, it can be used with any XML document. XML is called “extensible” because the data contained in XML documents can be extracted and used whenever needed. <ref>http://www.w3schools.com/XML/xml_whatis.asp</ref> Another version of HTML that is based on XML is known as the Extensible Hypertext Markup Language, or XHTML. It combines the flexibility of HTML with the extensibility of XML. This language is used to create Web pages while also supporting XML, unlike HTML. This way, XML controls the actual content displayed, while XHTML controls the appearance and format of the Web page. However, one major difference between XHTML tags and HTML tags is the fact that there are stricter rules about how the markup tags are written. For example, unlike HTML, while using XHTML, all tags must be written in lowercase letter, every tag must have an end tag, and quotation marks are required for values. <ref>http://personalweb.about.com/od/basichtml/a/409xhtml_2.htm</ref> ===AJAX=== [[File:Ajax-vergleich-en.svg|thumb|Ajax-vergleich-en]] Many modern websites use a technology called AJAX, for fast and effective interaction with the visitor. AJAX has become a very popular method to retrieve data from the server in the background and the Dynamic Update page. AJAX stands for "Asynchronous JavaScript And XML". Developing code to JavaScript for AJAX implementation from scratch is very time consuming and tedious process. However, many libraries JavaScript, including jQuery, have excellent high-level AJAX implementation as a set of methods and functions that make it easier and faster to build web sites. AJAX is a development technique for Web applications in which JavaScript code in the visitor's browser communicates with the web server asynchronously, i.e. in the background. When you click links or forms contained on Convectional Web page a request is being sent to a new URL on the web server. The server sends a completely new page of HTML, which a browser displays, replacing the original page. When using technology AJAX, JavaScript code makes a request to the URL on the server. The code may also send the data along with the request. JavaScript code then processes the response from the server, and acts accordingly. For example, the calculation can be made with the returned data is added or updated widget on the page, a message to the visitor to update the database on the server. Since AJAX request runs in the background, the code JavaScript (and a visitor) can continue to work with the page during query processing. The process is hidden from the visitor, who does not need to leave the page they are currently viewing time. This makes the page with AJAX is very pleasant to use. <ref>http://www.w3schools.com/ajax/ajax_intro.asp</ref> ==Multimedia Web Development (Scripting, Development Tools, Authoring Software, and Testing)== ===Creating the Multimedia Elements=== [[File:Multimedia GANTT Chart.jpg|thumb|Media]] Multimedia presentation uses graphics, sound clip, video clips, and text to deliver a message to the audience. All you need is a multimedia authoring program and a computer in order to create a presentation. The reason in using multimedia will be able to not only get the message you want to convey to the audience out but it provides a creative way in making it for the viewer. These following are types of situations that would see yourself wanting to use multimedia presentations in order to provide a creative presentation. One is for projects in order to show your teacher or a classmate in a more formal setting, another would be a class exhibit for the library or computer lab, for a more personal use you could utilize it as a diary, and the last two ways would be in a slideshow format and or utilize it for a yearbook. The three C’s in making a good multimedia presentation would be keeping it Clean, being Consistent and bring Character to the presentations. Next you will need to design the presentations in which make it able to be presentable and attract the attention of the audience. To continue, you’ll have to plan your presentation. Make an outline and make sure you understand the major topics of the presentation. Next the presenter will have to choose their media; multimedia elements support the main points of the presentation. Certain data will benefit the presentation as well, like, charts, graphs, maps, images and videos. Afterwards, review revise and rearrange so you know that the information is accurate and ready to be presented. ===Creating the web Site=== [[File:Python logo and wordmark.svg|thumb|Python is a programming language used in web design]] Web site developers use a number of tools to create web sites. These can be divided into three large groups: markup languages, scripting languages, and web site authoring software. '''Markup languages''' are the foundation; they are coding systems that create the overall structure/appearance of the web page by the use of tags. Tags are commands that allow the web page designer to arrange text and multimedia. HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, is the dominant markup language used today. The current version is HTML5, and it is intended to replace both HTML and XHTML, another markup language. '''Scripting languages''' allow the developer to create instructions, or scripts, that run in the code of the web page. One example of a very popular scripting language used today is Javascript. Scripting languages are found everywhere.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_language</ref> For example, Ajax technology is found in the widely-used services Google Maps and Gmail. When used in combination with markup languages, scripting languages can enable developers to implement a wide-range of features and content into their web pages. [[File:Adobe Dreamweaver CS4 icon.png|thumb|left|Adobe Dreamweaver]] '''Web site authoring software''' is used to make more complex web pages where developers can take advantage of commands that automatically generate tags and Cascading Style Sheets, which are used in the look and formatting of what was written by the markup language. This enables the developer to work in a more productive manner because animations, effects, backgrounds, etc. can be applied all at one time. For example, when menu options are selected, the appropriate JavaScript or other code used to add animation or interactivity is generated. Along with this, web site authoring programs almost always have the capability to include a variety of multimedia elements, like Shockwave and Flash animations, animated GIFs, video clips, and audio clips. Two of the most popular web site authoring programs are ''Adobe Dreamweaver'' and ''Microsoft Expression web.'' There are a few general features of web authoring applications a designer should know. This includes WYSIWYG, which stands for ''What You See Is What You Get'', users can click and drag various website elements to a design canvas without having to code these widgets manually. Advantages of authoring software also include the ability to set up and use templates to ensure consistency between webpages and multi-media can be inserted into webpages. However, a disadvantage for using a web site authoring software is that it's not intuitive and easy to pick and use, some training or technical knowledge is needed. Web sites developed with these tools may not be coded efficiently, which leads to increased load times for users. Also, one needs a basic understanding of HTML. Furthermore, web site authoring software can be an expensive purchase.<ref>http://www.teach-ict.com/as_a2_ict_new/ocr/AS_G061/313_standard_applications/types_software/miniweb/pg6.htm</ref> [[File:Weebly logo 2013.png|thumb|Weebly is a popular website builder]] '''Website Builders''' are web-based tools that make it easy to create websites for small businesses or for personal purposes. One of the big advantages of using a website builder is that it no longer requires a very extensive knowledge of HTML. So it require minimal technical knowledge to create a website. Another advantage is that it is made to be user friendly. So making a website has been made to be an easier and less daunting task. Another big advantage, especially for businesses, is that they offer mobile web design. Now that smartphones have become the norm. Most websites have a mobile version to them. So some website builders give responsive design to websites wherein they change when viewed on a mobile device as opposed to a computer. There are also plenty of website builders. Some may be free others may not. But mostly those that require payment also end up being the ones with the most features. A disadvantage of website builders though is that they can be expensive and while they give you a domain and an address, once you want to move your website to another host, some may not be able to thanks to a custom code they use.<ref>http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2484510,00.asp</ref> Most website builders will include "What You see is what you get" builders that let you create it by dragging and dropping website elements into the content area. However, sometimes it is hard to differentiate between quality website builders since some products are not up to their task (costing more money or time than anticipated) but still it is a great and easy way to set up one's “virtual storefront”. <ref>http://1stwebdesigner.com/easiest-website-builder/</ref> '''Other Content Development Tools''' [[File:ActiveX logo.svg|thumb|ActiveX by Microsoft]] ActiveX is a component of the software in Microsoft’s Windows operating system. Many of Windows’ applications such as Internet Explorer, Microsoft Office, and Windows Media Player use ActiveX in order to embed their functions into other applications. Microsoft Internet Explorer replacement browser, Microsoft Edge, will not support ActiveX, marking the end of the technology. ===Testing, Publishing, and Maintaining the Site=== It is extremely important, before your webpage goes out, to make sure that it is up and running and functioning at one hundred percent capability. This means that there cannot be any bugs, glitches, or error pages displayed when a user is utilizing your web page. Though this may seem easy enough, there are many different steps that one should go through to make sure their page is up to speed. Every link, icon, animation, picture, and etc., needs to be tested. Many websites like to utilize the software that is out there that will manually do these needed checks for you, however it is still important to keep an eye out personally for anything that could be raising red flags. At this point, after vigorous testing, the site should be set and ready to be published. All though the page has been successfully published, the work does not stop there. Many people like to think that they are set for the future, but these pages require constant maintenance. The publisher needs to be constantly checking to make sure everything is still running smoothly, things are still up to date, and links and animation are still functioning. With out this much needed maintenance, a site becomes difficult and outdated, and users will go out of their way to make sure that they do not use it.<ref>http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/publisher-help/prepare-publish-and-maintain-your-publisher-web-site-HA010094760.aspx</ref> <ref>http://go.hrw.com/eolang/myomed/bringit.htm</ref> ===Bandwidth Considerations=== In the age of the Internet, nearly everyone is online one way or another; however, not everyone has unlimited access. There are still people who only have mobile phones that are capable of accessing the World Wide Web, but with data limits. When creating a website it is important to consider this.<ref>http://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/index.html?nbId=7345&nbNodeId=1013914#!&parentId=1013939</ref> When a website is created, it has individual elements that have varying sizes. For example, recently the search engine "Google" has redesigned their logo and, in turn, reduced the size of the image from 6,380 bytes (6Kb) to 305 bytes.<ref>http://gizmodo.com/how-could-googles-new-logo-be-only-305-bytes-while-its-1728793790</ref> This allows people with data limits to access the website more, because every time the page is loaded, it uses less data. ===Demand for Multimedia web Site Development=== [[File:web Design and Development.png|thumb|web Design and Development]] In this day and age everything is online, everyday individuals go online and they use the Internet for different purposes. There is a lot of money in the industry to make web sites. The demand for these sites is that they are intriguing, useful, and navigable to users. Companies hire web designers and web developers to create multimedia elements and create sites for the online presence of the company. As a web designer, you need to have knowledge in Photoshop, Illustrator, HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. A good web developer needs to know all the things that a web designer needs to know plus advanced programming skills. Graphic design has truly emerged as a demanding field of the economy with new technological developments in multimedia and software. As mentioned above, HTML5 and CSS3 are new coding techniques that are available for developers. Students interested in these fields should continue to study HTML and CSS.<ref>http://www.orientinfosolutions.com/articles/multimedia-web-design.php</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} ==Review== In the world we live in today, we are constantly bombarded by multimedia through billboards, signs, logos, texts, ads, emails, and our day to day web browsing. Below is a list of vocab from the chapter and the words general definitions. Below the list is a set of fill in the blank questions. Use the vocab list to help you fill the blanks. Some words may not be used. Then check your answers at the bottom of the page. 1) '''Multimedia:''' Integration of a variety of media. 2) '''Web-based Multimedia:''' (aka rich media) refers to multimedia of any kind located on a Web page. 3) '''Virtual Reality (VR):''' used in E-commerce to show what a product or service will look like or do in the real world. 4) '''Text:''' used to supply basic content and is important in most Web sites. 5) '''Images/Graphics:''' digital representations of photographs, drawings, charts, and other visual objects. 6) '''GIF:''' (Graphics Interchange Format) used most commonly with non-photographic images and is the standard format for Web page images. 7) '''PNG:''' (Portable Network Graphics) the responding format created in 1996 because of issues with the GIF format. 8) '''JPEG:''' (Joint Photographic Experts Group) the standard format for photographs based on the Web. 9) '''Thumbnail Image:''' smaller images (similar to icons) that are linked to the full size images of larger files. 10) '''Java Applet:''' a small program in a Web page designed to perform a specific task from calculations to animations. 11) '''Animated GIF:''' a group of GIF images stored together in one animated file. 12) '''Flash or Silverlight:''' Animation developing tools. 13) '''Audio:''' All types of sound (music, voice, and effects, etc). 14) '''Video:''' a continuous stream of visual information that is broken into frames when the video is recorded. 15) '''Web Site Design:''' refers to the process of planning what your Web site will look like and how it will work. 16) '''Flowchart:''' describes how things relate to one another. 17) '''Page Layout:''' illustrate the layout and navigational structure of a Web site. 18) '''Storyboard:''' an ordered series of sketches depicting each page or screen in an animation sequence. 19) '''Alternative Text:''' captions of images to allow those who are unable to view the images the clarification of what they are missing. 20) '''Web Site Development:''' Creating a Web site after it has been designed. 21) '''Markup Language:''' a coding system used to define the structure, layout, and general appearance of the content of a Web page. 22) '''HTML (Hypertext Markup Language):''' The original Markup Language designed for creating Web pages. 23) '''XML (Extensible Markup Language):''' a set of rules for exchanging data over the Web. 24) '''XHTML (Extensible Hypertext Markup Language):''' a version of HTML that is based on XML. 25) '''Cascading Style Sheets (CSSs):''' specifies the styles used with a Web page or an entire Web site. 26) '''Wireless Markup Language (WML):''' language based on XML that is used to create Web pages to be displayed on WAP-enabled wireless devices (such as older mobile phones and those used in some developing countries). 27) '''JavaScript:''' developed to enable Web authors to implement interactive Web sites. 28) '''AJAX:''' A set of Web standards designed to better handle Web page interactivity by downloading only new data from the Web server, instead of redownloading the entire Web page. 29) '''Web Site Authoring Software:''' a type of application program used to create Web pages and entire Web sites. '''Quick Quiz:''' '''1.''' HTML, XML, and _______ are all forms of _______. '''2.''' Multimedia (sound, video, animations, text, and images) located on Web Pages is known as __________ or rich media. '''3.''' Many sites such as https://www.youtube.com integrate _______ and _______ into their site to provide entertainment to viewers and/or listeners. '''4.''' The three main types of images include ¬¬¬¬¬¬______, _______, and ______. '''5.''' Placing pages in a ¬¬¬_____ show how they are related, while using a _____ shows the order of specific animation sequences. '''Answers:''' '''1.''' XHTML (Also Acceptable: CSS or WML or XRML); Markup Languages '''2.''' Web-based Multimedia '''3.''' Audio; Video '''4.''' GIF; PNG; JPEG '''5.''' Flowchart; Storyboard {{BookCat}} 4moatdco1dzfrli6pgkky6rsxr7nbeu 0 299561 4634968 4057488 2026-05-09T14:52:26Z CommonsDelinker 49843 Replacing Logo_de_Enron.svg with [[File:Logo_of_Enron_Corporation_(1997).svg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR2|Criterion 2]]). 4634968 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Seal of the United States National Security Agency.svg|thumb|right|National Security Agency]] In 1972, Perry Fellwock, a former NSA analyst and Air Force Security Service veteran, exposed the National Security Agency and its worldwide surveillance network in an interview with Ramparts magazine under the alias Winslow Peck. The National Security Agency was formally established in 1952 by President Truman in a memorandum<ref>President Truman, Harry S. (1952). Memorandum to National Security Council Intelligence Directive 9. [https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/truman/assets/files/truman-memo.pdf]</ref> which revised the National Security Council Intelligence Directive (NSCID) 9.<ref> National Security Council Intelligence Directive 9. (1950). ''National Security Agency''. [https://www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/nsa-60th-timeline/assets/files/pre-nsa/19500310_PreNSA_Doc_3978420_NSCID9.pdf]</ref> Since the memorandum was a classified document, prior to Fellwock's interview there was little public knowledge of the existence much less the capabilities of the NSA. The secrecy that has clouded the NSA since its inception is the root of the moniker 'No Such Agency'.<ref>Gearan, Anne (2013). 'No Such Agency' spies on the communications of the world. ''The Washington Post''. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/no-such-agency-spies-on-the-communications-of-the-world/2013/06/06/5bcd46a6-ceb9-11e2-8845-d970ccb04497_story.html]</ref> During his time working for the NSA, Fellwock was stationed at an Istanbul listening post for two years monitoring Soviet air and ground forces and penetrating communications defenses. In 1968, Fellwock left the NSA and volunteered for service in Vietnam. Assigned to the Air Force Security Service, Fellwock flew on Airborne Radio Direction Finding missions to locate and monitor Vietcong military positions. <ref name=ramparts_interview>Columbia University, Butler Library, Microfilm, No. 3044, ''Ramparts'' v. 11. 1-12. July 1972 - June 1973. Call No. Fa612 (2nd of 2 rolls). [http://cryptome.org/jya/nsa-elint.htm]</ref> He transferred to the Air Force Reserves in 1969 and attempted to return to college. In the wake of the [[w: Kent State shootings | Kent State shootings]], he dropped out of school after one semester and joined the [[w: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|Anti-Vietnam War movement]]. Today, Fellwock lives in Long Island where he makes a living as an antiques dealer.<ref name = gawker_interview>Chen, A. (2013). After 30 years of silence, the original NSA whistleblower looks back. ''Gawker''. [http://gawker.com/after-30-years-of-silence-the-original-nsa-whistleblow-1454865018] </ref> == Perry Fellwock the Whistleblower == === Fellwock Learns the Truth === When Perry Fellwock started as a communications interceptor and analyst for the NSA, he was under the impression that he was working to preserve world peace and prevent World War 3. Instead, Fellwock discovered some disturbing truths that had been kept secret from the American public. During his time at the NSA, Fellwock witnessed the shady back-channel dealings of NSA personnel and the U.S. Government. Fellwock learned that the reason the NSA had to preserve its level of secrecy had less to do with its role in the intelligence community and more with the limitless scope of its mission. He claimed that Soviet aggression had been purposefully exaggerated to justify increased military spending, that the government's account of the Vietnam War was a lie, and that most NSA employees (including himself) were guilty of corruption. <blockquote>Quite a few people in NSA are into illegal activities of one kind or another. It's taken to be one of the fringe benefits of the job. You know, enhancing your pocketbook. Practically everybody is into some kind of smuggling. People inside NSA got involved with the white slave trade...There's no customs or anything like that for NSA people. Myself, I was involved in the transportation of money. A lot of us would pool our cash, buy up various restricted currencies on our travels, and then exchange it at a favorable rate...It's hard for me to relate to the whole thing now. Looking back, it's like that was another person doing those things and feeling those feelings." <ref name = ramparts_interview/></blockquote> Despite these shocking realizations and his feelings of guilt, Fellwock kept silent and removed himself from the situation by volunteering in Vietnam. Due to his exposure to unfiltered military reports, Fellwock gained insight into the war being kept secret from the rest of the world. Disgusted by what he learned, Fellwock left the military and intelligence community to return to civilian life. Upon returning to the U.S., Fellwock joined the anti-war movement but chose not to disclose any of the classified information. Eventually, Fellwock was overcome by guilt and contacted Ramparts with his desire for an interview. === Fellwock Blows the Whistle === [[File:Dissident Activities in Indochina.svg|thumb|right|A CIA map of dissident activities in Indochina published as part of the Pentagon Papers]] When Fellwock decided to blow the whistle on the NSA, he claimed he was inspired by Daniel Ellsberg (a whistle-blower who had leaked the [[w: Pentagon Papers | Pentagon Papers]] a year earlier and was currently facing charges of espionage). Fellwock wanted to come forward for quite some time but was fearful of government retaliation. Fellwock used the alias Winslow Peck to protect his relatives, but was well aware that the NSA would quickly discover that he was the interviewee. Fellwock's main goal in exposing the NSA was to expose their extensive abuses of power and government appointed secrecy. As a part of the anti-war movement, Fellwock felt that his interview would spur enough public outrage to force the U.S. to end the war effort. These are some of the most severe accusations Fellwock made during his Ramparts interview: <blockquote>All trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific telephone calls to or from the U.S. are tapped. Every conversation, personal, commercial, whatever, is automatically intercepted and recorded on tapes...The treaty [UKUSA Agreement] is a one-way street. We violate it even with our Second party allies by monitoring their communications constantly.<ref name=ramparts_interview/></blockquote> Fellwock accused the NSA of illegally monitoring the phone calls of U.S. citizens and violating the Geneva Code by intercepting communist radio transmissions. Even more seriously, he accused them of violating a treaty which the United States had established (the [[w: UKUSA Agreement|UKUSA Agreements]] of 1947) by spying on their own allies. After giving detailed explanations of the vast surveillance and military advantages the United States held over the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the interviewer asked: <blockquote>The implications of what you're saying are very serious. In effect, it means that based on your knowledge there is no real "balance of terror" in the world. Theoretically, if we know where every Soviet missile installation, military aircraft and missile submarine is at every moment, we are much closer than anyone realized to a first-strike capacity that would cripple their ability to respond.</blockquote> Fellwock responded with a simple affirmative, "Check".<ref name=ramparts_interview/> He had similar experiences when working for the Air Force Security Service during the Vietnam War. Fellwock determined that President Nixon's justifications for his war-time [[w: Vietnamization|policies]], primarily the narrative of North Vietnam invading South Vietnam, were inconsistent with surveillance reports. Fellwock's message to the public: "There's no invasion".<ref name=ramparts_interview/> In his most recent interview with Gawker journalist Adrian Chen in 2013, Fellwock stated his intended message, "Most people in those days thought that the NSA and CIA worked for the U.S. government. But they don't. They're an entity unto themselves. This community operates outside of the Constitution."<ref name = gawker_interview/> </br> [[File:Surveyed_Consequences_of_Whistleblowing.png |thumb|Surveyed Consequences of Whistle-blowing <ref>Soft Skull Press. (2011). The Whistleblower Confessions of A Healthcare Hitman. Retrieved March 28, 2011.</ref>|500x400px|bottom|right]] === Fellwock Takes Responsibility === Fellwock's decision to speak out against the NSA gave him a reason to be concerned, as the consequences for whistle-blowing can be extreme. Before deciding to release the interview, Fellwock and the editors of Ramparts contacted a lawyer from Daniel Ellsberg's defense team for advice. His primary fears were that he and his interviewers would be tried for espionage by the NSA. Despite the risks, they released the article. Luckily for Fellwock, the NSA could not bring charges against him without further incriminating themselves in the public eye. When asked for his thoughts on the actions of recent NSA whistle-blower Edward Snowden, Fellwock explained that he believes Snowden is a patriot who did the right thing. However, Fellwock disagrees with Snowden's decision to flee the country saying, “I think he [Snowden] should have stayed here and faced the consequences".<ref name=gawker_interview/> By hiding from the repercussions, Snowden compromised the value of his actions. == The Revolving Door == [[File:Logo of Enron Corporation (1997).svg|thumb|left|alt=Logo of Enron Corporation (1997).svg]] The [[w: Revolving door (politics)|revolving door]] is a political term that refers to “the movement of personnel between roles as legislators and regulators and the industries affected by the legislation and regulation”. This can lead to regulatory capture which is “the process by which regulatory agencies eventually come to be dominated by the very industries they were charged with regulating. Regulatory capture happens when a regulatory agency, formed to act in the public's interest, eventually acts in ways that benefit the industry it is supposed to be regulating, rather than the public.”<ref>Regulatory Capture. ''Investopedia.'' [http://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/regulatory-capture.asp]</ref> This environment can lead to the internal corruption that can eventually prompt whistle-blowing. [[File:Arthur Andersen Witnesses.jpg|thumb|right|Arthur Andersen Witnesses]] To illustrate the revolving door concept, I’ll draw upon the Enron scandal. To summarize, as a result of deregulation for Enron, they were able to falsify their financial earnings. So even when their profits were plummeting, they were able to hide it. By misrepresenting earnings, they were able to maintain the revenue provided my investors who were not privy to the real financial situation of Enron. There was a revolving door between Enron (industry) and Arthur Anderson (regulator) that enabled this to happen. Enron hired more than 80 accountants from Arthur Anderson with large pay raises. This meant that sometimes auditors were reviewing accounting work of a former boss or colleague. Richard Causey was initially the head of the Enron Audit team for Arthur Anderson eventually left the auditing firm to join Enron. He soon became Enron’s Chief Accounting Officer. Causey was close friends with David Duncan, the new head of Anderson’s Enron audit team who was now going to be reviewing him.<ref>Colins, Denis. (2009). Essentials of Business Ethics: Creating an Organization of High Integrity and Superior Performance. ''Wiley Online Library''. [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118386163.fmatter/pdf]</ref> This type of interchanging of personnel between regulatory agencies and industry creates an environment of corruption. To bring this back to Booze Allen and the Fellwock case “It is no longer possible to determine the difference between employees of the NSA and employees of companies such as Booz Allen”. <ref>Chatterjee, Pratap. (2013). How Booz Allen Made the Revolving Door Redundant. ''Inter Press Service''. [http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/06/how-booz-allen-made-the-revolving-door-redundant/]</ref> The revolving door is a consistent theme in upper level corruption that can prompt whistle-blowers to act. == Recurrent Whistle-blower Themes == The themes which led Perry Fellwock to whistle-blowing were not a unique phenomenon. They are recurrent circumstances which have led others to blow the whistle on powerful organizations at their own peril. Four themes in particular lead to the creation of a whistle-blower: # The whistle-blower is a subordinate employee or official rather than a manager, supervisor, or ranking officer. The whistle-blower is almost never an authority in the organization. # The organization’s activities were secretive, either classified or privately confidential, and carefully kept from the public eye. Security agencies, the army and financial interests err of the side of secrecy. # People in the organization repeatedly behaved unethically or illegally without intervention or punishment and in some cases due to direct orders from superiors. Sometimes colleagues of the whistle-blower are the problem and sometimes it is the bosses. # Superiors are aware of unethical or illegal behavior and either condone it, ignore it or cover it up. When it is the colleagues the bosses do little or nothing to abate their activities and when it is the bosses they act as though there was simply nothing wrong done. When an employee, representative, soldier, or official feels strongly their organization and its superiors aware of systematic wrong doing and do nothing to abate it, the formula to create a whistle-blower is set. Taking action is usually the hardest part for these people so it is likely that there are many people who have experienced these themes and remained silent === Other Whistle-blowers === [[File:Daniel Ellsberg 2006.jpg|thumb|175x250px|right|link=Professionalism/Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers |Daniel Ellsberg]]Prior to Fellwock, [[Professionalism/Daniel_Ellsberg_and_the_Pentagon_Papers|Daniel Ellsberg]] released top-secret papers from the Pentagon in order to bring about a stop to the Vietnam War. The professionalism characteristics Fellwock displayed were also apparent in Ellsberg's actions. Ellsberg had a lot power and thus an immense amount of responsibility given his professional career. He decided to act on his self-knowledge, and took responsibility for his actions. He endured prosecution and ridicule from the American public, but successfully defended his position as a professional. After Fellwock, [[Professionalism/Edward_Snowden_and_the_NSA|Edward Snowden]] disclosed thousands of classified documents that exposed several global surveillance programs run by the NSA, Five Eyes, and other European constituents. Snowden claims to have done this because he believes what these organizations are doing are unconstitutional and solicit consent from the public. He acted on his self-knowledge, but did not remain in the United States to endure any possible repercussions. Snowden does not fit the model that has been laid out for professionalism by Fellwock although his actions were similar. [[File:Edward Snowden-2.jpg|thumb|left|175x250px|Edward Snowden]] In the private sector, Alayne Fleischmann worked as a securities lawyer for JP Morgan Chase during the time right before the subprime mortgage crises. She worked inside the diligence department which was responsible for checking and approving the quality and accuracy of mortgage backed securities. She notices a pattern of fraud as securities were sold to investors with ratings inconsistent with their real value. The head of the diligence department not only condoned misrepresenting the securities, but even ordered subordinates to falsify ratings. Fleischmann informed a JP Morgan Chase superior that the bank is committing fraud, but she was ignored. A short time later she was laid off. When the securities began to fail she offered her testimony to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and to the Department of Justice (DOJ) before retelling her story to media outlets. Fleischmann was never called to testify in front of a grand jury or in court and JP Morgan Chase negotiated a settlement with the DOJ. The DOJ claimed to have an expert witness which they used as leverage during the negotiations; Fleischmann later learned that she was the expert witness.<ref>Taibbi, M. (2014, November 6). The $9 Billion Witness: Meet JPMorgan Chase's Worst Nightmare. Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 9, 2016. [http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-9-billion-witness-20141106]</ref> [[File:Bradley Manning US Army.jpg|thumb|top|175x250px|Bradley Manning]] [[Professionalism/Bradley Manning and WikiLeaks|Bradley Manning]] was a Private in the U.S. Army who was responsible for the largest leak in U.S. history via Wikileaks. Manning disclosed documents and archives on the conduct of the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars, including information about civilian death totals or ‘collateral damages’. Manning has said: “If you had free reign over classified networks… and you saw incredible things, awful things… things that belonged in the public domain, and not on some server stored in a dark room in Washington DC… what would you do?” He was assigned a data job and granted high-level clearances where he was able to access the secretive safe-guarded information. His leak was similar to Snowden’s in that neither tried to get help from outside organizations before deciding to blow the whistle. It is likely in both cases that the whistle-blowers believed their direct superiors and the leaders of their organizations were aware of the sensitive information and its significance, but were never going to act on it. Manning received a 35 year prison sentence for his actions.<ref>About Chelsea Manning. (n.d.). Retrieved May 9, 2016. [https://www.chelseamanning.org/learn-more/bradley-manning]</ref> == Conclusion == Perry Fellwock had a lot power with the NSA which meant he also had a huge personal responsibility. Ultimately, although indirectly, he influenced the fate of the people he surveilled. The technological capability at his disposal took an emotional and psychological toll on his life. His professionalism is identified by three key characteristics: # Having self-knowledge # The ability to take action on your self-knowledge # Taking responsibility for your actions Fellwock found himself in an undisciplined organization with many rouges and little accountability. He knew classified information about the U.S. government's unethical back-channeling which combined with his first hand experiences in Vietnam led him to develop a strong sense of guilt. From that guilt Fellwock gained his self knowledge, knowing he could not in good conscience sit by and allow such atrocities to continue. Fellwock then acted on his new found self-knowledge by exposing the NSA in hopes that public knowledge of their misdoings would spur the public into opposition. After his interview, Fellwock proceeded to take responsibility for his actions by remaining in the American public prepared for any consequences. The possible repercussions for his actions were intimidating, but he remained visible knowing that to hide would only serve to discredit him and hinder his efforts. Fellwock’s circumstances are more common than even he probably realized. Many organizations privy to secrecy suffer from a lack of internal accountability. Low-level associates often find it hard to overlook unethical behavior and become discouraged with internal justice systems after witnessing their ineffectiveness. Often these associated find themselves in a professional conundrum; where should their loyalties lie, with the organization or with the public, and what ethical courses of action will actually make a difference? These decisions greatly impact how they are perceived by the public. Fellwock, Ellsberg, Snowden, and Manning were subjected to severe consequences for whistle-blowing. Fellwock and Ellsberg are worthy to be defined as professionals in this case study; these gentlemen displayed all three key characteristics. Snowden, however, is not worthy of the professional definition as set forth by the actions Perry Fellwock and Daniel Ellsberg pioneered. The inability of Snowden to remain vulnerable to consequences disqualifies him from this definition of a professional. Manning also falls short of a professional; while she did take responsibility for her actions, she did not use all of the internal systems to alert the proper people of the issues and she stole directly from her organization while still in their service. Fleischmann sets the standard for professionalism as she did not cooperate with the malpractices, alerted her boss’ superiors of the major problem, did not disclose information to the public for eight years, and cooperated fully with the government’s investigations. A general lesson that can be learned from these similar cases is that when an employer challenges an employee's personal ethics by forcing their own upon them, they damage that employees loyalty to them, and the probability of that employee rebelling increases. == References == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 8gwhk95jq1cq7wsdcrkl7u9qa1vtxu3 0 404966 4635086 3513915 2026-05-10T08:34:34Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635086 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="width:100%; margin-bottom: .6em; -moz-border-radius: 4px; text-align:center; border: 1px solid #50A6C2; background-color:#F0F8FF; padding: .6em .6em .6em .6em;" | width="100px" | [[File:Flag_of_Canada_(Pantone).svg|100px|frameless]] |<span style="font-family:'bitstream'; color:#000000; font-size:small;">Canadian Employment Law</span><br/> '''I{{smallcaps|ntroduction}}''' | width="100px" | [[File:Scale of justice 2.svg|75px|frameless]] |} ==Jurisdiction== Authority to govern employment relationships is vested in federal and provincial parliaments. According to s. 91 of the Constitution the federal Parliament has power to regulate the following relevant, non-exhaustive areas: trade and commerce; postal service; navigation and shipping; banking; telecommunication; uranium mining and processing; railways; and ferries between provinces or other countries.<ref>[https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-4.html#h-18 Constitution Act, 1982, s. 91]</ref> A more complete list can be viewed on the [https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/employment-equity/regulated-industries.html Employment and Social Development Canada website]. As a result, individuals employed by companies which primarily fall under federal jurisdiction are governed by the Canada Labour Code and related federal legislation and regulations.<ref>[https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/L-2/ Canada Labour Code (R.S.C., 1985, c. L-2)]</ref> Provinces, however, have the power to regulate Property and Civil Rights in the Province which is an expansive power allowing provinces to regulate employment relationships that do not fall into the federal sphere.<ref>[https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-4.html#h-18 Constitution Act, 1982, s. 92]</ref> Provincial employment laws differ only slightly by province. Rules differ among the provinces, they may have different public holidays, longer paid vacations or different coverage for personal leaves. Quebec, on the other hand, differs considerably from other provinces because Quebec follows the Continental European civil law tradition rather than the British common law tradition governing the rest of Canada. This book is largely inapplicable to Quebec employment law. According to the Federal government 6% of all Canadian employees are subject to Federal labour standards,<ref>[https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/esdc-edsc/documents/services/reports/Labour-standard-Infographic_EN.pdf Do Federal Labour Standards Apply to You?]</ref> while the remaining portion, approximately 94%, are subject to provincial jurisdiction. ==Employment Standards Legislation== Each provincial legislature and the federal Parliament has enacted legislation that governs the employment relationship. As previously mentioned, the Canada Labour Code applies to federal employees. Provincially regulated employees fall under one of the following legislative enactments: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Province !! Legislation |- | Alberta || [https://www.canlii.org/en/ab/laws/stat/rsa-2000-c-e-9/latest/rsa-2000-c-e-9.html Employment Standards Code] |- | British Columbia || [https://www.canlii.org/en/bc/laws/stat/rsbc-1996-c-113/latest/rsbc-1996-c-113.html Employment Standards Act] |- | Manitoba || [https://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/e110e.php The Employment Standards Code] |- | New Brunswick || [https://www.canlii.org/en/nb/laws/stat/snb-1982-c-e-7.2/latest/snb-1982-c-e-7.2.html Employment Standards Act] |- | Newfoundland and Labrador || [https://www.canlii.org/en/nl/laws/stat/rsnl-1990-c-l-2/latest/rsnl-1990-c-l-2.html Labour Standards Act] |- | Nova Scotia || [https://www.canlii.org/en/ns/laws/stat/rsns-1989-c-246/latest/rsns-1989-c-246.html Labour Standards Code] |- | Ontario || [https://www.canlii.org/en/on/laws/stat/so-2000-c-41/latest/so-2000-c-41.html Employment Standards Act, 2000] |- | Prince Edward Island || [https://www.canlii.org/en/pe/laws/stat/rspei-1988-c-e-6.2/latest/rspei-1988-c-e-6.2.html Employment Standards Act] |- | Quebec || [https://www.canlii.org/en/qc/laws/stat/cqlr-c-n-1.1/latest/cqlr-c-n-1.1.html Act respecting labour standards] |- | Saskatchewan || [https://www.canlii.org/en/sk/laws/stat/ss-2013-c-s-15.1/latest/ss-2013-c-s-15.1.html The Saskatchewan Employment Act] |} ==Related Legislation== Although this book focuses primarily on employment law, employment relationships in Canada are also governed by other legislation which need to be taken together to form a complete picture. Besides legislation on employment standards, found in the table above, employment relationships are also be governed by legislation covering occupational health and safety (OHSA), human rights, labour relations and workers' compensation. Far beyond the scope of this book, privacy legislation, international treaties, immigration laws and a myriad of other laws may also impact the employment relationship. ==Jurisprudence== Employment law in Canada is characterized by both legislative and judicial action. Many concepts directly related to the employment relationship, including the very existence of the relationship, is dependent on judicial precedent from the 19th century onward. For example, whether a worker is properly classified as an employee or an independent contractor depends on reviewing case law. Whether an employee is eligible for common law reasonable notice of termination and how much notice they are entitled to also depends on precedent jurisprudence. A holistic understanding of employment law requires an understanding of statute and case law for completeness. == Notes == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 7qq54o194no4gho6nyqlpzk78ozvdc6 0 409660 4634961 4222179 2026-05-09T14:11:03Z CommonsDelinker 49843 Replacing Mp3.svg with [[File:Mp3_format_logo.svg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]:). 4634961 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="float: right; shape-outside: ellipse(28% 50% at 29% 50%);">[[File:Mp3 format logo.svg|frameless]]</div> Today in 2015, the last valid patent on MP3 expired (US patent 5,812,672) and the extremely popular audio format became a patent-free and open standard. Although better formats are now available that also cover a wider range of uses, this contributes to the likely immortality of the format that began its career in the 1990s as an enabler of music file sharing in near-transparent quality. <noinclude>{{Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/Navigation|September 21|September 23}}</noinclude> t7ag1tzhrq37b5nskuhbugljev2oyz8 0 417636 4634972 4634104 2026-05-09T15:14:59Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Noun Prefixes */ 4634972 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Noun Types == : Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following 7 ways: ::# '''''common''''' vs. '''''proper''''' ::# '''''concrete''''' vs. '''''abstract''''' ::# '''''countable''''' vs. '''''mass''''' ::# '''''gender-neutral''''' vs. '''''masculine/feminine''''' ::# '''''singular''''' vs. '''''plural''''' ::# '''''animate''''' vs. '''''inanimate''''' ::# '''''full form''''' vs. '''''acronym/abbreviation''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Common vs. Proper Nouns |- ! Common !! Proper |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''Emer'''....''Venus'' |- | '''yagsim'''....''bench'' || '''Ferom'''....''France'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''Notre Dame'''...''Notre Dame'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''Tot'''....''God'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns |- ! Concrete !! Abstract |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''ifon'''....''love'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''oyman'''....''coolness'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzen'''....''singing'' |} : Abstract nouns include '''''gerunds''''', i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like '''deuzen'''....''singing'' < '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' or '''osexen'''....''destruction'' < '''osexer'''....''to destroy''. Infinitives like ''deuzer''....'''to sing''' are also considered abstract nouns. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Countable vs. Mass Nouns |- ! Countable !! Mass |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattel'''....''bird food'' |- | '''patayebi'''....''feathers'' || '''patayebyan'''....''plumage'' |- | '''megi'''....''rocks'' || '''mil'''....''water'' |} : In native Mirad, all '''''common''''' nouns in their '''''singular''''' dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as '''Roma'''....''Rome''. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel ''i'' ('''pat'''....''bird'' ⇒ '''pat<u>i</u>'''....''birds''). :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Gender-neutral vs. Gendered |- ! Gender-neutral !! Feminine !! Masculine |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''twob'''....''man'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' || '''twed'''....''father'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Singular vs. Plural Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''domi'''....''cities'' |- | '''gon'''....''part'' || '''goni'''....''parts'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubi'''....''days'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns |- ! Inanimate !! Animate |- | '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''aot'''....''person'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''tobet'''....''child'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Full form vs. Acronym ! Full Form !! Acronym/Abbreviation |- | '''Anxwa Doobi'''....''United Nations'' || '''AD'''....''UN'' |- | '''Mir Nunuien Xob'''....''World Trade Organization'' || '''MNX'''....''WTO'' |- | '''iza makilp'''....''direct current'' || '''i.m'''....''d.c.'' |} : The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar. == Pluralization of Common Nouns == : A '''''singular countable common noun''''' always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker '''-i'''. So, the plural of '''pur'''....''car'' is '''pur<u>i</u>'''....''cars''. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages ('''la belle fleur''' <big>→</big>'''les belles fleurs'''). The plural suffix '''-i''' is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc. : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Pluralization of Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''tam'''....''house''|| '''tam<u>i</u>'''....''houses'' |- | '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>i</u>'''....''women'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>i</u>'''....''lives'' |- | '''ha via dom'''....''the beautiful city'' || '''ha via dom<u>i</u>'''....''the beautiful cities'' |} == Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article == : In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article '''ha''' (''the''). There is no '''''indefinite article''''' like English ''a / an''. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article '''ha''' (which in reality is a '''''definite deictic determiner''''', discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners]]). The definite article '''ha''' is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Use of the Definite Article |- ! Mirad !! English !! Specificity |- | '''tam''' || ''a house'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tam''' || ''<u>the</u> house'' || definite |- | '''<u>ha</u> tami''' || ''<u>the</u> houses'' || definite, plural |- | '''tej''' || ''life'' || general, no article |- | '''fitejawa <u>tej</u>''' || ''<u>a life</u> well-lived'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tej (...ho at bayse)''' || ''<u>the</u> life (... that I have)'' || specific |- | '''Ferad''' || ''French'' || language name, already specific, no article |- | '''Ivan''' || ''Ivan'' || person's name, no article |- | '''Ifliu <u>yivan</u>!''' || ''Cherish <u>freedom</u>'' || abstraction, no article |- | '''<u>Ha</u> yivani ho yat ifie.''' || ''<u>The</u> freedoms that we enjoy.'' || abstraction specified |- | '''Yata <u>yivani</u>...''' || ''Our <u>freedoms</u>...'' || abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article |} : Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like ''love'', ''life'', ''freedom'' do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases ''the love that dare not speak its name'' or ''the life well-lived'' or ''the freedoms we possess''. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew." == Proper Nouns == : Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar#Countries_of_the_World|Countries of the World]] and [[Mirad_Grammar#Languages of the World|Languages of the World]]. It can be said here, though, that country names end in '''-m'''; the inhabitants of those places end in '''-t''' or pl. '''-ti'''; and the languages they speak end in '''-d'''. Language names are capitalized, eg. '''At tixe Ferad.''' (''I study French.''). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. '''Usama tel Feramxweye.''' ''American food is being Frenchified.''. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc. : Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example: ::* '''Xikago'''....''Chicago'' ::* '''Paris'''....''Paris'' ::* '''Munxen'''....''Munich/M&uuml;nchen'' ::* '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' ::* '''Nu York'''....''New York'' ::* '''Nu Orlinz'''....''New Orleans'' ::* '''Xampanya'''....''Champagne'' ::* '''Mehiko Dom'''....''Mexico City'' ::* '''Waxington'''....''Washington'' ::* '''Seol'''....''Seoul'' ::* '''Xeykspir'''....''Shakespeare'' : An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding '''-t''' or '''-at''' to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. '''Parisat'''....''a Parisian'' or '''Waxingtonati'''....''Washingtonians''. ''Chicago's main newspaper'' is expressed in Mirad as '''ha agala jubdindref bi Xikago'''. The English preposition ''in'' used before cities, states, and countries is translated by '''be''' in Mirad, eg. '''At tambese <u>be</u> Paris.'''....''I live <u>in</u> Paris.'' or '''Iyt yexe be Deum.'''....''She works in Germany.'' == Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement == : Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as '''ewa'''....''two'' naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Modifiers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''ha <u>ewa</u> aga tami''' || ''the <u>two</u> big houses'' |- | '''<u>gla</u> ifxea taxi''' || ''<u>many</u> pleasant memories'' |- | '''hya <u>fia</u> tob''' || ''every <u>good</u> man'' |- | '''ha yaga <u>via</u> mepi''' || ''the long, <u>beautiful</u> roads'' |- | '''gra <u>vua</u> sexen''' || ''too much <u>ugly</u> construction'' |- | '''ata <u>aja</u> teji''' || ''my <u>past</u> lives'' |} == Noun Linkage == : Nouns can be ::# '''''linked''''' with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or ::# '''''juxtaposed''''', where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or ::# '''''compounded''''', where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or ::# '''''hyphenated''''', where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Linkage |- ! Linkage Example !! Construction |- | '''Ivan <u>ay Maria</u>'''....''Ivan <u>and Maria</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ay''' (''and'') |- | '''ha tam <u>ey ha par</u>'''....''the house <u>or the car</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ey''' (''or'') |- | '''hyati <u>oy ha toybi</u>'''....''all <u>but the women</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''or''' (''but'') |- | '''nyandras <u>boy eta dyun</u>'''....''a list <u>without your name</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''boy''' (''without'') |- |'''tej <u>bi nasuk</u>'''....''a life <u>of poverty</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''ha tam <u>bi Maria</u>''' ....''Mary&apos;s house (the house <u>of Mary</u>''|| nouns linked possessively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''job <u>bi aga ivan</u>'''....''a time <u>of great joy</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''dyes <u>ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek</u>'''....''a book <u>about the Second World War</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''ayv''' (''about'') |- | '''dropek <u>jwabeni</u>'''....''war <u>preparations</u>'' || modifier noun '''dropek''' (''war'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''jwabeni'''</u> (''preparations'') |- | '''dom <u>yuzpur</u>'''....''a city <u>bus</u>'' || modifier noun '''dom''' (''city'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''yuzpur'''</u> (''bus'') |- | '''toj<u>ojfon</u>'''....''a death <u>wish</u>'' || modifier noun '''toj''' (''death'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>ojfon</u>''' (''wish'') |- | '''jogat<u>anyaf</u>'''....''youth <u>league</u>'' || modifier noun '''jogat''' (''youth'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>anyaf</u>''' (''league'') |- | '''maj-moj'''....''a day-and-night'' || two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated |} : The '''X bi Y''' prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a '''''named''''' person, eg. '''ha tam <u>bi</u> Sam''' (Sam's house = the house <u>of</u> Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as ''his car'' is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition '''bi'''....''of'' is used in partitive expressions like '''tilzyeb <u>bi</u> vifil'''....''a glass <u>of</u> wine'' (but: '''vifil tilzeb'''....''wine glass'', where ''wine'' modifies ''the glass'' associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions]] or [[Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions]]. : Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation]]. == Noun Derivational Affixes == : Nouns can be divided into: ::* '''''simple nouns''''' such as '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''compound nouns''''' such as '''bixpur'''....''train'' < '''bix'''....''pull'' + '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''hybrid nouns''''' such as '''vaod'''....''decision'' < '''va'''....''yes'' + '''vo'''....''no'' (hybridized to '''vao''') + '''d'''....''utterance'' ::* '''''derived nouns''''' such as '''fabyan'''....''forest'' < '''fab'''....''tree'' + '''-yan'''<br> a suffix meaning ''collection'' : Derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building. === Noun Suffixes === {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Noun Derivational Suffixes |- valign=top ! Suffix !! Meaning !! Base Onto Which<br>Suffix Is Added !! Examples |- | '''-ag''' || big || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ag</u>'''....''mansion''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>ag</u>'''....''banquet''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon'' → '''tilar<u>ag</u>'''....''ladle'' |- | -'''an''' || abstact quality<br> -ness<br> -hood, -ity || adjective stem ||'''vi<s>a</s>'''....''beautiful'' → '''vi<u>an</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yev<s>a</s>'''....''fair'' → '''yev<u>an</u>'''....''fairness, equity''<br>'''tob<s>a</s>'''....''human'' → '''tob<u>an</u>'''....''humanity, humanness, manhood'' |- | -'''ayg''' || big and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ayg</u>'''....''cozy mansion''<br>'''kapet'''....''dog'' → '''kapet<u>ayg</u>'''....''wolfie'' |- | -'''ambok''' || -itis, inflammation || noun || '''buixtaib'''....''tendon'' → '''buixtaib<u>ambok</u>'''....''tendonitis'' |- | -'''d''' || language<br>speech<br>utterance || adjective and other stems|| '''Enigem'''....''English'' → '''Enige<u>d</u>'''....''English (language)''<br>'''Mira'''....''of the world'' → '''Mirad'''....''Mirad (world speech)''<br>'''ekpe<s>t</s>'''....''horse'' →'''ekpe<u>d</u>'''....''neigh, whinny'' |- | -'''drun''' || -gram || noun stems || '''tiib'''....''heart'' → '''tiib<u>drun</u>'''....''cardiogram'' |- | -'''dra/i/ur''' || -graph || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>drar</u>'''....''thermograph'' |- | -'''dren''' || -graphy || mostly noun stems || '''yib'''....''far'' → '''yib<u>dren</u>'''....''telegraphy'' |- | -'''ef''' || need of || various stems || '''tel'''....''food''→'''tel<u>ef</u>'''....''hunger''<br>'''ig<s>a</s>'''....''fast''→'''ig<u>ef</u>'''....''emergency''<br>'''til'''....''drink''→ '''til<u>ef</u>'''....''thirst'' |- | -'''en''' || present gerund<br> -ing<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''ifi-'''....''enjoy'' →'''ifi<u>en</u>'''....''enjoyment''<br>'''deuz-'''....''sing''→'''deuz<u>en</u>'''....''singing''<br>'''axl-'''....'''act''' → '''axl<u>en</u>'''....''acting'' |- | -'''eyn''' || present gerund<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''x-'''....''do'' →'''x<u>eyn</u>'''....''deed''<br>'''s-'''....''to be''→'''s<u>eyn</u>'''....''essence''<br>'''jaup-'''....'''preceed''' → '''jaup<u>eyn</u>'''....''precedent'' |- | -'''es''' || smaller counterpart thing || noun || '''tef'''....''hat''→ '''tef<u>es</u>''' cap<br>'''saun'''....''kind''→ '''saun<u>es</u>'''....''sample''<br>'''dreuz'''....''poem'' → '''deuz<u>es</u>'''....''stanza''<br>'''mek'''....''dust, powder''→'''mek<u>es</u>'''....''speck, grain'' |- | -'''et''' || smaller counterpart person || noun || '''twob'''....''man'' → '''twob<u>et</u>'''....''boy''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''→ '''toyb<u>et</u>'''....''girl'' |- | -'''if''' || love of<br> -philia || noun || '''tel'''....''food'' → '''tel<u>if</u>'''....''gourmandise''<br>'''doab'''....''homeland'' → '''doab<u>if</u>'''....''patriotism''<br>'''dyes'''....''book'' → '''dyes<u>if</u>'''....''bibliophilia, love of books'' |- | -'''ig''' || quick || noun and verb stem || '''man'''....''light'' → '''man<u>ig</u>'''....''flash''<br>'''pyex'''....''stroke''→'''pyexig'''....''swat''<br>'''yopap-'''....''dive, fly down'' → '''yopap<u>ig</u>'''....''swoop'' |- | -'''im''' || room, chamber || various stems || '''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' →'''faydil<u>im</u>'''....''chapel''<br>'''magel-'''....''to cook'' → '''magel<u>im</u>'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tof-'''....''to dress'' → '''tof<u>im</u>'''....''dressing room'' |- | -'''in''' || doctrine, dogma, -ism || various stems || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''totin'''....''religion, theism''<br>'''otof<s>a</s>'''....''nude''→'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''<br>'''yufr-'''....'''terror''' → '''yufr<u>in</u>'''....''terrorism'' |- | -'''kyaoxar''' || -stat || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>kyaoxar</u>'''....''thermostat'' |- | -'''n''' || abstract noun || various stems || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' → '''zen'''....''center''<br>'''za'''....''in front of'' →'''za<u>n</u>'''....''face''<br>'''byi'''....''since, starting with'' → '''byi<u>n</u>'''....''source''<br>'''go'''....''less''→ '''go<u>n</u>'''....''part'' |- |-'''kunid''' || -hedron, sided volume || number prefixes || '''alen'''....''dodeca (twelve)'' → '''alenkunid'''....''dodecahedron'' |- | -'''am''' || house<br> building || various stems || '''nun-'''....''merchandise'' → '''nun<u>am</u>'''....''store''<br>'''til''' drink → '''til<u>am</u>'''....''bar, tavern''<br>'''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' → '''fyadil<u>am</u>'''....''church'' |- | -'''(e)m''' || place || various stems || '''duho-?''' what-?→ '''duho<u>m</u>?'''....''where''?<br>'''yex'''....''work'' → '''yex<u>em</u>'''....''worksite''<br>'''ab'''....''on, above'' → '''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''<br>'''ku<s>a</s>'''....''lateral''→'''ku<u>m</u>'''....''side'' |- | -'''um''' || compartment<br> booth || various stems || '''teuzibar'''....''telephone'' → '''teuzibar<u>um</u>'''....''telephone booth'' |- | -'''yem''' || enclosure, box || various stems || '''ekpet'''....''horse'' →'''ekpet<u>yem</u>'''....''corral''<br>'''b-'''....''put'' → '''b<u>yem</u>'''....''position'' |- | -'''ud''' || offspring, baby of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>ud</u>'''....''foal'' |- | -'''wud''' || son of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>wud</u>'''....''colt'' |- | -'''uyd''' || daughter of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>uyd</u>'''....''filly'' |- | -'''og''' || little || noun || '''tab''' body→ '''tab<u>og</u>'''....''corpuscle''<br>'''ekpet'''....''horse'' → '''ekpet<u>og</u>'''....''pony''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>og</u>'''....''snack''<br>'''golbun'''....''cut'' → '''golbun<u>og</u>'''....''cutlet'' |- | -'''oyg''' || little and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>oyg</u>'''....''cottage''<br>'''gafapayt'''....''chicken'' →'''gafapayt<u>oyg</u>'''....''chickadee''<br>'''mimpar'''....''boat'' → '''mirpar<u>oyg</u>'''....''dingy'' |- | -'''nagar''' || ''-ometer'' || noun || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>nagar</u>'''....''thermometer'' |- | -'''ar''', '''-ir''', '''-ur''' || tool, machine, engine || usu. verb stem || '''p-'''....''to go''→ '''p<u>ur</u>'''....''car''<br>'''dr-'''....''to write'' → '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''gobl-'''....''to cut'' → '''gobl<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''<br>'''yaobl-'''....''to lift up and down'' → '''yaobl<u>ur</u>'''....''elevator, lift''<br>'''yaobl<u>ir</u>'''....''lift, crane''<br>'''dop'''....''military'' → '''dop<u>ar</u>'''....''gun''<br>'''dop<u>ur</u>'''....''machine gun''<br>'''dop<u>ir</u>'''....''artillery, cannon''<br> |- | -'''s''' || thing, object, the X one || adjective || '''aa''' first → '''aa<u>s</u>'''....''first one, first thing''<br>'''otwa'''....''unknown'' → '''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery, an unknown''<br>'''tejea'''....''living'' → '''tejea<u>s</u>'''....''living thing'' |- | -'''(s)on''' || abstract thing<br> issue || various stems || '''if-'''....''to love''→'''if<u>on</u>'''....''love''<br>'''ov against'''→ '''ov<u>on</u>'''....''obstacle''<br> '''az<s>a</s>''' strong → '''az<u>on</u>'''....''force''<br>'''yik<s>a</s>'''....''difficult'' → '''yik<u>son</u>'''....''problem'' |- | -'''(s)un''' || object<br> thing<br> result of an action || various stems || '''vyu<s>a</s>'''....''dirty'' → '''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''<br>'''tamb-'''....''settle'' →'''tambi<u>un</u>'''....''settlement''<br>'''gofr-''' ''shred'' → '''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''scrap, shred''<br>'''hyo'''....''not a single''→ '''hyo<u>sun</u>'''....''not a single thing'' |- | -'''t''' || person || adjective || '''ea''' second → '''eat'''....''second one, second person''<br>'''fya-'''....''holy'' → '''fya<u>t</u>'''....''holy one, saint''<br>'''ujna'''....''last''→'''uja<u>t</u>'''....''last one, last person''<br>'''Usoma'''....''American'' →'''Usoma<u>t</u>'''....''an American'' |- | -'''tajbus''' || -ogen, producer || noun || '''om'''....''cold, cry-'' → '''omtajbus'''....''cryogen'' |- | -'''tun''' || science of, -ology || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tun</u>'''....''theology''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tun</u>'''....''anthropology''<br>'''vob'''....''plant'' →'''vob<u>tun</u>'''....''botany'' |- | -'''tuyn''' || pseudo-science || noun || '''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>tuyn</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | -'''tuin''' || theory || noun || '''vyelan'''....''relativity''→ '''vyelan<u>tuin</u>'''....''theory of relativity'' |- | -'''tyen''' || skill, craft || noun || '''sur'''....''engine'' → '''sur<u>tyen</u>'''....''engineering'' |- | -'''(t)in''' || doctrine, -ism || noun || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' → '''zaypas<u>in</u>'''....''progressivism'' |- | -'''tut''', '''tuyt''' (f.) || scientist<br> -ologist<br> -ist || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tut</u>'''....''theologist''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tuyt</u>'''....''woman anthropologist''<br>'''vob'''....''plant''→ '''vob<u>tut</u>'''....''botanist'' |- | -'''uf''' || hate of, -phobia || noun || '''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''hydrophobia''<br>'''totin'''....''religion'' → '''totin<u>uf</u>'''....''hatred of religion''<br> '''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>uf</u>'''....''misogyny'' |- | -'''ut''', '''uyt''' (f.)|| agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist || verb stem || '''bek-'''....''treat'' → '''bek<u>uyt</u>'''....''female nurse''<br>'''pop-'''....''travel''→'''pop<u>ut</u>'''....''traveler''<br>'''ak-'''....''win'' → '''ak<u>ut</u>'''....''winner'' |- |-'''teliut''' || eater, -phage, -vore || verb stem || '''hyas'''....''everything, omni-'' → '''hyas<u>teliut</u>'''....''omnivore''<br>'''bokogrun'''....''bacteria'' → '''bokogrunteliut'''....''bacteriophage'' |- | -'''yaf'''|| ability to, power<br> -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yaf</u>'''....''ability to see''<br>'''tex-'''....''to think'' → '''tex<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognition''<br>'''test-'''....''to understand'' → '''test<u>yaf</u>'''....''comprehension''<br>'''nos-'''....''to spend'' → '''nos<u>yaf</u>'''....''spending power''<br>'''t-'''....''to know'' → '''t<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognizance'' |- | -'''yafwan''' || possibility, -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yafwan</u>'''....''visibility'' |- | -'''yof''' || inability to, disability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yof</u>'''....''blindness''<br>'''teet-'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yof</u>'''....''deafness''<br>'''pas-'''....''to move''→'''pas<u>yof</u>'''....''paralysis''<br>'''tuj-'''....''to sleep'' → '''tuj<u>yof</u>'''....''insomnia'' |- | -'''yofwan''' || impossibility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yofwan</u>'''....''invisibility'' |- | -'''yag''' || big and ugly, long || noun || '''tetwid'''....''uncle''→ '''tetwid<u>yag</u>'''....''dirty old uncle''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>yag</u>'''....''hag'' |- | -'''yan''' || collection, grouping<br> -ary || noun || '''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>yan</u>'''....''mankind''<br>'''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''<br>'''fab'''....''tree'' → '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''→ '''dyes<u>yan</u>'''....''library'' |- | -'''yen''' || manner, kind || noun || '''dal'''....''talk'' →'''dal<u>yen</u>'''....''parlance''<br>'''sex-'''....''build'' →'''sex<u>yen</u>'''....''structure'' |- | -'''yef''' || duty, obligation || verb stem || '''dud-'''....''to answer'' → '''dud<u>yef</u>'''....''responsibility''<br>'''byok-'''....''to ache'' → '''byok<u>yef</u>'''....''punishment'' |- | -'''yik''' || difficulty to || verb stem || '''teet<u>er</u>'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty hearing''<br>'''tiex-'''....''to breathe'' → '''tiex<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty breathing, asthma'' |- | -'''yog''' || little and ugly || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' →'''tam<u>yog</u>'''....''shack''<br>'''anpiat'''....''duck'' → '''anpiat<u>yog</u>'''....''ugly duckling''<br>'''kod'''....''secret'' → '''kod<u>yog</u>'''....''little dirty secret'' |- | -'''yuf''' || fear of, -phobia || noun || '''serpyet'''....''snake''→ '''serpyet<u>yuf</u>'''....''fear of snakes''<br>'''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>yuf</u>'''....''hyrophobia'' |- | -'''yuk'''<br>'''yukwan''' || ease of || verb stem || '''pes-''' ''to wait'' → '''pes<u>yuk</u>'''....''patience''<br>'''kovyox-''' ''to fool'' → '''kovyox<u>yukwan</u>'''....''gullibility, foolhardiness'' |} {{small/end}} === Differences between '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' === : The noun suffixes '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' create nominalized forms from a verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix '''-en''' is equivalent to the English '''-ing''' and forms a gerundive. It also used to translate many English verbal nominalizations ending in ''-tion''. The suffix '''-eyn''' is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending '''-un''' forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes '''-eyn''' is used instead of '''-un''' where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples: ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' :::* '''xen'''....''doing'' :::* '''xeyn'''....''deed'' :::* '''xun'''....''fact'' ::* '''yugxer'''....''to slow up'' :::* '''yugxen'''....''decelera<u>tion</u>'' :::* '''yugxun'''....''bottleneck'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' :::* '''den'''....''saying'' :::* '''deyn'''....''utterance, a saying'' :::* '''dun'''....''word'' ::* '''ujer'''....''to end'' :::* '''ujen'''....''ending'' eg. ''I like <u>ending</u> on a happy note.'' :::* '''ujeyn'''....''an ending, finale'' eg. ''This play's <u>finale</u> was emotional.'' :::* '''ujun'''....''end, tail end'' eg. ''The road came to a sudden <u>end</u>.'' === Examples of the Suffix '''-yen''' === : This suffix is a stub of '''byen'''....''way, manner''. {{small/top}} ::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Wording Ending in -yen |- valign=top ! Base Word !! Derivation |- | '''ajtyod'''....''past people'' || '''ajtyodyen'''....''tradition'' |- | '''d-'''....''to say'' || '''dyen'''....''expression'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''tactic'' |- | '''dre(r)'''....''to write'' || '''dreyen'''....''writing system'' |- | '''amal'''....''atmosphere'' || '''amalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''an-'''....''single'' || '''anyen'''....''quirk, idio-'' |- | '''axl-'''....''to act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''character, personality'' |- | '''ty-'''....''to know how'' || '''tyen'''....''skill, craft'' |- | '''x-'''....''to do'' || '''xyen'''....''profession'' |- | '''ze-'''....''middle'' || '''zeyen'''....''means'' |- | '''bas-'''....''gesture'' || '''basyen'''....''body language'' |- | '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''es-'''....''to exist'' || '''esyen'''....''state'' |- | '''kya-'''....''change'' || '''kyayen'''....''version'' |- | '''p-'''....''to go'' || '''pyen'''....''pace, gait'' |- | '''yex-'''....''to work'' || '''yexyen'''....''line of work'' |- | '''tayot-'''....''to feel'' || '''tayotyen'''....''texture'' |} {{small/end}} === Noun Prefixes === : Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Noun Prefixes |- valign=top ! Prefix !! Meaning !! Base Noun !! Derivations |- | '''aa-''' || ''first, arch-'' || '''deb'''....''leader''<br>'''dezun'''....''performance''<br>'''tat'''....''angel'' || '''aadeb'''....''premier''<br>'''aadezun'''....''premiere''<br>'''aatat'''....''archangel'' |- | '''aag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''donex'''....''economics'' || '''aagdonex'''....''macroeconomics'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-, proto-'' || '''tejsan'''...''life form''<br>'''tobtun'''....''anthropology'' || '''aajtejsan'''....''protozoon''<br>'''aajtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology'' |- | '''ab-''' || ''superior, sur-, on'' || '''donab'''....''rank''<br>'''dout'''....''gentleman''<br>'''dyun'''....''name'' || '''abdonab'''....''superior rank''<br>'''abdout'''....''aristocrat''<br>'''abdyun'''....''title, surname'' |- | '''ag-''' || ''mega-, megalo-, grandi-'' || '''amlot'''....''millionaire''<br>'''dal'''....''talk''|| '''agamlot'''....''megamillionaire''<br>'''agdal'''....''grandiloquence'' |- | '''agal-''' || ''arch-, main-'' || '''mem'''....''land''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''agalmem'''....''mainland''<br>'''agalnad'''....''mainline'' |- | '''agr(a)-''' || ''mega-, megalo-'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''akuj'''...''success'' || '''agrameg'''....''megalith''<br>'''agrakuj'''....''megahit'' |- | '''an-''' || ''one, uni-, mono-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle''<br>'''dungon'''....''syllable'' || '''anzyukpar'''....''unicycle''<br>'''andungon'''....''monosyllable'' |- | '''ao-''' || ''vertical'' || '''nab'''....''rank''<br>'''muf'''....''pole'' || '''aonab'''....''column''<br>'''aomuf'''....''column'' |- | '''aoyeb-''' || ''in-and-out'' || '''belen'''....''carrying'' || '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports'' |- | '''aov-''' || ''for-and-against'' || '''dalson'''....''subject'' || '''aovdalson'''...''controversy'' |- | '''ayb-''' || ''over-, super-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow''<br>'''mas'''....''name'' || '''aybdrun'''....''superscript''<br>'''aybilp'''....''overflow''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''ayn-''' || ''holo-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''sag'''....''number'' || '''ayndras'''....''hologram''<br>'''aynmeg'''....''hololith''<br>'''aynsag'''....''integer'' |- | '''aj-''' || ''past, pre-, fore-, ex-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''gex'''....''equity''<br>'''tayd'''....''wife'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ajgex'''....''revenge''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''anyen-''' || ''idio-, odd'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''fin'''....''quality'' || '''anyendyen'''....''idiom''<br>'''anyenfin'''....''quirk'' |- | '''av-''' || ''pro-, for'' || '''bol'''....''support''<br>'''dun'''....''word'' || '''avbol'''....''endorsement''<br>'''avdun'''....''pronoun'' |- | '''az-''' || ''strong'' || '''hihid'''....''laugh''<br>'''ojvad'''....''promise''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''azhihid'''....''guffaw''<br>'''azojvad'''....''covenant''<br>'''aztos'''....''passion'' |- | '''do-''' || ''public'' || '''del'''....''statement''<br>'''did'''....''question''<br>'''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''dodel'''....''announcement''<br>'''dodid'''....''inquiry''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law'' |- | '''eb-''' || ''inter-, dia-'' || '''dal'''....''statement''<br>'''ifek'''....''gram''<br>'''kyax'''....''change'' || '''ebdal'''....''dialog''<br>'''ebifek'''....''interlude''<br>'''ebkyax'''....''interchange'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-, di-, two-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle'' || '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle'' |- | '''eg-''' || ''normal'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''egbyen'''....''norm'' |- | '''ej-''' || ''step-, current'' || '''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''din'''....''story'' || '''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''ejdin'''....''current news item'' |- | '''ejna-''' || ''neo-'' || '''dun'''....''word'' || '''ejnadun'''....''neologism'' |- | '''ev-''' || ''a-, neutral'' || '''totin'''....''deism''<br>'''dofina'''....''moral'' || '''evtotin'''....''atheism''<br>'''evdofina'''....''amoral'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, hemi-, pen-, half-, quasi-''|| '''moyn'''....''shade''<br>'''zyum'''....''sphere''<br>'''ayma'''....''warm''<br>'''dobyena'''<br>'''daba'''....''governmental'' || '''eynmoyn'''....''penumbra''<br>'''eynzyum'''....''hemisphere''<br>'''aynayma'''....''lukewarm''<br>'''anydobyena'''....''semi-official''<br>'''aydaba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''eu-, bene-, well-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' <br>'''fon'''....''will''|| '''fidyen'''....''euphemism''<br>'''fitos'''....''euphoria''<br>'''fifon'''....''benevolence'' |- | '''fyi-''' || ''useful'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''fyidal'''....''advice'' |- | '''fu-''' || ''caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-'' || '''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''fuseux'''....''cacophony''<br>'''fufon'''....''ill-will, malevolence''<br>'''futos'''....''dysphoria'' |- | '''fyu-''' || ''harmful'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''pelt'''...''insect'' <br>'''mul'''....''stuff''|| '''fyumil'''....''waste water''<br>'''fyupelt'''....''pest''<br>'''fyumul'''....''garbage'' |- | '''fya-''' || ''holy'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''byekut'''....''healer'' || '''fyadin'''....''gospel''<br>'''fyabuun'''....''oblation, offering''<br>'''fyabyekut'''....''shaman, witchdoctor'' |- | '''fye-''' || ''fantasy, mytho-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''diyn'''....''tale''<br>'''mir'''....''world'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, fantasy''<br>'''fyediyn'''....''fairy-tale, fable''<br>'''fyemir'''....''fantasia, fantasy-world'' |- | '''fyo-''' || ''evil'' || '''tat'''....''angel''<br>'''xeyn'''....''deed'' || '''fyotat'''....''demon''<br>'''fyoxeyn'''....''sin'' |- | '''gab-''' || ''plus'' || '''nix'''....''earning'' || '''gabnix'''....''interest'' |- | '''gaw-''' || ''re-'' || '''aklen'''....''conquest''<br>'''del'''....''statement'' || '''gawaklen'''....''reconquest''<br>'''gawdel'''....''restatement'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''equi-, iso-, even-'' || '''eksag'''....''score''<br>'''kyin'''....''weight'' || '''geeksag'''....''tie''<br> '''gekyin'''....''equilibrium'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-, like-, simul-'' || '''dredun'''....''speling''<br>'''san'''....''form'' || '''geldredun'''....''homograph''<br>'''gelsan'''....''isomorph, clone'' |- | '''gla-''' || ''multi-, plur-, poly-'' || '''gon'''....''part'' || '''glagon'''....''plurality'' |- | '''glo-''' || ''few, poorly, little, hypo-, ligo-''|| '''tiibilnid'''....''blood volume'' || '''glotiibilnid'''....''hypovolemia, oligemia'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''hypo-, under-'' || '''agxen'''....''growth''<br>'''del''' || '''grogxen'''....''hypotrophy''<br>'''grodel'''....''understatement'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''too, hyper-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''grabik'''....''hypercaution'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-, super-'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''hyi-''' || ''homo-, same'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference'' || '''hyitoobif'''....''homosexualtiy'' |- | '''hyu-''' || ''hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference''<br>'''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''san'''....''shape'' || '''hyutoobif'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''hyumer'''....''alien planet''<br>'''hyusan'''....''allomorph'' |- | '''hya-''' || ''omni-, pan-, all-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism'' || '''hyadoobin'''....''pan-nationalism'' |- | '''hye-''' || ''any, whatever'' || '''saun'''....''kind'' || '''hyesaun'''....''any kind'' |- | '''hyo(s)-''' || ''nothing'' || '''ten'''....''knowledge'' || '''hyosten'''....''ignorance'' |- | '''hyuit-''' || ''mutual'' || '''fizuen'''....''respect'' || '''hyuitfizuen'''....''mutual respect'' |- | '''ig-''' || ''fast'' || '''didyan'''....''questionnaire'' || '''igdidyan'''....''pop quiz'' |- | '''ij-''' || ''initial, head'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''miap'''....''stream'' || '''ijdun'''....''prologue''<br>'''ijmiap'''....''headstream'' |- | '''ik-''' || ''full'' || '''nuxen'''....''payment'' || '''iknuxen'''....''liquidation'' |- | '''il-''' || ''liquid'' || '''ok'''....''loss'' || '''ilok'''....''leak'' |- | '''im''' || ''wet'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''immel'''....''loam, wetland'' |- | '''in-''' || ''tri-, three'' || '''goblun'''....''cut'' || '''ingoblun'''....''trisection'' |- | '''iv-''' || ''happy'' || '''din'''....''story'' || '''ivdin'''....''comedy'' |- | '''iz-''' || ''straight, orth-, rect-, direct'' || '''fin'''....''quality''<br>'''mep'''....''path'' || '''izfin'''....''rectitude''<br>'''izmep'''....''beeline, vector'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''before, pre-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''jabik'''....''precaution'' |- | '''je-''' || ''continuous'' || '''teaxer'''....''to look'' || '''jeteax'''....''watch, vigil'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''after, post-'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''jodren'''....''postscript'' |- | '''jwa-''' || ''proto-, eo-, early'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ejob'''....''modern era'' || '''jwaajdin'''....''protohistory''<br>'''jwaejob'''....''eocene'' |- | '''jwe-''' || ''prompt'' || '''puen'''....''arrival'' || '''jwepuen'''....''on-time arrival'' |- | '''jwo-''' || ''latter, late'' || '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''side, aside, lateral'' || '''bux'''....''push''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying'' || '''kubux'''....''rebuff''<br>'''kudeyn'''....''remark'' |- | '''ki-''' || ''diagonal, slant'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''texyen'''....''opinion'' || '''kinad'''....''diagonal, slant''<br>'''kitexyen'''....''bias'' |- | '''ko-''' || ''hide, covert, pseudo-'' || '''d'''....''utterance''<br>'''exut'''....''operative''<br>'''flen'''....''desire''<br>'''jadrun'''....''plan'' || '''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''koflen'''....''envy''<br>'''kojadrun'''....''plot'' |- | '''kya-'''|| ''change, para-, re-''||'''bax'''....''movement''<br>'''dyan'''....''phrase''<br>'''din'''....''story''<br>'''naz'''....''value''<br>'''napxen'''....''ordering''||'''kyabax'''....''shift''<br>'''kyadyan'''....''paraphrase''<br>'''kyadin'''....''version''<br>'''kyanaz'''....''variable''<br>'''kyanapxen'''....''reordering, shuffling'' |- | '''kye-''' || ''haphazard'' || '''den'''....''saying''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''kaxun'''....''find'' || '''kyeden'''....''guesswork''<br>'''kyefyun'''....''danger''<br>'''kyekaxun'''....''discovery'' |- | '''kyo-''' || ''fixed'' || '''byen'''....''manner''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying''<br>'''doneg'''....''social class'' || '''kyobyen'''....''habit''<br>'''kyodeyn'''....''clich&eacute;''<br>'''kyodoneg'''....''caste'' |- | '''kyi-''' || ''heavy'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''bal'''....''pressure''|| '''kyiazon'''....''gravity''<br>'''kyites'''....''importance''<br>'''kyibal'''....''strain'' |- | '''kyu-''' || ''light'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''mamil''' || '''kyuazon'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyumamil'''....''drizzle'' |- | '''lo-''' || ''dis-, de-, un-'' || '''bexun'''....''possession'' <br>'''bokulxen'''....''toxification''<br>'''box'''...''quiet''|| '''lobexun'''....''dispossession, divestment''<br>'''lobokulxen'''....''detoxification''<br>'''lobox'''....''disquiet'' |- | '''lyo-''' || ''totally not'' || '''fibyen'''....''good manner''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''lyofibyen'''....''insolence''<br>'''lyodot'''....''wilderness'' |- | '''mak-''' || ''electro-, e-'' || '''ebdras'''....''letter''<br>'''nagar'''....''meter'' || '''makebdras'''....''email''<br>'''maknagar'''....''electrometer'' |- | '''o-''' || ''not, un-'' || '''bik'''....''care''|| '''obik'''....''neglect'' |- | '''ob-''' || ''off-, vice-'' || '''goflun'''....''rip''<br>'''fub'''....''branch'' || '''obgoflun'''....''stub''<br>'''obfub'''....''offshoot'' |- | '''oge-''' || ''unequal, aniso-'' || '''izonan'''...''orientation'' || '''ogeizonan'''....''anisotropy'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-, different'' || '''toobifan'''....''sexual preference''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''ogeltoobifan'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''ogeltin'''....''heterodoxy'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''under-, sub-, infra-'' || '''mos'''....''floor''<br>'''neg'''....''level''<br>'''alza'''....''red''|| '''oybmos'''....''basement''<br>'''oybneg'''....''sublevel''<br>'''oybalza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''of-''' || ''prohibited'' || '''birun'''....''grab''<br>'''dresini'''....''drawings''<br>'''gelxun'''....''copy'' || '''ofbirun'''....''loot''<br>'''ofdresini'''....''grafitti''<br>'''ofgelxun'''....''plagiarism'' |- | '''og-''' || ''small'' || '''soni'''....''matters'' || '''ogsoni'''....''trivia'' |- | '''oog-''' || ''micro-, mini-'' || '''drenod'''....''dot''<br>'''naab'''....''file''<br>'''tyoyf'''....''skirt''|| '''oogdrenod'''....''microdot''<br>'''oognaab'''....''microfiche''<br>'''oogtyoyf'''....''miniskirt'' |- | '''oj-''' || ''future, fore-'' || '''buen'''....''giving''<br>'''deyn'''....''utterance'' || '''ojbuen'''....''lending''<br>'''ojdeyn'''....''forecast'' |- | '''ok-''' || ''loss'' || '''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''okbuun'''....''sacrifice''<br>'''oktos'''....''heartache'' |- | '''ov-''' || ''against, counter-, contra-, anti-'' || '''adabinut'''....''imperialist''<br>'''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''ovadabinut'''....''anti-imperialist''<br>'''ovapyex'''....''counterattack'' |- | '''oy-''' || ''without'' || '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''oytofa'''....''naked'' |- | '''oz-''' || ''weak'' || '''duun'''....''suggestion'' || '''ozduun'''....''hint'' |- | '''ug-''' || ''slow'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''ilok'''....''leak'' <br>'''teax'''....''look''|| '''ugdal'''....''drawl''<br>'''ugilok'''....''seepage''<br>'''ugteax'''....''gaze'' |- | '''ui-''' || '''horizontal'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' || '''uinab'''....''row'' |- | '''un-''' || ''quadri-, tetra-, four-'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' <br>'''yan'''....''collection''|| '''undrezun'''....''quatrain''<br>'''unyan'''....''tetrad'' |- |'''uj-''' || ''end'' || '''ak'''....''win''<br>'''dun'''....''word''<br>'''jud'''....''date'' || '''ujak'''....''success''<br>'''ujdun'''....''epilogue''<br>'''ujjud'''....''deadline'' |- | '''uk''' || ''empty'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''mel'''....''soil''<br>'''nod'''....''point'' || '''ukdal'''....''blather''<br>'''ukmel'''....''desert''<br>'''uknod'''....''puncture'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''self-, sui-, aut(o)-'' || '''tojben'''....''killing''<br>'''dab'''....''government'' || '''uttojben'''....''suicide''<br>'''utdab'''....''autarchy'' |- | '''uv-''' || ''sad'' || '''deuzun''''....''song''<br>'''dolen'''....''silence''<br>'''kyeuj'''....''fate'' || '''uvdeuzun'''....''dirge''<br>'''uvdolen'''....''sulking''<br>'''uvkyeuj'''....''tragedy'' |- | '''uf-''' || ''hate'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''ufdal'''....''rant''<br>'''uftos'''....''anger'' |- | '''uz-''' || ''crooked, curved, arc'' || '''aybmas'''....''roof''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge'' || '''uzaybmas'''....''vault, arch''<br>'''uzdopar'''....''bow, arch''<br>'''uzkunad'''....''rim'' |- | '''va-''' || ''yes'' || '''bien'''....''taking''<br>'''diun'''....''request''<br>'''dud'''....''answer'' || '''vabien'''....''acceptance''<br>'''vadiun'''....''claim''<br>'''vadud'''....''assent'' |- | '''vao-''' || ''yes-or-no'' || '''d'''....''utterance'' || '''vaod'''....''decision'' |- | '''ve-''' || ''maybe'' || '''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''yovdeyn'''....''inculpation'' || '''vetexen'''....''supposition''<br>'''veyovdeyn'''....''indictment'' |- | '''vo-''' || ''no'' || ''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''fon'''....''will'' || '''votexen'''....''doubting''<br>'''vofon'''....''disinclination'' |- | '''vya-''' || ''true'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''dud'''....''answer''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''vyadeyn'''....''avowal''<br>'''vyadud'''....''solution''<br>'''vyanad'''....''guideline'' |- | '''vye-''' || ''relative'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''vyedren'''....''correspondence'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''wrong, mis-'' || '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''vyobek'''....''mistreatment''<br>'''vyodat'''....''false friend'' |- | '''yag-''' || ''long'' || '''igpek'''....''race'' || '''yagigpek'''....''marathon'' |- | '''yan-''' || ''together, con-'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''yandal'''....''conversation'' |- | '''yog-''' || ''short, steno-'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''job'''....''time'' || '''yogdrir'''....''stenograph''<br>'''jogjob'''....''short while'' |- | '''yok-''' || ''sudden'' || ''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''yokapyex'''....''raid'' |- | '''yon-''' || ''apart'' || '''byex'''....''strike'' || '''yonbyex'''....''breach'' |- | '''yov-''' || ''shame'' || '''bixen'''....''pulling''<br>'''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''yovbixen'''....''seduction''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''punishment''<br>'''yovif'''....''schadenfreude'' |- | '''yab-''' || ''up, super-, high-, hyper-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''yabdom'''....''uptown''<br>'''yabdot'''....''high society'' |- | '''yabnan-''' || ''hypso-, acro-, height'' || '''dren'''....''recording'' || '''yabnandren'''....''hypsography'' |- | '''yaob-''' || ''up-and-down'' || '''yuijar'''....''valve''<br>'''pusen'''....''jumping'' || '''yaobyuijar'''....''piston''<br>'''yaopusen'''....''bouncing'' |- | '''yaz-''' || ''swollen, protruding, convex'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''buk'''....''wound''<br>'''tiub'''....''belly''<br>'''mem'''....''land'' || '''yazdal'''....''bombast''<br>'''yazbuk'''....''boil, blister''<br>'''yaztiub'''....''potbelly''<br>'''memyaz'''....''mountain'' |- | '''yez-''' || ''flush, along, para-'' || '''baktut'''....''medic''<br>'''mel'''....''terrain'' || '''yezbaktut'''....''paramedic''<br>'''yezmel'''....''meadow'' |- | '''yiz-''' || ''beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''yizdoobin'''....''ultra-nationalism''<br>'''yizdreniv'''....''hypertext'' |- | '''yoz-''' || ''sunken, concave'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''yoznad'''....''groove, gutter'' |- | '''yaoz-''' || ''saw-toothed, convex-concave'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''goblar'''....''knife'' || '''yaoznad'''....''tilde''<br>'''yaozgoblar'''....''saw'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''around, circ-, circum-, peri-'' || '''pipen'''....''navigation''<br>'''teaxar'''....''scope''<br>'''tyop'''....''walk'' || '''yuzpipen'''....''circumnavigation''<br>'''yuzteaxar'''....''periscope''<br>'''yuztyop'''....''stroll'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''in-, intro-, inner-'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''deym'''....''yard, court'' || '''yebdungab'''....''infix''<br>'''yebdeym'''...''courtyard'' |- | '''oyeb-''' || ''out-, extro-, outer-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dovyaban'''....''legality'' || '''oyebdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''oyebdovyaban'''....''extralegality'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''teaxar'''....''viewer, scope'' || '''yibdrir'''....''teletype''<br>'''yibteaxar'''....''telescope'' |- | '''yibaj''' || ''ancient, archaeo-, paleo-'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''tun'''....''science'' || '''yibajdeyn'''....''archaism''<br>'''yibajtun'''....''archaeology'' |- | '''yub-''' || ''near, para-, juxta-'' || '''gexen'''....''equaling''<br>'''kex'''....''search''<br>'''dop'''....''military''<br>'''tayov'''....''membrane''|| '''yubgexen'''....''approximation''<br>'''yubkex'''....''examination''<br>'''yubdop'''....''paramilitary''<br>'''juxtamembrane''' |- | '''yubaj-''' || ''recent, ceno-'' || || |- | '''yob-''' || ''down, sub-, de-'' || '''doneg'''....''class''<br>'''byex'''....''beat'' || '''yobdoneg'''....''low class''<br>'''yobbyex'''....''downbeat'' |- | '''za-''' || ''front, fore-, pre-, north'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''mer'''....''planet'' || '''zadungab'''....''prefix''<br>'''zadyun'''....''forename''<br>'''zamer'''....''north'' |- | '''ze-''' || ''middle, mid-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''zejub'''....''midday'' |- | '''zo-''' || ''behind, back'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull'' || '''zobex'''....''delay''<br>'''zobix'''....''drag'' |- | '''zay-''' || ''forward, pro-'' || '''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''bux'''....''push'' || '''zaybix'''....''protraction''<br>'''zaybux'''....''propulsion'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''across, trans-, meta-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow'' || '''zeydras'''....''transcript''<br>'''zeyilp'''....''crosscurrent'' |- | '''zoy-''' || ''re-, retro-, back'' || '''axlen'''....''action''<br>'''kix'''....''bend''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mav'''....''flash'' || '''zoyaxlen'''....''reaction''<br>'''zoykix'''....''reflection''<br>'''zoymag'''....''retrofire''<br>'''zoymav'''....''flashback'' |- | '''zya-''' || ''wide'' || '''dodal'''....''speech''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout'' || '''zyadodal'''....''propaganda''<br>'''zyadrurun'''....''poster'' |- | '''zye-''' || ''through, per-, trans-, dia-'' || '''belun'''....''cargo''<br>'''muf'''....''rod''<br>'''bwas'''....''something put'' || '''zyebelun'''....''shipment''<br>'''zyebuxmuf'''....''ramrod (through-push-rod)''<br>'''zyebwas'''....''metaphor'' |- | '''zyi-''' || ''flat, plat-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''mos'''....''floor'' || '''zyidyen'''....''platitude''<br>'''zyimemyaz'''....''plateau''<br>'''zyimos'''....''platform'' |- | '''zyo-''' || ''narrow'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''gun'''....''angle'' || '''zyobex'''....''clasp, grip''<br>'''zyobix'''....''tension''<br>'''zyogun'''....''acute angle'' |- | '''zyu-''' || ''round, roto-, cyclo-'' || '''abaun'''....''cover''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout''<br>'''tom'''....''building'' || '''zyuabaun'''....''dome''<br>'''zyudrurun'''....''rotograph''<br>'''zyutom'''....''tower'' |} {{small/end}} == Gender == [[File:Gender Neutral (13777) - The Noun Project.svg|thumb|]] : Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with the letter '''w'''. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with '''y'''. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix '''-ut''', that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending '''-ut''' is changed to '''-uyt''' for the female form, but the male form ending stays the same or becomes '''-twob'''. The reason for this is that the addition of a '''w''' to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker '''w''' (see the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs]]. The chart below shows how this works: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Making Nouns Gender-specific |- ! Neutral !! Masculine !! Feminine |- | '''tob'''....''human being, person'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''child'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ejtad'''....''step spouse'' || '''ejtwad'''....''step-husband'' || '''ejtayd'''....''step-wife'' |- | '''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse'' || '''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband'' || '''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''datif'''....''sweetheart'' || '''dwatif'''....''boyfriend'' || '''daytif'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''supet'''....''pig''|| '''supwet'''....''boar'' || '''supeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''gafapat'''....''fowl'' || '''gafapwat'''....''rooster'' || '''gafapayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''tiuv'''....''underwear'' || '''twiuv'''....''briefs'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''anbopet'''....''antelope'' || '''anbopwet'''....''deer'' || '''anbopeyt'''....''doe'' |- | '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzut / deuztwob'''....''male singer'' || '''deuzuyt''' ....''songstress'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} : For gender specification in pronouns, see [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns]], below). <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Parts of Speech|Adjectives}}</noinclude> s8tkuhzljxjd3malqkdiel5yqw1x2o9 0 417645 4634974 4584004 2026-05-09T15:25:45Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives */ 4634974 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adjective Types == : Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories: ::* descriptive :::# qualitative, like '''iva''' (''happy''), '''fia''' (''good''), '''oga''' (''small'') :::# denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like '''doma''' (''urban'') < '''dom''' (''city'') or '''teaba''' (''ocular'') < '''teab''' (''eye'') :::# deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like '''tejea''' (''living'') < '''tejer''' (''to live'') or '''twa''' (''known'') < '''ter''' (''to know'') :::# preposition-derived, like '''aba''' (''upper'') < '''ab'''....''on top of'' or '''zoa''' (''posterior'') < '''zo''' (''behind'') ::* determinative :::# deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like '''hia''' (''this''), '''huyena''' (''such''), '''haewa''' (''both'') :::# numeric, like '''awa''' (''one''), '''ea''' (''second''), '''iona''' (''triple'') :::# quantitative, like '''ga''' (''more''), '''glo''' (''few''), '''gra''' (''too much'') :::# pronominal ( ~ possessive), like '''ata''' (''my''), '''duhota?''' (''whose?''), '''hyeta''' (''anyone's'') : Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as '''''participles''''', are treated in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Verbs|Verbs]], since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]] and the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Pronouns|Pronouns]]. == Descriptive Adjectives == : All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel '''a'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjective-marking suffix ! Stem !! Meaning !! Adjective |- |'''fi-''' || qualitative root base word || '''fia'''....''good'' |- | '''pur''' || noun meaning ''vehicle'' || '''pura'''....''vehicular'' |- | '''dalw-''' || passive stem of the verb ''speak'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken'' |- | '''ab''' || preposition meaning ''on'' || '''aba'''....''superior'' |} : Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify: ::* '''<u>aga</u> tam'''....''a <u>big</u> house'' ::* '''ha <u>fia</u> toyb'''....''the <u>good</u> woman'' ::* '''ata <u>boka</u> twed'''....''my <u>sick</u> father'' ::* '''<u>fia</u> ilzyebi bi vifil.'''....''<u>good</u> bottles of wine'' ::* '''yata <u>dooba</u> doof'''....''our <u>national</u> flag'' : Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify. :: '''doba xeut'''....''state agent'' can also be expressed as the noun compound '''dobxeut'''. '''Dob''' means ''a state.'' :: '''pata bok'''....''avian illness'' can be compounded as '''patbok''', literally '''bird illness.''' : Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building. == Comparing Adjectives by Degree == [[File:NY Height Comparison.png|thumb|none]] : As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree ('''ga''', '''ge''', etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Modification of Adjectives by Degree |- ! Quantitative Determiner !! Modification By Degree |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ga fia (vyel)'''....''better (than)'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' || '''ge fia (vyel)'''....''as good (as)'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' || '''go fia (vyel)'''....''less good (than)'' |- | '''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''gao fia'''....''good more or less'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' || '''gla fia'''....''very good'' |- | '''glay'''....''so'' || '''glay fia'''....''so good'' |- | '''gle'''....''rather/quite'' || '''gle fia'''....''rather/quite good'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very'' || '''glo fia'''....''not very/slightly/barely good'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' || '''gra fia'''....''too good'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gre fia'''....''good enough'' |- | '''gro'''....''not enough'' || '''gro fia'''....''not good enough'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwa fia (bi, be)'''....''best (of, in)'' |- | '''gwe'''....''just, merely'' || '''gwe fia'''....''merely good'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwo fia (bi, be)'''....''least good (of, in)'' |} : The relative conjunction '''vyel''' is used to translate English ''as'' in an equalitative comparison or ''than'' in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples: ::* '''Ata tam se <u>ga aga vyel</u> etas.'''....''My house is <u>bigger than</u> yours.'' ::* '''Hia tam voy se <u>ge aga vyel</u> atas.'''....''This house is not <u>as big as</u> mine.'' ::* '''His se <u>ha gwa aga tam bi</u> yata yubem.'''....''This is <u>the biggest house in</u> our neighborhood.'' : The expression '''be kum bi''' (''beside'') can be substituted for '''vyel'''. ::* '''Ata keson sa ga fia <u>be kum bi</u> hos at yaka.'''....''My experience was better <u>than</u> (what) I expected.'' ::* '''Yat sa nyoza <u>be kum bi</u> yata tudi.'''....''We were poorer <u>than</u> our children.'' : Mirad has no irregular comparative/superlative adjectives such as English "better/best". == Deriving Substantives from Adjectives == : Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives: ::* Abstract quality noun: '''-n''' ::* Thing having a quality: '''-s''' ::* Person having a quality: '''-t''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Substantives from Adjectives |- ! Adjective !! Quality Noun !! Person Noun !! Thing Noun |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>n</u>'''....''goodness''|| '''fia<u>t</u>'''....''a good person'' || '''fia<u>s</u>'''....''a good thing'' |- | '''yeva'''....''just'' || '''yeva<u>n</u>'''....''justice''||'''yeva<u>t</u>'''....''a fair person''||'''yeva<u>s</u>'''....''a fair thing'' |- | '''joga'''....''young'' || '''joga<u>n</u>'''....''youth''||'''joga<u>t</u>'''....''a youth'' || '''joga<u>s</u>'''....''something new'' |} : The substantives ending in '''-s''' and '''-t''' can be referred to as '''''deadjectival pronouns''''', because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives. == Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives == [[File:Antisocial graffiti Cat.jpg|thumb]] : Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing '''o'''. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix '''o''', then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes '''ol'''. This has the effect of English ''un-'' or ''non-'' in words like ''unlike'', ''unhappy'', and ''nonessential'' or the Greek privative prefix '''a(n)-''' in words like ''asymmetric'' or ''anomalous''. : Prefixing the syllable '''lyo''' or '''ov''' has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-". : In cases where the '''o-''' creates an ambiguous word, '''lo-''' or '''-ol''' is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Negated |- | '''twa'''....''known'' || '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' |- | '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''<u>o</u>ega'''....''abnormal'' |- | '''eflawa'''....''essential'' || '''<u>o</u>eflawa'''....''nonessential'' |- | '''geyla'''....''similar'' || '''<u>o</u>geyla'''....''dissimilar'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''<u>o</u>iva'''....''unhappy'' |- | '''data'''....''friendly'' || '''<u>o</u>data'''....''unfriendly''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>data'''....''inimical''<br>'''<u>ov</u>data'''....''hostile'' |- | '''dota'''....''social'' || '''<u>o</u>dota'''....''unsocial''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>dota'''....''barbarian''<br>'''<u>ov</u>dota'''....''antisocial'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''<u>o</u>ifwa'''....''unloved'' |- | '''fwa'''....''wanted'' || '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited'' || '''<u>ol</u>ofwa'''....''unprohibited'' |} == Polarization of Base Word Adjectives == : Base word adjectives are '''''polarized adjectives''''' that fall into the following pattern categories: ::* '''[iu]Ca''' (such as '''ifa''', '''uja''', '''ika''', '''uka''', etc.) ::* '''C[iu]a''' (such as '''fia''', '''fua''', '''via''', '''vua''', etc.) ::* '''[aeu]Ca''' (such as '''aja''', '''eja''', '''uja''', '''yava''', '''yeva''', '''yova''', etc.) ::* '''C[aeu]a''' (such as '''vaa''', '''vea''', '''vua''', etc.) : In the case of the '''i/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''i''' are positive and are contrasted with those with '''u''', which are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ I/U Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Negative |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fua'''....''bad'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''uva'''....''sad'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |} : In the case of the '''a/e/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''a''' are positive; those with '''e''' are intermediate, and those with '''o''' are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Intermediate !! Negative |- | '''yava'''....''innocent'' || '''yeva'''....''fair'' || '''yova'''....''guilty'' |- | '''aja'''....''past'' || '''eja'''....''present'' || '''oja'''....''future'' |- | '''aga'''....''big''|| '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''oga'''....''small'' |} == Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide '''y'''. Examples follow: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Mitigated Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Deintensified |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yuyfa'''....''shy'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yiyva'''....''loose'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viya'''....''pretty'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''iyfwa'''....''liked'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''obligatory'' || '''yeyfwa'''....''due'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated'' || '''uyfwa'''....''disliked'' |} == Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The letters '''l''' and '''r''' can be used to intensify the sense of adjectives, '''r''' being the more intense. One of these letters is inserted just before the final suffix '''-a'''. Here are some examples: ::* '''ama'''....''hot'' vs. '''amra'''....''burning hot, ardent'' ::* '''yika'''....''difficult'' vs. '''yikra'''....''arduous'' ::* '''yiga'''....''hard'' vs. '''yigla'''....''brusk'' vs. '''yigra'''....''brutish, violent'' ::* '''yifa'''....''brave'' vs. '''yifla'''....''audacious'' vs. '''yifra'''....''valorous, heroic'' ::* '''yafa'''....''able'' vs. '''yafla'''....''mighty'' ::* '''iga'''....''fast'' vs. '''igla'''....''hasty'' vs. '''igra'''....''frenetic, harried'' ::* '''iva'''....''happy'' vs. '''ivra'''....''delighted, jubilant'' ::* '''yuka'''....''easy'' vs. '''yukla'''....''simple'' ::* '''yiva'''....''free'' vs. '''yivla'''....''loose'' ::* '''yuva'''....''bound'' vs. '''yuvla'''....''dependent'' vs. '''yuvra'''....''captive'' ::* '''yuga'''....''soft'' vs. '''yugla'''....''tender'' vs. '''yugra'''....''delicate'' ::* '''yufa'''....''afraid'' vs. '''yufla'''....''frightened'' vs. '''yufra'''....''horrified'' == Adjectival Derivational Endings == : All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix '''a'''. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings. : {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjectival Derivative Endings |- ! Ending !! Transition Type !! Meaning !! Base Word !! Derived Adjective |- | '''-a''' || N->ADJ ||''relating to, of'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''tota'''....''divine''<br>'''toba'''....''human''<br>'''doma'''....''urban'' |- | '''-aya'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milaya'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelaya'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesaya'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-ika'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milika'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelika'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesika'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-oya'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''teboya'''....''headless''<br>'''leveloya'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesoya'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-uka'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tebuka'''....''headless''<br>'''leveluka'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesuka'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-yena'''||N->ADJ||''like, -ish, -y'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''totyena'''....''godly, godlike''<br>'''tobyena'''....''manly, virile''<br>'''domyena'''....''urbane'' |- | '''-ea'''||V->ADJ||''-ing, -ent, -ant'' || '''ags-'''....''grow''<br>'''tej-'''....''live''<br>'''kyas-'''....''change'' || '''agsea'''....''growing, crescent''<br>'''tejea'''....''living, alive''<br>'''kyasea'''....''changing, variant'' |- | '''-yea'''||V->ADJ||''-ive, tending to'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalyea'''....''talkative''<br>'''toxyea'''....''forgetful''<br>'''vadyea'''....''affirmative'' |- | '''-wa'''||V->ADJ||''-ed'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken''<br>'''toxwa'''....''forgotten''<br>'''vadwa'''....''affirmed'' |- | '''-oa'''||V->ADJ||''-about to, apt to'' || '''toj-'''....''die''<br>'''kyes-'''....''happen''<br>'''tajb-'''....''give birth'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund''<br>'''kyesoa'''....''imminent''<br>'''tajboa'''....''about to deliver'' |- | '''-ua'''||V->ADJ||''-able, potentially V'' || '''tojb-'''....''kill''<br>'''bukx-'''....''harm''<br>'''akuj-'''....''succeed'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal''<br>'''bukxua'''....''dangerous''<br>'''akujua'''....''potentially successful'' |- |'''-efa'''||N->ADJ||''-in need of N'' || '''til'''....''drink''<br>'''tel'''....''food''||'''tilefa'''....''thirsty''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | '''-yafa'''||V->ADJ||''-able'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' ||'''testyafa'''....''able to understand'' |- | '''-yafwa'''||V-ADJ||''-able, possible to X'' || '''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyafwa'''....''understandable'' |- | '''-yofa'''||V->ADJ||''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | '''-yofwa'''||V->ADJ||''impossible to, un-X-able'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- |'''-yuka''' ||V->ADJ||''comfortable Xing'' ||'''pes-'''....''wait''||'''pesyuka'''....''patient'' |- |'''-yukwa''' ||V->ADJ||''easy to X''||'''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyukwa'''....''clear'' |- |'''-yika''' ||V->ADJ||''hard of Xing'' ||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |- |'''-yikwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hard to X''||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyikwa'''....''hard to hear'' |- |'''-ifa''' ||V->ADJ||''fond of Xing, -phile/-ic'' ||'''t-'''....''know''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''||'''tifa'''....''curious''<br>'''dyesifa'''....''bibliophilic'' |- |'''-ifwa''' ||V->ADJ||''loved by''||'''tyod-'''....''people''||'''tyodifwa'''....''popular'' |- |'''-ufa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-hating, -phobic, averse'' ||'''tob-'''....''man''<br>'''yex'''....''work''||'''toybufa'''....''anthrophobic''<br>'''yexufa'''....''lazy, work-averse'' |- |'''-ufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hated by''||'''hyat'''....''everyone''||'''hyatufwa'''....''universally hated'' |- |'''-yifa''' ||V->ADJ||''brave'' ||'''toj'''....''death''||'''tojyifa'''....''brave in the face of death'' |- |'''-yufa''' ||V-ADJ||''afraid of X''||'''tot'''....''god''||'''totyufa'''....''god-fearing'' |- |'''-yufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''feared by X''||'''gla'''....''much''||'''glayufwa'''....''much-feared'' |- |'''-yefa''' ||V->ADJ||''due to X''||'''dud-'''....''answer''||'''dudyefa'''....''answerable, responsible'' |- |'''-yeyfa''' ||V->ADJ||''liable to X''||'''fyuzi-'''....''get punished''||'''fyuziyeyfa'''....''liable to be punished'' |- |'''-yefwa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-worthy''||'''fid-'''....''praise''||'''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- |'''-yakwa''' ||V->ADJ||''expected to X''||'''mamil-'''....''rain''||'''mamilyakwa'''....''likely to rain'' |- |'''-valka''' ||N->ADJ||''-safe, -proof''||'''mil'''....''water''||'''milvalka'''....''waterproof'' |- |'''-ava''' ||N->ADJ||''pro-X''||'''tej'''....''life''||'''tejava'''....''pro-life'' |- |'''-eva''' ||N->ADJ||''-neutral''||'''toob'''....''gender''||'''toobeva'''....''gender-neutral'' |- |'''-ova''' ||N->ADJ||''anti-X''||'''dropek'''....''war''||'''dropekova'''....''anti-war'' |- |'''-yiva''' ||N->ADJ||''-free''||'''yef'''....''debt''||'''yefyiva'''....''debt-free'' |- |'''-yuva''' ||N->ADJ||''-bound''||'''yef'''....''duty''<br>'''vya-'''....''truth''<br>'''dofin'''....''moral''||'''yefyuva'''....''duty-bound''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''loyal''<br>'''dofinyuva'''....''scrupulous'' |- |'''-aza''' ||N->ADJ||''strong-Xed''||'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''fonaza'''....''strong-willed''<br>'''tipaza'''....''stern'' |- |'''-oza''' ||N->ADJ||''weak-Xed''||'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''tipoza'''....''weak-hearted'' |- |'''-iza''' ||N->ADJ||''straight-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepiza'''....''logical''<br>'''daliza'''....''frank'' |- |'''-uza''' ||N->ADJ||''crooked-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepuza'''....''illogical''<br>'''daluza'''....''devious'' |- |'''-okya''' ||N->ADJ||''absent-Xed''||'''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ted'''....''parent''||'''tadokya'''....''widowed''<br>'''tedokya'''....''orphaned'' |- | '''-iga''' ||N->ADJ||''fast-Xed'' || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubiga'''....''nimble'' |- | '''-uga''' ||N->ADJ||''slow-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepuga'''....''slow-witted, dull'' |- | '''-aga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''big-Xed'' || '''tiib'''....''heart'' || '''tiibaga'''....''big-hearted, generous'' |- | '''-oga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''small-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepoga'''....''small-minded'' |- | '''-yiga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''hard-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyiga'''....''stern, strict'' |- | '''-yuga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''soft-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyuga'''....''lax, lenient'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Nouns|Adverbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} ga8xz74h8x1nnxi2vl4s8ohhu98vyg7 4634975 4634974 2026-05-09T15:32:48Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives */ 4634975 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adjective Types == : Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories: ::* descriptive :::# qualitative, like '''iva''' (''happy''), '''fia''' (''good''), '''oga''' (''small'') :::# denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like '''doma''' (''urban'') < '''dom''' (''city'') or '''teaba''' (''ocular'') < '''teab''' (''eye'') :::# deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like '''tejea''' (''living'') < '''tejer''' (''to live'') or '''twa''' (''known'') < '''ter''' (''to know'') :::# preposition-derived, like '''aba''' (''upper'') < '''ab'''....''on top of'' or '''zoa''' (''posterior'') < '''zo''' (''behind'') ::* determinative :::# deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like '''hia''' (''this''), '''huyena''' (''such''), '''haewa''' (''both'') :::# numeric, like '''awa''' (''one''), '''ea''' (''second''), '''iona''' (''triple'') :::# quantitative, like '''ga''' (''more''), '''glo''' (''few''), '''gra''' (''too much'') :::# pronominal ( ~ possessive), like '''ata''' (''my''), '''duhota?''' (''whose?''), '''hyeta''' (''anyone's'') : Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as '''''participles''''', are treated in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Verbs|Verbs]], since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]] and the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Pronouns|Pronouns]]. == Descriptive Adjectives == : All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel '''a'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjective-marking suffix ! Stem !! Meaning !! Adjective |- |'''fi-''' || qualitative root base word || '''fia'''....''good'' |- | '''pur''' || noun meaning ''vehicle'' || '''pura'''....''vehicular'' |- | '''dalw-''' || passive stem of the verb ''speak'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken'' |- | '''ab''' || preposition meaning ''on'' || '''aba'''....''superior'' |} : Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify: ::* '''<u>aga</u> tam'''....''a <u>big</u> house'' ::* '''ha <u>fia</u> toyb'''....''the <u>good</u> woman'' ::* '''ata <u>boka</u> twed'''....''my <u>sick</u> father'' ::* '''<u>fia</u> ilzyebi bi vifil.'''....''<u>good</u> bottles of wine'' ::* '''yata <u>dooba</u> doof'''....''our <u>national</u> flag'' : Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify. :: '''doba xeut'''....''state agent'' can also be expressed as the noun compound '''dobxeut'''. '''Dob''' means ''a state.'' :: '''pata bok'''....''avian illness'' can be compounded as '''patbok''', literally '''bird illness.''' : Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building. == Comparing Adjectives by Degree == [[File:NY Height Comparison.png|thumb|none]] : As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree ('''ga''', '''ge''', etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Modification of Adjectives by Degree |- ! Quantitative Determiner !! Modification By Degree |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ga fia (vyel)'''....''better (than)'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' || '''ge fia (vyel)'''....''as good (as)'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' || '''go fia (vyel)'''....''less good (than)'' |- | '''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''gao fia'''....''good more or less'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' || '''gla fia'''....''very good'' |- | '''glay'''....''so'' || '''glay fia'''....''so good'' |- | '''gle'''....''rather/quite'' || '''gle fia'''....''rather/quite good'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very'' || '''glo fia'''....''not very/slightly/barely good'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' || '''gra fia'''....''too good'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gre fia'''....''good enough'' |- | '''gro'''....''not enough'' || '''gro fia'''....''not good enough'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwa fia (bi, be)'''....''best (of, in)'' |- | '''gwe'''....''just, merely'' || '''gwe fia'''....''merely good'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwo fia (bi, be)'''....''least good (of, in)'' |} : The relative conjunction '''vyel''' is used to translate English ''as'' in an equalitative comparison or ''than'' in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples: ::* '''Ata tam se <u>ga aga vyel</u> etas.'''....''My house is <u>bigger than</u> yours.'' ::* '''Hia tam voy se <u>ge aga vyel</u> atas.'''....''This house is not <u>as big as</u> mine.'' ::* '''His se <u>ha gwa aga tam bi</u> yata yubem.'''....''This is <u>the biggest house in</u> our neighborhood.'' : The expression '''be kum bi''' (''beside'') can be substituted for '''vyel'''. ::* '''Ata keson sa ga fia <u>be kum bi</u> hos at yaka.'''....''My experience was better <u>than</u> (what) I expected.'' ::* '''Yat sa nyoza <u>be kum bi</u> yata tudi.'''....''We were poorer <u>than</u> our children.'' : Mirad has no irregular comparative/superlative adjectives such as English "better/best". == Deriving Substantives from Adjectives == : Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives: ::* Abstract quality noun: '''-n''' ::* Thing having a quality: '''-s''' ::* Person having a quality: '''-t''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Substantives from Adjectives |- ! Adjective !! Quality Noun !! Person Noun !! Thing Noun |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>n</u>'''....''goodness''|| '''fia<u>t</u>'''....''a good person'' || '''fia<u>s</u>'''....''a good thing'' |- | '''yeva'''....''just'' || '''yeva<u>n</u>'''....''justice''||'''yeva<u>t</u>'''....''a fair person''||'''yeva<u>s</u>'''....''a fair thing'' |- | '''joga'''....''young'' || '''joga<u>n</u>'''....''youth''||'''joga<u>t</u>'''....''a youth'' || '''joga<u>s</u>'''....''something new'' |} : The substantives ending in '''-s''' and '''-t''' can be referred to as '''''deadjectival pronouns''''', because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives. == Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives == [[File:Antisocial graffiti Cat.jpg|thumb]] : Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing '''o'''. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix '''o''', then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes '''ol'''. This has the effect of English ''un-'' or ''non-'' in words like ''unlike'', ''unhappy'', and ''nonessential'' or the Greek privative prefix '''a(n)-''' in words like ''asymmetric'' or ''anomalous''. : Prefixing the syllable '''lyo''' or '''ov''' has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-". : In cases where the '''o-''' creates an ambiguous word, '''lo-''' or '''-ol''' is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Negated |- | '''twa'''....''known'' || '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' |- | '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''<u>o</u>ega'''....''abnormal'' |- | '''eflawa'''....''essential'' || '''<u>o</u>eflawa'''....''nonessential'' |- | '''geyla'''....''similar'' || '''<u>o</u>geyla'''....''dissimilar'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''<u>o</u>iva'''....''unhappy'' |- | '''data'''....''friendly'' || '''<u>o</u>data'''....''unfriendly''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>data'''....''inimical''<br>'''<u>ov</u>data'''....''hostile'' |- | '''dota'''....''social'' || '''<u>o</u>dota'''....''unsocial''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>dota'''....''barbarian''<br>'''<u>ov</u>dota'''....''antisocial'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''<u>o</u>ifwa'''....''unloved'' |- | '''fwa'''....''wanted'' || '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited'' || '''<u>ol</u>ofwa'''....''unprohibited'' |} == Polarization of Base Word Adjectives == : Base word adjectives are '''''polarized adjectives''''' that fall into the following pattern categories: ::* '''[iu]Ca''' (such as '''ifa''', '''uja''', '''ika''', '''uka''', etc.) ::* '''C[iu]a''' (such as '''fia''', '''fua''', '''via''', '''vua''', etc.) ::* '''[aeu]Ca''' (such as '''aja''', '''eja''', '''uja''', '''yava''', '''yeva''', '''yova''', etc.) ::* '''C[aeu]a''' (such as '''vaa''', '''vea''', '''vua''', etc.) : In the case of the '''i/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''i''' are positive and are contrasted with those with '''u''', which are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ I/U Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Negative |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fua'''....''bad'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''uva'''....''sad'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |} : In the case of the '''a/e/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''a''' are positive; those with '''e''' are intermediate, and those with '''o''' are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Intermediate !! Negative |- | '''yava'''....''innocent'' || '''yeva'''....''fair'' || '''yova'''....''guilty'' |- | '''aja'''....''past'' || '''eja'''....''present'' || '''oja'''....''future'' |- | '''aga'''....''big''|| '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''oga'''....''small'' |} == Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide '''y'''. Examples follow: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Mitigated Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Deintensified |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yuyfa'''....''shy'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yiyva'''....''loose'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viya'''....''pretty'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''iyfwa'''....''liked'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''obligatory'' || '''yeyfwa'''....''due'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated'' || '''uyfwa'''....''disliked'' |} == Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The letters '''l''' and '''r''' can be used to intensify the sense of adjectives, '''r''' being the more intense. One of these letters is inserted just before the final suffix '''-a'''. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Intensified Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Intensified with '''l''' !! Intensified with '''r''' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''amla'''....'' '' || '''amra'''....''burning hot, ardent'' |- | '''yika'''....''difficult'' || '''yikla'''....''complex'' || '''yikra'''....''arduous'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigla'''....''brusk'' || '''yigra'''....''brutish, violent'' |- | '''yifa'''....''brave'' || '''yifla'''....''audacious'' || '''yifra'''....''valorous, heroic'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able'' || '''yafla'''....''mighty'' || |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igla'''....''hasty'' || '''igra'''....''frenetic, harried'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''glad'' || '''ivra'''....''delighted, jubilant'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy'' || '''yukla'''....''simple'' || |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yivla'''....''loose'' || |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''yuvla'''....''dependent'' || '''yuvra'''....''captive'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugla'''....''tender'' || '''yugra'''....''delicate'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yufla'''....''frightened'' || '''yufra'''....''horrified'' |} == Adjectival Derivational Endings == : All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix '''a'''. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings. : {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjectival Derivative Endings |- ! Ending !! Transition Type !! Meaning !! Base Word !! Derived Adjective |- | '''-a''' || N->ADJ ||''relating to, of'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''tota'''....''divine''<br>'''toba'''....''human''<br>'''doma'''....''urban'' |- | '''-aya'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milaya'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelaya'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesaya'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-ika'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milika'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelika'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesika'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-oya'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''teboya'''....''headless''<br>'''leveloya'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesoya'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-uka'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tebuka'''....''headless''<br>'''leveluka'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesuka'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-yena'''||N->ADJ||''like, -ish, -y'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''totyena'''....''godly, godlike''<br>'''tobyena'''....''manly, virile''<br>'''domyena'''....''urbane'' |- | '''-ea'''||V->ADJ||''-ing, -ent, -ant'' || '''ags-'''....''grow''<br>'''tej-'''....''live''<br>'''kyas-'''....''change'' || '''agsea'''....''growing, crescent''<br>'''tejea'''....''living, alive''<br>'''kyasea'''....''changing, variant'' |- | '''-yea'''||V->ADJ||''-ive, tending to'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalyea'''....''talkative''<br>'''toxyea'''....''forgetful''<br>'''vadyea'''....''affirmative'' |- | '''-wa'''||V->ADJ||''-ed'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken''<br>'''toxwa'''....''forgotten''<br>'''vadwa'''....''affirmed'' |- | '''-oa'''||V->ADJ||''-about to, apt to'' || '''toj-'''....''die''<br>'''kyes-'''....''happen''<br>'''tajb-'''....''give birth'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund''<br>'''kyesoa'''....''imminent''<br>'''tajboa'''....''about to deliver'' |- | '''-ua'''||V->ADJ||''-able, potentially V'' || '''tojb-'''....''kill''<br>'''bukx-'''....''harm''<br>'''akuj-'''....''succeed'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal''<br>'''bukxua'''....''dangerous''<br>'''akujua'''....''potentially successful'' |- |'''-efa'''||N->ADJ||''-in need of N'' || '''til'''....''drink''<br>'''tel'''....''food''||'''tilefa'''....''thirsty''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | '''-yafa'''||V->ADJ||''-able'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' ||'''testyafa'''....''able to understand'' |- | '''-yafwa'''||V-ADJ||''-able, possible to X'' || '''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyafwa'''....''understandable'' |- | '''-yofa'''||V->ADJ||''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | '''-yofwa'''||V->ADJ||''impossible to, un-X-able'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- |'''-yuka''' ||V->ADJ||''comfortable Xing'' ||'''pes-'''....''wait''||'''pesyuka'''....''patient'' |- |'''-yukwa''' ||V->ADJ||''easy to X''||'''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyukwa'''....''clear'' |- |'''-yika''' ||V->ADJ||''hard of Xing'' ||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |- |'''-yikwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hard to X''||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyikwa'''....''hard to hear'' |- |'''-ifa''' ||V->ADJ||''fond of Xing, -phile/-ic'' ||'''t-'''....''know''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''||'''tifa'''....''curious''<br>'''dyesifa'''....''bibliophilic'' |- |'''-ifwa''' ||V->ADJ||''loved by''||'''tyod-'''....''people''||'''tyodifwa'''....''popular'' |- |'''-ufa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-hating, -phobic, averse'' ||'''tob-'''....''man''<br>'''yex'''....''work''||'''toybufa'''....''anthrophobic''<br>'''yexufa'''....''lazy, work-averse'' |- |'''-ufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hated by''||'''hyat'''....''everyone''||'''hyatufwa'''....''universally hated'' |- |'''-yifa''' ||V->ADJ||''brave'' ||'''toj'''....''death''||'''tojyifa'''....''brave in the face of death'' |- |'''-yufa''' ||V-ADJ||''afraid of X''||'''tot'''....''god''||'''totyufa'''....''god-fearing'' |- |'''-yufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''feared by X''||'''gla'''....''much''||'''glayufwa'''....''much-feared'' |- |'''-yefa''' ||V->ADJ||''due to X''||'''dud-'''....''answer''||'''dudyefa'''....''answerable, responsible'' |- |'''-yeyfa''' ||V->ADJ||''liable to X''||'''fyuzi-'''....''get punished''||'''fyuziyeyfa'''....''liable to be punished'' |- |'''-yefwa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-worthy''||'''fid-'''....''praise''||'''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- |'''-yakwa''' ||V->ADJ||''expected to X''||'''mamil-'''....''rain''||'''mamilyakwa'''....''likely to rain'' |- |'''-valka''' ||N->ADJ||''-safe, -proof''||'''mil'''....''water''||'''milvalka'''....''waterproof'' |- |'''-ava''' ||N->ADJ||''pro-X''||'''tej'''....''life''||'''tejava'''....''pro-life'' |- |'''-eva''' ||N->ADJ||''-neutral''||'''toob'''....''gender''||'''toobeva'''....''gender-neutral'' |- |'''-ova''' ||N->ADJ||''anti-X''||'''dropek'''....''war''||'''dropekova'''....''anti-war'' |- |'''-yiva''' ||N->ADJ||''-free''||'''yef'''....''debt''||'''yefyiva'''....''debt-free'' |- |'''-yuva''' ||N->ADJ||''-bound''||'''yef'''....''duty''<br>'''vya-'''....''truth''<br>'''dofin'''....''moral''||'''yefyuva'''....''duty-bound''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''loyal''<br>'''dofinyuva'''....''scrupulous'' |- |'''-aza''' ||N->ADJ||''strong-Xed''||'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''fonaza'''....''strong-willed''<br>'''tipaza'''....''stern'' |- |'''-oza''' ||N->ADJ||''weak-Xed''||'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''tipoza'''....''weak-hearted'' |- |'''-iza''' ||N->ADJ||''straight-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepiza'''....''logical''<br>'''daliza'''....''frank'' |- |'''-uza''' ||N->ADJ||''crooked-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepuza'''....''illogical''<br>'''daluza'''....''devious'' |- |'''-okya''' ||N->ADJ||''absent-Xed''||'''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ted'''....''parent''||'''tadokya'''....''widowed''<br>'''tedokya'''....''orphaned'' |- | '''-iga''' ||N->ADJ||''fast-Xed'' || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubiga'''....''nimble'' |- | '''-uga''' ||N->ADJ||''slow-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepuga'''....''slow-witted, dull'' |- | '''-aga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''big-Xed'' || '''tiib'''....''heart'' || '''tiibaga'''....''big-hearted, generous'' |- | '''-oga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''small-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepoga'''....''small-minded'' |- | '''-yiga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''hard-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyiga'''....''stern, strict'' |- | '''-yuga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''soft-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyuga'''....''lax, lenient'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Nouns|Adverbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 1sdumwtsu7uq6an5cdzxaedymwepase 4635010 4634975 2026-05-09T19:50:42Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives */ 4635010 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adjective Types == : Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories: ::* descriptive :::# qualitative, like '''iva''' (''happy''), '''fia''' (''good''), '''oga''' (''small'') :::# denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like '''doma''' (''urban'') < '''dom''' (''city'') or '''teaba''' (''ocular'') < '''teab''' (''eye'') :::# deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like '''tejea''' (''living'') < '''tejer''' (''to live'') or '''twa''' (''known'') < '''ter''' (''to know'') :::# preposition-derived, like '''aba''' (''upper'') < '''ab'''....''on top of'' or '''zoa''' (''posterior'') < '''zo''' (''behind'') ::* determinative :::# deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like '''hia''' (''this''), '''huyena''' (''such''), '''haewa''' (''both'') :::# numeric, like '''awa''' (''one''), '''ea''' (''second''), '''iona''' (''triple'') :::# quantitative, like '''ga''' (''more''), '''glo''' (''few''), '''gra''' (''too much'') :::# pronominal ( ~ possessive), like '''ata''' (''my''), '''duhota?''' (''whose?''), '''hyeta''' (''anyone's'') : Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as '''''participles''''', are treated in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Verbs|Verbs]], since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]] and the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Pronouns|Pronouns]]. == Descriptive Adjectives == : All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel '''a'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjective-marking suffix ! Stem !! Meaning !! Adjective |- |'''fi-''' || qualitative root base word || '''fia'''....''good'' |- | '''pur''' || noun meaning ''vehicle'' || '''pura'''....''vehicular'' |- | '''dalw-''' || passive stem of the verb ''speak'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken'' |- | '''ab''' || preposition meaning ''on'' || '''aba'''....''superior'' |} : Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify: ::* '''<u>aga</u> tam'''....''a <u>big</u> house'' ::* '''ha <u>fia</u> toyb'''....''the <u>good</u> woman'' ::* '''ata <u>boka</u> twed'''....''my <u>sick</u> father'' ::* '''<u>fia</u> ilzyebi bi vifil.'''....''<u>good</u> bottles of wine'' ::* '''yata <u>dooba</u> doof'''....''our <u>national</u> flag'' : Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify. :: '''doba xeut'''....''state agent'' can also be expressed as the noun compound '''dobxeut'''. '''Dob''' means ''a state.'' :: '''pata bok'''....''avian illness'' can be compounded as '''patbok''', literally '''bird illness.''' : Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building. == Comparing Adjectives by Degree == [[File:NY Height Comparison.png|thumb|none]] : As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree ('''ga''', '''ge''', etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Modification of Adjectives by Degree |- ! Quantitative Determiner !! Modification By Degree |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ga fia (vyel)'''....''better (than)'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' || '''ge fia (vyel)'''....''as good (as)'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' || '''go fia (vyel)'''....''less good (than)'' |- | '''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''gao fia'''....''good more or less'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' || '''gla fia'''....''very good'' |- | '''glay'''....''so'' || '''glay fia'''....''so good'' |- | '''gle'''....''rather/quite'' || '''gle fia'''....''rather/quite good'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very'' || '''glo fia'''....''not very/slightly/barely good'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' || '''gra fia'''....''too good'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gre fia'''....''good enough'' |- | '''gro'''....''not enough'' || '''gro fia'''....''not good enough'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwa fia (bi, be)'''....''best (of, in)'' |- | '''gwe'''....''just, merely'' || '''gwe fia'''....''merely good'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwo fia (bi, be)'''....''least good (of, in)'' |} : The relative conjunction '''vyel''' is used to translate English ''as'' in an equalitative comparison or ''than'' in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples: ::* '''Ata tam se <u>ga aga vyel</u> etas.'''....''My house is <u>bigger than</u> yours.'' ::* '''Hia tam voy se <u>ge aga vyel</u> atas.'''....''This house is not <u>as big as</u> mine.'' ::* '''His se <u>ha gwa aga tam bi</u> yata yubem.'''....''This is <u>the biggest house in</u> our neighborhood.'' : The expression '''be kum bi''' (''beside'') can be substituted for '''vyel'''. ::* '''Ata keson sa ga fia <u>be kum bi</u> hos at yaka.'''....''My experience was better <u>than</u> (what) I expected.'' ::* '''Yat sa nyoza <u>be kum bi</u> yata tudi.'''....''We were poorer <u>than</u> our children.'' : Mirad has no irregular comparative/superlative adjectives such as English "better/best". == Deriving Substantives from Adjectives == : Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives: ::* Abstract quality noun: '''-n''' ::* Thing having a quality: '''-s''' ::* Person having a quality: '''-t''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Substantives from Adjectives |- ! Adjective !! Quality Noun !! Person Noun !! Thing Noun |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>n</u>'''....''goodness''|| '''fia<u>t</u>'''....''a good person'' || '''fia<u>s</u>'''....''a good thing'' |- | '''yeva'''....''just'' || '''yeva<u>n</u>'''....''justice''||'''yeva<u>t</u>'''....''a fair person''||'''yeva<u>s</u>'''....''a fair thing'' |- | '''joga'''....''young'' || '''joga<u>n</u>'''....''youth''||'''joga<u>t</u>'''....''a youth'' || '''joga<u>s</u>'''....''something new'' |} : The substantives ending in '''-s''' and '''-t''' can be referred to as '''''deadjectival pronouns''''', because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives. == Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives == [[File:Antisocial graffiti Cat.jpg|thumb]] : Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing '''o'''. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix '''o''', then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes '''ol'''. This has the effect of English ''un-'' or ''non-'' in words like ''unlike'', ''unhappy'', and ''nonessential'' or the Greek privative prefix '''a(n)-''' in words like ''asymmetric'' or ''anomalous''. : Prefixing the syllable '''lyo''' or '''ov''' has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-". : In cases where the '''o-''' creates an ambiguous word, '''lo-''' or '''-ol''' is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Negated |- | '''twa'''....''known'' || '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' |- | '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''<u>o</u>ega'''....''abnormal'' |- | '''eflawa'''....''essential'' || '''<u>o</u>eflawa'''....''nonessential'' |- | '''geyla'''....''similar'' || '''<u>o</u>geyla'''....''dissimilar'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''<u>o</u>iva'''....''unhappy'' |- | '''data'''....''friendly'' || '''<u>o</u>data'''....''unfriendly''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>data'''....''inimical''<br>'''<u>ov</u>data'''....''hostile'' |- | '''dota'''....''social'' || '''<u>o</u>dota'''....''unsocial''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>dota'''....''barbarian''<br>'''<u>ov</u>dota'''....''antisocial'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''<u>o</u>ifwa'''....''unloved'' |- | '''fwa'''....''wanted'' || '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited'' || '''<u>ol</u>ofwa'''....''unprohibited'' |} == Polarization of Base Word Adjectives == : Base word adjectives are '''''polarized adjectives''''' that fall into the following pattern categories: ::* '''[iu]Ca''' (such as '''ifa''', '''uja''', '''ika''', '''uka''', etc.) ::* '''C[iu]a''' (such as '''fia''', '''fua''', '''via''', '''vua''', etc.) ::* '''[aeu]Ca''' (such as '''aja''', '''eja''', '''uja''', '''yava''', '''yeva''', '''yova''', etc.) ::* '''C[aeu]a''' (such as '''vaa''', '''vea''', '''vua''', etc.) : In the case of the '''i/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''i''' are positive and are contrasted with those with '''u''', which are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ I/U Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Negative |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fua'''....''bad'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''uva'''....''sad'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |} : In the case of the '''a/e/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''a''' are positive; those with '''e''' are intermediate, and those with '''o''' are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Intermediate !! Negative |- | '''yava'''....''innocent'' || '''yeva'''....''fair'' || '''yova'''....''guilty'' |- | '''aja'''....''past'' || '''eja'''....''present'' || '''oja'''....''future'' |- | '''aga'''....''big''|| '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''oga'''....''small'' |} == Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide '''y'''. Examples follow: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Mitigated Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Deintensified |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yuyfa'''....''shy'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yiyva'''....''loose'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viya'''....''pretty'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''iyfwa'''....''liked'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''obligatory'' || '''yeyfwa'''....''due'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated'' || '''uyfwa'''....''disliked'' |} == Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The letters '''l''' and '''r''' can be used to intensify the sense of adjectives, '''r''' being the more intense. One of these letters is inserted just before the final suffix '''-a''' or sometimes just after the initial consonant of the stem. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Intensified Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Intensified with '''l''' !! Intensified with '''r''' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''amla'''....''ardent'' || '''amra'''....''fiery, scorching'' |- | '''yika'''....''difficult'' || '''yikla'''....''complex'' || '''yikra'''....''arduous'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigla'''....''brusk'' || '''yigra'''....''brutish, violent'' |- | '''yifa'''....''brave'' || '''yifla'''....''audacious'' || '''yifra'''....''valorous, heroic'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igla'''....''hasty'' || '''igra'''....''frenetic, harried'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''glad'' || '''ivra'''....''delighted, jubilant'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yivla'''....''loose'' || '''yivra'''....''wild'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''yuvla'''....''dependent'' || '''yuvra'''....''captive'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugla'''....''tender'' || '''yugra'''....''delicate'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yufla'''....''frightened'' || '''yufra'''....''horrified'' |- | '''fiza'''....''honorable, noble'' || '''fliza'''....''gracious, charming'' || '''friza'''....''glorious'' |- | '''fuza'''....''ignoble'' || '''fluza'''....''disgraceful'' || '''fruza'''....''ignominious'' |} == Adjectival Derivational Endings == : All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix '''a'''. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings. : {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjectival Derivative Endings |- ! Ending !! Transition Type !! Meaning !! Base Word !! Derived Adjective |- | '''-a''' || N->ADJ ||''relating to, of'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''tota'''....''divine''<br>'''toba'''....''human''<br>'''doma'''....''urban'' |- | '''-aya'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milaya'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelaya'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesaya'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-ika'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milika'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelika'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesika'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-oya'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''teboya'''....''headless''<br>'''leveloya'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesoya'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-uka'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tebuka'''....''headless''<br>'''leveluka'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesuka'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-yena'''||N->ADJ||''like, -ish, -y'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''totyena'''....''godly, godlike''<br>'''tobyena'''....''manly, virile''<br>'''domyena'''....''urbane'' |- | '''-ea'''||V->ADJ||''-ing, -ent, -ant'' || '''ags-'''....''grow''<br>'''tej-'''....''live''<br>'''kyas-'''....''change'' || '''agsea'''....''growing, crescent''<br>'''tejea'''....''living, alive''<br>'''kyasea'''....''changing, variant'' |- | '''-yea'''||V->ADJ||''-ive, tending to'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalyea'''....''talkative''<br>'''toxyea'''....''forgetful''<br>'''vadyea'''....''affirmative'' |- | '''-wa'''||V->ADJ||''-ed'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken''<br>'''toxwa'''....''forgotten''<br>'''vadwa'''....''affirmed'' |- | '''-oa'''||V->ADJ||''-about to, apt to'' || '''toj-'''....''die''<br>'''kyes-'''....''happen''<br>'''tajb-'''....''give birth'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund''<br>'''kyesoa'''....''imminent''<br>'''tajboa'''....''about to deliver'' |- | '''-ua'''||V->ADJ||''-able, potentially V'' || '''tojb-'''....''kill''<br>'''bukx-'''....''harm''<br>'''akuj-'''....''succeed'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal''<br>'''bukxua'''....''dangerous''<br>'''akujua'''....''potentially successful'' |- |'''-efa'''||N->ADJ||''-in need of N'' || '''til'''....''drink''<br>'''tel'''....''food''||'''tilefa'''....''thirsty''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | '''-yafa'''||V->ADJ||''-able'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' ||'''testyafa'''....''able to understand'' |- | '''-yafwa'''||V-ADJ||''-able, possible to X'' || '''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyafwa'''....''understandable'' |- | '''-yofa'''||V->ADJ||''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | '''-yofwa'''||V->ADJ||''impossible to, un-X-able'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- |'''-yuka''' ||V->ADJ||''comfortable Xing'' ||'''pes-'''....''wait''||'''pesyuka'''....''patient'' |- |'''-yukwa''' ||V->ADJ||''easy to X''||'''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyukwa'''....''clear'' |- |'''-yika''' ||V->ADJ||''hard of Xing'' ||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |- |'''-yikwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hard to X''||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyikwa'''....''hard to hear'' |- |'''-ifa''' ||V->ADJ||''fond of Xing, -phile/-ic'' ||'''t-'''....''know''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''||'''tifa'''....''curious''<br>'''dyesifa'''....''bibliophilic'' |- |'''-ifwa''' ||V->ADJ||''loved by''||'''tyod-'''....''people''||'''tyodifwa'''....''popular'' |- |'''-ufa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-hating, -phobic, averse'' ||'''tob-'''....''man''<br>'''yex'''....''work''||'''toybufa'''....''anthrophobic''<br>'''yexufa'''....''lazy, work-averse'' |- |'''-ufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hated by''||'''hyat'''....''everyone''||'''hyatufwa'''....''universally hated'' |- |'''-yifa''' ||V->ADJ||''brave'' ||'''toj'''....''death''||'''tojyifa'''....''brave in the face of death'' |- |'''-yufa''' ||V-ADJ||''afraid of X''||'''tot'''....''god''||'''totyufa'''....''god-fearing'' |- |'''-yufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''feared by X''||'''gla'''....''much''||'''glayufwa'''....''much-feared'' |- |'''-yefa''' ||V->ADJ||''due to X''||'''dud-'''....''answer''||'''dudyefa'''....''answerable, responsible'' |- |'''-yeyfa''' ||V->ADJ||''liable to X''||'''fyuzi-'''....''get punished''||'''fyuziyeyfa'''....''liable to be punished'' |- |'''-yefwa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-worthy''||'''fid-'''....''praise''||'''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- |'''-yakwa''' ||V->ADJ||''expected to X''||'''mamil-'''....''rain''||'''mamilyakwa'''....''likely to rain'' |- |'''-valka''' ||N->ADJ||''-safe, -proof''||'''mil'''....''water''||'''milvalka'''....''waterproof'' |- |'''-ava''' ||N->ADJ||''pro-X''||'''tej'''....''life''||'''tejava'''....''pro-life'' |- |'''-eva''' ||N->ADJ||''-neutral''||'''toob'''....''gender''||'''toobeva'''....''gender-neutral'' |- |'''-ova''' ||N->ADJ||''anti-X''||'''dropek'''....''war''||'''dropekova'''....''anti-war'' |- |'''-yiva''' ||N->ADJ||''-free''||'''yef'''....''debt''||'''yefyiva'''....''debt-free'' |- |'''-yuva''' ||N->ADJ||''-bound''||'''yef'''....''duty''<br>'''vya-'''....''truth''<br>'''dofin'''....''moral''||'''yefyuva'''....''duty-bound''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''loyal''<br>'''dofinyuva'''....''scrupulous'' |- |'''-aza''' ||N->ADJ||''strong-Xed''||'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''fonaza'''....''strong-willed''<br>'''tipaza'''....''stern'' |- |'''-oza''' ||N->ADJ||''weak-Xed''||'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''tipoza'''....''weak-hearted'' |- |'''-iza''' ||N->ADJ||''straight-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepiza'''....''logical''<br>'''daliza'''....''frank'' |- |'''-uza''' ||N->ADJ||''crooked-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepuza'''....''illogical''<br>'''daluza'''....''devious'' |- |'''-okya''' ||N->ADJ||''absent-Xed''||'''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ted'''....''parent''||'''tadokya'''....''widowed''<br>'''tedokya'''....''orphaned'' |- | '''-iga''' ||N->ADJ||''fast-Xed'' || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubiga'''....''nimble'' |- | '''-uga''' ||N->ADJ||''slow-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepuga'''....''slow-witted, dull'' |- | '''-aga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''big-Xed'' || '''tiib'''....''heart'' || '''tiibaga'''....''big-hearted, generous'' |- | '''-oga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''small-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepoga'''....''small-minded'' |- | '''-yiga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''hard-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyiga'''....''stern, strict'' |- | '''-yuga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''soft-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyuga'''....''lax, lenient'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Nouns|Adverbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 3cck8mmnojxldcntforbv1ea9x6jx3u 4635011 4635010 2026-05-09T19:56:05Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Adjectival Derivational Endings */ 4635011 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adjective Types == : Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories: ::* descriptive :::# qualitative, like '''iva''' (''happy''), '''fia''' (''good''), '''oga''' (''small'') :::# denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like '''doma''' (''urban'') < '''dom''' (''city'') or '''teaba''' (''ocular'') < '''teab''' (''eye'') :::# deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like '''tejea''' (''living'') < '''tejer''' (''to live'') or '''twa''' (''known'') < '''ter''' (''to know'') :::# preposition-derived, like '''aba''' (''upper'') < '''ab'''....''on top of'' or '''zoa''' (''posterior'') < '''zo''' (''behind'') ::* determinative :::# deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like '''hia''' (''this''), '''huyena''' (''such''), '''haewa''' (''both'') :::# numeric, like '''awa''' (''one''), '''ea''' (''second''), '''iona''' (''triple'') :::# quantitative, like '''ga''' (''more''), '''glo''' (''few''), '''gra''' (''too much'') :::# pronominal ( ~ possessive), like '''ata''' (''my''), '''duhota?''' (''whose?''), '''hyeta''' (''anyone's'') : Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as '''''participles''''', are treated in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Verbs|Verbs]], since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]] and the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Pronouns|Pronouns]]. == Descriptive Adjectives == : All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel '''a'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjective-marking suffix ! Stem !! Meaning !! Adjective |- |'''fi-''' || qualitative root base word || '''fia'''....''good'' |- | '''pur''' || noun meaning ''vehicle'' || '''pura'''....''vehicular'' |- | '''dalw-''' || passive stem of the verb ''speak'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken'' |- | '''ab''' || preposition meaning ''on'' || '''aba'''....''superior'' |} : Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify: ::* '''<u>aga</u> tam'''....''a <u>big</u> house'' ::* '''ha <u>fia</u> toyb'''....''the <u>good</u> woman'' ::* '''ata <u>boka</u> twed'''....''my <u>sick</u> father'' ::* '''<u>fia</u> ilzyebi bi vifil.'''....''<u>good</u> bottles of wine'' ::* '''yata <u>dooba</u> doof'''....''our <u>national</u> flag'' : Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify. :: '''doba xeut'''....''state agent'' can also be expressed as the noun compound '''dobxeut'''. '''Dob''' means ''a state.'' :: '''pata bok'''....''avian illness'' can be compounded as '''patbok''', literally '''bird illness.''' : Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building. == Comparing Adjectives by Degree == [[File:NY Height Comparison.png|thumb|none]] : As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree ('''ga''', '''ge''', etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Modification of Adjectives by Degree |- ! Quantitative Determiner !! Modification By Degree |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ga fia (vyel)'''....''better (than)'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' || '''ge fia (vyel)'''....''as good (as)'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' || '''go fia (vyel)'''....''less good (than)'' |- | '''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''gao fia'''....''good more or less'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' || '''gla fia'''....''very good'' |- | '''glay'''....''so'' || '''glay fia'''....''so good'' |- | '''gle'''....''rather/quite'' || '''gle fia'''....''rather/quite good'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very'' || '''glo fia'''....''not very/slightly/barely good'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' || '''gra fia'''....''too good'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gre fia'''....''good enough'' |- | '''gro'''....''not enough'' || '''gro fia'''....''not good enough'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwa fia (bi, be)'''....''best (of, in)'' |- | '''gwe'''....''just, merely'' || '''gwe fia'''....''merely good'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwo fia (bi, be)'''....''least good (of, in)'' |} : The relative conjunction '''vyel''' is used to translate English ''as'' in an equalitative comparison or ''than'' in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples: ::* '''Ata tam se <u>ga aga vyel</u> etas.'''....''My house is <u>bigger than</u> yours.'' ::* '''Hia tam voy se <u>ge aga vyel</u> atas.'''....''This house is not <u>as big as</u> mine.'' ::* '''His se <u>ha gwa aga tam bi</u> yata yubem.'''....''This is <u>the biggest house in</u> our neighborhood.'' : The expression '''be kum bi''' (''beside'') can be substituted for '''vyel'''. ::* '''Ata keson sa ga fia <u>be kum bi</u> hos at yaka.'''....''My experience was better <u>than</u> (what) I expected.'' ::* '''Yat sa nyoza <u>be kum bi</u> yata tudi.'''....''We were poorer <u>than</u> our children.'' : Mirad has no irregular comparative/superlative adjectives such as English "better/best". == Deriving Substantives from Adjectives == : Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives: ::* Abstract quality noun: '''-n''' ::* Thing having a quality: '''-s''' ::* Person having a quality: '''-t''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Substantives from Adjectives |- ! Adjective !! Quality Noun !! Person Noun !! Thing Noun |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>n</u>'''....''goodness''|| '''fia<u>t</u>'''....''a good person'' || '''fia<u>s</u>'''....''a good thing'' |- | '''yeva'''....''just'' || '''yeva<u>n</u>'''....''justice''||'''yeva<u>t</u>'''....''a fair person''||'''yeva<u>s</u>'''....''a fair thing'' |- | '''joga'''....''young'' || '''joga<u>n</u>'''....''youth''||'''joga<u>t</u>'''....''a youth'' || '''joga<u>s</u>'''....''something new'' |} : The substantives ending in '''-s''' and '''-t''' can be referred to as '''''deadjectival pronouns''''', because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives. == Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives == [[File:Antisocial graffiti Cat.jpg|thumb]] : Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing '''o'''. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix '''o''', then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes '''ol'''. This has the effect of English ''un-'' or ''non-'' in words like ''unlike'', ''unhappy'', and ''nonessential'' or the Greek privative prefix '''a(n)-''' in words like ''asymmetric'' or ''anomalous''. : Prefixing the syllable '''lyo''' or '''ov''' has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-". : In cases where the '''o-''' creates an ambiguous word, '''lo-''' or '''-ol''' is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Negated |- | '''twa'''....''known'' || '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' |- | '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''<u>o</u>ega'''....''abnormal'' |- | '''eflawa'''....''essential'' || '''<u>o</u>eflawa'''....''nonessential'' |- | '''geyla'''....''similar'' || '''<u>o</u>geyla'''....''dissimilar'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''<u>o</u>iva'''....''unhappy'' |- | '''data'''....''friendly'' || '''<u>o</u>data'''....''unfriendly''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>data'''....''inimical''<br>'''<u>ov</u>data'''....''hostile'' |- | '''dota'''....''social'' || '''<u>o</u>dota'''....''unsocial''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>dota'''....''barbarian''<br>'''<u>ov</u>dota'''....''antisocial'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''<u>o</u>ifwa'''....''unloved'' |- | '''fwa'''....''wanted'' || '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited'' || '''<u>ol</u>ofwa'''....''unprohibited'' |} == Polarization of Base Word Adjectives == : Base word adjectives are '''''polarized adjectives''''' that fall into the following pattern categories: ::* '''[iu]Ca''' (such as '''ifa''', '''uja''', '''ika''', '''uka''', etc.) ::* '''C[iu]a''' (such as '''fia''', '''fua''', '''via''', '''vua''', etc.) ::* '''[aeu]Ca''' (such as '''aja''', '''eja''', '''uja''', '''yava''', '''yeva''', '''yova''', etc.) ::* '''C[aeu]a''' (such as '''vaa''', '''vea''', '''vua''', etc.) : In the case of the '''i/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''i''' are positive and are contrasted with those with '''u''', which are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ I/U Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Negative |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fua'''....''bad'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''uva'''....''sad'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |} : In the case of the '''a/e/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''a''' are positive; those with '''e''' are intermediate, and those with '''o''' are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Intermediate !! Negative |- | '''yava'''....''innocent'' || '''yeva'''....''fair'' || '''yova'''....''guilty'' |- | '''aja'''....''past'' || '''eja'''....''present'' || '''oja'''....''future'' |- | '''aga'''....''big''|| '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''oga'''....''small'' |} == Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide '''y'''. Examples follow: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Mitigated Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Deintensified |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yuyfa'''....''shy'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yiyva'''....''loose'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viya'''....''pretty'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''iyfwa'''....''liked'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''obligatory'' || '''yeyfwa'''....''due'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated'' || '''uyfwa'''....''disliked'' |} == Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The letters '''l''' and '''r''' can be used to intensify the sense of adjectives, '''r''' being the more intense. One of these letters is inserted just before the final suffix '''-a''' or sometimes just after the initial consonant of the stem. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Intensified Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Intensified with '''l''' !! Intensified with '''r''' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''amla'''....''ardent'' || '''amra'''....''fiery, scorching'' |- | '''yika'''....''difficult'' || '''yikla'''....''complex'' || '''yikra'''....''arduous'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigla'''....''brusk'' || '''yigra'''....''brutish, violent'' |- | '''yifa'''....''brave'' || '''yifla'''....''audacious'' || '''yifra'''....''valorous, heroic'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igla'''....''hasty'' || '''igra'''....''frenetic, harried'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''glad'' || '''ivra'''....''delighted, jubilant'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yivla'''....''loose'' || '''yivra'''....''wild'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''yuvla'''....''dependent'' || '''yuvra'''....''captive'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugla'''....''tender'' || '''yugra'''....''delicate'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yufla'''....''frightened'' || '''yufra'''....''horrified'' |- | '''fiza'''....''honorable, noble'' || '''fliza'''....''gracious, charming'' || '''friza'''....''glorious'' |- | '''fuza'''....''ignoble'' || '''fluza'''....''disgraceful'' || '''fruza'''....''ignominious'' |} == Adjectival Derivational Endings == : All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix '''a'''. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings. : {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjectival Derivative Endings |- ! Ending !! Transition Type !! Meaning !! Base Word !! Derived Adjective |- | '''-a''' || N->ADJ ||''relating to, of'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''tota'''....''divine''<br>'''toba'''....''human''<br>'''doma'''....''urban'' |- | '''-aya'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milaya'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelaya'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesaya'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-ika'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milika'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelika'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesika'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-oya'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''teboya'''....''headless''<br>'''leveloya'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesoya'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-uka'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tebuka'''....''headless''<br>'''leveluka'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesuka'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-yena'''||N->ADJ||''like, -ish, -y'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''totyena'''....''godly, godlike''<br>'''tobyena'''....''manly, virile''<br>'''domyena'''....''urbane'' |- | '''-ea'''||V->ADJ||''-ing, -ent, -ant'' || '''ags-'''....''grow''<br>'''tej-'''....''live''<br>'''kyas-'''....''change'' || '''agsea'''....''growing, crescent''<br>'''tejea'''....''living, alive''<br>'''kyasea'''....''changing, variant'' |- | '''-yea'''||V->ADJ||''-ive, tending to'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalyea'''....''talkative''<br>'''toxyea'''....''forgetful''<br>'''vadyea'''....''affirmative'' |- | '''-wa'''||V->ADJ||''-ed'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken''<br>'''toxwa'''....''forgotten''<br>'''vadwa'''....''affirmed'' |- | '''-oa'''||V->ADJ||''-about to, apt to'' || '''toj-'''....''die''<br>'''kyes-'''....''happen''<br>'''tajb-'''....''give birth'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund''<br>'''kyesoa'''....''imminent''<br>'''tajboa'''....''about to deliver'' |- | '''-ua'''||V->ADJ||''-able, potentially V'' || '''tojb-'''....''kill''<br>'''bukx-'''....''harm''<br>'''akuj-'''....''succeed'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal''<br>'''bukxua'''....''dangerous''<br>'''akujua'''....''potentially successful'' |- |'''-efa'''||N->ADJ||''in need of N'' || '''til'''....''drink''<br>'''tel'''....''food''||'''tilefa'''....''thirsty''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- |'''-efwa'''||V->ADJ||''necessary to V''|| '''fukob-'''....''to repair''<br>'''fukobefwa'''....''in need of repair'' |- | '''-yafa'''||V->ADJ||''-able'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' ||'''testyafa'''....''able to understand'' |- | '''-yafwa'''||V-ADJ||''-able, possible to X'' || '''test-'''....''to understand''||'''testyafwa'''....''understandable'' |- | '''-yofa'''||V->ADJ||''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | '''-yofwa'''||V->ADJ||''impossible to, un-X-able'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- |'''-yuka''' ||V->ADJ||''comfortable Xing'' ||'''pes-'''....''wait''||'''pesyuka'''....''patient'' |- |'''-yukwa''' ||V->ADJ||''easy to X''||'''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyukwa'''....''clear'' |- |'''-yika''' ||V->ADJ||''hard of Xing'' ||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |- |'''-yikwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hard to X''||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyikwa'''....''hard to hear'' |- |'''-ifa''' ||V->ADJ||''fond of Xing, -phile/-ic'' ||'''t-'''....''know''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''||'''tifa'''....''curious''<br>'''dyesifa'''....''bibliophilic'' |- |'''-ifwa''' ||V->ADJ||''loved by''||'''tyod-'''....''people''||'''tyodifwa'''....''popular'' |- |'''-ufa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-hating, -phobic, averse'' ||'''tob-'''....''man''<br>'''yex'''....''work''||'''toybufa'''....''anthrophobic''<br>'''yexufa'''....''lazy, work-averse'' |- |'''-ufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hated by''||'''hyat'''....''everyone''||'''hyatufwa'''....''universally hated'' |- |'''-yifa''' ||V->ADJ||''brave'' ||'''toj'''....''death''||'''tojyifa'''....''brave in the face of death'' |- |'''-yufa''' ||V-ADJ||''afraid of X''||'''tot'''....''god''||'''totyufa'''....''god-fearing'' |- |'''-yufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''feared by X''||'''gla'''....''much''||'''glayufwa'''....''much-feared'' |- |'''-yefa''' ||V->ADJ||''due to X''||'''dud-'''....''answer''||'''dudyefa'''....''answerable, responsible'' |- |'''-yeyfa''' ||V->ADJ||''liable to X''||'''fyuzi-'''....''get punished''||'''fyuziyeyfa'''....''liable to be punished'' |- |'''-yefwa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-worthy''||'''fid-'''....''praise''||'''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- |'''-yakwa''' ||V->ADJ||''expected to X''||'''mamil-'''....''rain''||'''mamilyakwa'''....''likely to rain'' |- |'''-valka''' ||N->ADJ||''-safe, -proof''||'''mil'''....''water''||'''milvalka'''....''waterproof'' |- |'''-ava''' ||N->ADJ||''pro-X''||'''tej'''....''life''||'''tejava'''....''pro-life'' |- |'''-eva''' ||N->ADJ||''-neutral''||'''toob'''....''gender''||'''toobeva'''....''gender-neutral'' |- |'''-ova''' ||N->ADJ||''anti-X''||'''dropek'''....''war''||'''dropekova'''....''anti-war'' |- |'''-yiva''' ||N->ADJ||''-free''||'''yef'''....''debt''||'''yefyiva'''....''debt-free'' |- |'''-yuva''' ||N->ADJ||''-bound''||'''yef'''....''duty''<br>'''vya-'''....''truth''<br>'''dofin'''....''moral''||'''yefyuva'''....''duty-bound''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''loyal''<br>'''dofinyuva'''....''scrupulous'' |- |'''-aza''' ||N->ADJ||''strong-Xed''||'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''fonaza'''....''strong-willed''<br>'''tipaza'''....''stern'' |- |'''-oza''' ||N->ADJ||''weak-Xed''||'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''tipoza'''....''weak-hearted'' |- |'''-iza''' ||N->ADJ||''straight-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepiza'''....''logical''<br>'''daliza'''....''frank'' |- |'''-uza''' ||N->ADJ||''crooked-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepuza'''....''illogical''<br>'''daluza'''....''devious'' |- |'''-okya''' ||N->ADJ||''absent-Xed''||'''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ted'''....''parent''||'''tadokya'''....''widowed''<br>'''tedokya'''....''orphaned'' |- | '''-iga''' ||N->ADJ||''fast-Xed'' || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubiga'''....''nimble'' |- | '''-uga''' ||N->ADJ||''slow-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepuga'''....''slow-witted, dull'' |- | '''-aga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''big-Xed'' || '''tiib'''....''heart'' || '''tiibaga'''....''big-hearted, generous'' |- | '''-oga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''small-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepoga'''....''small-minded'' |- | '''-yiga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''hard-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyiga'''....''stern, strict'' |- | '''-yuga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''soft-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyuga'''....''lax, lenient'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Nouns|Adverbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} kmlelf0jb8zndv1ixyci7zyp6i3hcvt 4635012 4635011 2026-05-09T19:56:58Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Adjectival Derivational Endings */ 4635012 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adjective Types == : Adjectives, which are words that modify nouns, can be of the following types and subcategories: ::* descriptive :::# qualitative, like '''iva''' (''happy''), '''fia''' (''good''), '''oga''' (''small'') :::# denominal ( ~ noun-derived), like '''doma''' (''urban'') < '''dom''' (''city'') or '''teaba''' (''ocular'') < '''teab''' (''eye'') :::# deverbal ( ~ verb-derived), (participles) like '''tejea''' (''living'') < '''tejer''' (''to live'') or '''twa''' (''known'') < '''ter''' (''to know'') :::# preposition-derived, like '''aba''' (''upper'') < '''ab'''....''on top of'' or '''zoa''' (''posterior'') < '''zo''' (''behind'') ::* determinative :::# deictic ( ~ demonstrative, indefinite), like '''hia''' (''this''), '''huyena''' (''such''), '''haewa''' (''both'') :::# numeric, like '''awa''' (''one''), '''ea''' (''second''), '''iona''' (''triple'') :::# quantitative, like '''ga''' (''more''), '''glo''' (''few''), '''gra''' (''too much'') :::# pronominal ( ~ possessive), like '''ata''' (''my''), '''duhota?''' (''whose?''), '''hyeta''' (''anyone's'') : Descriptive adjectives are the main focus of this section. Determinative adjectives (determiners) behave differently and are discussed under [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. Deverbal adjectives, usually referred to as '''''participles''''', are treated in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Verbs|Verbs]], since they are formed from verbs. Pronominal determiners (i.e. possessive adjectives) are treated under both the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]] and the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Pronouns|Pronouns]]. == Descriptive Adjectives == : All descriptive adjectives end in the adjectival marker vowel '''a'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjective-marking suffix ! Stem !! Meaning !! Adjective |- |'''fi-''' || qualitative root base word || '''fia'''....''good'' |- | '''pur''' || noun meaning ''vehicle'' || '''pura'''....''vehicular'' |- | '''dalw-''' || passive stem of the verb ''speak'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken'' |- | '''ab''' || preposition meaning ''on'' || '''aba'''....''superior'' |} : Such adjectives precede the noun or noun phrase they modify: ::* '''<u>aga</u> tam'''....''a <u>big</u> house'' ::* '''ha <u>fia</u> toyb'''....''the <u>good</u> woman'' ::* '''ata <u>boka</u> twed'''....''my <u>sick</u> father'' ::* '''<u>fia</u> ilzyebi bi vifil.'''....''<u>good</u> bottles of wine'' ::* '''yata <u>dooba</u> doof'''....''our <u>national</u> flag'' : Adjectives do not agree in number or gender with the noun they modify. :: '''doba xeut'''....''state agent'' can also be expressed as the noun compound '''dobxeut'''. '''Dob''' means ''a state.'' :: '''pata bok'''....''avian illness'' can be compounded as '''patbok''', literally '''bird illness.''' : Note: Compounded nouns often have an idiomatic meaning not exactly equal to their separate parts. More about this in the later section on vocabulary-building. == Comparing Adjectives by Degree == [[File:NY Height Comparison.png|thumb|none]] : As in English, descriptive adjectives can be compared by degree. To do this, a quantitative determiner of degree ('''ga''', '''ge''', etc.) is placed before the adjective, producing positive / negative comparative, equalitative, superlative, and other degree expressions as in the following table. The quantitative determiners themselves that are used in these comparative expressions are discussed in detail in a later section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Modification of Adjectives by Degree |- ! Quantitative Determiner !! Modification By Degree |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ga fia (vyel)'''....''better (than)'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' || '''ge fia (vyel)'''....''as good (as)'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' || '''go fia (vyel)'''....''less good (than)'' |- | '''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''gao fia'''....''good more or less'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' || '''gla fia'''....''very good'' |- | '''glay'''....''so'' || '''glay fia'''....''so good'' |- | '''gle'''....''rather/quite'' || '''gle fia'''....''rather/quite good'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very'' || '''glo fia'''....''not very/slightly/barely good'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' || '''gra fia'''....''too good'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gre fia'''....''good enough'' |- | '''gro'''....''not enough'' || '''gro fia'''....''not good enough'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwa fia (bi, be)'''....''best (of, in)'' |- | '''gwe'''....''just, merely'' || '''gwe fia'''....''merely good'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwo fia (bi, be)'''....''least good (of, in)'' |} : The relative conjunction '''vyel''' is used to translate English ''as'' in an equalitative comparison or ''than'' in a non-equalitative comparison. Examples: ::* '''Ata tam se <u>ga aga vyel</u> etas.'''....''My house is <u>bigger than</u> yours.'' ::* '''Hia tam voy se <u>ge aga vyel</u> atas.'''....''This house is not <u>as big as</u> mine.'' ::* '''His se <u>ha gwa aga tam bi</u> yata yubem.'''....''This is <u>the biggest house in</u> our neighborhood.'' : The expression '''be kum bi''' (''beside'') can be substituted for '''vyel'''. ::* '''Ata keson sa ga fia <u>be kum bi</u> hos at yaka.'''....''My experience was better <u>than</u> (what) I expected.'' ::* '''Yat sa nyoza <u>be kum bi</u> yata tudi.'''....''We were poorer <u>than</u> our children.'' : Mirad has no irregular comparative/superlative adjectives such as English "better/best". == Deriving Substantives from Adjectives == : Adjectives can be suffixed to derive various noun substantives: ::* Abstract quality noun: '''-n''' ::* Thing having a quality: '''-s''' ::* Person having a quality: '''-t''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Substantives from Adjectives |- ! Adjective !! Quality Noun !! Person Noun !! Thing Noun |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>n</u>'''....''goodness''|| '''fia<u>t</u>'''....''a good person'' || '''fia<u>s</u>'''....''a good thing'' |- | '''yeva'''....''just'' || '''yeva<u>n</u>'''....''justice''||'''yeva<u>t</u>'''....''a fair person''||'''yeva<u>s</u>'''....''a fair thing'' |- | '''joga'''....''young'' || '''joga<u>n</u>'''....''youth''||'''joga<u>t</u>'''....''a youth'' || '''joga<u>s</u>'''....''something new'' |} : The substantives ending in '''-s''' and '''-t''' can be referred to as '''''deadjectival pronouns''''', because they act like pronouns but are derived from adjectives. == Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives == [[File:Antisocial graffiti Cat.jpg|thumb]] : Descriptive adjectives can be negated by prefixing '''o'''. If the adjective being semantically reversed already begins with the prefix '''o''', then the first semantic reversing prefix becomes '''ol'''. This has the effect of English ''un-'' or ''non-'' in words like ''unlike'', ''unhappy'', and ''nonessential'' or the Greek privative prefix '''a(n)-''' in words like ''asymmetric'' or ''anomalous''. : Prefixing the syllable '''lyo''' or '''ov''' has an even stronger semantic effect. It denotes the polar opposite of the adjective and can mean "anti-". : In cases where the '''o-''' creates an ambiguous word, '''lo-''' or '''-ol''' is substituted, depending on whether the base adjective begins with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. Note this in the last two words of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Reversing the Semantics of Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Negated |- | '''twa'''....''known'' || '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' |- | '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''<u>o</u>ega'''....''abnormal'' |- | '''eflawa'''....''essential'' || '''<u>o</u>eflawa'''....''nonessential'' |- | '''geyla'''....''similar'' || '''<u>o</u>geyla'''....''dissimilar'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''<u>o</u>iva'''....''unhappy'' |- | '''data'''....''friendly'' || '''<u>o</u>data'''....''unfriendly''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>data'''....''inimical''<br>'''<u>ov</u>data'''....''hostile'' |- | '''dota'''....''social'' || '''<u>o</u>dota'''....''unsocial''<br>'''<u>lyo</u>dota'''....''barbarian''<br>'''<u>ov</u>dota'''....''antisocial'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''<u>o</u>ifwa'''....''unloved'' |- | '''fwa'''....''wanted'' || '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited'' || '''<u>ol</u>ofwa'''....''unprohibited'' |} == Polarization of Base Word Adjectives == : Base word adjectives are '''''polarized adjectives''''' that fall into the following pattern categories: ::* '''[iu]Ca''' (such as '''ifa''', '''uja''', '''ika''', '''uka''', etc.) ::* '''C[iu]a''' (such as '''fia''', '''fua''', '''via''', '''vua''', etc.) ::* '''[aeu]Ca''' (such as '''aja''', '''eja''', '''uja''', '''yava''', '''yeva''', '''yova''', etc.) ::* '''C[aeu]a''' (such as '''vaa''', '''vea''', '''vua''', etc.) : In the case of the '''i/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''i''' are positive and are contrasted with those with '''u''', which are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ I/U Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Negative |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fua'''....''bad'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''uva'''....''sad'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |} : In the case of the '''a/e/u''' vowel adjectives, those adjectives with '''a''' are positive; those with '''e''' are intermediate, and those with '''o''' are negative, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ A/E/U-Polarized Adjectives |- ! Positive !! Intermediate !! Negative |- | '''yava'''....''innocent'' || '''yeva'''....''fair'' || '''yova'''....''guilty'' |- | '''aja'''....''past'' || '''eja'''....''present'' || '''oja'''....''future'' |- | '''aga'''....''big''|| '''ega'''....''normal'' || '''oga'''....''small'' |} == Deintensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The semantic strength of qualitative adjectives can often be deintensified by following the ordinal vowel or stem vowel with the glide '''y'''. Examples follow: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Mitigated Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Deintensified |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yuyfa'''....''shy'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yiyva'''....''loose'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viya'''....''pretty'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''loved'' || '''iyfwa'''....''liked'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''obligatory'' || '''yeyfwa'''....''due'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated'' || '''uyfwa'''....''disliked'' |} == Intensifying the Sense of Adjectives == : The letters '''l''' and '''r''' can be used to intensify the sense of adjectives, '''r''' being the more intense. One of these letters is inserted just before the final suffix '''-a''' or sometimes just after the initial consonant of the stem. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Intensified Adjectives |- ! Normal !! Intensified with '''l''' !! Intensified with '''r''' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''amla'''....''ardent'' || '''amra'''....''fiery, scorching'' |- | '''yika'''....''difficult'' || '''yikla'''....''complex'' || '''yikra'''....''arduous'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigla'''....''brusk'' || '''yigra'''....''brutish, violent'' |- | '''yifa'''....''brave'' || '''yifla'''....''audacious'' || '''yifra'''....''valorous, heroic'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igla'''....''hasty'' || '''igra'''....''frenetic, harried'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''glad'' || '''ivra'''....''delighted, jubilant'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free'' || '''yivla'''....''loose'' || '''yivra'''....''wild'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''yuvla'''....''dependent'' || '''yuvra'''....''captive'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugla'''....''tender'' || '''yugra'''....''delicate'' |- | '''yufa'''....''afraid'' || '''yufla'''....''frightened'' || '''yufra'''....''horrified'' |- | '''fiza'''....''honorable, noble'' || '''fliza'''....''gracious, charming'' || '''friza'''....''glorious'' |- | '''fuza'''....''ignoble'' || '''fluza'''....''disgraceful'' || '''fruza'''....''ignominious'' |} == Adjectival Derivational Endings == : All descriptive adjectives end in at least the suffix '''a'''. Many adjectives are derived from other parts of speech, using one of more of the following derivational endings. : {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adjectival Derivative Endings |- ! Ending !! Transition Type !! Meaning !! Base Word !! Derived Adjective |- | '''-a''' || N->ADJ ||''relating to, of'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''tota'''....''divine''<br>'''toba'''....''human''<br>'''doma'''....''urban'' |- | '''-aya'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milaya'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelaya'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesaya'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-ika'''||N->ADJ||''full of, -ful, -ous'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''yazmel'''....''mountain''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''milika'''....''watery, aquaous''<br>'''yazmelika'''....''mountainous''<br>'''tesika'''....''meaningful'' |- | '''-oya'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''teboya'''....''headless''<br>'''leveloya'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesoya'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-uka'''||N->ADJ||''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tebuka'''....''headless''<br>'''leveluka'''....''sugar-free''<br>'''tesuka'''....''meaningless'' |- | '''-yena'''||N->ADJ||''like, -ish, -y'' || '''tot'''....''god''<br>'''tob'''....''man''<br>'''dom'''....''city'' || '''totyena'''....''godly, godlike''<br>'''tobyena'''....''manly, virile''<br>'''domyena'''....''urbane'' |- | '''-ea'''||V->ADJ||''-ing, -ent, -ant'' || '''ags-'''....''grow''<br>'''tej-'''....''live''<br>'''kyas-'''....''change'' || '''agsea'''....''growing, crescent''<br>'''tejea'''....''living, alive''<br>'''kyasea'''....''changing, variant'' |- | '''-yea'''||V->ADJ||''-ive, tending to'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalyea'''....''talkative''<br>'''toxyea'''....''forgetful''<br>'''vadyea'''....''affirmative'' |- | '''-wa'''||V->ADJ||''-ed'' || '''dal-'''....''talk''<br>'''tox-'''....''forget''<br>'''vad-'''....''affirm'' || '''dalwa'''....''spoken''<br>'''toxwa'''....''forgotten''<br>'''vadwa'''....''affirmed'' |- | '''-oa'''||V->ADJ||''-about to, apt to'' || '''toj-'''....''die''<br>'''kyes-'''....''happen''<br>'''tajb-'''....''give birth'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund''<br>'''kyesoa'''....''imminent''<br>'''tajboa'''....''about to deliver'' |- | '''-ua'''||V->ADJ||''-able, potentially V'' || '''tojb-'''....''kill''<br>'''bukx-'''....''harm''<br>'''akuj-'''....''succeed'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal''<br>'''bukxua'''....''dangerous''<br>'''akujua'''....''potentially successful'' |- |'''-efa'''||N->ADJ||''in need of N'' || '''til'''....''drink''<br>'''tel'''....''food''||'''tilefa'''....''thirsty''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- |'''-efwa'''||V->ADJ||''necessary to V''|| '''fukob-'''....''to repair''||'''fukobefwa'''....''in need of repair'' |- | '''-yafa'''||V->ADJ||''-able'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' ||'''testyafa'''....''able to understand'' |- | '''-yafwa'''||V-ADJ||''-able, possible to X'' || '''test-'''....''to understand''||'''testyafwa'''....''understandable'' |- | '''-yofa'''||V->ADJ||''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | '''-yofwa'''||V->ADJ||''impossible to, un-X-able'' || '''teat-'''....''see''||'''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- |'''-yuka''' ||V->ADJ||''comfortable Xing'' ||'''pes-'''....''wait''||'''pesyuka'''....''patient'' |- |'''-yukwa''' ||V->ADJ||''easy to X''||'''test-'''....''understand''||'''testyukwa'''....''clear'' |- |'''-yika''' ||V->ADJ||''hard of Xing'' ||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |- |'''-yikwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hard to X''||'''teet-'''....''hear''||'''teetyikwa'''....''hard to hear'' |- |'''-ifa''' ||V->ADJ||''fond of Xing, -phile/-ic'' ||'''t-'''....''know''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''||'''tifa'''....''curious''<br>'''dyesifa'''....''bibliophilic'' |- |'''-ifwa''' ||V->ADJ||''loved by''||'''tyod-'''....''people''||'''tyodifwa'''....''popular'' |- |'''-ufa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-hating, -phobic, averse'' ||'''tob-'''....''man''<br>'''yex'''....''work''||'''toybufa'''....''anthrophobic''<br>'''yexufa'''....''lazy, work-averse'' |- |'''-ufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''hated by''||'''hyat'''....''everyone''||'''hyatufwa'''....''universally hated'' |- |'''-yifa''' ||V->ADJ||''brave'' ||'''toj'''....''death''||'''tojyifa'''....''brave in the face of death'' |- |'''-yufa''' ||V-ADJ||''afraid of X''||'''tot'''....''god''||'''totyufa'''....''god-fearing'' |- |'''-yufwa''' ||V->ADJ||''feared by X''||'''gla'''....''much''||'''glayufwa'''....''much-feared'' |- |'''-yefa''' ||V->ADJ||''due to X''||'''dud-'''....''answer''||'''dudyefa'''....''answerable, responsible'' |- |'''-yeyfa''' ||V->ADJ||''liable to X''||'''fyuzi-'''....''get punished''||'''fyuziyeyfa'''....''liable to be punished'' |- |'''-yefwa''' ||V->ADJ||''X-worthy''||'''fid-'''....''praise''||'''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- |'''-yakwa''' ||V->ADJ||''expected to X''||'''mamil-'''....''rain''||'''mamilyakwa'''....''likely to rain'' |- |'''-valka''' ||N->ADJ||''-safe, -proof''||'''mil'''....''water''||'''milvalka'''....''waterproof'' |- |'''-ava''' ||N->ADJ||''pro-X''||'''tej'''....''life''||'''tejava'''....''pro-life'' |- |'''-eva''' ||N->ADJ||''-neutral''||'''toob'''....''gender''||'''toobeva'''....''gender-neutral'' |- |'''-ova''' ||N->ADJ||''anti-X''||'''dropek'''....''war''||'''dropekova'''....''anti-war'' |- |'''-yiva''' ||N->ADJ||''-free''||'''yef'''....''debt''||'''yefyiva'''....''debt-free'' |- |'''-yuva''' ||N->ADJ||''-bound''||'''yef'''....''duty''<br>'''vya-'''....''truth''<br>'''dofin'''....''moral''||'''yefyuva'''....''duty-bound''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''loyal''<br>'''dofinyuva'''....''scrupulous'' |- |'''-aza''' ||N->ADJ||''strong-Xed''||'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''fonaza'''....''strong-willed''<br>'''tipaza'''....''stern'' |- |'''-oza''' ||N->ADJ||''weak-Xed''||'''tip'''....''temperament''||'''tipoza'''....''weak-hearted'' |- |'''-iza''' ||N->ADJ||''straight-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepiza'''....''logical''<br>'''daliza'''....''frank'' |- |'''-uza''' ||N->ADJ||''crooked-Xed''||'''tep'''....''mind''<br>'''dal'''....''speech''||'''tepuza'''....''illogical''<br>'''daluza'''....''devious'' |- |'''-okya''' ||N->ADJ||''absent-Xed''||'''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ted'''....''parent''||'''tadokya'''....''widowed''<br>'''tedokya'''....''orphaned'' |- | '''-iga''' ||N->ADJ||''fast-Xed'' || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubiga'''....''nimble'' |- | '''-uga''' ||N->ADJ||''slow-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepuga'''....''slow-witted, dull'' |- | '''-aga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''big-Xed'' || '''tiib'''....''heart'' || '''tiibaga'''....''big-hearted, generous'' |- | '''-oga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''small-Xed'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''tepoga'''....''small-minded'' |- | '''-yiga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''hard-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyiga'''....''stern, strict'' |- | '''-yuga''' ||N->ADJ|| ''soft-Xed'' || '''tip'''....''temperament'' || '''tipyuga'''....''lax, lenient'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Nouns|Adverbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} dqdd110403fnzkixhwfn2pop0to1vn5 0 417646 4635013 4604411 2026-05-09T20:07:34Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Inherent Adverbs */ 4635013 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adverb Types == : Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. There are two types of adverbs in Mirad, namely: ::* derived adverbs ::* inherent adverbs. === Derived Adverbs === : Adverbs can be derived from descriptive adjectives by suffixing the adverbial marker '''y''', eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Derived Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>y</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''yev<u>a</u>'''....''fair'' || '''yeva<u>y</u>'''....''fairly'' |- | '''uj<u>a</u>'''....''final'' || '''uja<u>y</u>'''....''finally'' |- | '''ejn<u>a</u>'''....''new'' || '''ejna<u>y</u>'''....''newly'' |- | '''teyd<u>a</u>'''....''maternal'' || '''teyda<u>y</u>'''....''maternally'' |} : At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the '''ay''' ending: ::* '''Iyt deuze <u>fi</u>.'''....''She sings <u>well</u>.'' ::* '''At upo <u>ig</u>.'''....''I'll come <u>quickly</u>.'' : Otherwise, the full adverb form is used, eg.: ::* '''Yet yefe <u>ugay</u> fiaser.'''....''You people must <u>slowly</u> improve.'' ::* '''At tojo <u>ivay</u>, tea van at aysaye fia tej.'''....''I will die <u>happily</u> knowing that I've had a good life.'' === Inherent Adverbs === : There are some words in the language that are inherently invariable adverbs and do not take the '''ay''' ending, because they are not formed from adjectives, or because they already end in '''ay'''. Here are the most common examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Adverbs |- valign=top | | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaob'''....''up and down'' || '''(a)yeb¹'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''aoyeb'''....''in and out'' || '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yuib'''....''near and far''|| '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''oyib'''....''not far'' |- valign=top | | '''<u>ab</u>'''....''on''<br>'''<u>ayb</u>'''....''above''<br>'''aob'''....''of and on''|| '''<u>eb</u>'''....''between''<br>'''<u>eyb</u>'''....''among'' || '''<u>ob</u>'''....''off''<br>'''<u>oyb</u>'''....''under'' || '''<u>ub</u>'''....''toward'' || '''<u>ib</u>'''....''away'' |- valign=top | | '''<u>bay</u>'''....''with/along''|| '''<u>bey</u>'''....''by/via'' || '''<u>boy</u>'''....''without'' || '''<u>byu</u>'''....''as far (as)'' || '''<u>byi</u>'''....''since'' |- valigh=top | | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''perhaps'' || '''voy'''....''not''|| || |- valign=top | | '''<u>za</u>'''....''in front (of)''<br>'''zay'''....''ahead''<br>'''zya'''....''throughout'' <br>'''zao'''....''back and forth''|| '''<u>ze</u>'''....''to/at the middle (of)''<br>'''zey'''....''across''<br>'''zye'''....''through'' || '''<u>zo</u>'''....''in back (of)''<br>'''zoy'''....''back'' || '''<u>zu</u>'''....''on the left (of)''<br>'''zui'''....''right and left'' || '''<u>zi</u>'''....''on the right (of)'' |- | || || || '''uz'''....''on a curve'' <br>'''uiz'''....''zigzig''|| '''iz'''....''straight, directly'' |- | ||'''yez'''....''along'' || || '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''oyiz'''....''not beyond'' |- | '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''ge'''...''equally'' ||'''go'''....''less''|| || |- | '''gay'''....''also'' || '''gey'''....''even'' || '''goy'''....''no more/except'' || || |- | '''gaj'''....''still'' || || '''goj'''....''no longer'' || || |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || || '''yon'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''<u>ja</u>'''....''before''<br>'''<u>jao</u>'''....''before and after''<br>'''jay'''....''already'' || '''je'''....''meanwhile''<br>'''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''<u>jo</u>'''....''after''<br>'''joy'''...''next''|| '''<u>ju</u>'''....''until'' || '''<u>ji</u>'''....''since'' |} : Note 1: '''Ayeb''' is almost always shortened to '''yeb'''. : The words in the above chart that are underlined can also serve as prepositions (See [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions|Prepositions]]). : The words underlined below are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example: ::* '''At teaxa <u>yab</u>.'''....''I looked <u>up</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''At yabteaxa.''') ::* '''Duven et hyej upo <u>zoy</u>?'''.....''Will you ever come <u>back</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...zoyupo?''') ::* '''Et po <u>yib</u> be tej.'''.....''You will go <u>far</u> in life.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''Et yipo...''') ::* '''At <u>voy</u> se eta twed.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your father.'' ::* '''Pu <u>zu</u>, jogat!'''....''Go <u>left</u>, young man!'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''Zupu...''') ::* '''Yat <u>vay</u> sa hum.'''....''We were <u>indeed</u> there.'' ::* '''It pa <u>oyeb</u>.'''....''He went <u>outside</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''It oyepa.''') ::* '''Iyt <u>gay</u> deuze.'''....''She <u>also</u> sings.'' ::* '''Yit yexe <u>gey</u> be moji.'''....''They work <u>even</u> nights.'' ::* '''Ha tobud <u>gaj</u> tujeye.'''....''The baby is <u>still</u> sleeping.'' ::* '''Yat yefe yexer <u>yan</u>.'''....''We must work <u>together</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...yanyexer.''') ::* '''His vey upo <u>yon</u>.'''....''This may come <u>apart</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...yonupo.''') ::* '''Hit se <u>jay</u> toja.'''....''This one is <u>already</u> dead.'' ::* '''Hut se <u>voy</u> toja.'''....''That one is <u>not</u> dead.'' ::* '''At popeyo <u>zya</u>.'''....''I will be traveling <u>all around</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''zyapopeyo.''') ::* '''Et byase <u>yon</u>.'''....''You stand <u>apart</u>.'' ::* '''Van yet besu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Stay <u>together</u>, guys.'' : Many of the above adverbs can be prefixed to verbs, nouns, and even adjectives to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the '''b''' or '''p''' can be assimilated to the first letter of '''per''' (''go'') or '''ber''' (''put'') unless the assimilation causes ambiguity. For example: ::* '''yeb''' (''in'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yeper''' (''to enter'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yebper'''] ::* '''yeb''' (''in'') <big>+</big> '''bexer''' (''hold'') <big>=</big> '''yebbexer''' (''to contain'') ['''yebexer''' < '''yeb''' + '''exer''' = ''to operate on''] ::* '''oyeb''' (''out'') <big>+</big> '''bier''' (''take'') <big>=</big> '''oyebier''' (''to take out'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''oyebbier'''] ::* '''yab''' (''up'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yaper''' (''to rise'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yabper'''] ::* '''yob''' (''up'') <big>+</big> '''kima''' (''sloped'') <big>=</big> '''yobkima''' (''downward-sloping'') ::* '''yub''' (''near'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yuper''' (''to approach'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yubper'''] ::* '''yib''' (''far'') <big>+</big> '''daler''' (''talk'') <big>=</big> '''yibdaler''' (''to telephone'') ::* '''yiz''' (''beyond'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yizper''' (''to surpass'') ::* '''yez''' (''along'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yezper''' (''to go along'') ::* '''yuz''' (''around'') <big>+</big> '''pipen''' (''sailing'') <big>=</big> '''yuzpipen''' (''circumnavigation'') ::* '''zay''' (''ahead'') <big>+</big> '''paser''' (''move'') <big>=</big> '''zaypaser''' (''to advance'') ::* '''zao''' (''back and forth'') <big>+</big> '''baser''' (''move'') <big>=</big> '''zaobaser''' (''to rock'') ::* '''ze''' (''to the middle'') <big>+</big> '''jaga''' (''aged'') <big>=</big> '''zejaga''' (''middle-aged'') ::* '''zye''' (''through'') <big>+</big> '''teatyafwa''' (''visible'') <big>=</big> '''zyeteatyafa''' (''transparent'') ::* '''zey''' (''across'') <big>+</big> '''mep''' (''road'') <big>=</big> '''zeymep''' (''bridge'') ::* '''zoy''' (''back'') <big>+</big> '''nogea''' (''gradual'') <big>=</big> '''zoynogea''' (''retrogressive'') ::* '''iz''' (''straight'') <big>+</big> '''nad''' (''line'') <big>=</big> '''iznad''' (''vector'') ::* '''zi''' (''to the right'') <big>+</big> '''kum''' (''side'') <big>=</big> '''zikum''' (''right side'') ::* '''zu''' (''far'') <big>+</big> '''tuyab''' (''hand'') <big>=</big> '''zutuyaba''' (''left-handed'') ::* '''uz''' (''on a curve'') <big>+</big> '''nad''' (''line'') <big>=</big> '''uznad''' (''curve'') ::* '''yan''' (''together'') <big>+</big> '''up''' (''come'') <big>=</big> '''yanup''' (''a meeting'') ::* '''yon''' (''apart'') <big>+</big> '''ber''' (''put'') <big>=</big> '''yonber''' (''to separate'') == Word Order of Adverbs == : The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.: ::* '''It deuze <u>vi</u>.'''....''He sings <u>beautifully</u>.'' ::* '''Et yefe xer <u>gwa ig</u>.'''....''You must do it <u>as quickly as possible</u>.'' ::* '''Et <u>hyoj</u> ako fika ivan.'''....''You will <u>never</u> gain perfect happiness.'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te'''. (OR) '''At te <u>voy</u>'''. ....''I do <u>not</u> know.'' == Comparison of Adverbs by Degree == : Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. The words ''than'', ''compared to'', and ''as'' are translated by the relative conjunction '''vyel''' (''than, compared to, with respect to'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Comparison of Adverbs by Degree |- ! Positive !! +/=/- Comparative !! +/- Superlative |- valign=top | <br>'''yikay'''....''easily'' || '''<u>ga</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>more</u> easily than''<br>'''<u>ge</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>as</u> easily as''<br>'''<u>go</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>less</u> easily than''|| '''(ha) <u>gwa</u> yikay'''....''(the) <u>most</u> easily''<br><br>'''(ha) <u>gwo</u> yikay'''....''(the) <u>least</u> easily'' |} : Examples: ::* '''At milpe <u>ga fi vyel</u> et.'''....''I swim <u>better than</u> you.'' ::* '''Yat tra hua twob <u>go fi vyel</u> yet.'''....''We knew that man <u>less well than</u> you guys.'' ::* '''Eta tayd deuza <u>ha gwa vi</u> be ha ebyek.'''....''Your wife sang <u>the most beautifully</u> in the competition.'' ::* '''Et xa is <u>ha gwa fu vyel</u> hyet.'''....''You did it <u>the worst of</u> anyone.'' ::* '''Dalu <u>ge azay vyel</u> et yafe.'''....''Speak <u>as loudly as</u> you can.'' <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Adjectives|Determiners}}</noinclude> : Adverbs can be modified by other determiners of degree in noncomparative phrases: ::* '''Hia mampur pape <u>gla ig.</u>'''....''This plane flies <u>very fast</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Huugla vi</u> et deuze!'''....''<u>How beautifully</u> you sing.'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla fi</u> et yafe eker?'''....''<u>How well</u> can you play?'' ::* '''Iyt tyope <u>glay ug</u> hia jubi.'''....''She walks <u>quite slowly</u> these days.'' a6pistpgg9r68vyu1emraopgzp5asw4 0 417647 4635014 4604414 2026-05-09T20:18:59Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Deictic Determiners */ 4635014 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner ''this'', for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. In English, demonstrative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs, possessive pronouns/adjectives, quantifiers like ''more'' and ''very'', and numeric expressions like ''both'' fall under this category. == Types of Determiners == : Determiners in Mirad fall into the following categories: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Determiners |- ! Type !! Also Known As !! English Examples |- !row=1| Deictic | Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives/Adverbs || ''the'', ''this'', ''some'', ''every'', ''which?'', ''when'' |- !row=1| Pronominal | Possessive Pronouns/Adjectives | ''my'', ''anybody&apos;s'', ''one&apos;s own'' |- !row=1| Quantitative | Quantifiers || ''more'', ''less'', ''very'' |- !row=1| Numerical | Numerals/Fractions/Ordinals/Dates, etc. || ''one'', ''half'', ''first'' |} : Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify circumstance, i.e. time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth. == Deictic Determiners == : '''''Deictic determiners''''' are words which point out or ''specify'' other words as to their context, including what grammarians often call '''''demonstratives'''''. All deictic determiners in Mirad begin with the letter '''h'''. The letters following the '''h''' indicate the grammatical and semantic category. : Deictic determiners include the following traditional grammatical categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* '''''Demonstrative adjectives ''''' like ''this'', ''that'', ''those'', ''that one'' ::* '''''The definite article''''' ''the ''&nbsp;&nbsp; (which is really a '''''demonstrative adjective''''' like those above.) ::* '''''Demonstrative pronouns''''' like ''this'', ''that'', ''those'', ''that one'' ::* '''''Interrogative and relative pronouns''''' like ''who, which, that'' ::* '''''Indefinite adjectives''''' like ''any'', ''some'', ''all'', ''something'', ''such'', etc. ::* '''''Indefinite pronouns''''' like ''any'', ''some'', ''all'', ''something'', ''such'', etc. ::* '''''Pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs of quantity''''' like ''so much'', ''that many'', ''how many?'', ''very'', etc. ::* '''''Adverbs of circumstance:''''' :::* '''''time''''' like ''when'', ''now'', ''ever'' :::* '''''place''''' like ''there'', ''here'', ''somewhere'' :::* '''''manner''''' like ''how'', ''thus'', ''somehow'' :::* '''''kind''''' like ''so'', age ''this year old'' :::* '''''direction''''' like ''that way'', ''any which way'' :::* '''''reason''''' ''why?'', ''for that reason'', ''for no reason'' :::* '''''degree''''' ''this (well)'', ''so (good)'', ''how (bad)'' :::* '''''frequency''''' like ''how often'', ''so often'', ''never'' :::* '''''age''''' like ''this old'', ''how old?'', ''of any age'' </div> === Deictic Prefixes === [[File:Deixis (DE).png|thumb|none]] : There is a whole set of '''''correlative deictic prefixes''''', which are joined to circumstantial stub category suffixes to derive pronoun, adjective, and adverb determiners. In some grammars, these words are called ''wh-question words and their pointed answers''. For example, QUESTION: <u>Who</u> is your wife? ANSWER: <u>This</u> is my wife. (or) QUESTION: <u>Where</u> is your house? ANSWER: My house is <u>here</u>. These word forms are called correlative because they relate to one another in way that can be mapped to a table. : Here are the Mirad deictic classification prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deictic Prefixes |- ! Classification !! Deictic Prefix |- ! scope="row" | Interrogative | '''duho-...?'''....''what?, which?'' |- ! scope="row" | Relative | '''ho-'''....''which, that'' |- ! scope="row" | Exclamatory | '''hoo-'''....''how...!'' |- ! scope="row" | Definite | '''ha-'''....''the'' |- ! scope="row: | Indefinite | '''he-'''....''some, a certain'' |- ! scope="row" | Proximal | '''hi-'''....''this, these'' |- ! scope="row" | Immediate | '''hii-'''....''the following'' |- ! scope="row" | Distal | '''hu-'''....''that, those'' |- ! scope="row" | Intensive | '''huu-'''....''such, so, what a...!'' |- ! scope="row" | Distributive | '''hya-'''....''every, all, each'' |- ! scope="row" | Indeterminate | '''hye-'''....''any, whatever'' |- ! scope="row" | Negative | '''hyo-'''....''no, not any'' |- ! scope="row | Identical | '''hyi-'''....''the same, the very'' |- ! scope="row" | Non-identical | '''hyu-'''....''the other, another, else'' |} === Circumstantial Category Suffixes === : The table below shows word stub suffixes that indicate the circumstantial category of deictic expressions. They are called stubs, because they are reduced word forms. The combination of deictic prefixes and circumstantial stub suffixes produce a matrix of deictic '''''correlatives''''', seen later in this chapter. Use of the stub instead of the long form is a matter of optional economy. A few categories do not have stubs. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Category Stubs |- ! Category !! Stub Suffix !! Long Form !! Short Question Form || Long Question Form |- ! row=1| Person | '''-t''' || '''<u>t</u>ob'''....''person'' || '''duhot?'''....''who?''|| '''duhotob?''' |- ! row=1| Thing | '''-s''' ||'''<u>s</u>un'''....''thing'' || '''duhos?'''....''what?''|| '''duhosun?''' |- ! row=1| Place | '''-m''' ||'''ne<u>m</u>'''....''place'' || '''duhom?'''....''where?''|| '''duhonem?''' |- ! row=1| Time | '''-j''' ||'''<u>j</u>ob'''....''time'' || '''duhoj?'''....''when?''|| '''duhojob?''' |- ! row=1| Manner | '''-yen''' ||'''b<u>yen</u>'''....''manner'' || '''duhoyen?'''....''how?''||'''duhobyen?''' |- ! row=1| Kind | '''-yena''' ||'''<u>sauna</u>'''....''kind of'' || '''duhoyena?'''....''what kind of?''||'''duhosauna?''' |- ! row=1| Degree | '''-gla''' ||'''nog'''....''degree'' || '''duhogla (fi)?'''....''how (well)?''||'''duhonog?''' |- ! row=1| Number | '''-gla''' ||'''sag'''....''number'' || '''duhogla (pati)?'''....''how many (birds)?''||'''duhosag?''' |- ! row=1| Mass Quantity | '''-gla''' ||'''glan'''....''amount'' || '''duhogla (mil)?'''....''how much (water)?''||'''duhoglan?''' |- ! row=1| Frequency | ||'''xag'''....''frequency''|| '''duhoxag?'''....''how often?''|| -- |- ! row=1| Reason | '''-avhos''' || '''av hosun'''....''reason'' || '''duavhos?'''....''why?''|| '''duavhosun?''' |- ! row=1| Age | ||'''jaga'''....''of age'' || '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?''|| -- |} : There can be other circumstantial categories other than those listed above, such as "direction", "order", etc. eg. '''Duhomep wit pa?'''....''Which way did he go?''. === Charts of Correlative Deictic Determiners === : Here is are three tables showing the matrix of correlative deictic determiners. Note that the determiners belong to three parts of speech, 1) adjectives, 2) pronouns, and 3) adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" font-size:smaller style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |- ! Part of Speech !! Ending |- | Adjective || '''-a''' |- | Pronoun || '''-t(i)''', '''-s(i)''' |- | Adverb || (no ending) |} ==== Deictic Determiner Adjectives ==== : All deictic determiner adjectives end in '''-a''' and are used to modify nouns. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Adjectives |- valign=top ! !! Selective<br>-a!! Possessive<br>-ta !! Kind/Manner<br>-yena !! Quantity<br>-gla !! Age<br>-jaga |- ! Interrogative |'''duhoa?'''<br>''which?''||'''duhota?'''<br>''whose?''|| '''duhoyena?'''<br>''what kind of?''||'''duhogla?'''<br>''how much/many?'' ||'''duhojaga?'''<br>''how old?'' |- valign=top ! Relative |'''hoa'''<br>''which''||'''hota'''<br>''whose''|| '''hoyena'''<br>''what kind of''||'''hogla'''<br>''how much/many'' ||'''hojaga'''<br>''how old'' |- valign=top ! Exclamatory |'''hooa'''<br>''what a...!''|| || ||'''hoogla'''<br>''look how much/many...!'' ||'''hoojaga'''<br>''how old a...!'' |- valign=top ! Definite |'''ha'''¹<br>''the''||'''hatas'''<br>''the person’s''|| '''hayena'''<br>''of the kind''||'''hagla'''<br>''of the amount'' ||'''hajaga'''<br>''of the age'' |- valign=top ! Indefinite |'''hea'''<br>''some/a certain''||'''heta'''<br>''someone's''|| '''heyena'''<br>''some kind of''||'''hegla'''<br>''some'' ||'''hejaga'''<br>''somewhat old'' |- valign=top ! Proximal |'''hia'''<br>''this''||'''hita'''<br>''this person’s''|| '''hiyena'''<br>''this kind of''||'''higla'''<br>''this much'' ||'''hijaga'''<br>''this old'' |- valign=top ! Immdediate |'''hiia'''<br>''the following''||'''hiita'''<br>''the follow person’s''|| '''hiiyena'''<br>''the following kind of'' || '''hiigla'''<br>''to the following degree'' ||'''hiijaga'''<br>''of the following age'' |- valign=top ! Distal |'''hua'''<br>''that''||'''huta'''<br>''that person’s''|| '''huyena'''<br>''that kind of'' ||'''hugla'''<br>''that much/many'' ||'''hujaga'''<br>''of that age'' |- valign=top ! Intensive |'''huua'''<br>''such a''||'''huuta'''<br>''such a person’s''|| '''huuyena'''<br>''such kind of'' ||'''huugla'''<br>''so much/many'' ||'''huujaga'''<br>''of such an age'' |- valign=top ! Negative |'''hyoa'''<br>''no''||'''hyota'''<br>''nobody’s''|| '''hyoyena'''<br>''no kind of'' ||'''hyogla'''<br>''no amount/number of'' ||'''hyojaga'''<br>''of no age'' |- valign=top ! Distributive |'''hya'''¹<br>''every, all''||'''hyata'''<br>''everybody’s''|| '''hyayena'''<br>''every kind of'' ||'''hyagla'''<br>''all'' ||'''hyajaga'''<br>''of every age'' |- valign=top ! Indeterminate |'''hyea'''<br>''whichever/any''²||'''hyeta'''<br>''whosever''|| '''hyeyena'''<br>''whatever/any kind of'' ||'''hyegla'''<br>''however much/many'' ||'''hyejaga'''<br>''however old'' |- valign=top ! Identical |'''hyia'''<br>''the same''||'''hyita'''<br>''the same person’s''|| '''hyiyena'''<br>''the same kind of'' ||'''hyigla'''<br>''just as'' ||'''hyijaga'''<br>''just as old'' |- valign=top ! Non-identical |'''hyua'''<br>''the other''||'''hyuta'''<br>''someone else's''|| '''hyuyena'''<br>''another kind of'' ||'''hyugla'''<br>''not as much/many'' ||'''hyujaga'''<br>''of another age'' |} : There are other adjectival determiners such as '''duhonoga'''....''how/to what degree'', '''duhosauna'''....''what kind of'' that are not included in the above chart. :Note 1) The determiners '''ha''' (''the'') and '''hya''' (''every'') are shortened forms of '''haa''' and '''hyaa'''. Also, '''ha''' is commonly called a "definite article". ::* While '''hya''' means ''every'' or ''all'', the word '''hyawa''' is used for ''each''. ::* The possessive adjective forms in the above table ending in '''-ta''' such as '''hyeta'''....''whosever'' cannot be pluralized by the ending '''-tia'''. To say '''other people's''', use the expression '''bi hyuti''' (Lit. ''of others''). ::* The '''ho-''' words are relative, meaning that they can serve to form relative clauses like the following: :::* '''Ha toyb, <u>hota</u> twad se Bill,'''....''The woman, <u>whose</u> husband is Bill,'' :::* '''At voy te <u>hos</u> et tepfe.'''....''I don't know <u>what</u> you mean.'' :::* '''At teste <u>hogla</u> et fie iyt.'''....''I understand <u>how much</u> you love her.'' ::* The '''hoo-''' words are exclamatory and are used in expressions like the following: :::* '''<u>Hoogla</u> iva se at van et upa!'''....''<u>How</u> glad I am that you came!'' :::* '''<u>Hooa</u> jub his saye!'''....''<u>What a</u> day this has been!'' ('''Hooa''' is pronounced ''ho-O-a'' as three syllables.) :Note 2) The indeterminant determiners can also be translated with ''no matter what, no matter where, etc.'' ==== Deictic Determiner Pronouns ==== : All deictic determiner pronouns end either in '''-t''' for persons or '''-s''' for things. They can be singular or plural ('''-i'''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Pronouns |- valign=top ! !! Thing -s<br>Things -si !! Person -t<br>Persons -ti !! Kind of Thing -yenas<br>Kinds of Things -yenasi !! Amount -glas<br>Number of Things -glasi !! Number of People -glati |- valign=center ! Interrogative |'''duhos?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what?''<br>'''duhosi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what (things)?''|| '''duhot?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who?''<br>'''duhoti?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who (pl.)''|| '''duhoyenas?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what kind of thing?'' <br>'''duhoyenasi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;what kinds of things?|| '''duhoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how much?''<br>'''duhoglasi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many things?''|| '''duhoglati?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many people?'' |- valign=center ! Relative |'''hos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what''<br>'''hosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what''|| '''hot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who''<br>'''hoti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who''|| '''hoyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what kind of thing'' <br>'''hoyenasi'''|| '''hoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how much''<br>'''hoglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many''|| '''hoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many'' |- ! Exclamatory |'''hoos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a thing!''<br>'''hoosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what things!''|| '''hoot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a person!''<br>'''hooti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what people!''|| || '''hooglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what an amount!''<br>'''hooglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a number!''|| '''hoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a number of people!'' |- valign=center ! Definite |'''has'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''it''<br>'''hasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''they/them''|| '''hat'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''he/she/him/her''<br>'''hati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''they/them''|| '''hayenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the king of thing''<br>'''hayenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the kind of things''|| '''haglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the amount'' <br>'''haglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the number of things''|| '''haglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the number of people'' |- valign=center ! Indefinite |'''hes'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''something''<br>'''hesi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some things''|| '''het'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''someone''<br>'''heti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some''|| '''heyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some kind of thing'' <br>'''heyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some kinds of thing''|| '''heglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some''<br>'''heglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some things''|| '''heglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some people'' |- valign=center ! Proximal |'''his'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this''<br>'''hisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these''|| '''hit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this person''<br>'''hiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these people''|| '''hiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this kind of thing'' <br>'''hiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these kinds of things''|| '''higlas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this much''<br>'''higlasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this many''|| '''higlati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this many people'' |- valign=center ! Immediate |'''hiis'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following thing''<br>'''hiisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following things''|| '''hiit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following person''<br>'''hiiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following people''|| '''hiiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following kind of thing'' <br>'''hiiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following kinds of things''|| '''hiiglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following amount''<br>'''hiiglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this following number of things''|| '''hiiglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following number of people'' |- valign=center ! Distal |'''hus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that''<br>'''husi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those''|| '''hut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that person''<br>'''huti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those people''|| '''huyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that kind of thing'' <br>'''huyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those kinds of things''|| '''huglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that much''<br>'''huglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that many''|| '''huglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that many people'' |- valign=center ! Intensive |'''huus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a thing''<br>'''huusi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such things''|| '''huut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a person''<br>'''huuti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such people''|| '''huuyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a kind of thing'' <br>'''huuyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such kinds of things''|| '''huuglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so much''<br>'''huuglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so many''|| '''huuglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so many people'' |- valign=center ! Negative |'''hyos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''nothing''<br>'''hyosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none of them''|| '''hyot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''nobody''<br>'''hyoti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none of them''|| '''hyoyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''no kind of thing'' <br>'''hyoyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''no kinds of things''|| '''hyoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none''<br>'''hyoglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none''|| '''hyoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none'' |- valign=center ! Distributive |'''hyas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''everything''<br>'''hyasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyat'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''everybody''<br>'''hyati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyayenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''every kind of'' <br>'''hyayenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all kinds of things''|| '''hyaglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of it''<br>'''hyaglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyaglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them'' |- valign=center ! Indeterminate |'''hyes'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''anything''<br>'''hyesi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any''|| '''hyet'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''anybody''<br>'''hyeti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of them''|| '''hyeyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any kind of'' <br>'''hyeyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''whatever things''|| '''hyeglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of it''<br>'''hyeglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of them''|| '''hyeglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''whoever'' |- valign=center ! Identical |'''hyis'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same thing''<br>'''hyisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same things''|| '''hyit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same person''<br>'''hyiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same people''|| '''hyiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same kind of'' <br>'''hyiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same kinds of things''|| '''hyiglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as much''<br>'''hyiglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as many''|| '''hyiglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as many people'' |- valign=center ! Non-identical |'''hyus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''something else''<br>'''hyusi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other things''|| '''hyut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''someone else''<br>'''hyuti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other people''|| '''hyuyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another kind'' <br>'''hyuyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other kinds''|| '''hyuglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another amount''<br>'''hyuglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another number of things''|| '''hyuglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another number of people'' |} : Concerning the above chart, note the following: ::* The interrogative determiners all begin with '''duho-''', which means '''say which''', and are technically imperatives. '''Duhom?''', for example, means '''Tell (me) the place...'''. The '''o'''-stem forms without the '''du-''' are used as relative clause heads, eg. '''At po <u>hom</u> et po.'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''I will go <u>where</u> you go.'' ::* Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. '''<u>Hia</u> aga jaga tam...'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''<u>This</u> big old house...''. ::* Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting '''a''' before the final '''t''' or '''s''', eg. '''Duhot?''' means ''Who?'', while '''Duhoat?''' means ''Which one (of several persons)?'' ==== Deictic Determiner Adverbs ==== : All deictic determiner adverbs refer to a circumstance. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Adverbs |- valign=top ! Circumstance--> !! Place<br>-m !! Time<br>-j !! Manner<br>-yen!! Degree<br>-gla !! Frequency<br>-xag !! Reason<br>-sav |- valign=center ! Interrogative | '''duhom?'''<br>''where?'' || '''duhoj?'''<br>''when?'' || '''duhoyen?'''<br>''how?'' || '''duhogla?'''<br>''how (very)?'' || '''duhoxag?'''<br>''how often?''|| '''duavhos?'''¹<br>''why?'' |- valign=center ! Relative | '''hom'''<br>''where'' || '''hoj'''<br>''when'' || '''hoyen'''<br>''how'' || '''hogla'''<br>''how (very)'' || '''hoxag'''<br>''how often'' || '''avhos (van)²'''<br>''because'' |- valign=center ! Exclamatory | || || '''hooyen'''<br>''and how!, such a...'' || '''hoogla'''<br>''how very...!, so...''³ || || |- valign=center ! Definite | '''ham'''<br>''the place'' || '''haj'''<br>''the time'' || '''hayen'''<br>''the manner'' || '''hagla'''<br>''just as'' || '''haxag'''<br>''as frequently''|| '''avhas'''<br>''the reason'' |- valign=center ! Indefinite | '''hem'''<br>''somewhere'' || '''hej'''<br>''sometime'' || '''heyen'''<br>''somehow'' || '''hegla'''<br>''somewhat'' || '''hexag'''<br>''somewhat often''||'''avhes'''<br>''for some reason'' |- valign=center ! Proximal | '''him'''<br>''here'' || '''hij'''<br>''now'' || '''hiyen'''<br>''this way'' || '''higla'''<br>''this'' || '''hixag'''<br>''this often''||'''avhis'''<br>''for this reason'' |- valign=center ! Immediate | '''hiim'''<br>''the following place'' || '''hiij'''<br>''the following time'' || '''hiiyen'''<br>''the following way'' || '''hiigla'''<br>''to the following degree'' || '''hiixag'''<br>''at the following frequency''||'''avhiis'''<br>''for the following reason'' |- valign=center ! Distal | '''hum'''<br>''there'' || '''huj'''<br>''then'' || '''huyen'''<br>''that way'' || '''hugla'''<br>''to that degree'' || '''huxag'''<br>''that often''|| '''avhus'''<br>''therefore'' |- valign=center ! Intensive | '''huum'''<br>''such a place'' || '''huuj'''<br>''at such a time'' || '''huuyen'''<br>''in such a way'' || '''huugla'''<br>''so (very)'' || '''huuxag'''<br>''so often''|| '''avhuus'''<br>''for such a reason'' |- valign=center ! Negative | '''hyom'''<br>''nowhere'' || '''hyoj'''<br>''never'' || '''hyoyen'''<br>''in no way'' || '''hyogla'''<br>''not at all'' || '''hyoxag'''<br>''not once''|| '''avhyos'''<br>''for no reason'' |- valign=center ! Distributive | '''hyam'''<br>''everywhere'' || '''hyaj'''<br>''always'' || '''hyayen'''<br>''in every way'' || '''hyagla'''<br>''fully'' || '''hyaxag'''<br>''always''||'''avhyas'''<br>''for every reason'' |- valign=center ! Indeterminate | '''hyem'''<br>''anywhere'' || '''hyej'''<br>''whenever'' || '''hyeyen'''<br>''however'' || '''hyegla'''<br>''however'' || '''hyexag'''<br>''however often'' || '''avhyes'''<br>''for whatever reason'' |- valign=center ! Indentical | '''hyim'''<br>''at the same place'' || '''hyij'''<br>''at the same time'' || '''hyiyen'''<br>''in the same way'' || '''hyigla'''<br>''as'' || '''hyixag'''<br>''as often''|| '''avhyis'''<br>''for the same reason'' |- valign=center ! Non-identical | '''hyum'''<br>''somewhere else'' || '''hyuj'''<br>''some other time'' || '''hyuyen'''<br>''otherwise'' || '''hyugla'''<br>''not as'' || '''hyuxag'''<br>''not as often''||'''avhyus'''<br>''for some other reason'' |} :Note 1) '''Duavhos?''' translates literally to "Say for what?". :Note 2) The positive complimentizer '''van''' is optional. :Note 3) A clause following '''hoogla''' <ADJ>/<ADV> must be followed by '''van''', eg. '''Et eka <u>hoogla fi van</u> ha teexuti byasa ab yiti tyoyabi.'''....''You played <u>so well that</u> the audience stood on their feet.'' : Concerning the above chart, note the following: :* The interrogative determiners all begin with '''duho-''', which means '''say which''', and are technically imperatives. '''Duhom?''', for example, means '''Tell (me) the place...'''. The '''o'''-stem forms without the '''du-''' are used as relative clause heads, eg. '''At po <u>hom</u> et po.'''....''I will go <u>where</u> you go.'' :* Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. '''<u>Duhom</u> se eta tam?'''....''<u>Where</u> is your house?'' :* Not included in the above chart is a related interrogative, which is a complementizer. ::* '''Duven...?'''.... (Question introducer) '''Is it true that...?, Say whether...''' :::* '''<u>Duven</u> et se tadxwa?'''....''Are you married? (= <u>Say whether</u> you are married.)'' :* The adverbs of degree in the above chart ('''duhogla?''', etc.) are interchangeable with adverbs ending in '''-nog'''....''degree'' ('''duhonog?'''....''to what degree?, how...?'', '''henog'''....''somewhat'') :* Other deictic determiner adverbs of circumstance exist and are not on the above chart: ::* '''duhomep?'''....''which way?'' :::* '''humep'''....''that way'' ::* '''duhobyun?'''....''to what end?'' :::* '''hyobyun'''....''for no purpose'' ::* '''duhoizon?'''....''in which direction?'' :::* '''hyaizon'''....''in every direction'' ==== Examples of Deictic Determiner Usage ==== ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ('''Duhos''' is pronounced '''du-HOS''') ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> se iyta twad?'''....''<u>Who</u> is her husband?'' ::* '''<u>Duhowat</u> se iyta twad?'''....''<u>Which one of the guys</u> is her husband?'' (selective) ::* '''<u>Duhoti</u> fe eker?'''....''<u>Who (pl.)</u> want to play?'' ::* '''<u>Hyas</u> se fia.'''....''<u>Everything</u> is fine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyat</u> tre et.'''....''<u>Everyone</u> knows you.'' ::* '''<u>Hyot</u> tre at.'''....''<u>Nobody</u> knows me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyati</u> ekeye fi.'''....''<u>All of them</u> are playing well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoti</u> ekeye fi.'''....''<u>None of them</u> are playing well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> yafe eker.'''....''<u>Anyone</u> can play.'' ::* '''<u>Hyes</u> yafwe.'''....''<u>Anything</u> is possible.'' ::* '''At fe <u>hyuyenat</u> be ata ekutyan.'''....''I want <u>someone else</u> on my team.'' ::* '''<u>Huuyenati</u> fyuxe yata oj.'''....''<u>Such people</u> harm our future.'' ::* '''Et yefe tepier <u>hiisi</u>.'''....''You must bear in mind <u>the following things</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et xa hus.'''.....''<u>How</u> did you do that?'' (pronounced '''du-ho-YEN''') ::* '''<u>Duavhos</u> iyt pia <u>huugla</u> jwa?'''....''<u>Why</u> did she leave <u>so</u> early?'' ::* '''<u>Hwita</u> tam se ga aga.'''....''<u>This guy's</u> house is bigger.'' ::* '''At voy ayse ha dyuni <u>bi huyti</u>.'''....''I don't have <u>those women's</u> names.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoa</u> tam se etas?'''....''<u>Which</u> house is yours?'' ::* '''<u>Huua</u> tej et ayse!'''....''<u>What a</u> life you have!'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyena</u> dyezuni ifxe et?'''....''<u>What kind of</u> movies do you like?'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> tef okwa?'''....''<u>Whose</u> hat was lost?'' ::* '''<u>Hota</u> tef okwa bese otwas.'''....''<u>Whose</u> hat was lost remains a mystery.'' ::* '''<u>Ha</u> tob ta yata dyuni.'''....''<u>The</u> man knew our names.'' ::* '''<u>Hoyena</u> dini at ife, et ufe.'''....''<u>The kind of</u> stories I love, you hate.'' ::* '''<u>Hea</u> mepi gawdyunxwo.'''....''<u>Certain</u> streets will be renamed.'' ::* '''<u>Heyena</u> fukyes uxaye purilp nyaunx.'''....''<u>Some kind of</u> accident has caused a traffic jam.'' ::* '''<u>Heta</u> abtaf kaxwa be ha zatem.'''.....''<u>Someone's</u> coat was found in the foyer.'' ::* '''<u>Hia</u> dyes se ata gwafwas.'''....''<u>This</u> book is my favorite.'' ::* '''<u>Hiia</u> duni se ofwa.'''....''<u>The following</u> words are prohibited.'' ::* '''<u>Hiiyena</u> axlyen voy afwu.'''....''<u>The following sort of</u> behavior would not be allowed.'' ::* '''<u>Hiyena</u> axlyen voy vayafwo.'''....''<u>This type of</u> behavior will not be tolerated.'' ::* '''<u>Hita</u> tim so yolza.'''....''<u>This person's</u> room will be blue.'' ::* '''<u>Hua</u> mas efwe gawvozilbwer.'''....''<u>That</u> wall needs to be repainted.'' ::* '''<u>Huua</u> dini yufxe tudi.'''....''<u>Such</u> stories scare children.'' ::* '''<u>Huyena</u> duni voy yeyfwe yixwer za at.'''....''<u>Such</u> words should not be used in front of me.'' ::* '''<u>Hwuta</u> tam magseye.'''....''<u>That guy's</u> house is on fire.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoa</u> din se ga kyitesa.'''....''<u>No</u> story is more important.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoyena</u> tes tesiyafwe.'''....''<u>No such</u> meaning can be inferred.'' ::* '''<u>Hyota</u> jatexdras sa ga fia.'''....''<u>Nobody's</u> plan is better.'' ::* '''<u>Hyos</u> oboxe huyt.'''....''<u>Nothing</u> bothers that gal.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> mepi izpe Roma.'''....''<u>All</u> roads lead to Rome.'' ::* '''<u>Hya ha</u> mepi se ebwa.'''....''<u>All the</u> roads are blocked.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> twob yefe xer ita gon.'''....''<u>Every</u> man must do his part.'' ::* '''<u>Hyayena</u> telami ese be hia domep.'''....''<u>All manner of</u> restaurants exist on this street.'' ::* '''<u>Hyata</u> tej se uka bi yaobi.'''....''<u>Everyone's</u> life is full of ups and downs.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaewa</u> domi agsaye.'''....''<u>Both</u> cities have grown.'' ::* '''<u>Hyea</u> voz so fia.'''....''<u>Any</u> color will be fine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeyena</u> til se aysyafwa.'''....''<u>Any kind of</u> drink is available.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeta</u> ved se ge ifa vyel atas.'''....''<u>Anyone's</u> guess is as good as mine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyea</u> tim et fe et yafe ayser.'''....''<u>Whatever</u> room you want, you can have.'' ::* '''<u>Hyia</u>/(Ha gea) fukyesi kyese glaxag.'''....''<u>The same</u> accidents occur frequently.'' ::* '''<u>Hyiyena</u>/(Ha geyena) dyezuni teaxuwa zajub.'''....''<u>The same kind of</u> films were shown yesterday.'' ::* '''<u>Hyita</u>/(Ha geta) dyun yixwa gajod.'''....''<u>The same person's</u> name was used again.'' ::* '''<u>Hyua</u> dyezun sa ga ifuyea.'''....''<u>The other</u> movie was more entertaining.'' ::* '''<u>Hyuyena</u>/(Ogeyena) som teasu ga fia.'''....''<u>Another kind of</u> furniture would look better.'' ::* '''<u>Hyuta</u>/(ogeta) texyen se ge fyia.'''....''<u>Someone else's</u> opinion is equally valid.'' ::* '''Ha dyuni <u>bi hiyti</u> voy dodrawe.'''....''<u>These women's</u> names have not been made public.'' ::* '''Ha dyuni <u>bi hwiiti</u> voy dodrowe.'''....''<u>The following males'</u> names will not be publicized.'' ::* '''<u>Hijaga</u> tobweti voy afwo him.'''....''Boys <u>of this age</u> will not be allowed here.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> et tambese?'''....''<u>Where</u> do you live?'' ::* '''At tambese <u>hum</u>.'''....''I live <u>there</u>.'' ::* '''Et tambese <u>hom</u> ha mep uje.'''....''You live <u>where</u> the road ends.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> yet peye?'''....''<u>Where</u> are you people going?'' ::* '''Et yafe per <u>hyem</u> et fu.'''....''You can go <u>anywhere</u> you would like.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> et byise?'''....''<u>Where</u> are you from?'' (Lit: ''Where do you originate?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoj</u> et taja?'''....''<u>When</u> were you born?'' ::* '''At voy tajaya <u>huj</u>.'''....''I had not been born <u>then</u>.'' ::* '''Et yeyfe duder <u>hiiyen</u>.'''....''You should respond <u>in the following way</u>.'' ::* '''Ot voy yefe daler <u>huuyen</u>.'''....''One must not talk <u>in such a manner</u>.'' ::* '''Et pia <u>hesav</u>.'''....''He left <u>for some reason</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et iyfe hia vifil?'''....''<u>How</u> do like this wine?'' ::* '''Voy se fia axler <u>hiyen</u>.'''....''It is not good to act <u>this way</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duavhos</u> et tadia <u>huugla</u> jwa?'''....''<u>Why</u> did you marry <u>so</u> late?'' ::* '''Ha twob pia <u>avhyos</u>.'''....''The man left <u>for no reason</u>.'' ::* '''Hwat pia <u>avhos van</u> it efa per hem.'''....''The guy left <u>because</u> he needed to go somewhere.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeta</u> texyen so fia.'''....''<u>Anyone</u>'s opinion will be fine.'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> dyes se his?'''....''Whose book is this?'' ::* '''<u>Bi hoti</u> se hia dyesi?'''....''Whose are these books?'' ::* '''<u>Hyata</u> tili yebexe yom.'''....''<u>Everyone's</u> drinks contain ice.'' ::* '''Et se gaj <u>geyenat</u>( ~ <u>hyiyenat</u>).'''....''You are still <u>the same kind of person</u>.'' ::* '''At se <u>hoogla iva van</u> et upa!'''....''I am <u>so happy that</u> you came!'' ::* '''Yat tose <u>hyigla (van)</u> yet.'''....''We feel <u>(the same way) as</u> you (do).'' : Note, '''hyigla''' can be replaced with '''gel''': ::* '''Yet tose <u>gel</u> yet.'''....''We feel <u>as</u> you do.'' : The semantic reverser '''o-''' can be prefixed to some of the above deictic determiners: :: '''<u>Ohyat</u> tiste Platon.'''....''<u>Not everyone</u> understands Plato.'' :: '''<u>Ohut!</u>'''....''Not that person!'' :: '''At iyfe gwa apovili, oy <u>ohuas</u>!'''....''I like most beers, but <u>not that one</u>!'' : If the definite article or any other deictic determiner is omitted before a noun, then it has the effect of the English indefinite article ''a / an'' with a singular noun or ''some'' with a plural noun. For example: ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ha tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>a glass</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ha tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>(some) glasses</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>awa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>one glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha awa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the one glass</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>two glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the two glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>hyaewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>both glasses</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>owa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>no/zero glasses (=not a single glass)</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ea tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>another/a second glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ea tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the second glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ea tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>second glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ea tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the second glasses</u> of wine.'' : If an indefinite article sense is needed for clarity, the words '''awa''' (''one'') or '''hea''' (''some, a certain'') can be used, eg.: ::* '''At igteata <u>awa</u> tob yiztyoper.'''....''I glimpsed <u>a</u> man walk by.'' ::* '''Wit zoyupo <u>hea</u> jub.'''....''He will come back <u>a / a certain / some</u> day.'' ==== Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms ==== : The deictic interrogative determiner pronoun '''duhot?''' means ''who(m)'' and contrasts with its '''''selective''''' counterpart '''duhoat?''', which means ''which one?''. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons. : The following sentences illustrate the use of the above determiner pronouns: ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> aka zajuba ek?'''....''<u>Who</u> won yesterday's game?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoat</u> bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?'''....''<u>Which one</u> of the winners was the best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> tam se hus?'''....''<u>Whose</u> house is that?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotas</u> se hus?'''....''<u>Whose</u> is that?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotia</u> deuzi et gaife?'''....''<u>Whose</u> songs do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotias</u> et gaife?'''....''<u>Whose</u> do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* '''<u>Duhosi</u> se eta gaifuni?'''....''<u>What</u> are your preferences?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoa</u> deuzi se eta gwa fiasi?'''....''<u>Which</u> songs are your best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoasi</u> se eta gwa fiasi?'''....''<u>Which ones</u> are your best?'' ::* '''Bi hia deuzuti, <u>hoat</u> et gaife?'''....''Of these vocalists, <u>which one</u> do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Hiiti</u> yaneko hijub.'''....''<u>The following people</u> will compete today.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoati</u> se gwa fia?'''....''<u>Which ones</u> are best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoti</u> et teexe gwa jodi?'''....''<u>Who (all)</u> do you listen to the most often?'' ::* '''<u>Hoat</u> at teexe gwaxag draye ejna deuz.'''....''<u>The one</u> I listen to the most has written a new song.'' ::* '''Ejna deuz? At voy teste <u>hoas</u> et tede.'''....''New song? I don't understand <u>which one</u> you mean.'' ::* '''<u>Hias</u>.'''....''<u>This one</u>.'' ::* '''Vo. <u>Huasi</u> se ga fia.'''....''No. <u>Those</u> are better.'' ::* '''<u>His</u> se jub av ivxelen.'''....''<u>This</u> is a day for celebration.'' ::* '''Va. <u>Hia</u> jub. At tese <u>hi</u>jub.'''....''Yes. <u>This</u> day. I mean <u>To-</u>day.'' ::* '''<u>Husi</u> sa <u>ha</u> jubi, ata dat!'''....''<u>Those</u> were <u>the</u> days, my friend!'' ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> aka ha igpek?'''....''<u>Who</u> won the race?'' ::* '''<u>Hyas</u> uja fi.'''....''<u>Everything</u> ended well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyasi</u> uje.'''....''<u>All things</u> come to an end.'' ::* '''<u>Hyayenasi</u> vey kyesu.'''....''<u>All sorts of things</u> might happen.'' ::* '''<u>Hyos</u> yokxa at.'''....''<u>Nothing</u> surprised me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyot</u> ta hot ako.'''....''<u>Nobody</u> knew who would win.'' ::* '''<u>Hoayti</u> fu pier yefe.'''....''<u>Those females</u> who would like to leave may.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> yefe eker hia ifek.'''....''<u>Anyone</u> can play this game.'' ::* '''<u>Huyenasi</u> voy afwo.'''....''<u>Such things</u> will not be permitted.'' ::* '''<u>Hua twob</u> voy taxe hia toyb.'''....''<u>That</u> man does not remember this woman.'' ::* '''<u>Hwuti</u> yanyexe fi.'''....''<u>Those guys</u> work well together.'' ::* '''<u>Huuyti</u> hyaj yubixe tepzex.'''....''<u>Such females</u> always attract attention.'' ::* '''At jay teataye <u>hiyenasi</u>.'''....''I've seen <u>such things</u> before.'' ::* '''<u>Huyenwat</u> voy vabiwu.'''....''<u>A guy like that</u> would not be accepted.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyenasi</u> weti iyfe xer je ha maj.'''....''<u>What kinds of things</u> do you guys like to do during the day?'' === Numerical Deictic Determiners === : Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! Adjective !! Inanimate Pronoun !! Animate Pronoun !! Pronominal Determiner !! Possessive Pronoun |- | '''hawa'''¹<br> ''the only'' || '''hawas'''<br>''the only thing''<br>'''hawasi'''<br>''the only things'' || '''hawat'''<br>''the only one (person)''<br>'''hawati'''<br>''the only ones''|| '''hawata'''<br>''the only person&apos;s'' || '''hawatas'''<br>''the only one&apos;s''<br>'''hawatasi'''<br>''the only one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyawa'''*<br> ''each'' || '''hyawas'''<br>''each one'' || '''hyawat'''<br>''each person''|| '''hyawata'''<br>''each person&apos;s'' || '''hyawatas'''<br>''each one&apos;s''<br>'''hyawatasi'''<br>''each one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyaewa'''<br>''both'' || '''hyaewasi'''<br>''both (<small>things</small>)'' || '''hyaewati'''<br>''both (<small>people</small>)''|| '''bi hyaewati'''<br>''both person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyaewati'''<br>''both person&apos;s''<br>'''hasi bi hyaewati'''<br>''both persone&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyaiwa'''<br>''all three'' || '''hyaiwasi'''<br>''all three (<small>things</small>)'' || '''hyaiwati'''<br>''all three (<small>people</small>)''|| '''hyaiwata'''<br>''all three person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyaiwati'''<br>''all three person&apos;s''<br>'''hasi bi hyaiwati'''<br>''all three person&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''ohyawa'''<br>''not every'' || '''ohyawas'''<br>''not everything'' || '''ohyawat'''<br>''not everyone''|| '''ohyawata'''<br>''not every person&apos;s'' || '''ohyawatas'''<br>''not everyone&apos;s''<br>'''ohyawatasi'''<br>''not everyone&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyoawa'''<br>''not a single'' || '''hyoawas'''<br>''not a single thing'' || '''hyoawat'''<br>''not a single person''|| '''hyowata'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s'' || '''hyowatas'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s''<br>'''hyowatasi'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyeawa'''<br>''either'' || '''hyeawas'''<br>''either one'' || '''hyeawat'''<br>''either one (<small>person</small>)''|| '''hyeawata'''<br>''either one&apos;s'' || '''hyeawatas'''<br>''either one&apos;s''<br>'''hyeawatasi'''<br>''either one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyeewa'''<br>''any two'' || '''hyeewasi'''<br>''any two things'' || '''hyeewati'''<br>''any two people''|| '''bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two persons&apos;''<br>'''hasi bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two persons&apos; (things)'' |- | '''hyeowa'''<br>''neither'' || '''hyeowas'''<br>''neither one'' || '''hyeowat'''<br>''neither person''|| '''hyeawata'''<br>''neither person&apos;s'' || '''hyeowatas'''<br>''neither one&apos;s''<br>'''hyeowatasi'''<br>''neither one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyuawa'''<br>''another'' || '''hyuawas'''<br>''another one'' || '''hyuawat'''<br>''another''|| '''hyuawata'''<br>''another&apos;s'' || '''hyuawatas'''<br>''another&apos;s''<br>'''hyuawatasi'''<br>''another&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyuowa'''<br>''no other'' || '''hyuowas'''<br>''nothing else'' || '''hyuowat'''<br>''nobody else''|| '''hyuowata'''<br>''no other&apos;s'' || '''hyuowatas'''<br>''no other&apos;s''<br>'''hyuowatasi'''<br>''no other&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''gawa'''²<br>''another'' || '''gawas'''<br>''another one'' || '''gawat'''<br>''another (person)''|| '''gawata'''<br>''another&apos;s'' || '''gawatas'''<br>''another&apos;s''<br>'''gawatasi'''<br>''another&apos;s (things)'' |} :: <small>Note 1) '''Hawa''' and '''hyawa''' are short for '''haawa''' and '''hyaawa''', respectively.</small> :: <small>Note 2) '''Gawa''' is short for '''ga awa''', ''yet one''.</small> ==== Notes on Numerical Deictic Determiners ==== : Examples using the above number-incorporating deictic determiners: ::* '''<u>Ohyawat</u> se iva bay eta vaod.'''....''<u>Not everyone</u> is happy with your decision.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaewasi</u> yafwe uxler yata efoni.'''....''<u>Both (things)</u> can serve our needs.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeawa</u> tim ivlaxo at.'''....''<u>Either</u> room will satisfy me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeowas</u> oivlaxo at.'''....''<u>Neither one</u> will dissatisfy me.'' : Note: ::* '''hyua''' means ''another (an alternative)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hyua</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>another (a different)</u> drink.'' ::* '''hyuawa''' means ''another (an additional)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hyuawa</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>another (an additional)</u> drink.'' ::* '''hahyua''' means ''the other (the alternative)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hahyua</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>the other</u> drink.'' ::* '''hohyua'''....''what other (relative)''. Ex. '''Bexlu hohyua suni at lobexa av et.'''....''Keep what other things I left for you.'' ::* '''hehyua'''....''some other'' ::* '''duhohyua'''....''what other, which other'' ::* '''hihyua'''....''this other'' ::* '''huhyua'''....''that other'' ::* '''hyahyua'''....''all other, any other, each other'' ::* '''hyehyua'''....''any other, whatever other'' ::* '''hyohyua'''....''no other'' : Similarly, '''hya''' means ''every, all'', while '''hyawa''' means ''each'', and '''hyaha'''....''all the'', ex: ::* '''<u>Hya</u> dom ayse tebixea suni teaxer.'''....''<u>Every</u> city has interesting things to see.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> domi ayse tebixusi.'''....''<u>All</u> cities have things of interest.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaha</u> domi ayse tebixusi.'''....''<u>All the</u> cities have things of interest.'' ::* '''<u>Hyawa</u> dom ayse tebixun.'''....''<u>Each</u> city has something of interest.'' : Also, '''ha''' means ''the'', while '''hawa''' means ''the only'', eg.: ::* '''<u>Ha</u> twob hu at gwa ife se et.'''....''<u>The</u> man I most love is you.'' ::* '''<u>Hawa</u> toyb nazea ata tepzex se et.'''....''<u>The only</u> woman worth my attention is you.'' : By appending '''y''' to '''hawa''', we get the adverb '''haway'''....''only, solely'', eg; ::* '''<u>Haway</u> et nize ata tepzex.'''....''<u>Only</u> you deserve my attention.''. : The singular person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into pronominal determiners by adding the adjective suffix '''a''', eg.: ::* '''<u>Hyawata</u> tej se ge glatesa vyel hyutas.'''....''<u>Each one's</u> life is as important as another's.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoewata</u> dyun se vyama.'''....''<u>Neither person's</u> name is real.'' : However, the plural person pronouns in the above chart use the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') to form possessives, eg.: ::* '''Ha teji <u>bi hyaiwati</u> se kyebukuwa.'''....''The lives <u>of all three</u> are in danger.'' : The above singular pronominal determiners can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix '''-s'''. ::* '''<u>Hyawatas</u> se glatesa.'''....''<u>Each one's</u> is important.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoewatas</u> se vyama.'''....''<u>Neither's</u> is real.'' : The plural pronominal determiners can be nominalized with the use of '''bi''', eg: ::* '''<u>Hyaiwasi</u> <u>bi huti</u> se kyebukuwa.'''....''<u>All three</u> <u>of theirs'</u> are in danger.'' : Correlative Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners are handled as follows: ::* '''Hyeawa A ey B'''....''either A or B'' ::* '''Hyoewa A oy B'''....''neither A nor B'' ::* '''Hyaewa A ay B'''....''both A and B'' ::* '''Hawa A, voy B'''....''only A, not B'' ==== Different Ways of Expressing ''How'' ==== : The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of ''how'' are illustrated here: ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> wit xa hus?'''....''<u>How</u> did he do that?''.... (Equivalent to '''Be duhobyen...?'''....''In what way...?'') (ADVERB OF MANNER) ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et xeye?'''....''<u>How</u> are you doing?''.... (This is the normal way of saying ''How are you?'' or ''How do you do?'' (ADVERB OF MANNER) ::* '''<u>Duhoyena</u> sa ha dyezun?'''....'' <u>How</u> was the film?''.... (''How'' here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in '''-a'''.) ::* '''<u>Duhonog (= Duhogla)</u> aga it se?'''....''<u>How</u> big is he?''.... (ADVERB OF DEGREE) ::* '''<u>Huunog (= Huugla)</u> iyfla et se!'''....''<u>How</u> nice you are!''.... (ADVERB OF EMPHATIC DEGREE) : The conjunction ''as'' is expressed most often using relative pro-adverbs of manner: ::* '''Xu <u>hoyen</u> at de.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I say.'' = (in) the way that... ::* '''Xu <u>hyiyen</u>''' (~ '''geyen''') '''at xe.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I do. ( = (in) the same way that...)'' ::* '''Xu <u>hiiyen</u>:'''....''Do <u>as follows</u>. ( = (in) this hereby manner...)'' : However, the preposition/conjunction '''gel''' (''like, as'') can be substituted: ::* '''Xu <u>gel</u> at de.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I say.'' ==== Introducing Relative Clauses with Adverbial Determiners ==== : Many of the determiner adverbs in the above chart can be used in relative clauses, eg: ::* '''At teato et <u>hoj</u> et puo him.'''....''I will see you <u>when</u> you get here.'' ::* '''It xa has <u>avhos van</u> it tosa yefa.'''....''He/she did it <u>because (for the reason that)</u> he/she felt compelled.'' ::* '''<u>Hyem</u> et po, et so ga iva.'''....''<u>Wherever</u> you go, you'll be happier.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> te ha did, yabu eta tuyab.'''....''<u>Whoever</u> knows the answer, raise your hand.'' ::* '''At voy te <u>hoyen</u> et xa is.'''....''I don't know <u>how</u> you did it.'' : See more about this in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax#Relative_Clauses|relative clauses under Syntax]]. === Pronominal Deictic Determiners === : Some words in Mirad incorporate deictic prefixes with pronouns and pronominal adjectives, as shown in the following chart: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size;smaller;" |+ Pronominal Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! colspan=3 | Pronoun |- ! 1st Person Plural !! 2nd Person Plural !! 3rd Person Plural |- | '''duhoyat'''<br>''which of us'' || '''duhoyet'''<br>''which of you'' || '''duhoyit'''<br>''which of them'' |- | '''heyat'''<br>''some of us'' || '''heyet'''<br>''some of you'' || '''heyit'''<br>''which of them'' |- | '''hyayat'''<br>''each of us'' || '''hyayet'''<br>''each of you'' || '''hyayit'''<br>''each of them'' |- | '''hyeyat'''<br>''any of us'' || '''hyeyet'''<br>''any of you'' || '''hyeyit'''<br>''any of them'' |- | '''hyoyat'''<br>''none of us'' || '''hyoyet'''<br>''none of you'' || '''hyoyit'''<br>''none of them'' |- ! colspan=3 | Pronominal Adjective |- ! 1st Person (Plural) !! 2nd Person (Plural) !! 3rd Person (Plural) |- | '''duhoyata'''<br>''which of our'' || '''duhoyet'''<br>''which of your'' || '''duhoyita'''<br>''which of their'' |- | '''heyata'''<br>''some of our'' || '''heyeta'''<br>''some of your'' || '''heyita'''<br>''which of their'' |- | '''hyayata'''<br>''each of our'' || '''hyayeta'''<br>''each of your'' || '''hyayita'''<br>''each of their'' |- | '''hyeyata'''<br>''any of our'' || '''hyeyeta'''<br>''any of your'' || '''hyeyita'''<br>''any of their'' |- ! colspan=3 | Singular/(Plural) Possessive Pronoun |- ! 1st Person (Plural) !! 2nd Person (Plural) !! 3rd Person (Plural) |- | '''duhoyatas(i)'''<br>''which of ours'' || '''duhoyetas(i)'''<br>''which of yours'' || '''duhoyitas(i)'''<br>''which of theirs'' |- | '''heyatas(i)'''<br>''some of ours'' || '''heyetas(i)'''<br>''some of yours'' || '''heyitas(i)'''<br>''which of theirs'' |- | '''hyayatas(i)'''<br>''each of ours'' || '''hyayetas(i)'''<br>''each of yours'' || '''hyayitas(i)'''<br>''each of theirs'' |- | '''hyeyatas(i)'''<br>''any of ours'' || '''hyeyetas(i)'''<br>''any of yours'' || '''hyeyitas(i)'''<br>''any of theirs'' |- | '''hyoyatas(i)'''<br>''none of ours'' || '''hyoyetas(i)'''<br>''none of yours'' || '''hyoyitas(i)'''<br>''none of theirs'' |} {{small/end}} : The above possessive pronouns refer to things. If you replace the final '''-s''' or '''-si''', to '''-t''' or '''-ti''', then they become animate and refer to people, eg.: ::* '''Ese ewa tudi him. Duhoyitas se his?'''....''There are two children here. Which one of theirs is this?'' : All of the forms in the above chart can also be expressed as separate words, eg.: ::* '''Duhoyet?'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Duhoat bi yet?'''....''Which one of you?'' ::* '''Hyayat'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaglati bi yet'''....''All of us.'' ::* '''Hyoyatasi'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyogla yatasi'''....''All of ours (things)'' Note: ::* '''Awayat'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''Hyaewayet'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaewat bi yet'''....''both of you'' ::* '''Hyaiwayit'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaiwat bi yit'''....''all three of them'' === Quantitative Deictic Determiners === : The deictic prefixes can be combined with '''gla''' to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people): {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size;smaller;" |+ Quantitative Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! !! Adverbial / Adjectival<br>Determiner !! Inanimate Singular<br>Pronoun !! Inanimate Plural <br>Pronoun !! Animate Plural<br>Pronoun |- !row=1|Interrogative | '''duhogla?'''<br>''how?/how much?/how many?'' || '''duhoglas?'''<br>''how much?'' || '''duhoglasi?'''<br>''how many'' || '''duhoglati?'''<br>''how many (people)?'' |- !row=1|Relative | '''hogla'''<br>''as many/much'' || '''hoglas'''<br>''how much'' || '''duhoglasi'''<br>''how many'' || '''duhoglati'''<br>''how many (as)'' |- !row=1|Definite | '''hagla'''<br>''how/as much/as many'' || '''haglas'''<br>''as much'' || '''haglasi'''<br>''as many'' || '''haglati'''<br>''as many (people)'' |- !row=1|Indefinite | '''hegla'''<br>''somewhat/some/some'' || '''heglas'''<br>''some'' || '''heglasi'''<br>''some'' || '''heglati'''<br>''some (people)'' |- !row=1|Proximal | '''higla'''<br>''this/this much/this many'' || '''higlas'''<br>''this much'' || '''higlasi'''<br>''this many'' || '''higlati'''<br>''this many (people)'' |- !row=1|Distal | '''hugla'''<br>''that/that much/that many'' || '''huglas'''<br>''that much'' || '''huglasi'''<br>''that many'' || '''huglati'''<br>''that many (people)'' |- !row=1|Intensive | '''huugla'''<br>''so very, so much, so many'' || '''huuglas'''<br>''so much'' || '''huuglasi'''<br>''so many'' || '''huuglati'''<br>''so many (people)'' |- !row=1|Negative | '''hyogla'''<br>''none, not very'' || '''hyoglas'''<br>''none of it'' || '''hyoglasi'''<br>''none of them '' || '''hyoglati'''<br>''none'' |- !row=1|Distributive | '''hyagla'''<br>''totally/all/all'' || '''hyaglas'''<br>''all of it'' || '''hyaglasi'''<br>''all of them'' || '''hyaglati'''<br>''all'' |- !row=1|Indeterminate | '''hyegla'''<br>''however/any/any'' || '''hyeglas'''<br>''any of it'' || '''hyeglasi'''<br>''any of them'' || '''hyeglati'''<br>''any number of them'' |- !row=1|Identical | '''hyigla'''<br>''as/as much/as many, equally'' || '''hyiglas'''<br>''the same amount'' || '''hyiglasi'''<br>''the same number'' || '''hyiglati'''<br>''as many (people)'' |- !row=1|Non-identical | '''hyugla'''<br>''not as much/not as much/not as many'' || '''hyuglas'''<br>''a different amount'' || '''hyuglasi'''<br>''a different number of things'' || '''hyuglati'''<br>''a different number of people'' |} {{Small/end}} : Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used: ::* '''Et deuze <u>huugla</u> fi.'''....''You sing <u>so</u> well.'' ::* '''At se <u>hegla</u> booka.'''....''I am <u>somewhat</u> tired.'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla</u> pati et teata hijub?'''....''<u>How many</u> birds did you see today?'' ::* '''At teata vyavay <u>hugla</u> tami.'''....''I saw exactly <u>that many</u> houses.'' ::* '''Iyt fe <u>hyiglas</u> vyel et.'''....''She wants <u>the same amount</u> as you.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoglati</u> yantexe yet?'''....''<u>How many (people)</u> agree with you?'' ::* '''<u>Hyoglati</u> yantexe.'''....''<u>None</u> agree.'' ::* '''Yit fu <u>heglasi</u>.'''....''They would like <u>some (of them)</u>.'' ::* '''Et yafe bier <u>hyeglasi</u> et fe.'''....''You can take <u>however many</u> you want.'' ::* '''Besu bay at <u>hogla</u> job et fe.'''....''Stay <u>as</u> long with me as you want.'' ::* '''At se <u>huugla</u> booka.'''....''I am <u>so</u> tired.'' : NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable: ::* '''hegla''' = '''gle''' = '''henog''' (''somewhat, to some degree'') ::* '''hyigla''' = '''ge''' = '''hyinog''' (''as, equally, to the same degree'') : The determiner ''huugla'' can be used as an exclamatory adverb, eg.: ::* '''<u>Huugla</u> et agsaye!'''....''<u>How</u> you have grown!'' ::* '''Hua twob jagsaye <u>huugla</u>!'''....''That man has aged <u>so much</u>!'' ::* '''Hia jotul se <u>huugla</u> fiteluza!'''....''This dessert is <u>sooo</u> delicious!'' == Pronominal Determiners == : Pronominal Determiners are what are more often called '''''possessive adjectives''''' such as ''my'' or ''your'' and are discussed in a subsection of [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns#Pronominal Determiners|Pronouns]]. == Quantitative Determiners == : '''''Quantitative determiners''''' act in one of several ways, they: ::* specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. ''much happiness, less work'' ::* specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. ''one apple, two birds, many places'' ::* specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. ''how poorly, very good, eat too much''. : From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived. ::* Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding '''s''' for AN AMOUNT OF A THING ::* Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding '''si''' for A NUMBER OF THINGS ::* Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding '''ti''' for A NUMBER OF PERSONS. : The following table presents most of these word forms (Note that the determiners are in a plus (+), equal (=), or minus (-) row.): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Quantitative Determiners |- !colspan=2|Adverb / Adjective !! Singular Pronoun !!colspan=2| Plural Pronoun |- !colspan=2|Degree/Amount/Number !! Amount !! Number of Things !! Number of People |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gas'''....''more (stuff)'' || '''gasi'''....''many (things)'' || '''gati'''....''many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''ge'''....''as, as much, as many'' || '''ges'''....''as much (stuff)'' || '''gesi'''....''as many (things)'' || '''geti'''....''as many people'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''go'''....''less, fewer'' || '''gos'''....''less (stuff)'' || '''gosi'''....''fewer (things)'' || '''goti'''....''fewer (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gla'''....''very, much, many''<br>'''glay'''....''so, so much, so many''<br>'''glaa'''....''several'' || '''glas'''....''much (stuff)''<br>'''glays'''....''so much stuff'') || '''glasi'''....''many (things)''<br>'''glaysi'''....''so many (things)''<br>'''glaasi'''....''several things''|| '''glati'''....''many (people)''<br>'''glayti'''....''so many (people)''<br>'''glaati'''....''several people'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gle'''....''rather, quite a lot, quite a few'' || '''gles'''....''quite a lot (of stuff)'' || '''glesi'''....''quite a lot (of things)'' || '''gleti'''....''quite a few (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''glo'''....''slightly, a little, few'' || '''glos'''....''a little bit'' || '''glosi'''....''a few (things)'' || '''gloti'''....''few (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gra'''....''too, too much, too many'' || '''gras'''....''too much (stuff)'' || '''grasi'''....''too many (things)'' || '''grati'''....''too many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gres'''....''enough (stuff)'' || '''gresi'''....''enough (things)'' || '''greti'''....''enough (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''gro'''....''insufficiently, too little, too few'' || '''gros'''....''too little'' || '''grosi'''....''too few'' || '''groti'''....''too few (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwas'''....''the most (stuff)'' || '''gwasi'''....''the most (things)'' || '''gwati'''....''most people'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gwe'''....''just so (much/many)'' || '''gwes'''....''just so much'' || '''gwesi'''....''just so many'' || '''gweti'''....''just so many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwos'''....''the least (stuff)'' || '''gwosi'''....''the least (number of)'' || '''gwoti'''....''the least number (of people)'' |} : Examples Using Graded Quantitative Determiners :: Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective: :::* '''At se <u>gla</u> iva.'''....''I am <u>very</u> happy.'' :::* '''Et sa <u>gra</u> uga.'''....''You were <u>too</u> slow.'' :: Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb: :::* '''Twobi dale <u>ge</u> igay vyel toybi.'''....''Men talk <u>as</u> fast as women.'' :::* '''Yat yexe <u>ga igay</u> vyel yet.'''....''We work faster (= <u>more quickly</u>) than you.'' :: Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun: :::* '''<u>Ga</u> nas efwo.'''....''<u>More</u> money will be needed.'' :::* '''<u>Gra</u> nas noxwa.'''....''<u>Too much</u> money was spent.'' :: Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun (= things or people): :::* '''At ayse <u>gro</u> sari.'''....''I've got <u>too few</u> tools.'' :::* '''<u>Gla</u> tami osexwa.'''....''<u>Many</u> houses were destroyed.'' :::* '''Yat efe <u>gla ga</u> valkdibuti.'''....''We need <u>many more</u> policemen.'' :: Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something (= stuff): :::* '''<u>Gas</u> ilokeye.'''....''<u>More (stuff)</u> is leaking.'' :::* '''Et dileye <u>gras</u>.'''....''You are asking for <u>too much (stuff)</u>.'' :::* '''Yat kexo <u>gwas</u>.'''....''We will seek <u>as much (stuff) as possible</u>.'' :::* '''At iba <u>gwes</u>.'''....''I received <u>just the right amount.</u>'' :: Pronouns referring to a countable number of things: :::* '''Hisi se fia oy yat fe <u>gasi</u>.'''....''These (items) are good but we want <u>more (items)</u>.'' :::* '''At teate drilari oy <u>grosi</u>.'''....''I see pens, but <u>too few</u>.'' :: Pronouns referring to a countable number of people: :::* '''<u>Grati</u> xaye vyoki be hia yexem.'''....''<u>Too many (people)</u> have made mistakes at this work site.'' :::* '''<u>Glati</u> dyunwe oy <u>gloti</u> kebiwe.'''....''<u>Many</u> are called but <u>few</u> are chosen.'' == Numerical Determiners == : This category of determiners, which includes cardinal, ordinal and other number words like ''two'', ''a tenth'', and ''first'', is such a vast topic that it is treated in its own chapter [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers]] <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Adverbs|Numbers}}</noinclude> 57lbr6uucgerkkbnnk7p4jfnugzvppq 4635015 4635014 2026-05-09T20:22:56Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Examples of Deictic Determiner Usage */ 4635015 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner ''this'', for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. In English, demonstrative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs, possessive pronouns/adjectives, quantifiers like ''more'' and ''very'', and numeric expressions like ''both'' fall under this category. == Types of Determiners == : Determiners in Mirad fall into the following categories: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Determiners |- ! Type !! Also Known As !! English Examples |- !row=1| Deictic | Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives/Adverbs || ''the'', ''this'', ''some'', ''every'', ''which?'', ''when'' |- !row=1| Pronominal | Possessive Pronouns/Adjectives | ''my'', ''anybody&apos;s'', ''one&apos;s own'' |- !row=1| Quantitative | Quantifiers || ''more'', ''less'', ''very'' |- !row=1| Numerical | Numerals/Fractions/Ordinals/Dates, etc. || ''one'', ''half'', ''first'' |} : Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify circumstance, i.e. time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth. == Deictic Determiners == : '''''Deictic determiners''''' are words which point out or ''specify'' other words as to their context, including what grammarians often call '''''demonstratives'''''. All deictic determiners in Mirad begin with the letter '''h'''. The letters following the '''h''' indicate the grammatical and semantic category. : Deictic determiners include the following traditional grammatical categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* '''''Demonstrative adjectives ''''' like ''this'', ''that'', ''those'', ''that one'' ::* '''''The definite article''''' ''the ''&nbsp;&nbsp; (which is really a '''''demonstrative adjective''''' like those above.) ::* '''''Demonstrative pronouns''''' like ''this'', ''that'', ''those'', ''that one'' ::* '''''Interrogative and relative pronouns''''' like ''who, which, that'' ::* '''''Indefinite adjectives''''' like ''any'', ''some'', ''all'', ''something'', ''such'', etc. ::* '''''Indefinite pronouns''''' like ''any'', ''some'', ''all'', ''something'', ''such'', etc. ::* '''''Pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs of quantity''''' like ''so much'', ''that many'', ''how many?'', ''very'', etc. ::* '''''Adverbs of circumstance:''''' :::* '''''time''''' like ''when'', ''now'', ''ever'' :::* '''''place''''' like ''there'', ''here'', ''somewhere'' :::* '''''manner''''' like ''how'', ''thus'', ''somehow'' :::* '''''kind''''' like ''so'', age ''this year old'' :::* '''''direction''''' like ''that way'', ''any which way'' :::* '''''reason''''' ''why?'', ''for that reason'', ''for no reason'' :::* '''''degree''''' ''this (well)'', ''so (good)'', ''how (bad)'' :::* '''''frequency''''' like ''how often'', ''so often'', ''never'' :::* '''''age''''' like ''this old'', ''how old?'', ''of any age'' </div> === Deictic Prefixes === [[File:Deixis (DE).png|thumb|none]] : There is a whole set of '''''correlative deictic prefixes''''', which are joined to circumstantial stub category suffixes to derive pronoun, adjective, and adverb determiners. In some grammars, these words are called ''wh-question words and their pointed answers''. For example, QUESTION: <u>Who</u> is your wife? ANSWER: <u>This</u> is my wife. (or) QUESTION: <u>Where</u> is your house? ANSWER: My house is <u>here</u>. These word forms are called correlative because they relate to one another in way that can be mapped to a table. : Here are the Mirad deictic classification prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deictic Prefixes |- ! Classification !! Deictic Prefix |- ! scope="row" | Interrogative | '''duho-...?'''....''what?, which?'' |- ! scope="row" | Relative | '''ho-'''....''which, that'' |- ! scope="row" | Exclamatory | '''hoo-'''....''how...!'' |- ! scope="row" | Definite | '''ha-'''....''the'' |- ! scope="row: | Indefinite | '''he-'''....''some, a certain'' |- ! scope="row" | Proximal | '''hi-'''....''this, these'' |- ! scope="row" | Immediate | '''hii-'''....''the following'' |- ! scope="row" | Distal | '''hu-'''....''that, those'' |- ! scope="row" | Intensive | '''huu-'''....''such, so, what a...!'' |- ! scope="row" | Distributive | '''hya-'''....''every, all, each'' |- ! scope="row" | Indeterminate | '''hye-'''....''any, whatever'' |- ! scope="row" | Negative | '''hyo-'''....''no, not any'' |- ! scope="row | Identical | '''hyi-'''....''the same, the very'' |- ! scope="row" | Non-identical | '''hyu-'''....''the other, another, else'' |} === Circumstantial Category Suffixes === : The table below shows word stub suffixes that indicate the circumstantial category of deictic expressions. They are called stubs, because they are reduced word forms. The combination of deictic prefixes and circumstantial stub suffixes produce a matrix of deictic '''''correlatives''''', seen later in this chapter. Use of the stub instead of the long form is a matter of optional economy. A few categories do not have stubs. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Category Stubs |- ! Category !! Stub Suffix !! Long Form !! Short Question Form || Long Question Form |- ! row=1| Person | '''-t''' || '''<u>t</u>ob'''....''person'' || '''duhot?'''....''who?''|| '''duhotob?''' |- ! row=1| Thing | '''-s''' ||'''<u>s</u>un'''....''thing'' || '''duhos?'''....''what?''|| '''duhosun?''' |- ! row=1| Place | '''-m''' ||'''ne<u>m</u>'''....''place'' || '''duhom?'''....''where?''|| '''duhonem?''' |- ! row=1| Time | '''-j''' ||'''<u>j</u>ob'''....''time'' || '''duhoj?'''....''when?''|| '''duhojob?''' |- ! row=1| Manner | '''-yen''' ||'''b<u>yen</u>'''....''manner'' || '''duhoyen?'''....''how?''||'''duhobyen?''' |- ! row=1| Kind | '''-yena''' ||'''<u>sauna</u>'''....''kind of'' || '''duhoyena?'''....''what kind of?''||'''duhosauna?''' |- ! row=1| Degree | '''-gla''' ||'''nog'''....''degree'' || '''duhogla (fi)?'''....''how (well)?''||'''duhonog?''' |- ! row=1| Number | '''-gla''' ||'''sag'''....''number'' || '''duhogla (pati)?'''....''how many (birds)?''||'''duhosag?''' |- ! row=1| Mass Quantity | '''-gla''' ||'''glan'''....''amount'' || '''duhogla (mil)?'''....''how much (water)?''||'''duhoglan?''' |- ! row=1| Frequency | ||'''xag'''....''frequency''|| '''duhoxag?'''....''how often?''|| -- |- ! row=1| Reason | '''-avhos''' || '''av hosun'''....''reason'' || '''duavhos?'''....''why?''|| '''duavhosun?''' |- ! row=1| Age | ||'''jaga'''....''of age'' || '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?''|| -- |} : There can be other circumstantial categories other than those listed above, such as "direction", "order", etc. eg. '''Duhomep wit pa?'''....''Which way did he go?''. === Charts of Correlative Deictic Determiners === : Here is are three tables showing the matrix of correlative deictic determiners. Note that the determiners belong to three parts of speech, 1) adjectives, 2) pronouns, and 3) adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" font-size:smaller style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |- ! Part of Speech !! Ending |- | Adjective || '''-a''' |- | Pronoun || '''-t(i)''', '''-s(i)''' |- | Adverb || (no ending) |} ==== Deictic Determiner Adjectives ==== : All deictic determiner adjectives end in '''-a''' and are used to modify nouns. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Adjectives |- valign=top ! !! Selective<br>-a!! Possessive<br>-ta !! Kind/Manner<br>-yena !! Quantity<br>-gla !! Age<br>-jaga |- ! Interrogative |'''duhoa?'''<br>''which?''||'''duhota?'''<br>''whose?''|| '''duhoyena?'''<br>''what kind of?''||'''duhogla?'''<br>''how much/many?'' ||'''duhojaga?'''<br>''how old?'' |- valign=top ! Relative |'''hoa'''<br>''which''||'''hota'''<br>''whose''|| '''hoyena'''<br>''what kind of''||'''hogla'''<br>''how much/many'' ||'''hojaga'''<br>''how old'' |- valign=top ! Exclamatory |'''hooa'''<br>''what a...!''|| || ||'''hoogla'''<br>''look how much/many...!'' ||'''hoojaga'''<br>''how old a...!'' |- valign=top ! Definite |'''ha'''¹<br>''the''||'''hatas'''<br>''the person’s''|| '''hayena'''<br>''of the kind''||'''hagla'''<br>''of the amount'' ||'''hajaga'''<br>''of the age'' |- valign=top ! Indefinite |'''hea'''<br>''some/a certain''||'''heta'''<br>''someone's''|| '''heyena'''<br>''some kind of''||'''hegla'''<br>''some'' ||'''hejaga'''<br>''somewhat old'' |- valign=top ! Proximal |'''hia'''<br>''this''||'''hita'''<br>''this person’s''|| '''hiyena'''<br>''this kind of''||'''higla'''<br>''this much'' ||'''hijaga'''<br>''this old'' |- valign=top ! Immdediate |'''hiia'''<br>''the following''||'''hiita'''<br>''the follow person’s''|| '''hiiyena'''<br>''the following kind of'' || '''hiigla'''<br>''to the following degree'' ||'''hiijaga'''<br>''of the following age'' |- valign=top ! Distal |'''hua'''<br>''that''||'''huta'''<br>''that person’s''|| '''huyena'''<br>''that kind of'' ||'''hugla'''<br>''that much/many'' ||'''hujaga'''<br>''of that age'' |- valign=top ! Intensive |'''huua'''<br>''such a''||'''huuta'''<br>''such a person’s''|| '''huuyena'''<br>''such kind of'' ||'''huugla'''<br>''so much/many'' ||'''huujaga'''<br>''of such an age'' |- valign=top ! Negative |'''hyoa'''<br>''no''||'''hyota'''<br>''nobody’s''|| '''hyoyena'''<br>''no kind of'' ||'''hyogla'''<br>''no amount/number of'' ||'''hyojaga'''<br>''of no age'' |- valign=top ! Distributive |'''hya'''¹<br>''every, all''||'''hyata'''<br>''everybody’s''|| '''hyayena'''<br>''every kind of'' ||'''hyagla'''<br>''all'' ||'''hyajaga'''<br>''of every age'' |- valign=top ! Indeterminate |'''hyea'''<br>''whichever/any''²||'''hyeta'''<br>''whosever''|| '''hyeyena'''<br>''whatever/any kind of'' ||'''hyegla'''<br>''however much/many'' ||'''hyejaga'''<br>''however old'' |- valign=top ! Identical |'''hyia'''<br>''the same''||'''hyita'''<br>''the same person’s''|| '''hyiyena'''<br>''the same kind of'' ||'''hyigla'''<br>''just as'' ||'''hyijaga'''<br>''just as old'' |- valign=top ! Non-identical |'''hyua'''<br>''the other''||'''hyuta'''<br>''someone else's''|| '''hyuyena'''<br>''another kind of'' ||'''hyugla'''<br>''not as much/many'' ||'''hyujaga'''<br>''of another age'' |} : There are other adjectival determiners such as '''duhonoga'''....''how/to what degree'', '''duhosauna'''....''what kind of'' that are not included in the above chart. :Note 1) The determiners '''ha''' (''the'') and '''hya''' (''every'') are shortened forms of '''haa''' and '''hyaa'''. Also, '''ha''' is commonly called a "definite article". ::* While '''hya''' means ''every'' or ''all'', the word '''hyawa''' is used for ''each''. ::* The possessive adjective forms in the above table ending in '''-ta''' such as '''hyeta'''....''whosever'' cannot be pluralized by the ending '''-tia'''. To say '''other people's''', use the expression '''bi hyuti''' (Lit. ''of others''). ::* The '''ho-''' words are relative, meaning that they can serve to form relative clauses like the following: :::* '''Ha toyb, <u>hota</u> twad se Bill,'''....''The woman, <u>whose</u> husband is Bill,'' :::* '''At voy te <u>hos</u> et tepfe.'''....''I don't know <u>what</u> you mean.'' :::* '''At teste <u>hogla</u> et fie iyt.'''....''I understand <u>how much</u> you love her.'' ::* The '''hoo-''' words are exclamatory and are used in expressions like the following: :::* '''<u>Hoogla</u> iva se at van et upa!'''....''<u>How</u> glad I am that you came!'' :::* '''<u>Hooa</u> jub his saye!'''....''<u>What a</u> day this has been!'' ('''Hooa''' is pronounced ''ho-O-a'' as three syllables.) :Note 2) The indeterminant determiners can also be translated with ''no matter what, no matter where, etc.'' ==== Deictic Determiner Pronouns ==== : All deictic determiner pronouns end either in '''-t''' for persons or '''-s''' for things. They can be singular or plural ('''-i'''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Pronouns |- valign=top ! !! Thing -s<br>Things -si !! Person -t<br>Persons -ti !! Kind of Thing -yenas<br>Kinds of Things -yenasi !! Amount -glas<br>Number of Things -glasi !! Number of People -glati |- valign=center ! Interrogative |'''duhos?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what?''<br>'''duhosi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what (things)?''|| '''duhot?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who?''<br>'''duhoti?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who (pl.)''|| '''duhoyenas?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what kind of thing?'' <br>'''duhoyenasi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;what kinds of things?|| '''duhoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how much?''<br>'''duhoglasi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many things?''|| '''duhoglati?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many people?'' |- valign=center ! Relative |'''hos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what''<br>'''hosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what''|| '''hot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who''<br>'''hoti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who''|| '''hoyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what kind of thing'' <br>'''hoyenasi'''|| '''hoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how much''<br>'''hoglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many''|| '''hoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many'' |- ! Exclamatory |'''hoos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a thing!''<br>'''hoosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what things!''|| '''hoot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a person!''<br>'''hooti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what people!''|| || '''hooglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what an amount!''<br>'''hooglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a number!''|| '''hoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a number of people!'' |- valign=center ! Definite |'''has'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''it''<br>'''hasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''they/them''|| '''hat'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''he/she/him/her''<br>'''hati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''they/them''|| '''hayenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the king of thing''<br>'''hayenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the kind of things''|| '''haglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the amount'' <br>'''haglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the number of things''|| '''haglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the number of people'' |- valign=center ! Indefinite |'''hes'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''something''<br>'''hesi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some things''|| '''het'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''someone''<br>'''heti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some''|| '''heyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some kind of thing'' <br>'''heyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some kinds of thing''|| '''heglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some''<br>'''heglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some things''|| '''heglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some people'' |- valign=center ! Proximal |'''his'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this''<br>'''hisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these''|| '''hit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this person''<br>'''hiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these people''|| '''hiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this kind of thing'' <br>'''hiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these kinds of things''|| '''higlas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this much''<br>'''higlasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this many''|| '''higlati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this many people'' |- valign=center ! Immediate |'''hiis'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following thing''<br>'''hiisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following things''|| '''hiit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following person''<br>'''hiiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following people''|| '''hiiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following kind of thing'' <br>'''hiiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following kinds of things''|| '''hiiglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following amount''<br>'''hiiglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this following number of things''|| '''hiiglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following number of people'' |- valign=center ! Distal |'''hus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that''<br>'''husi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those''|| '''hut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that person''<br>'''huti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those people''|| '''huyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that kind of thing'' <br>'''huyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those kinds of things''|| '''huglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that much''<br>'''huglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that many''|| '''huglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that many people'' |- valign=center ! Intensive |'''huus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a thing''<br>'''huusi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such things''|| '''huut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a person''<br>'''huuti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such people''|| '''huuyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a kind of thing'' <br>'''huuyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such kinds of things''|| '''huuglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so much''<br>'''huuglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so many''|| '''huuglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so many people'' |- valign=center ! Negative |'''hyos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''nothing''<br>'''hyosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none of them''|| '''hyot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''nobody''<br>'''hyoti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none of them''|| '''hyoyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''no kind of thing'' <br>'''hyoyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''no kinds of things''|| '''hyoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none''<br>'''hyoglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none''|| '''hyoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none'' |- valign=center ! Distributive |'''hyas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''everything''<br>'''hyasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyat'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''everybody''<br>'''hyati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyayenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''every kind of'' <br>'''hyayenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all kinds of things''|| '''hyaglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of it''<br>'''hyaglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyaglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them'' |- valign=center ! Indeterminate |'''hyes'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''anything''<br>'''hyesi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any''|| '''hyet'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''anybody''<br>'''hyeti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of them''|| '''hyeyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any kind of'' <br>'''hyeyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''whatever things''|| '''hyeglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of it''<br>'''hyeglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of them''|| '''hyeglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''whoever'' |- valign=center ! Identical |'''hyis'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same thing''<br>'''hyisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same things''|| '''hyit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same person''<br>'''hyiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same people''|| '''hyiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same kind of'' <br>'''hyiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same kinds of things''|| '''hyiglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as much''<br>'''hyiglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as many''|| '''hyiglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as many people'' |- valign=center ! Non-identical |'''hyus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''something else''<br>'''hyusi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other things''|| '''hyut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''someone else''<br>'''hyuti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other people''|| '''hyuyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another kind'' <br>'''hyuyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other kinds''|| '''hyuglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another amount''<br>'''hyuglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another number of things''|| '''hyuglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another number of people'' |} : Concerning the above chart, note the following: ::* The interrogative determiners all begin with '''duho-''', which means '''say which''', and are technically imperatives. '''Duhom?''', for example, means '''Tell (me) the place...'''. The '''o'''-stem forms without the '''du-''' are used as relative clause heads, eg. '''At po <u>hom</u> et po.'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''I will go <u>where</u> you go.'' ::* Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. '''<u>Hia</u> aga jaga tam...'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''<u>This</u> big old house...''. ::* Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting '''a''' before the final '''t''' or '''s''', eg. '''Duhot?''' means ''Who?'', while '''Duhoat?''' means ''Which one (of several persons)?'' ==== Deictic Determiner Adverbs ==== : All deictic determiner adverbs refer to a circumstance. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Adverbs |- valign=top ! Circumstance--> !! Place<br>-m !! Time<br>-j !! Manner<br>-yen!! Degree<br>-gla !! Frequency<br>-xag !! Reason<br>-sav |- valign=center ! Interrogative | '''duhom?'''<br>''where?'' || '''duhoj?'''<br>''when?'' || '''duhoyen?'''<br>''how?'' || '''duhogla?'''<br>''how (very)?'' || '''duhoxag?'''<br>''how often?''|| '''duavhos?'''¹<br>''why?'' |- valign=center ! Relative | '''hom'''<br>''where'' || '''hoj'''<br>''when'' || '''hoyen'''<br>''how'' || '''hogla'''<br>''how (very)'' || '''hoxag'''<br>''how often'' || '''avhos (van)²'''<br>''because'' |- valign=center ! Exclamatory | || || '''hooyen'''<br>''and how!, such a...'' || '''hoogla'''<br>''how very...!, so...''³ || || |- valign=center ! Definite | '''ham'''<br>''the place'' || '''haj'''<br>''the time'' || '''hayen'''<br>''the manner'' || '''hagla'''<br>''just as'' || '''haxag'''<br>''as frequently''|| '''avhas'''<br>''the reason'' |- valign=center ! Indefinite | '''hem'''<br>''somewhere'' || '''hej'''<br>''sometime'' || '''heyen'''<br>''somehow'' || '''hegla'''<br>''somewhat'' || '''hexag'''<br>''somewhat often''||'''avhes'''<br>''for some reason'' |- valign=center ! Proximal | '''him'''<br>''here'' || '''hij'''<br>''now'' || '''hiyen'''<br>''this way'' || '''higla'''<br>''this'' || '''hixag'''<br>''this often''||'''avhis'''<br>''for this reason'' |- valign=center ! Immediate | '''hiim'''<br>''the following place'' || '''hiij'''<br>''the following time'' || '''hiiyen'''<br>''the following way'' || '''hiigla'''<br>''to the following degree'' || '''hiixag'''<br>''at the following frequency''||'''avhiis'''<br>''for the following reason'' |- valign=center ! Distal | '''hum'''<br>''there'' || '''huj'''<br>''then'' || '''huyen'''<br>''that way'' || '''hugla'''<br>''to that degree'' || '''huxag'''<br>''that often''|| '''avhus'''<br>''therefore'' |- valign=center ! Intensive | '''huum'''<br>''such a place'' || '''huuj'''<br>''at such a time'' || '''huuyen'''<br>''in such a way'' || '''huugla'''<br>''so (very)'' || '''huuxag'''<br>''so often''|| '''avhuus'''<br>''for such a reason'' |- valign=center ! Negative | '''hyom'''<br>''nowhere'' || '''hyoj'''<br>''never'' || '''hyoyen'''<br>''in no way'' || '''hyogla'''<br>''not at all'' || '''hyoxag'''<br>''not once''|| '''avhyos'''<br>''for no reason'' |- valign=center ! Distributive | '''hyam'''<br>''everywhere'' || '''hyaj'''<br>''always'' || '''hyayen'''<br>''in every way'' || '''hyagla'''<br>''fully'' || '''hyaxag'''<br>''always''||'''avhyas'''<br>''for every reason'' |- valign=center ! Indeterminate | '''hyem'''<br>''anywhere'' || '''hyej'''<br>''whenever'' || '''hyeyen'''<br>''however'' || '''hyegla'''<br>''however'' || '''hyexag'''<br>''however often'' || '''avhyes'''<br>''for whatever reason'' |- valign=center ! Indentical | '''hyim'''<br>''at the same place'' || '''hyij'''<br>''at the same time'' || '''hyiyen'''<br>''in the same way'' || '''hyigla'''<br>''as'' || '''hyixag'''<br>''as often''|| '''avhyis'''<br>''for the same reason'' |- valign=center ! Non-identical | '''hyum'''<br>''somewhere else'' || '''hyuj'''<br>''some other time'' || '''hyuyen'''<br>''otherwise'' || '''hyugla'''<br>''not as'' || '''hyuxag'''<br>''not as often''||'''avhyus'''<br>''for some other reason'' |} :Note 1) '''Duavhos?''' translates literally to "Say for what?". :Note 2) The positive complimentizer '''van''' is optional. :Note 3) A clause following '''hoogla''' <ADJ>/<ADV> must be followed by '''van''', eg. '''Et eka <u>hoogla fi van</u> ha teexuti byasa ab yiti tyoyabi.'''....''You played <u>so well that</u> the audience stood on their feet.'' : Concerning the above chart, note the following: :* The interrogative determiners all begin with '''duho-''', which means '''say which''', and are technically imperatives. '''Duhom?''', for example, means '''Tell (me) the place...'''. The '''o'''-stem forms without the '''du-''' are used as relative clause heads, eg. '''At po <u>hom</u> et po.'''....''I will go <u>where</u> you go.'' :* Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. '''<u>Duhom</u> se eta tam?'''....''<u>Where</u> is your house?'' :* Not included in the above chart is a related interrogative, which is a complementizer. ::* '''Duven...?'''.... (Question introducer) '''Is it true that...?, Say whether...''' :::* '''<u>Duven</u> et se tadxwa?'''....''Are you married? (= <u>Say whether</u> you are married.)'' :* The adverbs of degree in the above chart ('''duhogla?''', etc.) are interchangeable with adverbs ending in '''-nog'''....''degree'' ('''duhonog?'''....''to what degree?, how...?'', '''henog'''....''somewhat'') :* Other deictic determiner adverbs of circumstance exist and are not on the above chart: ::* '''duhomep?'''....''which way?'' :::* '''humep'''....''that way'' ::* '''duhobyun?'''....''to what end?'' :::* '''hyobyun'''....''for no purpose'' ::* '''duhoizon?'''....''in which direction?'' :::* '''hyaizon'''....''in every direction'' ==== Examples of Deictic Determiner Usage ==== ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ('''Duhos''' is pronounced '''du-HOS''') ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> se iyta twad?'''....''<u>Who</u> is her husband?'' ::* '''<u>Duhowat</u> se iyta twad?'''....''<u>Which one of the guys</u> is her husband?'' (selective) ::* '''<u>Duhoti</u> fe eker?'''....''<u>Who (pl.)</u> want to play?'' ::* '''<u>Hyas</u> se fia.'''....''<u>Everything</u> is fine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyat</u> tre et.'''....''<u>Everyone</u> knows you.'' ::* '''<u>Hyot</u> tre at.'''....''<u>Nobody</u> knows me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyati</u> ekeye fi.'''....''<u>All of them</u> are playing well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoti</u> ekeye fi.'''....''<u>None of them</u> are playing well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> yafe eker.'''....''<u>Anyone</u> can play.'' ::* '''<u>Hyes</u> yafwe.'''....''<u>Anything</u> is possible.'' ::* '''At fe <u>hyuyenat</u> be ata ekutyan.'''....''I want <u>someone else</u> on my team.'' ::* '''<u>Huuyenati</u> fyuxe yata oj.'''....''<u>Such people</u> harm our future.'' ::* '''Et yefe tepier <u>hiisi</u>.'''....''You must bear in mind <u>the following things</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et xa hus.'''.....''<u>How</u> did you do that?'' (pronounced '''du-ho-YEN''') ::* '''<u>Duavhos</u> iyt pia <u>huugla</u> jwa?'''....''<u>Why</u> did she leave <u>so</u> early?'' ::* '''<u>Hwita</u> tam se ga aga.'''....''<u>This guy's</u> house is bigger.'' ::* '''At voy ayse ha dyuni <u>bi huyti</u>.'''....''I don't have <u>those women's</u> names.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoa</u> tam se etas?'''....''<u>Which</u> house is yours?'' ::* '''<u>Huua</u> tej et ayse!'''....''<u>What a</u> life you have!'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyena</u> dyezuni ifxe et?'''....''<u>What kind of</u> movies do you like?'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> tef okwa?'''....''<u>Whose</u> hat was lost?'' ::* '''<u>Hota</u> tef okwa bese otwas.'''....''<u>Whose</u> hat was lost remains a mystery.'' ::* '''<u>Ha</u> tob ta yata dyuni.'''....''<u>The</u> man knew our names.'' ::* '''<u>Hoyena</u> dini at ife, et ufe.'''....''<u>The kind of</u> stories I love, you hate.'' ::* '''<u>Hea</u> mepi gawdyunxwo.'''....''<u>Certain</u> streets will be renamed.'' ::* '''<u>Heyena</u> fukyes uxaye purilp nyaunx.'''....''<u>Some kind of</u> accident has caused a traffic jam.'' ::* '''<u>Heta</u> abtaf kaxwa be ha zatem.'''.....''<u>Someone's</u> coat was found in the foyer.'' ::* '''<u>Hia</u> dyes se ata gwafwas.'''....''<u>This</u> book is my favorite.'' ::* '''<u>Hiia</u> duni se ofwa.'''....''<u>The following</u> words are prohibited.'' ::* '''<u>Hiiyena</u> axlyen voy afwu.'''....''<u>The following sort of</u> behavior would not be allowed.'' ::* '''<u>Hiyena</u> axlyen voy vayafwo.'''....''<u>This type of</u> behavior will not be tolerated.'' ::* '''<u>Hita</u> tim so yolza.'''....''<u>This person's</u> room will be blue.'' ::* '''<u>Hua</u> mas efwe gawvozilbwer.'''....''<u>That</u> wall needs to be repainted.'' ::* '''<u>Huua</u> dini yufxe tudi.'''....''<u>Such</u> stories scare children.'' ::* '''<u>Huyena</u> duni voy yeyfwe yixwer za at.'''....''<u>Such</u> words should not be used in front of me.'' ::* '''<u>Hwuta</u> tam magseye.'''....''<u>That guy's</u> house is on fire.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoa</u> din se ga kyitesa.'''....''<u>No</u> story is more important.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoyena</u> tes tesiyafwe.'''....''<u>No such</u> meaning can be inferred.'' ::* '''<u>Hyota</u> jatexdras sa ga fia.'''....''<u>Nobody's</u> plan is better.'' ::* '''<u>Hyos</u> oboxe huyt.'''....''<u>Nothing</u> bothers that gal.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> mepi izpe Roma.'''....''<u>All</u> roads lead to Rome.'' ::* '''<u>Hya ha</u> mepi se ebwa.'''....''<u>All the</u> roads are blocked.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> twob yefe xer ita gon.'''....''<u>Every</u> man must do his part.'' ::* '''<u>Hyayena</u> telami ese be hia domep.'''....''<u>All manner of</u> restaurants exist on this street.'' ::* '''<u>Hyata</u> tej se uka bi yaobi.'''....''<u>Everyone's</u> life is full of ups and downs.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaewa</u> domi agsaye.'''....''<u>Both</u> cities have grown.'' ::* '''<u>Hyea</u> voz so fia.'''....''<u>Any</u> color will be fine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeyena</u> til se aysyafwa.'''....''<u>Any kind of</u> drink is available.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeta</u> ved se ge ifa vyel atas.'''....''<u>Anyone's</u> guess is as good as mine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyea</u> tim et fe et yafe ayser.'''....''<u>Whatever</u> room you want, you can have.'' ::* '''<u>Hyia</u>/(Ha gea) fukyesi kyese glaxag.'''....''<u>The same</u> accidents occur frequently.'' ::* '''<u>Hyiyena</u>/(Ha geyena) dyezuni teaxuwa zajub.'''....''<u>The same kind of</u> films were shown yesterday.'' ::* '''<u>Hyita</u>/(Ha geta) dyun yixwa gajod.'''....''<u>The same person's</u> name was used again.'' ::* '''<u>Hyua</u> dyezun sa ga ifuyea.'''....''<u>The other</u> movie was more entertaining.'' ::* '''<u>Hyuyena</u>/(Ogeyena) som teasu ga fia.'''....''<u>Another kind of</u> furniture would look better.'' ::* '''<u>Hyuta</u>/(ogeta) texyen se ge fyia.'''....''<u>Someone else's</u> opinion is equally valid.'' ::* '''Ha dyuni <u>bi hiyti</u> voy dodrawe.'''....''<u>These women's</u> names have not been made public.'' ::* '''Ha dyuni <u>bi hwiiti</u> voy dodrowe.'''....''<u>The following males'</u> names will not be publicized.'' ::* '''<u>Hijaga</u> tobweti voy afwo him.'''....''Boys <u>of this age</u> will not be allowed here.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> et tambese?'''....''<u>Where</u> do you live?'' ::* '''At tambese <u>hum</u>.'''....''I live <u>there</u>.'' ::* '''Et tambese <u>hom</u> ha mep uje.'''....''You live <u>where</u> the road ends.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> yet peye?'''....''<u>Where</u> are you people going?'' ::* '''Et yafe per <u>hyem</u> et fu.'''....''You can go <u>anywhere</u> you would like.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> et byise?'''....''<u>Where</u> are you from?'' (Lit: ''Where do you originate?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoj</u> et taja?'''....''<u>When</u> were you born?'' ::* '''At voy tajaya <u>huj</u>.'''....''I had not been born <u>then</u>.'' ::* '''Et yeyfe duder <u>hiiyen</u>.'''....''You should respond <u>in the following way</u>.'' ::* '''Ot voy yefe daler <u>huuyen</u>.'''....''One must not talk <u>in such a manner</u>.'' ::* '''Et pia <u>hesav</u>.'''....''He left <u>for some reason</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et iyfe hia vifil?'''....''<u>How</u> do like this wine?'' ::* '''Voy se fia axler <u>hiyen</u>.'''....''It is not good to act <u>this way</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duavhos</u> et tadia <u>huugla</u> jwa?'''....''<u>Why</u> did you marry <u>so</u> late?'' ::* '''Ha twob pia <u>avhyos</u>.'''....''The man left <u>for no reason</u>.'' ::* '''Hwat pia <u>avhos van</u> it efa per hem.'''....''The guy left <u>because</u> he needed to go somewhere.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeta</u> texyen so fia.'''....''<u>Anyone</u>'s opinion will be fine.'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> dyes se his?'''....''Whose book is this?'' ::* '''<u>Bi hoti</u> se hia dyesi?'''....''Whose are these books?'' ::* '''<u>Hyata</u> tili yebexe yom.'''....''<u>Everyone's</u> drinks contain ice.'' ::* '''Et se gaj <u>geyenat</u>( ~ <u>hyiyenat</u>).'''....''You are still <u>the same kind of person</u>.'' ::* '''At se <u>hoogla iva van</u> et upa!'''....''I am <u>so happy that</u> you came!'' ::* '''Yat tose <u>hyigla (van)</u> yet.'''....''We feel <u>(the same way) as</u> you (do).'' : Note, '''hyigla''' can be replaced with '''gel''': ::* '''Yet tose <u>gel</u> yet.'''....''We feel <u>as</u> you do.'' : The semantic reverser '''o-''' can be prefixed to some of the above deictic determiners: ::* '''<u>Ohyat</u> tiste Platon.'''....''<u>Not everyone</u> understands Plato.'' ::* '''<u>Ohut!</u>'''....''Not that person!'' ::* '''At iyfe gwa apovili, oy <u>ohuas</u>!'''....''I like most beers, but <u>not that one</u>!'' : If the definite article or any other deictic determiner is omitted before a noun, then it has the effect of the English indefinite article ''a / an'' with a singular noun or ''some'' with a plural noun. For example: ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ha tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>a glass</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ha tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>(some) glasses</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>awa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>one glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha awa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the one glass</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>two glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the two glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>hyaewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>both glasses</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>owa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>no/zero glasses (=not a single glass)</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ea tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>another/a second glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ea tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the second glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ea tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>second glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ea tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the second glasses</u> of wine.'' : If an indefinite article sense is needed for clarity, the words '''awa''' (''one'') or '''hea''' (''some, a certain'') can be used, eg.: ::* '''At igteata <u>awa</u> tob yiztyoper.'''....''I glimpsed <u>a</u> man walk by.'' ::* '''Wit zoyupo <u>hea</u> jub.'''....''He will come back <u>a / a certain / some</u> day.'' ==== Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms ==== : The deictic interrogative determiner pronoun '''duhot?''' means ''who(m)'' and contrasts with its '''''selective''''' counterpart '''duhoat?''', which means ''which one?''. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons. : The following sentences illustrate the use of the above determiner pronouns: ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> aka zajuba ek?'''....''<u>Who</u> won yesterday's game?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoat</u> bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?'''....''<u>Which one</u> of the winners was the best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> tam se hus?'''....''<u>Whose</u> house is that?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotas</u> se hus?'''....''<u>Whose</u> is that?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotia</u> deuzi et gaife?'''....''<u>Whose</u> songs do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotias</u> et gaife?'''....''<u>Whose</u> do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* '''<u>Duhosi</u> se eta gaifuni?'''....''<u>What</u> are your preferences?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoa</u> deuzi se eta gwa fiasi?'''....''<u>Which</u> songs are your best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoasi</u> se eta gwa fiasi?'''....''<u>Which ones</u> are your best?'' ::* '''Bi hia deuzuti, <u>hoat</u> et gaife?'''....''Of these vocalists, <u>which one</u> do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Hiiti</u> yaneko hijub.'''....''<u>The following people</u> will compete today.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoati</u> se gwa fia?'''....''<u>Which ones</u> are best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoti</u> et teexe gwa jodi?'''....''<u>Who (all)</u> do you listen to the most often?'' ::* '''<u>Hoat</u> at teexe gwaxag draye ejna deuz.'''....''<u>The one</u> I listen to the most has written a new song.'' ::* '''Ejna deuz? At voy teste <u>hoas</u> et tede.'''....''New song? I don't understand <u>which one</u> you mean.'' ::* '''<u>Hias</u>.'''....''<u>This one</u>.'' ::* '''Vo. <u>Huasi</u> se ga fia.'''....''No. <u>Those</u> are better.'' ::* '''<u>His</u> se jub av ivxelen.'''....''<u>This</u> is a day for celebration.'' ::* '''Va. <u>Hia</u> jub. At tese <u>hi</u>jub.'''....''Yes. <u>This</u> day. I mean <u>To-</u>day.'' ::* '''<u>Husi</u> sa <u>ha</u> jubi, ata dat!'''....''<u>Those</u> were <u>the</u> days, my friend!'' ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> aka ha igpek?'''....''<u>Who</u> won the race?'' ::* '''<u>Hyas</u> uja fi.'''....''<u>Everything</u> ended well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyasi</u> uje.'''....''<u>All things</u> come to an end.'' ::* '''<u>Hyayenasi</u> vey kyesu.'''....''<u>All sorts of things</u> might happen.'' ::* '''<u>Hyos</u> yokxa at.'''....''<u>Nothing</u> surprised me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyot</u> ta hot ako.'''....''<u>Nobody</u> knew who would win.'' ::* '''<u>Hoayti</u> fu pier yefe.'''....''<u>Those females</u> who would like to leave may.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> yefe eker hia ifek.'''....''<u>Anyone</u> can play this game.'' ::* '''<u>Huyenasi</u> voy afwo.'''....''<u>Such things</u> will not be permitted.'' ::* '''<u>Hua twob</u> voy taxe hia toyb.'''....''<u>That</u> man does not remember this woman.'' ::* '''<u>Hwuti</u> yanyexe fi.'''....''<u>Those guys</u> work well together.'' ::* '''<u>Huuyti</u> hyaj yubixe tepzex.'''....''<u>Such females</u> always attract attention.'' ::* '''At jay teataye <u>hiyenasi</u>.'''....''I've seen <u>such things</u> before.'' ::* '''<u>Huyenwat</u> voy vabiwu.'''....''<u>A guy like that</u> would not be accepted.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyenasi</u> weti iyfe xer je ha maj.'''....''<u>What kinds of things</u> do you guys like to do during the day?'' === Numerical Deictic Determiners === : Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! Adjective !! Inanimate Pronoun !! Animate Pronoun !! Pronominal Determiner !! Possessive Pronoun |- | '''hawa'''¹<br> ''the only'' || '''hawas'''<br>''the only thing''<br>'''hawasi'''<br>''the only things'' || '''hawat'''<br>''the only one (person)''<br>'''hawati'''<br>''the only ones''|| '''hawata'''<br>''the only person&apos;s'' || '''hawatas'''<br>''the only one&apos;s''<br>'''hawatasi'''<br>''the only one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyawa'''*<br> ''each'' || '''hyawas'''<br>''each one'' || '''hyawat'''<br>''each person''|| '''hyawata'''<br>''each person&apos;s'' || '''hyawatas'''<br>''each one&apos;s''<br>'''hyawatasi'''<br>''each one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyaewa'''<br>''both'' || '''hyaewasi'''<br>''both (<small>things</small>)'' || '''hyaewati'''<br>''both (<small>people</small>)''|| '''bi hyaewati'''<br>''both person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyaewati'''<br>''both person&apos;s''<br>'''hasi bi hyaewati'''<br>''both persone&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyaiwa'''<br>''all three'' || '''hyaiwasi'''<br>''all three (<small>things</small>)'' || '''hyaiwati'''<br>''all three (<small>people</small>)''|| '''hyaiwata'''<br>''all three person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyaiwati'''<br>''all three person&apos;s''<br>'''hasi bi hyaiwati'''<br>''all three person&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''ohyawa'''<br>''not every'' || '''ohyawas'''<br>''not everything'' || '''ohyawat'''<br>''not everyone''|| '''ohyawata'''<br>''not every person&apos;s'' || '''ohyawatas'''<br>''not everyone&apos;s''<br>'''ohyawatasi'''<br>''not everyone&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyoawa'''<br>''not a single'' || '''hyoawas'''<br>''not a single thing'' || '''hyoawat'''<br>''not a single person''|| '''hyowata'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s'' || '''hyowatas'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s''<br>'''hyowatasi'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyeawa'''<br>''either'' || '''hyeawas'''<br>''either one'' || '''hyeawat'''<br>''either one (<small>person</small>)''|| '''hyeawata'''<br>''either one&apos;s'' || '''hyeawatas'''<br>''either one&apos;s''<br>'''hyeawatasi'''<br>''either one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyeewa'''<br>''any two'' || '''hyeewasi'''<br>''any two things'' || '''hyeewati'''<br>''any two people''|| '''bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two persons&apos;''<br>'''hasi bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two persons&apos; (things)'' |- | '''hyeowa'''<br>''neither'' || '''hyeowas'''<br>''neither one'' || '''hyeowat'''<br>''neither person''|| '''hyeawata'''<br>''neither person&apos;s'' || '''hyeowatas'''<br>''neither one&apos;s''<br>'''hyeowatasi'''<br>''neither one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyuawa'''<br>''another'' || '''hyuawas'''<br>''another one'' || '''hyuawat'''<br>''another''|| '''hyuawata'''<br>''another&apos;s'' || '''hyuawatas'''<br>''another&apos;s''<br>'''hyuawatasi'''<br>''another&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyuowa'''<br>''no other'' || '''hyuowas'''<br>''nothing else'' || '''hyuowat'''<br>''nobody else''|| '''hyuowata'''<br>''no other&apos;s'' || '''hyuowatas'''<br>''no other&apos;s''<br>'''hyuowatasi'''<br>''no other&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''gawa'''²<br>''another'' || '''gawas'''<br>''another one'' || '''gawat'''<br>''another (person)''|| '''gawata'''<br>''another&apos;s'' || '''gawatas'''<br>''another&apos;s''<br>'''gawatasi'''<br>''another&apos;s (things)'' |} :: <small>Note 1) '''Hawa''' and '''hyawa''' are short for '''haawa''' and '''hyaawa''', respectively.</small> :: <small>Note 2) '''Gawa''' is short for '''ga awa''', ''yet one''.</small> ==== Notes on Numerical Deictic Determiners ==== : Examples using the above number-incorporating deictic determiners: ::* '''<u>Ohyawat</u> se iva bay eta vaod.'''....''<u>Not everyone</u> is happy with your decision.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaewasi</u> yafwe uxler yata efoni.'''....''<u>Both (things)</u> can serve our needs.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeawa</u> tim ivlaxo at.'''....''<u>Either</u> room will satisfy me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeowas</u> oivlaxo at.'''....''<u>Neither one</u> will dissatisfy me.'' : Note: ::* '''hyua''' means ''another (an alternative)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hyua</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>another (a different)</u> drink.'' ::* '''hyuawa''' means ''another (an additional)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hyuawa</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>another (an additional)</u> drink.'' ::* '''hahyua''' means ''the other (the alternative)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hahyua</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>the other</u> drink.'' ::* '''hohyua'''....''what other (relative)''. Ex. '''Bexlu hohyua suni at lobexa av et.'''....''Keep what other things I left for you.'' ::* '''hehyua'''....''some other'' ::* '''duhohyua'''....''what other, which other'' ::* '''hihyua'''....''this other'' ::* '''huhyua'''....''that other'' ::* '''hyahyua'''....''all other, any other, each other'' ::* '''hyehyua'''....''any other, whatever other'' ::* '''hyohyua'''....''no other'' : Similarly, '''hya''' means ''every, all'', while '''hyawa''' means ''each'', and '''hyaha'''....''all the'', ex: ::* '''<u>Hya</u> dom ayse tebixea suni teaxer.'''....''<u>Every</u> city has interesting things to see.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> domi ayse tebixusi.'''....''<u>All</u> cities have things of interest.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaha</u> domi ayse tebixusi.'''....''<u>All the</u> cities have things of interest.'' ::* '''<u>Hyawa</u> dom ayse tebixun.'''....''<u>Each</u> city has something of interest.'' : Also, '''ha''' means ''the'', while '''hawa''' means ''the only'', eg.: ::* '''<u>Ha</u> twob hu at gwa ife se et.'''....''<u>The</u> man I most love is you.'' ::* '''<u>Hawa</u> toyb nazea ata tepzex se et.'''....''<u>The only</u> woman worth my attention is you.'' : By appending '''y''' to '''hawa''', we get the adverb '''haway'''....''only, solely'', eg; ::* '''<u>Haway</u> et nize ata tepzex.'''....''<u>Only</u> you deserve my attention.''. : The singular person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into pronominal determiners by adding the adjective suffix '''a''', eg.: ::* '''<u>Hyawata</u> tej se ge glatesa vyel hyutas.'''....''<u>Each one's</u> life is as important as another's.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoewata</u> dyun se vyama.'''....''<u>Neither person's</u> name is real.'' : However, the plural person pronouns in the above chart use the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') to form possessives, eg.: ::* '''Ha teji <u>bi hyaiwati</u> se kyebukuwa.'''....''The lives <u>of all three</u> are in danger.'' : The above singular pronominal determiners can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix '''-s'''. ::* '''<u>Hyawatas</u> se glatesa.'''....''<u>Each one's</u> is important.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoewatas</u> se vyama.'''....''<u>Neither's</u> is real.'' : The plural pronominal determiners can be nominalized with the use of '''bi''', eg: ::* '''<u>Hyaiwasi</u> <u>bi huti</u> se kyebukuwa.'''....''<u>All three</u> <u>of theirs'</u> are in danger.'' : Correlative Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners are handled as follows: ::* '''Hyeawa A ey B'''....''either A or B'' ::* '''Hyoewa A oy B'''....''neither A nor B'' ::* '''Hyaewa A ay B'''....''both A and B'' ::* '''Hawa A, voy B'''....''only A, not B'' ==== Different Ways of Expressing ''How'' ==== : The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of ''how'' are illustrated here: ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> wit xa hus?'''....''<u>How</u> did he do that?''.... (Equivalent to '''Be duhobyen...?'''....''In what way...?'') (ADVERB OF MANNER) ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et xeye?'''....''<u>How</u> are you doing?''.... (This is the normal way of saying ''How are you?'' or ''How do you do?'' (ADVERB OF MANNER) ::* '''<u>Duhoyena</u> sa ha dyezun?'''....'' <u>How</u> was the film?''.... (''How'' here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in '''-a'''.) ::* '''<u>Duhonog (= Duhogla)</u> aga it se?'''....''<u>How</u> big is he?''.... (ADVERB OF DEGREE) ::* '''<u>Huunog (= Huugla)</u> iyfla et se!'''....''<u>How</u> nice you are!''.... (ADVERB OF EMPHATIC DEGREE) : The conjunction ''as'' is expressed most often using relative pro-adverbs of manner: ::* '''Xu <u>hoyen</u> at de.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I say.'' = (in) the way that... ::* '''Xu <u>hyiyen</u>''' (~ '''geyen''') '''at xe.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I do. ( = (in) the same way that...)'' ::* '''Xu <u>hiiyen</u>:'''....''Do <u>as follows</u>. ( = (in) this hereby manner...)'' : However, the preposition/conjunction '''gel''' (''like, as'') can be substituted: ::* '''Xu <u>gel</u> at de.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I say.'' ==== Introducing Relative Clauses with Adverbial Determiners ==== : Many of the determiner adverbs in the above chart can be used in relative clauses, eg: ::* '''At teato et <u>hoj</u> et puo him.'''....''I will see you <u>when</u> you get here.'' ::* '''It xa has <u>avhos van</u> it tosa yefa.'''....''He/she did it <u>because (for the reason that)</u> he/she felt compelled.'' ::* '''<u>Hyem</u> et po, et so ga iva.'''....''<u>Wherever</u> you go, you'll be happier.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> te ha did, yabu eta tuyab.'''....''<u>Whoever</u> knows the answer, raise your hand.'' ::* '''At voy te <u>hoyen</u> et xa is.'''....''I don't know <u>how</u> you did it.'' : See more about this in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax#Relative_Clauses|relative clauses under Syntax]]. === Pronominal Deictic Determiners === : Some words in Mirad incorporate deictic prefixes with pronouns and pronominal adjectives, as shown in the following chart: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size;smaller;" |+ Pronominal Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! colspan=3 | Pronoun |- ! 1st Person Plural !! 2nd Person Plural !! 3rd Person Plural |- | '''duhoyat'''<br>''which of us'' || '''duhoyet'''<br>''which of you'' || '''duhoyit'''<br>''which of them'' |- | '''heyat'''<br>''some of us'' || '''heyet'''<br>''some of you'' || '''heyit'''<br>''which of them'' |- | '''hyayat'''<br>''each of us'' || '''hyayet'''<br>''each of you'' || '''hyayit'''<br>''each of them'' |- | '''hyeyat'''<br>''any of us'' || '''hyeyet'''<br>''any of you'' || '''hyeyit'''<br>''any of them'' |- | '''hyoyat'''<br>''none of us'' || '''hyoyet'''<br>''none of you'' || '''hyoyit'''<br>''none of them'' |- ! colspan=3 | Pronominal Adjective |- ! 1st Person (Plural) !! 2nd Person (Plural) !! 3rd Person (Plural) |- | '''duhoyata'''<br>''which of our'' || '''duhoyet'''<br>''which of your'' || '''duhoyita'''<br>''which of their'' |- | '''heyata'''<br>''some of our'' || '''heyeta'''<br>''some of your'' || '''heyita'''<br>''which of their'' |- | '''hyayata'''<br>''each of our'' || '''hyayeta'''<br>''each of your'' || '''hyayita'''<br>''each of their'' |- | '''hyeyata'''<br>''any of our'' || '''hyeyeta'''<br>''any of your'' || '''hyeyita'''<br>''any of their'' |- ! colspan=3 | Singular/(Plural) Possessive Pronoun |- ! 1st Person (Plural) !! 2nd Person (Plural) !! 3rd Person (Plural) |- | '''duhoyatas(i)'''<br>''which of ours'' || '''duhoyetas(i)'''<br>''which of yours'' || '''duhoyitas(i)'''<br>''which of theirs'' |- | '''heyatas(i)'''<br>''some of ours'' || '''heyetas(i)'''<br>''some of yours'' || '''heyitas(i)'''<br>''which of theirs'' |- | '''hyayatas(i)'''<br>''each of ours'' || '''hyayetas(i)'''<br>''each of yours'' || '''hyayitas(i)'''<br>''each of theirs'' |- | '''hyeyatas(i)'''<br>''any of ours'' || '''hyeyetas(i)'''<br>''any of yours'' || '''hyeyitas(i)'''<br>''any of theirs'' |- | '''hyoyatas(i)'''<br>''none of ours'' || '''hyoyetas(i)'''<br>''none of yours'' || '''hyoyitas(i)'''<br>''none of theirs'' |} {{small/end}} : The above possessive pronouns refer to things. If you replace the final '''-s''' or '''-si''', to '''-t''' or '''-ti''', then they become animate and refer to people, eg.: ::* '''Ese ewa tudi him. Duhoyitas se his?'''....''There are two children here. Which one of theirs is this?'' : All of the forms in the above chart can also be expressed as separate words, eg.: ::* '''Duhoyet?'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Duhoat bi yet?'''....''Which one of you?'' ::* '''Hyayat'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaglati bi yet'''....''All of us.'' ::* '''Hyoyatasi'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyogla yatasi'''....''All of ours (things)'' Note: ::* '''Awayat'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''Hyaewayet'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaewat bi yet'''....''both of you'' ::* '''Hyaiwayit'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaiwat bi yit'''....''all three of them'' === Quantitative Deictic Determiners === : The deictic prefixes can be combined with '''gla''' to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people): {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size;smaller;" |+ Quantitative Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! !! Adverbial / Adjectival<br>Determiner !! Inanimate Singular<br>Pronoun !! Inanimate Plural <br>Pronoun !! Animate Plural<br>Pronoun |- !row=1|Interrogative | '''duhogla?'''<br>''how?/how much?/how many?'' || '''duhoglas?'''<br>''how much?'' || '''duhoglasi?'''<br>''how many'' || '''duhoglati?'''<br>''how many (people)?'' |- !row=1|Relative | '''hogla'''<br>''as many/much'' || '''hoglas'''<br>''how much'' || '''duhoglasi'''<br>''how many'' || '''duhoglati'''<br>''how many (as)'' |- !row=1|Definite | '''hagla'''<br>''how/as much/as many'' || '''haglas'''<br>''as much'' || '''haglasi'''<br>''as many'' || '''haglati'''<br>''as many (people)'' |- !row=1|Indefinite | '''hegla'''<br>''somewhat/some/some'' || '''heglas'''<br>''some'' || '''heglasi'''<br>''some'' || '''heglati'''<br>''some (people)'' |- !row=1|Proximal | '''higla'''<br>''this/this much/this many'' || '''higlas'''<br>''this much'' || '''higlasi'''<br>''this many'' || '''higlati'''<br>''this many (people)'' |- !row=1|Distal | '''hugla'''<br>''that/that much/that many'' || '''huglas'''<br>''that much'' || '''huglasi'''<br>''that many'' || '''huglati'''<br>''that many (people)'' |- !row=1|Intensive | '''huugla'''<br>''so very, so much, so many'' || '''huuglas'''<br>''so much'' || '''huuglasi'''<br>''so many'' || '''huuglati'''<br>''so many (people)'' |- !row=1|Negative | '''hyogla'''<br>''none, not very'' || '''hyoglas'''<br>''none of it'' || '''hyoglasi'''<br>''none of them '' || '''hyoglati'''<br>''none'' |- !row=1|Distributive | '''hyagla'''<br>''totally/all/all'' || '''hyaglas'''<br>''all of it'' || '''hyaglasi'''<br>''all of them'' || '''hyaglati'''<br>''all'' |- !row=1|Indeterminate | '''hyegla'''<br>''however/any/any'' || '''hyeglas'''<br>''any of it'' || '''hyeglasi'''<br>''any of them'' || '''hyeglati'''<br>''any number of them'' |- !row=1|Identical | '''hyigla'''<br>''as/as much/as many, equally'' || '''hyiglas'''<br>''the same amount'' || '''hyiglasi'''<br>''the same number'' || '''hyiglati'''<br>''as many (people)'' |- !row=1|Non-identical | '''hyugla'''<br>''not as much/not as much/not as many'' || '''hyuglas'''<br>''a different amount'' || '''hyuglasi'''<br>''a different number of things'' || '''hyuglati'''<br>''a different number of people'' |} {{Small/end}} : Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used: ::* '''Et deuze <u>huugla</u> fi.'''....''You sing <u>so</u> well.'' ::* '''At se <u>hegla</u> booka.'''....''I am <u>somewhat</u> tired.'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla</u> pati et teata hijub?'''....''<u>How many</u> birds did you see today?'' ::* '''At teata vyavay <u>hugla</u> tami.'''....''I saw exactly <u>that many</u> houses.'' ::* '''Iyt fe <u>hyiglas</u> vyel et.'''....''She wants <u>the same amount</u> as you.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoglati</u> yantexe yet?'''....''<u>How many (people)</u> agree with you?'' ::* '''<u>Hyoglati</u> yantexe.'''....''<u>None</u> agree.'' ::* '''Yit fu <u>heglasi</u>.'''....''They would like <u>some (of them)</u>.'' ::* '''Et yafe bier <u>hyeglasi</u> et fe.'''....''You can take <u>however many</u> you want.'' ::* '''Besu bay at <u>hogla</u> job et fe.'''....''Stay <u>as</u> long with me as you want.'' ::* '''At se <u>huugla</u> booka.'''....''I am <u>so</u> tired.'' : NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable: ::* '''hegla''' = '''gle''' = '''henog''' (''somewhat, to some degree'') ::* '''hyigla''' = '''ge''' = '''hyinog''' (''as, equally, to the same degree'') : The determiner ''huugla'' can be used as an exclamatory adverb, eg.: ::* '''<u>Huugla</u> et agsaye!'''....''<u>How</u> you have grown!'' ::* '''Hua twob jagsaye <u>huugla</u>!'''....''That man has aged <u>so much</u>!'' ::* '''Hia jotul se <u>huugla</u> fiteluza!'''....''This dessert is <u>sooo</u> delicious!'' == Pronominal Determiners == : Pronominal Determiners are what are more often called '''''possessive adjectives''''' such as ''my'' or ''your'' and are discussed in a subsection of [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns#Pronominal Determiners|Pronouns]]. == Quantitative Determiners == : '''''Quantitative determiners''''' act in one of several ways, they: ::* specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. ''much happiness, less work'' ::* specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. ''one apple, two birds, many places'' ::* specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. ''how poorly, very good, eat too much''. : From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived. ::* Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding '''s''' for AN AMOUNT OF A THING ::* Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding '''si''' for A NUMBER OF THINGS ::* Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding '''ti''' for A NUMBER OF PERSONS. : The following table presents most of these word forms (Note that the determiners are in a plus (+), equal (=), or minus (-) row.): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Quantitative Determiners |- !colspan=2|Adverb / Adjective !! Singular Pronoun !!colspan=2| Plural Pronoun |- !colspan=2|Degree/Amount/Number !! Amount !! Number of Things !! Number of People |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gas'''....''more (stuff)'' || '''gasi'''....''many (things)'' || '''gati'''....''many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''ge'''....''as, as much, as many'' || '''ges'''....''as much (stuff)'' || '''gesi'''....''as many (things)'' || '''geti'''....''as many people'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''go'''....''less, fewer'' || '''gos'''....''less (stuff)'' || '''gosi'''....''fewer (things)'' || '''goti'''....''fewer (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gla'''....''very, much, many''<br>'''glay'''....''so, so much, so many''<br>'''glaa'''....''several'' || '''glas'''....''much (stuff)''<br>'''glays'''....''so much stuff'') || '''glasi'''....''many (things)''<br>'''glaysi'''....''so many (things)''<br>'''glaasi'''....''several things''|| '''glati'''....''many (people)''<br>'''glayti'''....''so many (people)''<br>'''glaati'''....''several people'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gle'''....''rather, quite a lot, quite a few'' || '''gles'''....''quite a lot (of stuff)'' || '''glesi'''....''quite a lot (of things)'' || '''gleti'''....''quite a few (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''glo'''....''slightly, a little, few'' || '''glos'''....''a little bit'' || '''glosi'''....''a few (things)'' || '''gloti'''....''few (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gra'''....''too, too much, too many'' || '''gras'''....''too much (stuff)'' || '''grasi'''....''too many (things)'' || '''grati'''....''too many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gres'''....''enough (stuff)'' || '''gresi'''....''enough (things)'' || '''greti'''....''enough (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''gro'''....''insufficiently, too little, too few'' || '''gros'''....''too little'' || '''grosi'''....''too few'' || '''groti'''....''too few (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwas'''....''the most (stuff)'' || '''gwasi'''....''the most (things)'' || '''gwati'''....''most people'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gwe'''....''just so (much/many)'' || '''gwes'''....''just so much'' || '''gwesi'''....''just so many'' || '''gweti'''....''just so many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwos'''....''the least (stuff)'' || '''gwosi'''....''the least (number of)'' || '''gwoti'''....''the least number (of people)'' |} : Examples Using Graded Quantitative Determiners :: Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective: :::* '''At se <u>gla</u> iva.'''....''I am <u>very</u> happy.'' :::* '''Et sa <u>gra</u> uga.'''....''You were <u>too</u> slow.'' :: Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb: :::* '''Twobi dale <u>ge</u> igay vyel toybi.'''....''Men talk <u>as</u> fast as women.'' :::* '''Yat yexe <u>ga igay</u> vyel yet.'''....''We work faster (= <u>more quickly</u>) than you.'' :: Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun: :::* '''<u>Ga</u> nas efwo.'''....''<u>More</u> money will be needed.'' :::* '''<u>Gra</u> nas noxwa.'''....''<u>Too much</u> money was spent.'' :: Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun (= things or people): :::* '''At ayse <u>gro</u> sari.'''....''I've got <u>too few</u> tools.'' :::* '''<u>Gla</u> tami osexwa.'''....''<u>Many</u> houses were destroyed.'' :::* '''Yat efe <u>gla ga</u> valkdibuti.'''....''We need <u>many more</u> policemen.'' :: Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something (= stuff): :::* '''<u>Gas</u> ilokeye.'''....''<u>More (stuff)</u> is leaking.'' :::* '''Et dileye <u>gras</u>.'''....''You are asking for <u>too much (stuff)</u>.'' :::* '''Yat kexo <u>gwas</u>.'''....''We will seek <u>as much (stuff) as possible</u>.'' :::* '''At iba <u>gwes</u>.'''....''I received <u>just the right amount.</u>'' :: Pronouns referring to a countable number of things: :::* '''Hisi se fia oy yat fe <u>gasi</u>.'''....''These (items) are good but we want <u>more (items)</u>.'' :::* '''At teate drilari oy <u>grosi</u>.'''....''I see pens, but <u>too few</u>.'' :: Pronouns referring to a countable number of people: :::* '''<u>Grati</u> xaye vyoki be hia yexem.'''....''<u>Too many (people)</u> have made mistakes at this work site.'' :::* '''<u>Glati</u> dyunwe oy <u>gloti</u> kebiwe.'''....''<u>Many</u> are called but <u>few</u> are chosen.'' == Numerical Determiners == : This category of determiners, which includes cardinal, ordinal and other number words like ''two'', ''a tenth'', and ''first'', is such a vast topic that it is treated in its own chapter [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers]] <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Adverbs|Numbers}}</noinclude> hdh8cf1vyh7jpynlflt5pevpvi3vw06 4635016 4635015 2026-05-09T20:25:20Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Notes on Numerical Deictic Determiners */ 4635016 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : Determiners are words that specify or point out the context of nouns and other parts of speech. The English determiner ''this'', for example, specifies a noun for its proximity to the current context. In English, demonstrative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs, possessive pronouns/adjectives, quantifiers like ''more'' and ''very'', and numeric expressions like ''both'' fall under this category. == Types of Determiners == : Determiners in Mirad fall into the following categories: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Determiners |- ! Type !! Also Known As !! English Examples |- !row=1| Deictic | Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives/Adverbs || ''the'', ''this'', ''some'', ''every'', ''which?'', ''when'' |- !row=1| Pronominal | Possessive Pronouns/Adjectives | ''my'', ''anybody&apos;s'', ''one&apos;s own'' |- !row=1| Quantitative | Quantifiers || ''more'', ''less'', ''very'' |- !row=1| Numerical | Numerals/Fractions/Ordinals/Dates, etc. || ''one'', ''half'', ''first'' |} : Furthermore, as for part of speech, determiners can be adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs. As adjectives, determiners can itemize or classify. As pronouns, they can refer to one or more persons (male or female) or things. As adverbs, they can specify circumstance, i.e. time, place, degree, kind, age, frequency, and so forth. == Deictic Determiners == : '''''Deictic determiners''''' are words which point out or ''specify'' other words as to their context, including what grammarians often call '''''demonstratives'''''. All deictic determiners in Mirad begin with the letter '''h'''. The letters following the '''h''' indicate the grammatical and semantic category. : Deictic determiners include the following traditional grammatical categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* '''''Demonstrative adjectives ''''' like ''this'', ''that'', ''those'', ''that one'' ::* '''''The definite article''''' ''the ''&nbsp;&nbsp; (which is really a '''''demonstrative adjective''''' like those above.) ::* '''''Demonstrative pronouns''''' like ''this'', ''that'', ''those'', ''that one'' ::* '''''Interrogative and relative pronouns''''' like ''who, which, that'' ::* '''''Indefinite adjectives''''' like ''any'', ''some'', ''all'', ''something'', ''such'', etc. ::* '''''Indefinite pronouns''''' like ''any'', ''some'', ''all'', ''something'', ''such'', etc. ::* '''''Pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs of quantity''''' like ''so much'', ''that many'', ''how many?'', ''very'', etc. ::* '''''Adverbs of circumstance:''''' :::* '''''time''''' like ''when'', ''now'', ''ever'' :::* '''''place''''' like ''there'', ''here'', ''somewhere'' :::* '''''manner''''' like ''how'', ''thus'', ''somehow'' :::* '''''kind''''' like ''so'', age ''this year old'' :::* '''''direction''''' like ''that way'', ''any which way'' :::* '''''reason''''' ''why?'', ''for that reason'', ''for no reason'' :::* '''''degree''''' ''this (well)'', ''so (good)'', ''how (bad)'' :::* '''''frequency''''' like ''how often'', ''so often'', ''never'' :::* '''''age''''' like ''this old'', ''how old?'', ''of any age'' </div> === Deictic Prefixes === [[File:Deixis (DE).png|thumb|none]] : There is a whole set of '''''correlative deictic prefixes''''', which are joined to circumstantial stub category suffixes to derive pronoun, adjective, and adverb determiners. In some grammars, these words are called ''wh-question words and their pointed answers''. For example, QUESTION: <u>Who</u> is your wife? ANSWER: <u>This</u> is my wife. (or) QUESTION: <u>Where</u> is your house? ANSWER: My house is <u>here</u>. These word forms are called correlative because they relate to one another in way that can be mapped to a table. : Here are the Mirad deictic classification prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Deictic Prefixes |- ! Classification !! Deictic Prefix |- ! scope="row" | Interrogative | '''duho-...?'''....''what?, which?'' |- ! scope="row" | Relative | '''ho-'''....''which, that'' |- ! scope="row" | Exclamatory | '''hoo-'''....''how...!'' |- ! scope="row" | Definite | '''ha-'''....''the'' |- ! scope="row: | Indefinite | '''he-'''....''some, a certain'' |- ! scope="row" | Proximal | '''hi-'''....''this, these'' |- ! scope="row" | Immediate | '''hii-'''....''the following'' |- ! scope="row" | Distal | '''hu-'''....''that, those'' |- ! scope="row" | Intensive | '''huu-'''....''such, so, what a...!'' |- ! scope="row" | Distributive | '''hya-'''....''every, all, each'' |- ! scope="row" | Indeterminate | '''hye-'''....''any, whatever'' |- ! scope="row" | Negative | '''hyo-'''....''no, not any'' |- ! scope="row | Identical | '''hyi-'''....''the same, the very'' |- ! scope="row" | Non-identical | '''hyu-'''....''the other, another, else'' |} === Circumstantial Category Suffixes === : The table below shows word stub suffixes that indicate the circumstantial category of deictic expressions. They are called stubs, because they are reduced word forms. The combination of deictic prefixes and circumstantial stub suffixes produce a matrix of deictic '''''correlatives''''', seen later in this chapter. Use of the stub instead of the long form is a matter of optional economy. A few categories do not have stubs. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Category Stubs |- ! Category !! Stub Suffix !! Long Form !! Short Question Form || Long Question Form |- ! row=1| Person | '''-t''' || '''<u>t</u>ob'''....''person'' || '''duhot?'''....''who?''|| '''duhotob?''' |- ! row=1| Thing | '''-s''' ||'''<u>s</u>un'''....''thing'' || '''duhos?'''....''what?''|| '''duhosun?''' |- ! row=1| Place | '''-m''' ||'''ne<u>m</u>'''....''place'' || '''duhom?'''....''where?''|| '''duhonem?''' |- ! row=1| Time | '''-j''' ||'''<u>j</u>ob'''....''time'' || '''duhoj?'''....''when?''|| '''duhojob?''' |- ! row=1| Manner | '''-yen''' ||'''b<u>yen</u>'''....''manner'' || '''duhoyen?'''....''how?''||'''duhobyen?''' |- ! row=1| Kind | '''-yena''' ||'''<u>sauna</u>'''....''kind of'' || '''duhoyena?'''....''what kind of?''||'''duhosauna?''' |- ! row=1| Degree | '''-gla''' ||'''nog'''....''degree'' || '''duhogla (fi)?'''....''how (well)?''||'''duhonog?''' |- ! row=1| Number | '''-gla''' ||'''sag'''....''number'' || '''duhogla (pati)?'''....''how many (birds)?''||'''duhosag?''' |- ! row=1| Mass Quantity | '''-gla''' ||'''glan'''....''amount'' || '''duhogla (mil)?'''....''how much (water)?''||'''duhoglan?''' |- ! row=1| Frequency | ||'''xag'''....''frequency''|| '''duhoxag?'''....''how often?''|| -- |- ! row=1| Reason | '''-avhos''' || '''av hosun'''....''reason'' || '''duavhos?'''....''why?''|| '''duavhosun?''' |- ! row=1| Age | ||'''jaga'''....''of age'' || '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?''|| -- |} : There can be other circumstantial categories other than those listed above, such as "direction", "order", etc. eg. '''Duhomep wit pa?'''....''Which way did he go?''. === Charts of Correlative Deictic Determiners === : Here is are three tables showing the matrix of correlative deictic determiners. Note that the determiners belong to three parts of speech, 1) adjectives, 2) pronouns, and 3) adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" font-size:smaller style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |- ! Part of Speech !! Ending |- | Adjective || '''-a''' |- | Pronoun || '''-t(i)''', '''-s(i)''' |- | Adverb || (no ending) |} ==== Deictic Determiner Adjectives ==== : All deictic determiner adjectives end in '''-a''' and are used to modify nouns. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Adjectives |- valign=top ! !! Selective<br>-a!! Possessive<br>-ta !! Kind/Manner<br>-yena !! Quantity<br>-gla !! Age<br>-jaga |- ! Interrogative |'''duhoa?'''<br>''which?''||'''duhota?'''<br>''whose?''|| '''duhoyena?'''<br>''what kind of?''||'''duhogla?'''<br>''how much/many?'' ||'''duhojaga?'''<br>''how old?'' |- valign=top ! Relative |'''hoa'''<br>''which''||'''hota'''<br>''whose''|| '''hoyena'''<br>''what kind of''||'''hogla'''<br>''how much/many'' ||'''hojaga'''<br>''how old'' |- valign=top ! Exclamatory |'''hooa'''<br>''what a...!''|| || ||'''hoogla'''<br>''look how much/many...!'' ||'''hoojaga'''<br>''how old a...!'' |- valign=top ! Definite |'''ha'''¹<br>''the''||'''hatas'''<br>''the person’s''|| '''hayena'''<br>''of the kind''||'''hagla'''<br>''of the amount'' ||'''hajaga'''<br>''of the age'' |- valign=top ! Indefinite |'''hea'''<br>''some/a certain''||'''heta'''<br>''someone's''|| '''heyena'''<br>''some kind of''||'''hegla'''<br>''some'' ||'''hejaga'''<br>''somewhat old'' |- valign=top ! Proximal |'''hia'''<br>''this''||'''hita'''<br>''this person’s''|| '''hiyena'''<br>''this kind of''||'''higla'''<br>''this much'' ||'''hijaga'''<br>''this old'' |- valign=top ! Immdediate |'''hiia'''<br>''the following''||'''hiita'''<br>''the follow person’s''|| '''hiiyena'''<br>''the following kind of'' || '''hiigla'''<br>''to the following degree'' ||'''hiijaga'''<br>''of the following age'' |- valign=top ! Distal |'''hua'''<br>''that''||'''huta'''<br>''that person’s''|| '''huyena'''<br>''that kind of'' ||'''hugla'''<br>''that much/many'' ||'''hujaga'''<br>''of that age'' |- valign=top ! Intensive |'''huua'''<br>''such a''||'''huuta'''<br>''such a person’s''|| '''huuyena'''<br>''such kind of'' ||'''huugla'''<br>''so much/many'' ||'''huujaga'''<br>''of such an age'' |- valign=top ! Negative |'''hyoa'''<br>''no''||'''hyota'''<br>''nobody’s''|| '''hyoyena'''<br>''no kind of'' ||'''hyogla'''<br>''no amount/number of'' ||'''hyojaga'''<br>''of no age'' |- valign=top ! Distributive |'''hya'''¹<br>''every, all''||'''hyata'''<br>''everybody’s''|| '''hyayena'''<br>''every kind of'' ||'''hyagla'''<br>''all'' ||'''hyajaga'''<br>''of every age'' |- valign=top ! Indeterminate |'''hyea'''<br>''whichever/any''²||'''hyeta'''<br>''whosever''|| '''hyeyena'''<br>''whatever/any kind of'' ||'''hyegla'''<br>''however much/many'' ||'''hyejaga'''<br>''however old'' |- valign=top ! Identical |'''hyia'''<br>''the same''||'''hyita'''<br>''the same person’s''|| '''hyiyena'''<br>''the same kind of'' ||'''hyigla'''<br>''just as'' ||'''hyijaga'''<br>''just as old'' |- valign=top ! Non-identical |'''hyua'''<br>''the other''||'''hyuta'''<br>''someone else's''|| '''hyuyena'''<br>''another kind of'' ||'''hyugla'''<br>''not as much/many'' ||'''hyujaga'''<br>''of another age'' |} : There are other adjectival determiners such as '''duhonoga'''....''how/to what degree'', '''duhosauna'''....''what kind of'' that are not included in the above chart. :Note 1) The determiners '''ha''' (''the'') and '''hya''' (''every'') are shortened forms of '''haa''' and '''hyaa'''. Also, '''ha''' is commonly called a "definite article". ::* While '''hya''' means ''every'' or ''all'', the word '''hyawa''' is used for ''each''. ::* The possessive adjective forms in the above table ending in '''-ta''' such as '''hyeta'''....''whosever'' cannot be pluralized by the ending '''-tia'''. To say '''other people's''', use the expression '''bi hyuti''' (Lit. ''of others''). ::* The '''ho-''' words are relative, meaning that they can serve to form relative clauses like the following: :::* '''Ha toyb, <u>hota</u> twad se Bill,'''....''The woman, <u>whose</u> husband is Bill,'' :::* '''At voy te <u>hos</u> et tepfe.'''....''I don't know <u>what</u> you mean.'' :::* '''At teste <u>hogla</u> et fie iyt.'''....''I understand <u>how much</u> you love her.'' ::* The '''hoo-''' words are exclamatory and are used in expressions like the following: :::* '''<u>Hoogla</u> iva se at van et upa!'''....''<u>How</u> glad I am that you came!'' :::* '''<u>Hooa</u> jub his saye!'''....''<u>What a</u> day this has been!'' ('''Hooa''' is pronounced ''ho-O-a'' as three syllables.) :Note 2) The indeterminant determiners can also be translated with ''no matter what, no matter where, etc.'' ==== Deictic Determiner Pronouns ==== : All deictic determiner pronouns end either in '''-t''' for persons or '''-s''' for things. They can be singular or plural ('''-i'''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Pronouns |- valign=top ! !! Thing -s<br>Things -si !! Person -t<br>Persons -ti !! Kind of Thing -yenas<br>Kinds of Things -yenasi !! Amount -glas<br>Number of Things -glasi !! Number of People -glati |- valign=center ! Interrogative |'''duhos?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what?''<br>'''duhosi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what (things)?''|| '''duhot?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who?''<br>'''duhoti?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who (pl.)''|| '''duhoyenas?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what kind of thing?'' <br>'''duhoyenasi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;what kinds of things?|| '''duhoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how much?''<br>'''duhoglasi?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many things?''|| '''duhoglati?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many people?'' |- valign=center ! Relative |'''hos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what''<br>'''hosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what''|| '''hot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who''<br>'''hoti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''who''|| '''hoyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what kind of thing'' <br>'''hoyenasi'''|| '''hoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how much''<br>'''hoglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many''|| '''hoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''how many'' |- ! Exclamatory |'''hoos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a thing!''<br>'''hoosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what things!''|| '''hoot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a person!''<br>'''hooti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what people!''|| || '''hooglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what an amount!''<br>'''hooglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a number!''|| '''hoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''what a number of people!'' |- valign=center ! Definite |'''has'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''it''<br>'''hasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''they/them''|| '''hat'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''he/she/him/her''<br>'''hati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''they/them''|| '''hayenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the king of thing''<br>'''hayenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the kind of things''|| '''haglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the amount'' <br>'''haglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the number of things''|| '''haglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the number of people'' |- valign=center ! Indefinite |'''hes'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''something''<br>'''hesi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some things''|| '''het'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''someone''<br>'''heti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some''|| '''heyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some kind of thing'' <br>'''heyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some kinds of thing''|| '''heglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some''<br>'''heglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some things''|| '''heglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''some people'' |- valign=center ! Proximal |'''his'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this''<br>'''hisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these''|| '''hit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this person''<br>'''hiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these people''|| '''hiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this kind of thing'' <br>'''hiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''these kinds of things''|| '''higlas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this much''<br>'''higlasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this many''|| '''higlati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this many people'' |- valign=center ! Immediate |'''hiis'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following thing''<br>'''hiisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following things''|| '''hiit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following person''<br>'''hiiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following people''|| '''hiiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following kind of thing'' <br>'''hiiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following kinds of things''|| '''hiiglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following amount''<br>'''hiiglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''this following number of things''|| '''hiiglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the following number of people'' |- valign=center ! Distal |'''hus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that''<br>'''husi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those''|| '''hut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that person''<br>'''huti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those people''|| '''huyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that kind of thing'' <br>'''huyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''those kinds of things''|| '''huglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that much''<br>'''huglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that many''|| '''huglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''that many people'' |- valign=center ! Intensive |'''huus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a thing''<br>'''huusi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such things''|| '''huut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a person''<br>'''huuti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such people''|| '''huuyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such a kind of thing'' <br>'''huuyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''such kinds of things''|| '''huuglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so much''<br>'''huuglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so many''|| '''huuglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''so many people'' |- valign=center ! Negative |'''hyos'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''nothing''<br>'''hyosi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none of them''|| '''hyot'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''nobody''<br>'''hyoti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none of them''|| '''hyoyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''no kind of thing'' <br>'''hyoyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''no kinds of things''|| '''hyoglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none''<br>'''hyoglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none''|| '''hyoglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''none'' |- valign=center ! Distributive |'''hyas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''everything''<br>'''hyasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyat'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''everybody''<br>'''hyati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyayenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''every kind of'' <br>'''hyayenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all kinds of things''|| '''hyaglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of it''<br>'''hyaglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them''|| '''hyaglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''all of them'' |- valign=center ! Indeterminate |'''hyes'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''anything''<br>'''hyesi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any''|| '''hyet'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''anybody''<br>'''hyeti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of them''|| '''hyeyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any kind of'' <br>'''hyeyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''whatever things''|| '''hyeglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of it''<br>'''hyeglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''any of them''|| '''hyeglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''whoever'' |- valign=center ! Identical |'''hyis'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same thing''<br>'''hyisi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same things''|| '''hyit'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same person''<br>'''hyiti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same people''|| '''hyiyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same kind of'' <br>'''hyiyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''the same kinds of things''|| '''hyiglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as much''<br>'''hyiglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as many''|| '''hyiglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''as many people'' |- valign=center ! Non-identical |'''hyus'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''something else''<br>'''hyusi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other things''|| '''hyut'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''someone else''<br>'''hyuti'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other people''|| '''hyuyenas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another kind'' <br>'''hyuyenasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''other kinds''|| '''hyuglas'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another amount''<br>'''hyuglasi'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another number of things''|| '''hyuglati'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''another number of people'' |} : Concerning the above chart, note the following: ::* The interrogative determiners all begin with '''duho-''', which means '''say which''', and are technically imperatives. '''Duhom?''', for example, means '''Tell (me) the place...'''. The '''o'''-stem forms without the '''du-''' are used as relative clause heads, eg. '''At po <u>hom</u> et po.'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''I will go <u>where</u> you go.'' ::* Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* Determiners come first before any other epithets of a noun, eg. '''<u>Hia</u> aga jaga tam...'''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;''<u>This</u> big old house...''. ::* Person and Thing determiners can be made selective by inserting '''a''' before the final '''t''' or '''s''', eg. '''Duhot?''' means ''Who?'', while '''Duhoat?''' means ''Which one (of several persons)?'' ==== Deictic Determiner Adverbs ==== : All deictic determiner adverbs refer to a circumstance. :{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Correlative Deictic Determiner Adverbs |- valign=top ! Circumstance--> !! Place<br>-m !! Time<br>-j !! Manner<br>-yen!! Degree<br>-gla !! Frequency<br>-xag !! Reason<br>-sav |- valign=center ! Interrogative | '''duhom?'''<br>''where?'' || '''duhoj?'''<br>''when?'' || '''duhoyen?'''<br>''how?'' || '''duhogla?'''<br>''how (very)?'' || '''duhoxag?'''<br>''how often?''|| '''duavhos?'''¹<br>''why?'' |- valign=center ! Relative | '''hom'''<br>''where'' || '''hoj'''<br>''when'' || '''hoyen'''<br>''how'' || '''hogla'''<br>''how (very)'' || '''hoxag'''<br>''how often'' || '''avhos (van)²'''<br>''because'' |- valign=center ! Exclamatory | || || '''hooyen'''<br>''and how!, such a...'' || '''hoogla'''<br>''how very...!, so...''³ || || |- valign=center ! Definite | '''ham'''<br>''the place'' || '''haj'''<br>''the time'' || '''hayen'''<br>''the manner'' || '''hagla'''<br>''just as'' || '''haxag'''<br>''as frequently''|| '''avhas'''<br>''the reason'' |- valign=center ! Indefinite | '''hem'''<br>''somewhere'' || '''hej'''<br>''sometime'' || '''heyen'''<br>''somehow'' || '''hegla'''<br>''somewhat'' || '''hexag'''<br>''somewhat often''||'''avhes'''<br>''for some reason'' |- valign=center ! Proximal | '''him'''<br>''here'' || '''hij'''<br>''now'' || '''hiyen'''<br>''this way'' || '''higla'''<br>''this'' || '''hixag'''<br>''this often''||'''avhis'''<br>''for this reason'' |- valign=center ! Immediate | '''hiim'''<br>''the following place'' || '''hiij'''<br>''the following time'' || '''hiiyen'''<br>''the following way'' || '''hiigla'''<br>''to the following degree'' || '''hiixag'''<br>''at the following frequency''||'''avhiis'''<br>''for the following reason'' |- valign=center ! Distal | '''hum'''<br>''there'' || '''huj'''<br>''then'' || '''huyen'''<br>''that way'' || '''hugla'''<br>''to that degree'' || '''huxag'''<br>''that often''|| '''avhus'''<br>''therefore'' |- valign=center ! Intensive | '''huum'''<br>''such a place'' || '''huuj'''<br>''at such a time'' || '''huuyen'''<br>''in such a way'' || '''huugla'''<br>''so (very)'' || '''huuxag'''<br>''so often''|| '''avhuus'''<br>''for such a reason'' |- valign=center ! Negative | '''hyom'''<br>''nowhere'' || '''hyoj'''<br>''never'' || '''hyoyen'''<br>''in no way'' || '''hyogla'''<br>''not at all'' || '''hyoxag'''<br>''not once''|| '''avhyos'''<br>''for no reason'' |- valign=center ! Distributive | '''hyam'''<br>''everywhere'' || '''hyaj'''<br>''always'' || '''hyayen'''<br>''in every way'' || '''hyagla'''<br>''fully'' || '''hyaxag'''<br>''always''||'''avhyas'''<br>''for every reason'' |- valign=center ! Indeterminate | '''hyem'''<br>''anywhere'' || '''hyej'''<br>''whenever'' || '''hyeyen'''<br>''however'' || '''hyegla'''<br>''however'' || '''hyexag'''<br>''however often'' || '''avhyes'''<br>''for whatever reason'' |- valign=center ! Indentical | '''hyim'''<br>''at the same place'' || '''hyij'''<br>''at the same time'' || '''hyiyen'''<br>''in the same way'' || '''hyigla'''<br>''as'' || '''hyixag'''<br>''as often''|| '''avhyis'''<br>''for the same reason'' |- valign=center ! Non-identical | '''hyum'''<br>''somewhere else'' || '''hyuj'''<br>''some other time'' || '''hyuyen'''<br>''otherwise'' || '''hyugla'''<br>''not as'' || '''hyuxag'''<br>''not as often''||'''avhyus'''<br>''for some other reason'' |} :Note 1) '''Duavhos?''' translates literally to "Say for what?". :Note 2) The positive complimentizer '''van''' is optional. :Note 3) A clause following '''hoogla''' <ADJ>/<ADV> must be followed by '''van''', eg. '''Et eka <u>hoogla fi van</u> ha teexuti byasa ab yiti tyoyabi.'''....''You played <u>so well that</u> the audience stood on their feet.'' : Concerning the above chart, note the following: :* The interrogative determiners all begin with '''duho-''', which means '''say which''', and are technically imperatives. '''Duhom?''', for example, means '''Tell (me) the place...'''. The '''o'''-stem forms without the '''du-''' are used as relative clause heads, eg. '''At po <u>hom</u> et po.'''....''I will go <u>where</u> you go.'' :* Interrogatives usually come at the beginning of a sentence as in English, eg. '''<u>Duhom</u> se eta tam?'''....''<u>Where</u> is your house?'' :* Not included in the above chart is a related interrogative, which is a complementizer. ::* '''Duven...?'''.... (Question introducer) '''Is it true that...?, Say whether...''' :::* '''<u>Duven</u> et se tadxwa?'''....''Are you married? (= <u>Say whether</u> you are married.)'' :* The adverbs of degree in the above chart ('''duhogla?''', etc.) are interchangeable with adverbs ending in '''-nog'''....''degree'' ('''duhonog?'''....''to what degree?, how...?'', '''henog'''....''somewhat'') :* Other deictic determiner adverbs of circumstance exist and are not on the above chart: ::* '''duhomep?'''....''which way?'' :::* '''humep'''....''that way'' ::* '''duhobyun?'''....''to what end?'' :::* '''hyobyun'''....''for no purpose'' ::* '''duhoizon?'''....''in which direction?'' :::* '''hyaizon'''....''in every direction'' ==== Examples of Deictic Determiner Usage ==== ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ('''Duhos''' is pronounced '''du-HOS''') ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> se iyta twad?'''....''<u>Who</u> is her husband?'' ::* '''<u>Duhowat</u> se iyta twad?'''....''<u>Which one of the guys</u> is her husband?'' (selective) ::* '''<u>Duhoti</u> fe eker?'''....''<u>Who (pl.)</u> want to play?'' ::* '''<u>Hyas</u> se fia.'''....''<u>Everything</u> is fine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyat</u> tre et.'''....''<u>Everyone</u> knows you.'' ::* '''<u>Hyot</u> tre at.'''....''<u>Nobody</u> knows me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyati</u> ekeye fi.'''....''<u>All of them</u> are playing well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoti</u> ekeye fi.'''....''<u>None of them</u> are playing well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> yafe eker.'''....''<u>Anyone</u> can play.'' ::* '''<u>Hyes</u> yafwe.'''....''<u>Anything</u> is possible.'' ::* '''At fe <u>hyuyenat</u> be ata ekutyan.'''....''I want <u>someone else</u> on my team.'' ::* '''<u>Huuyenati</u> fyuxe yata oj.'''....''<u>Such people</u> harm our future.'' ::* '''Et yefe tepier <u>hiisi</u>.'''....''You must bear in mind <u>the following things</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et xa hus.'''.....''<u>How</u> did you do that?'' (pronounced '''du-ho-YEN''') ::* '''<u>Duavhos</u> iyt pia <u>huugla</u> jwa?'''....''<u>Why</u> did she leave <u>so</u> early?'' ::* '''<u>Hwita</u> tam se ga aga.'''....''<u>This guy's</u> house is bigger.'' ::* '''At voy ayse ha dyuni <u>bi huyti</u>.'''....''I don't have <u>those women's</u> names.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoa</u> tam se etas?'''....''<u>Which</u> house is yours?'' ::* '''<u>Huua</u> tej et ayse!'''....''<u>What a</u> life you have!'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyena</u> dyezuni ifxe et?'''....''<u>What kind of</u> movies do you like?'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> tef okwa?'''....''<u>Whose</u> hat was lost?'' ::* '''<u>Hota</u> tef okwa bese otwas.'''....''<u>Whose</u> hat was lost remains a mystery.'' ::* '''<u>Ha</u> tob ta yata dyuni.'''....''<u>The</u> man knew our names.'' ::* '''<u>Hoyena</u> dini at ife, et ufe.'''....''<u>The kind of</u> stories I love, you hate.'' ::* '''<u>Hea</u> mepi gawdyunxwo.'''....''<u>Certain</u> streets will be renamed.'' ::* '''<u>Heyena</u> fukyes uxaye purilp nyaunx.'''....''<u>Some kind of</u> accident has caused a traffic jam.'' ::* '''<u>Heta</u> abtaf kaxwa be ha zatem.'''.....''<u>Someone's</u> coat was found in the foyer.'' ::* '''<u>Hia</u> dyes se ata gwafwas.'''....''<u>This</u> book is my favorite.'' ::* '''<u>Hiia</u> duni se ofwa.'''....''<u>The following</u> words are prohibited.'' ::* '''<u>Hiiyena</u> axlyen voy afwu.'''....''<u>The following sort of</u> behavior would not be allowed.'' ::* '''<u>Hiyena</u> axlyen voy vayafwo.'''....''<u>This type of</u> behavior will not be tolerated.'' ::* '''<u>Hita</u> tim so yolza.'''....''<u>This person's</u> room will be blue.'' ::* '''<u>Hua</u> mas efwe gawvozilbwer.'''....''<u>That</u> wall needs to be repainted.'' ::* '''<u>Huua</u> dini yufxe tudi.'''....''<u>Such</u> stories scare children.'' ::* '''<u>Huyena</u> duni voy yeyfwe yixwer za at.'''....''<u>Such</u> words should not be used in front of me.'' ::* '''<u>Hwuta</u> tam magseye.'''....''<u>That guy's</u> house is on fire.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoa</u> din se ga kyitesa.'''....''<u>No</u> story is more important.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoyena</u> tes tesiyafwe.'''....''<u>No such</u> meaning can be inferred.'' ::* '''<u>Hyota</u> jatexdras sa ga fia.'''....''<u>Nobody's</u> plan is better.'' ::* '''<u>Hyos</u> oboxe huyt.'''....''<u>Nothing</u> bothers that gal.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> mepi izpe Roma.'''....''<u>All</u> roads lead to Rome.'' ::* '''<u>Hya ha</u> mepi se ebwa.'''....''<u>All the</u> roads are blocked.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> twob yefe xer ita gon.'''....''<u>Every</u> man must do his part.'' ::* '''<u>Hyayena</u> telami ese be hia domep.'''....''<u>All manner of</u> restaurants exist on this street.'' ::* '''<u>Hyata</u> tej se uka bi yaobi.'''....''<u>Everyone's</u> life is full of ups and downs.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaewa</u> domi agsaye.'''....''<u>Both</u> cities have grown.'' ::* '''<u>Hyea</u> voz so fia.'''....''<u>Any</u> color will be fine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeyena</u> til se aysyafwa.'''....''<u>Any kind of</u> drink is available.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeta</u> ved se ge ifa vyel atas.'''....''<u>Anyone's</u> guess is as good as mine.'' ::* '''<u>Hyea</u> tim et fe et yafe ayser.'''....''<u>Whatever</u> room you want, you can have.'' ::* '''<u>Hyia</u>/(Ha gea) fukyesi kyese glaxag.'''....''<u>The same</u> accidents occur frequently.'' ::* '''<u>Hyiyena</u>/(Ha geyena) dyezuni teaxuwa zajub.'''....''<u>The same kind of</u> films were shown yesterday.'' ::* '''<u>Hyita</u>/(Ha geta) dyun yixwa gajod.'''....''<u>The same person's</u> name was used again.'' ::* '''<u>Hyua</u> dyezun sa ga ifuyea.'''....''<u>The other</u> movie was more entertaining.'' ::* '''<u>Hyuyena</u>/(Ogeyena) som teasu ga fia.'''....''<u>Another kind of</u> furniture would look better.'' ::* '''<u>Hyuta</u>/(ogeta) texyen se ge fyia.'''....''<u>Someone else's</u> opinion is equally valid.'' ::* '''Ha dyuni <u>bi hiyti</u> voy dodrawe.'''....''<u>These women's</u> names have not been made public.'' ::* '''Ha dyuni <u>bi hwiiti</u> voy dodrowe.'''....''<u>The following males'</u> names will not be publicized.'' ::* '''<u>Hijaga</u> tobweti voy afwo him.'''....''Boys <u>of this age</u> will not be allowed here.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> et tambese?'''....''<u>Where</u> do you live?'' ::* '''At tambese <u>hum</u>.'''....''I live <u>there</u>.'' ::* '''Et tambese <u>hom</u> ha mep uje.'''....''You live <u>where</u> the road ends.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> yet peye?'''....''<u>Where</u> are you people going?'' ::* '''Et yafe per <u>hyem</u> et fu.'''....''You can go <u>anywhere</u> you would like.'' ::* '''<u>Duhom</u> et byise?'''....''<u>Where</u> are you from?'' (Lit: ''Where do you originate?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoj</u> et taja?'''....''<u>When</u> were you born?'' ::* '''At voy tajaya <u>huj</u>.'''....''I had not been born <u>then</u>.'' ::* '''Et yeyfe duder <u>hiiyen</u>.'''....''You should respond <u>in the following way</u>.'' ::* '''Ot voy yefe daler <u>huuyen</u>.'''....''One must not talk <u>in such a manner</u>.'' ::* '''Et pia <u>hesav</u>.'''....''He left <u>for some reason</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et iyfe hia vifil?'''....''<u>How</u> do like this wine?'' ::* '''Voy se fia axler <u>hiyen</u>.'''....''It is not good to act <u>this way</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Duavhos</u> et tadia <u>huugla</u> jwa?'''....''<u>Why</u> did you marry <u>so</u> late?'' ::* '''Ha twob pia <u>avhyos</u>.'''....''The man left <u>for no reason</u>.'' ::* '''Hwat pia <u>avhos van</u> it efa per hem.'''....''The guy left <u>because</u> he needed to go somewhere.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeta</u> texyen so fia.'''....''<u>Anyone</u>'s opinion will be fine.'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> dyes se his?'''....''Whose book is this?'' ::* '''<u>Bi hoti</u> se hia dyesi?'''....''Whose are these books?'' ::* '''<u>Hyata</u> tili yebexe yom.'''....''<u>Everyone's</u> drinks contain ice.'' ::* '''Et se gaj <u>geyenat</u>( ~ <u>hyiyenat</u>).'''....''You are still <u>the same kind of person</u>.'' ::* '''At se <u>hoogla iva van</u> et upa!'''....''I am <u>so happy that</u> you came!'' ::* '''Yat tose <u>hyigla (van)</u> yet.'''....''We feel <u>(the same way) as</u> you (do).'' : Note, '''hyigla''' can be replaced with '''gel''': ::* '''Yet tose <u>gel</u> yet.'''....''We feel <u>as</u> you do.'' : The semantic reverser '''o-''' can be prefixed to some of the above deictic determiners: ::* '''<u>Ohyat</u> tiste Platon.'''....''<u>Not everyone</u> understands Plato.'' ::* '''<u>Ohut!</u>'''....''Not that person!'' ::* '''At iyfe gwa apovili, oy <u>ohuas</u>!'''....''I like most beers, but <u>not that one</u>!'' : If the definite article or any other deictic determiner is omitted before a noun, then it has the effect of the English indefinite article ''a / an'' with a singular noun or ''some'' with a plural noun. For example: ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ha tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>a glass</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ha tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>(some) glasses</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>awa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>one glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha awa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the one glass</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>two glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the two glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>hyaewa tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>both glasses</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>owa tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>no/zero glasses (=not a single glass)</u> of wine.'' ::* '''Yat tilia <u>ea tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>another/a second glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ea tilyeb</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the second glass</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ea tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>second glasses</u> of wine.'', vs. ::** '''Yat tilia <u>ha ea tilyebi</u> bi vifil.'''....''We drank <u>the second glasses</u> of wine.'' : If an indefinite article sense is needed for clarity, the words '''awa''' (''one'') or '''hea''' (''some, a certain'') can be used, eg.: ::* '''At igteata <u>awa</u> tob yiztyoper.'''....''I glimpsed <u>a</u> man walk by.'' ::* '''Wit zoyupo <u>hea</u> jub.'''....''He will come back <u>a / a certain / some</u> day.'' ==== Selective vs. Non-Selective Forms ==== : The deictic interrogative determiner pronoun '''duhot?''' means ''who(m)'' and contrasts with its '''''selective''''' counterpart '''duhoat?''', which means ''which one?''. All the selective determiners refer to one or more things or persons from a selectable pool of things or persons. : The following sentences illustrate the use of the above determiner pronouns: ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> aka zajuba ek?'''....''<u>Who</u> won yesterday's game?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoat</u> bi ha akuti sa ha gwa fiat?'''....''<u>Which one</u> of the winners was the best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhota</u> tam se hus?'''....''<u>Whose</u> house is that?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotas</u> se hus?'''....''<u>Whose</u> is that?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotia</u> deuzi et gaife?'''....''<u>Whose</u> songs do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Duhotias</u> et gaife?'''....''<u>Whose</u> do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* '''<u>Duhosi</u> se eta gaifuni?'''....''<u>What</u> are your preferences?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoa</u> deuzi se eta gwa fiasi?'''....''<u>Which</u> songs are your best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoasi</u> se eta gwa fiasi?'''....''<u>Which ones</u> are your best?'' ::* '''Bi hia deuzuti, <u>hoat</u> et gaife?'''....''Of these vocalists, <u>which one</u> do you prefer?'' ::* '''<u>Hiiti</u> yaneko hijub.'''....''<u>The following people</u> will compete today.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoati</u> se gwa fia?'''....''<u>Which ones</u> are best?'' ::* '''<u>Duhoti</u> et teexe gwa jodi?'''....''<u>Who (all)</u> do you listen to the most often?'' ::* '''<u>Hoat</u> at teexe gwaxag draye ejna deuz.'''....''<u>The one</u> I listen to the most has written a new song.'' ::* '''Ejna deuz? At voy teste <u>hoas</u> et tede.'''....''New song? I don't understand <u>which one</u> you mean.'' ::* '''<u>Hias</u>.'''....''<u>This one</u>.'' ::* '''Vo. <u>Huasi</u> se ga fia.'''....''No. <u>Those</u> are better.'' ::* '''<u>His</u> se jub av ivxelen.'''....''<u>This</u> is a day for celebration.'' ::* '''Va. <u>Hia</u> jub. At tese <u>hi</u>jub.'''....''Yes. <u>This</u> day. I mean <u>To-</u>day.'' ::* '''<u>Husi</u> sa <u>ha</u> jubi, ata dat!'''....''<u>Those</u> were <u>the</u> days, my friend!'' ::* '''<u>Duhos</u> se eta dyun?'''....''<u>What</u> is your name?'' ::* '''<u>Duhot</u> aka ha igpek?'''....''<u>Who</u> won the race?'' ::* '''<u>Hyas</u> uja fi.'''....''<u>Everything</u> ended well.'' ::* '''<u>Hyasi</u> uje.'''....''<u>All things</u> come to an end.'' ::* '''<u>Hyayenasi</u> vey kyesu.'''....''<u>All sorts of things</u> might happen.'' ::* '''<u>Hyos</u> yokxa at.'''....''<u>Nothing</u> surprised me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyot</u> ta hot ako.'''....''<u>Nobody</u> knew who would win.'' ::* '''<u>Hoayti</u> fu pier yefe.'''....''<u>Those females</u> who would like to leave may.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> yefe eker hia ifek.'''....''<u>Anyone</u> can play this game.'' ::* '''<u>Huyenasi</u> voy afwo.'''....''<u>Such things</u> will not be permitted.'' ::* '''<u>Hua twob</u> voy taxe hia toyb.'''....''<u>That</u> man does not remember this woman.'' ::* '''<u>Hwuti</u> yanyexe fi.'''....''<u>Those guys</u> work well together.'' ::* '''<u>Huuyti</u> hyaj yubixe tepzex.'''....''<u>Such females</u> always attract attention.'' ::* '''At jay teataye <u>hiyenasi</u>.'''....''I've seen <u>such things</u> before.'' ::* '''<u>Huyenwat</u> voy vabiwu.'''....''<u>A guy like that</u> would not be accepted.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoyenasi</u> weti iyfe xer je ha maj.'''....''<u>What kinds of things</u> do you guys like to do during the day?'' === Numerical Deictic Determiners === : Sometimes, a deictic determiner specifies numerical information. This chart shows those forms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! Adjective !! Inanimate Pronoun !! Animate Pronoun !! Pronominal Determiner !! Possessive Pronoun |- | '''hawa'''¹<br> ''the only'' || '''hawas'''<br>''the only thing''<br>'''hawasi'''<br>''the only things'' || '''hawat'''<br>''the only one (person)''<br>'''hawati'''<br>''the only ones''|| '''hawata'''<br>''the only person&apos;s'' || '''hawatas'''<br>''the only one&apos;s''<br>'''hawatasi'''<br>''the only one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyawa'''*<br> ''each'' || '''hyawas'''<br>''each one'' || '''hyawat'''<br>''each person''|| '''hyawata'''<br>''each person&apos;s'' || '''hyawatas'''<br>''each one&apos;s''<br>'''hyawatasi'''<br>''each one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyaewa'''<br>''both'' || '''hyaewasi'''<br>''both (<small>things</small>)'' || '''hyaewati'''<br>''both (<small>people</small>)''|| '''bi hyaewati'''<br>''both person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyaewati'''<br>''both person&apos;s''<br>'''hasi bi hyaewati'''<br>''both persone&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyaiwa'''<br>''all three'' || '''hyaiwasi'''<br>''all three (<small>things</small>)'' || '''hyaiwati'''<br>''all three (<small>people</small>)''|| '''hyaiwata'''<br>''all three person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyaiwati'''<br>''all three person&apos;s''<br>'''hasi bi hyaiwati'''<br>''all three person&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''ohyawa'''<br>''not every'' || '''ohyawas'''<br>''not everything'' || '''ohyawat'''<br>''not everyone''|| '''ohyawata'''<br>''not every person&apos;s'' || '''ohyawatas'''<br>''not everyone&apos;s''<br>'''ohyawatasi'''<br>''not everyone&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyoawa'''<br>''not a single'' || '''hyoawas'''<br>''not a single thing'' || '''hyoawat'''<br>''not a single person''|| '''hyowata'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s'' || '''hyowatas'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s''<br>'''hyowatasi'''<br>''not a single person&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyeawa'''<br>''either'' || '''hyeawas'''<br>''either one'' || '''hyeawat'''<br>''either one (<small>person</small>)''|| '''hyeawata'''<br>''either one&apos;s'' || '''hyeawatas'''<br>''either one&apos;s''<br>'''hyeawatasi'''<br>''either one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyeewa'''<br>''any two'' || '''hyeewasi'''<br>''any two things'' || '''hyeewati'''<br>''any two people''|| '''bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two person&apos;s'' || '''has bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two persons&apos;''<br>'''hasi bi hyeewati'''<br>''any two persons&apos; (things)'' |- | '''hyeowa'''<br>''neither'' || '''hyeowas'''<br>''neither one'' || '''hyeowat'''<br>''neither person''|| '''hyeawata'''<br>''neither person&apos;s'' || '''hyeowatas'''<br>''neither one&apos;s''<br>'''hyeowatasi'''<br>''neither one&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyuawa'''<br>''another'' || '''hyuawas'''<br>''another one'' || '''hyuawat'''<br>''another''|| '''hyuawata'''<br>''another&apos;s'' || '''hyuawatas'''<br>''another&apos;s''<br>'''hyuawatasi'''<br>''another&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''hyuowa'''<br>''no other'' || '''hyuowas'''<br>''nothing else'' || '''hyuowat'''<br>''nobody else''|| '''hyuowata'''<br>''no other&apos;s'' || '''hyuowatas'''<br>''no other&apos;s''<br>'''hyuowatasi'''<br>''no other&apos;s (things)'' |- | '''gawa'''²<br>''another'' || '''gawas'''<br>''another one'' || '''gawat'''<br>''another (person)''|| '''gawata'''<br>''another&apos;s'' || '''gawatas'''<br>''another&apos;s''<br>'''gawatasi'''<br>''another&apos;s (things)'' |} :: <small>Note 1) '''Hawa''' and '''hyawa''' are short for '''haawa''' and '''hyaawa''', respectively.</small> :: <small>Note 2) '''Gawa''' is short for '''ga awa''', ''yet one''.</small> ==== Notes on Numerical Deictic Determiners ==== : Examples using the above number-incorporating deictic determiners: ::* '''<u>Ohyawat</u> se iva bay eta vaod.'''....''<u>Not everyone</u> is happy with your decision.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaewasi</u> yafwe uxler yata efoni.'''....''<u>Both (things)</u> can serve our needs.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeawa</u> tim ivlaxo at.'''....''<u>Either</u> room will satisfy me.'' ::* '''<u>Hyeowas</u> oivlaxo at.'''....''<u>Neither one</u> will dissatisfy me.'' : Note: ::* '''hyua''' means ''another (an alternative)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hyua</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>another (a different)</u> drink.'' ::* '''hyuawa''' means ''another (an additional)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hyuawa</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>another (an additional)</u> drink.'' ::* '''hahyua''' means ''the other (the alternative)''. Ex. '''At fu <u>hahyua</u> til.'''....''I would like <u>the other</u> drink.'' ::* '''hohyua'''....''what other (relative)''. Ex. '''Bexlu <u>hohyua suni</u> at lobexa av et.'''....''Keep what other things I left for you.'' ::* '''hehyua'''....''some other'' ::* '''duhohyua'''....''what other, which other'' ::* '''hihyua'''....''this other'' ::* '''huhyua'''....''that other'' ::* '''hyahyua'''....''all other, any other, each other'' ::* '''hyehyua'''....''any other, whatever other'' ::* '''hyohyua'''....''no other'' : Similarly, '''hya''' means ''every, all'', while '''hyawa''' means ''each'', and '''hyaha'''....''all the'', ex: ::* '''<u>Hya</u> dom ayse tebixea suni teaxer.'''....''<u>Every</u> city has interesting things to see.'' ::* '''<u>Hya</u> domi ayse tebixusi.'''....''<u>All</u> cities have things of interest.'' ::* '''<u>Hyaha</u> domi ayse tebixusi.'''....''<u>All the</u> cities have things of interest.'' ::* '''<u>Hyawa</u> dom ayse tebixun.'''....''<u>Each</u> city has something of interest.'' : Also, '''ha''' means ''the'', while '''hawa''' means ''the only'', eg.: ::* '''<u>Ha</u> twob hu at gwa ife se et.'''....''<u>The</u> man I most love is you.'' ::* '''<u>Hawa</u> toyb nazea ata tepzex se et.'''....''<u>The only</u> woman worth my attention is you.'' : By appending '''y''' to '''hawa''', we get the adverb '''haway'''....''only, solely'', eg; ::* '''<u>Haway</u> et nize ata tepzex.'''....''<u>Only</u> you deserve my attention.''. : The singular person pronouns in the above chart can be converted into pronominal determiners by adding the adjective suffix '''a''', eg.: ::* '''<u>Hyawata</u> tej se ge glatesa vyel hyutas.'''....''<u>Each one's</u> life is as important as another's.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoewata</u> dyun se vyama.'''....''<u>Neither person's</u> name is real.'' : However, the plural person pronouns in the above chart use the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') to form possessives, eg.: ::* '''Ha teji <u>bi hyaiwati</u> se kyebukuwa.'''....''The lives <u>of all three</u> are in danger.'' : The above singular pronominal determiners can, in turn, be converted into inanimate pronouns with the suffix '''-s'''. ::* '''<u>Hyawatas</u> se glatesa.'''....''<u>Each one's</u> is important.'' ::* '''<u>Hyoewatas</u> se vyama.'''....''<u>Neither's</u> is real.'' : The plural pronominal determiners can be nominalized with the use of '''bi''', eg: ::* '''<u>Hyaiwasi</u> <u>bi huti</u> se kyebukuwa.'''....''<u>All three</u> <u>of theirs'</u> are in danger.'' : Correlative Number-incorporating Deictic Determiners are handled as follows: ::* '''Hyeawa A ey B'''....''either A or B'' ::* '''Hyoewa A oy B'''....''neither A nor B'' ::* '''Hyaewa A ay B'''....''both A and B'' ::* '''Hawa A, voy B'''....''only A, not B'' ==== Different Ways of Expressing ''How'' ==== : The different, somewhat confusing, meanings of ''how'' are illustrated here: ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> wit xa hus?'''....''<u>How</u> did he do that?''.... (Equivalent to '''Be duhobyen...?'''....''In what way...?'') (ADVERB OF MANNER) ::* '''<u>Duhoyen</u> et xeye?'''....''<u>How</u> are you doing?''.... (This is the normal way of saying ''How are you?'' or ''How do you do?'' (ADVERB OF MANNER) ::* '''<u>Duhoyena</u> sa ha dyezun?'''....'' <u>How</u> was the film?''.... (''How'' here is an ADJECTIVE OF KIND, and thus ends in '''-a'''.) ::* '''<u>Duhonog (= Duhogla)</u> aga it se?'''....''<u>How</u> big is he?''.... (ADVERB OF DEGREE) ::* '''<u>Huunog (= Huugla)</u> iyfla et se!'''....''<u>How</u> nice you are!''.... (ADVERB OF EMPHATIC DEGREE) : The conjunction ''as'' is expressed most often using relative pro-adverbs of manner: ::* '''Xu <u>hoyen</u> at de.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I say.'' = (in) the way that... ::* '''Xu <u>hyiyen</u>''' (~ '''geyen''') '''at xe.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I do. ( = (in) the same way that...)'' ::* '''Xu <u>hiiyen</u>:'''....''Do <u>as follows</u>. ( = (in) this hereby manner...)'' : However, the preposition/conjunction '''gel''' (''like, as'') can be substituted: ::* '''Xu <u>gel</u> at de.'''....''Do <u>as</u> I say.'' ==== Introducing Relative Clauses with Adverbial Determiners ==== : Many of the determiner adverbs in the above chart can be used in relative clauses, eg: ::* '''At teato et <u>hoj</u> et puo him.'''....''I will see you <u>when</u> you get here.'' ::* '''It xa has <u>avhos van</u> it tosa yefa.'''....''He/she did it <u>because (for the reason that)</u> he/she felt compelled.'' ::* '''<u>Hyem</u> et po, et so ga iva.'''....''<u>Wherever</u> you go, you'll be happier.'' ::* '''<u>Hyet</u> te ha did, yabu eta tuyab.'''....''<u>Whoever</u> knows the answer, raise your hand.'' ::* '''At voy te <u>hoyen</u> et xa is.'''....''I don't know <u>how</u> you did it.'' : See more about this in the section on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax#Relative_Clauses|relative clauses under Syntax]]. === Pronominal Deictic Determiners === : Some words in Mirad incorporate deictic prefixes with pronouns and pronominal adjectives, as shown in the following chart: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size;smaller;" |+ Pronominal Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! colspan=3 | Pronoun |- ! 1st Person Plural !! 2nd Person Plural !! 3rd Person Plural |- | '''duhoyat'''<br>''which of us'' || '''duhoyet'''<br>''which of you'' || '''duhoyit'''<br>''which of them'' |- | '''heyat'''<br>''some of us'' || '''heyet'''<br>''some of you'' || '''heyit'''<br>''which of them'' |- | '''hyayat'''<br>''each of us'' || '''hyayet'''<br>''each of you'' || '''hyayit'''<br>''each of them'' |- | '''hyeyat'''<br>''any of us'' || '''hyeyet'''<br>''any of you'' || '''hyeyit'''<br>''any of them'' |- | '''hyoyat'''<br>''none of us'' || '''hyoyet'''<br>''none of you'' || '''hyoyit'''<br>''none of them'' |- ! colspan=3 | Pronominal Adjective |- ! 1st Person (Plural) !! 2nd Person (Plural) !! 3rd Person (Plural) |- | '''duhoyata'''<br>''which of our'' || '''duhoyet'''<br>''which of your'' || '''duhoyita'''<br>''which of their'' |- | '''heyata'''<br>''some of our'' || '''heyeta'''<br>''some of your'' || '''heyita'''<br>''which of their'' |- | '''hyayata'''<br>''each of our'' || '''hyayeta'''<br>''each of your'' || '''hyayita'''<br>''each of their'' |- | '''hyeyata'''<br>''any of our'' || '''hyeyeta'''<br>''any of your'' || '''hyeyita'''<br>''any of their'' |- ! colspan=3 | Singular/(Plural) Possessive Pronoun |- ! 1st Person (Plural) !! 2nd Person (Plural) !! 3rd Person (Plural) |- | '''duhoyatas(i)'''<br>''which of ours'' || '''duhoyetas(i)'''<br>''which of yours'' || '''duhoyitas(i)'''<br>''which of theirs'' |- | '''heyatas(i)'''<br>''some of ours'' || '''heyetas(i)'''<br>''some of yours'' || '''heyitas(i)'''<br>''which of theirs'' |- | '''hyayatas(i)'''<br>''each of ours'' || '''hyayetas(i)'''<br>''each of yours'' || '''hyayitas(i)'''<br>''each of theirs'' |- | '''hyeyatas(i)'''<br>''any of ours'' || '''hyeyetas(i)'''<br>''any of yours'' || '''hyeyitas(i)'''<br>''any of theirs'' |- | '''hyoyatas(i)'''<br>''none of ours'' || '''hyoyetas(i)'''<br>''none of yours'' || '''hyoyitas(i)'''<br>''none of theirs'' |} {{small/end}} : The above possessive pronouns refer to things. If you replace the final '''-s''' or '''-si''', to '''-t''' or '''-ti''', then they become animate and refer to people, eg.: ::* '''Ese ewa tudi him. Duhoyitas se his?'''....''There are two children here. Which one of theirs is this?'' : All of the forms in the above chart can also be expressed as separate words, eg.: ::* '''Duhoyet?'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Duhoat bi yet?'''....''Which one of you?'' ::* '''Hyayat'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaglati bi yet'''....''All of us.'' ::* '''Hyoyatasi'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyogla yatasi'''....''All of ours (things)'' Note: ::* '''Awayat'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''Hyaewayet'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaewat bi yet'''....''both of you'' ::* '''Hyaiwayit'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>~</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Hyaiwat bi yit'''....''all three of them'' === Quantitative Deictic Determiners === : The deictic prefixes can be combined with '''gla''' to form quantitative expressions acting as adverbial or adjectival determiners, and substantives (pronouns referring to things or people): {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size;smaller;" |+ Quantitative Deictic Determiners |- valign=top ! !! Adverbial / Adjectival<br>Determiner !! Inanimate Singular<br>Pronoun !! Inanimate Plural <br>Pronoun !! Animate Plural<br>Pronoun |- !row=1|Interrogative | '''duhogla?'''<br>''how?/how much?/how many?'' || '''duhoglas?'''<br>''how much?'' || '''duhoglasi?'''<br>''how many'' || '''duhoglati?'''<br>''how many (people)?'' |- !row=1|Relative | '''hogla'''<br>''as many/much'' || '''hoglas'''<br>''how much'' || '''duhoglasi'''<br>''how many'' || '''duhoglati'''<br>''how many (as)'' |- !row=1|Definite | '''hagla'''<br>''how/as much/as many'' || '''haglas'''<br>''as much'' || '''haglasi'''<br>''as many'' || '''haglati'''<br>''as many (people)'' |- !row=1|Indefinite | '''hegla'''<br>''somewhat/some/some'' || '''heglas'''<br>''some'' || '''heglasi'''<br>''some'' || '''heglati'''<br>''some (people)'' |- !row=1|Proximal | '''higla'''<br>''this/this much/this many'' || '''higlas'''<br>''this much'' || '''higlasi'''<br>''this many'' || '''higlati'''<br>''this many (people)'' |- !row=1|Distal | '''hugla'''<br>''that/that much/that many'' || '''huglas'''<br>''that much'' || '''huglasi'''<br>''that many'' || '''huglati'''<br>''that many (people)'' |- !row=1|Intensive | '''huugla'''<br>''so very, so much, so many'' || '''huuglas'''<br>''so much'' || '''huuglasi'''<br>''so many'' || '''huuglati'''<br>''so many (people)'' |- !row=1|Negative | '''hyogla'''<br>''none, not very'' || '''hyoglas'''<br>''none of it'' || '''hyoglasi'''<br>''none of them '' || '''hyoglati'''<br>''none'' |- !row=1|Distributive | '''hyagla'''<br>''totally/all/all'' || '''hyaglas'''<br>''all of it'' || '''hyaglasi'''<br>''all of them'' || '''hyaglati'''<br>''all'' |- !row=1|Indeterminate | '''hyegla'''<br>''however/any/any'' || '''hyeglas'''<br>''any of it'' || '''hyeglasi'''<br>''any of them'' || '''hyeglati'''<br>''any number of them'' |- !row=1|Identical | '''hyigla'''<br>''as/as much/as many, equally'' || '''hyiglas'''<br>''the same amount'' || '''hyiglasi'''<br>''the same number'' || '''hyiglati'''<br>''as many (people)'' |- !row=1|Non-identical | '''hyugla'''<br>''not as much/not as much/not as many'' || '''hyuglas'''<br>''a different amount'' || '''hyuglasi'''<br>''a different number of things'' || '''hyuglati'''<br>''a different number of people'' |} {{Small/end}} : Here are some examples showing how these quantitative determiners are used: ::* '''Et deuze <u>huugla</u> fi.'''....''You sing <u>so</u> well.'' ::* '''At se <u>hegla</u> booka.'''....''I am <u>somewhat</u> tired.'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla</u> pati et teata hijub?'''....''<u>How many</u> birds did you see today?'' ::* '''At teata vyavay <u>hugla</u> tami.'''....''I saw exactly <u>that many</u> houses.'' ::* '''Iyt fe <u>hyiglas</u> vyel et.'''....''She wants <u>the same amount</u> as you.'' ::* '''<u>Duhoglati</u> yantexe yet?'''....''<u>How many (people)</u> agree with you?'' ::* '''<u>Hyoglati</u> yantexe.'''....''<u>None</u> agree.'' ::* '''Yit fu <u>heglasi</u>.'''....''They would like <u>some (of them)</u>.'' ::* '''Et yafe bier <u>hyeglasi</u> et fe.'''....''You can take <u>however many</u> you want.'' ::* '''Besu bay at <u>hogla</u> job et fe.'''....''Stay <u>as</u> long with me as you want.'' ::* '''At se <u>huugla</u> booka.'''....''I am <u>so</u> tired.'' : NOTE: The following determiners are synonymous and interchangeable: ::* '''hegla''' = '''gle''' = '''henog''' (''somewhat, to some degree'') ::* '''hyigla''' = '''ge''' = '''hyinog''' (''as, equally, to the same degree'') : The determiner ''huugla'' can be used as an exclamatory adverb, eg.: ::* '''<u>Huugla</u> et agsaye!'''....''<u>How</u> you have grown!'' ::* '''Hua twob jagsaye <u>huugla</u>!'''....''That man has aged <u>so much</u>!'' ::* '''Hia jotul se <u>huugla</u> fiteluza!'''....''This dessert is <u>sooo</u> delicious!'' == Pronominal Determiners == : Pronominal Determiners are what are more often called '''''possessive adjectives''''' such as ''my'' or ''your'' and are discussed in a subsection of [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns#Pronominal Determiners|Pronouns]]. == Quantitative Determiners == : '''''Quantitative determiners''''' act in one of several ways, they: ::* specify mass, uncountable, singular nouns for relative AMOUNT, eg. ''much happiness, less work'' ::* specify countable nouns for relative NUMBER, eg. ''one apple, two birds, many places'' ::* specify adverbs, adjectives, and verbs for relative DEGREE, eg. ''how poorly, very good, eat too much''. : From these, pronominalized quantitative determiners for PERSONS and THINGS can be derived. ::* Inanimate singular pronouns are formed by adding '''s''' for AN AMOUNT OF A THING ::* Inanimate plural pronouns are formed by adding '''si''' for A NUMBER OF THINGS ::* Animate plural pronouns are formed by adding '''ti''' for A NUMBER OF PERSONS. : The following table presents most of these word forms (Note that the determiners are in a plus (+), equal (=), or minus (-) row.): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Quantitative Determiners |- !colspan=2|Adverb / Adjective !! Singular Pronoun !!colspan=2| Plural Pronoun |- !colspan=2|Degree/Amount/Number !! Amount !! Number of Things !! Number of People |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gas'''....''more (stuff)'' || '''gasi'''....''many (things)'' || '''gati'''....''many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''ge'''....''as, as much, as many'' || '''ges'''....''as much (stuff)'' || '''gesi'''....''as many (things)'' || '''geti'''....''as many people'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''go'''....''less, fewer'' || '''gos'''....''less (stuff)'' || '''gosi'''....''fewer (things)'' || '''goti'''....''fewer (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gla'''....''very, much, many''<br>'''glay'''....''so, so much, so many''<br>'''glaa'''....''several'' || '''glas'''....''much (stuff)''<br>'''glays'''....''so much stuff'') || '''glasi'''....''many (things)''<br>'''glaysi'''....''so many (things)''<br>'''glaasi'''....''several things''|| '''glati'''....''many (people)''<br>'''glayti'''....''so many (people)''<br>'''glaati'''....''several people'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gle'''....''rather, quite a lot, quite a few'' || '''gles'''....''quite a lot (of stuff)'' || '''glesi'''....''quite a lot (of things)'' || '''gleti'''....''quite a few (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''glo'''....''slightly, a little, few'' || '''glos'''....''a little bit'' || '''glosi'''....''a few (things)'' || '''gloti'''....''few (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gra'''....''too, too much, too many'' || '''gras'''....''too much (stuff)'' || '''grasi'''....''too many (things)'' || '''grati'''....''too many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gre'''....''enough'' || '''gres'''....''enough (stuff)'' || '''gresi'''....''enough (things)'' || '''greti'''....''enough (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''gro'''....''insufficiently, too little, too few'' || '''gros'''....''too little'' || '''grosi'''....''too few'' || '''groti'''....''too few (people)'' |- !colspan=2| !! !! !! |- !row=1|<big>+</big> | '''gwa'''....''most'' || '''gwas'''....''the most (stuff)'' || '''gwasi'''....''the most (things)'' || '''gwati'''....''most people'' |- !row=1|<big>=</big> | '''gwe'''....''just so (much/many)'' || '''gwes'''....''just so much'' || '''gwesi'''....''just so many'' || '''gweti'''....''just so many (people)'' |- !row=1|<big>-</big> | '''gwo'''....''least'' || '''gwos'''....''the least (stuff)'' || '''gwosi'''....''the least (number of)'' || '''gwoti'''....''the least number (of people)'' |} : Examples Using Graded Quantitative Determiners :: Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective: :::* '''At se <u>gla</u> iva.'''....''I am <u>very</u> happy.'' :::* '''Et sa <u>gra</u> uga.'''....''You were <u>too</u> slow.'' :: Adverbs of Degree modifying another adverb: :::* '''Twobi dale <u>ge</u> igay vyel toybi.'''....''Men talk <u>as</u> fast as women.'' :::* '''Yat yexe <u>ga igay</u> vyel yet.'''....''We work faster (= <u>more quickly</u>) than you.'' :: Adjectives quantifying a singular mass noun: :::* '''<u>Ga</u> nas efwo.'''....''<u>More</u> money will be needed.'' :::* '''<u>Gra</u> nas noxwa.'''....''<u>Too much</u> money was spent.'' :: Adjectives quantifying a plural countable noun (= things or people): :::* '''At ayse <u>gro</u> sari.'''....''I've got <u>too few</u> tools.'' :::* '''<u>Gla</u> tami osexwa.'''....''<u>Many</u> houses were destroyed.'' :::* '''Yat efe <u>gla ga</u> valkdibuti.'''....''We need <u>many more</u> policemen.'' :: Pronouns referring to a mass amount of something (= stuff): :::* '''<u>Gas</u> ilokeye.'''....''<u>More (stuff)</u> is leaking.'' :::* '''Et dileye <u>gras</u>.'''....''You are asking for <u>too much (stuff)</u>.'' :::* '''Yat kexo <u>gwas</u>.'''....''We will seek <u>as much (stuff) as possible</u>.'' :::* '''At iba <u>gwes</u>.'''....''I received <u>just the right amount.</u>'' :: Pronouns referring to a countable number of things: :::* '''Hisi se fia oy yat fe <u>gasi</u>.'''....''These (items) are good but we want <u>more (items)</u>.'' :::* '''At teate drilari oy <u>grosi</u>.'''....''I see pens, but <u>too few</u>.'' :: Pronouns referring to a countable number of people: :::* '''<u>Grati</u> xaye vyoki be hia yexem.'''....''<u>Too many (people)</u> have made mistakes at this work site.'' :::* '''<u>Glati</u> dyunwe oy <u>gloti</u> kebiwe.'''....''<u>Many</u> are called but <u>few</u> are chosen.'' == Numerical Determiners == : This category of determiners, which includes cardinal, ordinal and other number words like ''two'', ''a tenth'', and ''first'', is such a vast topic that it is treated in its own chapter [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers]] <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Adverbs|Numbers}}</noinclude> o6znz5l4govencsghfciilzlgtar9di 0 417649 4635022 4623367 2026-05-09T21:12:03Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Moods */ 4635022 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== :::: The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. ::::: Examples: ::::::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::::::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::::::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. :: Examples: :::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' :::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' :::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== :: A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. :: Examples: :::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') :::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') :::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') :::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') :::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') :::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') :::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') :::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') :: Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== :: A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' :::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' :::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== :: A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' :: Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: :::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' :::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' :: The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya(a)²''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa(a)¹'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> ll9jz77ew383597sfwc9byq6hxanyqs 4635023 4635022 2026-05-09T21:14:17Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense */ 4635023 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. :: Examples: :::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' :::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' :::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== :: A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. :: Examples: :::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') :::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') :::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') :::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') :::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') :::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') :::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') :::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') :: Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== :: A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' :::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' :::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== :: A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' :: Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: :::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' :::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' :: The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya(a)²''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa(a)¹'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> sdmy36jbrqnaaya3xf09d3zd4kzwj6v 4635024 4635023 2026-05-09T21:14:54Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense */ 4635024 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== :: A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. :: Examples: :::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') :::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') :::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') :::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') :::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') :::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') :::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') :::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') :: Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== :: A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' :::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' :::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== :: A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' :: Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: :::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' :::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' :: The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya(a)²''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa(a)¹'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> k2qhbn43n8nmm086gwiem29ojym3e8a 4635025 4635024 2026-05-09T21:15:57Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense */ 4635025 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== :: A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' :::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' :::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== :: A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' :: Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: :::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' :::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' :: The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya(a)²''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa(a)¹'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> dacvg2h4obiko1n5qwdmn5513aq20k6 4635026 4635025 2026-05-09T21:16:46Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Reflexive Voice */ 4635026 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== :: A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: :::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' :::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' :::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' :: Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: :::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' :::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' :: The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya(a)²''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa(a)¹'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> br87fjq2hnvurxqkmlf9ahjoy62guk9 4635027 4635026 2026-05-09T21:17:10Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Reciprocal Voice */ 4635027 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== : A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' : Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: ::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' ::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' : The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya(a)²''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa(a)¹'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> gdqxzq7bbg8jybgb46nturju6sccsnu 4635028 4635027 2026-05-09T21:21:14Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Verb Conjugation Chart */ 4635028 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== : A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' : Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: ::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' ::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' : The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha maar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> 00eu8up407z5z80cu90f9belcumgrqn 4635029 4635028 2026-05-09T21:22:32Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs */ 4635029 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== : A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' : Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: ::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' ::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' : The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha amar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoyuper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> 7to7sv2lmmlz03cqfq0sq46aqjngi72 4635030 4635029 2026-05-09T21:28:46Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw- */ 4635030 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== : A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' : Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: ::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' ::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' : The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha amar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>-ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''zoy-uper'''....''to return (come back)'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>-uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> 3ekqv1n795w0m5o371o14bil3gv6a51 4635031 4635030 2026-05-09T21:30:39Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Expressing re- with zoy- or gaw- */ 4635031 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== : A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' : Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: ::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' ::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' : The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha amar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>-ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>-uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye(b)</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> dbwd6v021hrlovkg6bj73af3stib7ak 4635032 4635031 2026-05-09T21:39:24Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Expressing out-, ex-, extra- with oyeb- */ 4635032 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == The Verb Stem == [[File:Various forms of using the verb "to inform" in LSC.png|thumb|]] : Verbs in Mirad are listed in the dictionary under the present active infinitive (see [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs#Non-finite Forms]]), such as '''yexer'''....''to work''. The infinitive minus the '''er''' ending is the stem. The stem is used as the base for all other verbal instantiations. The infinitive as listed in the dictionary is usually active in voice, but occasionally a passive infinitive ending in '''-wer''' will be lexicalized because it is somehow special, so then, the stem is still the infinitive minus the '''-er''' ending. All Mirad verbs are conjugated in the same way and there are no exceptions. : This shows how to determine the '''''stem''''' of a verb listed in the dictionary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Stems |- ! Simple Infinitive !! Stem<big>+</big>Infinitive Ending |- | '''yex<u>er</u>'''....''to work'' || '''yex<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''pos<u>er</u>'''....''to (come to a) stop'' || '''pos<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''x<u>er</u>'''....''to do'' || '''x<big>+</big>er''' |- | '''xw<u>er</u>'''....''to happen, be done'' (PASSIVE)|| '''xw<big>+</big>er''' |} === Verb Formants === : The active stems of verbs most often end in one of the following verb formants: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Formats |- ! Verb Formant !! Function !! Examples |- | '''-x-''' || action or causation || '''xer'''....''to do'', '''saxer'''....''to create'', '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'', '''yixer'''....''to use'', '''abaxer'''....''to pat'' |- | '''-xl-'''|| forceful action || '''yixler'''....''to employ'', '''abaxler'''....''to knead'' |- | '''-xr-'''|| more forceful action || '''yixrer'''....''to wear out'', '''abaxrer'''....''to rub'' |- | '''-b-'''|| gesture || '''ber'''....''to put'', '''aber'''....''to apply'', '''yujber'''....''to close'', '''gober'''....''to subtract'' |- | '''-bl-'''|| forceful gesture || '''yujbler'''....''to lock'', '''gobler'''....''to cut'' |- | '''-br-'''|| more forceful gesture || '''yobrer'''....''to knock down'', '''gobrer'''....''to chop'' |- | '''-s-''' || state or becoming || '''ser'''....''to be'', '''eser'''....''to exist'', '''aser'''....''to become'', '''beser'''....''to remain'', '''paser'''....''to move'' |- | '''-sl-''' || more intensive || '''besler'''....''to linger'', '''pasler'''....''to shake'' |- | '''-sr-''' || most intensive || '''besrer'''....''to loiter'', '''pasrer'''....''to convulse'' |- | '''-p-''' || motion or going || '''per'''....''to go'', '''yaper'''....''to ascend'', '''paper'''....''to fly'' |- | '''-pl-''' || more intensive || '''yapler'''....''to climb'', '''zyepler'''....''to intrude'' |- | '''-pr-''' || most intensive || '''yaprer'''....''to scramble up'', '''yeprer'''....''to break in'' |- | '''-i-'''|| action toward subject || '''bier'''....''to take'', '''nier'''....''to consume'', '''ifier'''.'..''to enjoy'', '''dier'''....''to ask'' |- | '''-u-'''|| action toward object || '''buer'''....''to give'', '''nuer'''....''to supply'', '''ifuer'''....''to please'', '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''-d-''' || communication || '''der'''....''to say'', '''vader'''....''to affirm'', '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''-dr-''' || writing || '''drer'''....''to write'', '''teedrer'''....''to report'', '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''-dy-''' || reading || '''dyer'''....''to read'' |- | '''-t-''' || knowing (a thing)|| '''ter'''....''to know'', '''tester'''....''to understand'', '''teater'''....''to see'' |- | '''-tr-''' || knowing (a person)|| '''trer'''....''to recognize'' |- | '''-ty-''' || knowing (how) || '''tyer'''....''to know how'' |- | '''-f-''' || volition and modal verbs || '''fer'''....''to want'', '''ifer'''....''to love'', '''ufer'''....''to hate'', '''yafer'''....''to be able'' |- | '''-fi-''' || toward the subject || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''-fu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifuer'''....''to amuse'' |- | '''-fl-''' || more intensive || '''ifler'''....''to be fond of'', '''yafler'''....''to wield power'' |- | '''-fli-''' || toward the subject || '''iflier'''....''to be charmed by'' |- | '''-flu-''' || toward a patient || '''ifluer'''....''to enchant'' |- | '''-fr-''' || most intenstive || '''ifrer'''....''to worship'', '''ufrer'''....''to loathe'', '''yufrer'''....''to cringe'' |- | '''-fri-''' || toward the subject || '''ifrier'''....''to become infatuated with'' |- | '''-fru-''' || toward a patient || '''ifruer'''....''to infatuate'' |- | '''-v-''' || some modal verbs || '''yiver'''....''to have a right to'', '''yuver'''....''to have a duty to'' |- | '''-vi-''' || toward the subject || '''ivier'''....''to derive joy from'' |- | '''-vu-''' || toward a patient || '''ivuer'''....'' to cheer up'' |- | '''-vl-''' || more intensive || '''yuvler'''....''to be bound to'', '''yavler'''....''to be proud'' |- | '''-vli-''' || toward the subject || '''yavlier'''....''to take pride in'' |- | '''-vlu-''' || toward a patient || '''yavluer'''....''to instill pride in'' |- | '''-vr-''' || most intensive || '''uvrer'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vri-''' || toward the subject || '''uvrier'''....''to grieve'' |- | '''-vru-''' || toward a patient || '''uvruer'''....''to aggrieve'' |- | '''-k-''' || various verbs || '''aker'''....''to win'', '''oker'''....''to lose'', '''eker'''....''to play'', '''yeker'''....''to try'', '''yaker'''....''to expect'', '''yoker'''....''to be surprised by'' |- | '''-ki-''' || toward the subject || '''akier'''....''to gain from'', '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' |- | '''-ku-''' || toward a patient || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''-kl-''' || more intensive || '''akler'''....''to conquer'', '''yekler'''....''to strive'' |- | '''-kli-''' || toward the subject || '''eklier'''....''to take a risk'' |- | '''-klu-''' || toward a patient || '''ekluer''....''to put at risk'' |- | '''-kr-''' || most intensive || '''akrer'''....''to triumph'' |- | '''-j-''' || opening/closing || '''ijer'''....''to begin'', '''ujer'''....''to end'', '''tajer'''....''to be born'', '''tojer'''....''to die'', '''yujer'''....''to close'' |- | '''-jl-''' || more intensive || '''yujler'''....''to lock'' |- | '''-jr-''' || most intensive || '''yujrer'''....''to block'' |- | '''-l-''' || a few verbs || '''baler'''....''to press'', '''boler'''....''to support'', '''beler'''....''to carry'', '''daler'''....''to speak'', '''deler'''....''to state'', '''doler'''....''to be quiet'', '''galer'''....''to multiply'', '''goler'''....''to divide'', ....'''mageler'''....''to cook'' |- | '''-r-''' || a few verbs || '''ingarer'''....''to cube'', '''engorer'''....''to get the square root of'''''barer'''....''to crush'' |- | '''-ar-'''<br>'''-ir-'''<br>'''-ur-'''|| tool use || '''ukarer'''....''to shovel'', '''purer'''....''to drive'', '''myekirer'''....''to mill'' |- | '''-z-'''|| perform an art || '''dazer'''....''to dance'', '''dezer'''....''to act'', '''deuzer'''...''to sing'' |} : Verbs containing formants '''s''' or '''p''' are generally intransitive, while all the other formants create transitive verbs. All of the verbs with transitive formants can be passivized by adding '''w''', eg.: :* '''oker'''....''to lose'' <big>→</big> '''okwer'''....''to be lost'' :* '''baler'''....''to press'' <big>→</big> '''balwer'''....''to be pressed'' :* '''koxer'''....''to hide'' <big>→</big> '''koxwer'''....''to be hidden'' :* '''ujler'''....''to lock'' <big>→</big> '''ujlwer'''....''to be locked'' :* '''ser'''....''to be'' (cannot be passivized) :* '''per'''....''to go'' (cannot be passivized) : Some verbs with formants '''-pl-''' and '''-pr-''' can usually be passivized with '''w''', eg.: :* '''yaprer'''....''to clime'' <big>→</big> '''yaprwer'''....''to be climbed'' :* '''aypler'''....''to surmount'' <big>→</big> '''ayplwer'''....''to be surmounted'' == Verb Categories == : Verbs have '''''morphological categories''''', which involve changes to the verb not always found in the dictionary, but developed through rule-bound affixation (such as ''live'', ''lives'', ''lived'', ''living''). They also have '''''lexical categories''''', which involve derived forms usually listed in dictionaries (''enjoy'', ''enjoyable'', ''enjoyment'') === Morphological Categories === : Verbs are inflected with the following '''''morphological categories''''': ::* '''''2 states''''': finite, non-finite ::* '''''4 tenses''''': present, past, future, atemporal¹ ::* '''''5 aspects''''': simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential ::* '''''2 voices''''': active, passive ::* '''''2 moods''''': indicative, hypothetical :<small>'''''Note 1:''''' The term "atemporal" means that tense is not marked. For example, in Mirad, '''Pu!''' is the imperative of the verb '''per'''....''to go''. It means ''Go!'' and is atemporal. The '''-u''' ending is an atemporal hypothetical mood marker.</small> : In effect, the PERSON/NUMBER category is not listed above, because this category does not affect the morphology of the Mirad verb form itself. The Mirad verb form stays the same for all persons and numbers. That information is contained in the external subject pronouns governing the verb. In English, for example, the verb "be" has several different forms in the present tense verb form depending on the person and number (I <u>am</u>, you <u>are</u>, he <u>is</u>, we <u>are</u>, etc.), but not so in Mirad. The following chart shows how the English pattern differs from the corresponding single Mirad verb form '''se''' for all persons and numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller" |+ Verb '''ser''' (''to be'') Unchanged for person/number |- ! Person !! Number !! English !! Mirad |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Singular | ''I <u>am</u>'' || '''at <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you <u>are</u>'' || '''et <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''he/she <u>is</u>'' || '''it <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 1st !! row=1 rowspan=3| Plural | ''we <u>are</u>'' || '''yat <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 2nd | ''you (pl.) <u>are</u>'' || '''yet <u>se</u>''' |- !row=1| 3rd | ''they <u>are</u>'' || '''yit <u>se</u>''' |} : This invariability of person/number exists for all tenses. === Lexical Categories === :: In addition, verbs can be described in terms of the following opposing '''''lexical''''' categories. By lexical, is meant that verbs having different lexical properties are listed in the dictionary and have nothing to do with conjugation. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Verb Lexical Categories |- ! Stative !! Dynamic |- | '''ser'''....''to be'' || '''xer'''....''to do'' |- ! Intransitive !! Transitive |- | '''agaser'''....''to grow large'' || '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' |- ! Reflexive !! Non-reflexive |- | '''utvyixer'''....''to wash up (wash oneself)'' || '''vyixer'''....''to wash'' |- ! Inchoative !! Causative |- | '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' |- ! Autonomous !! Dynamic |- | '''yijer'''....''to open (by itself)'' || '''yijber'''....''to (make it) open'' |- ! Reciprocal !! Non-reciprocal |- | '''hyuittujber'''....''to kill one another'' || '''tujber'''....''to kill'' |- ! Gestural !! Locomotive |- | '''baser'''....''to stir, budge'' || '''paser'''....''to move'' |- ! Subject-oriented !! Object-oriented |- | '''teetyiker'''....''to be hard of hearing'' || '''teetyikwer'''....''to be hard to hear'' |} == Non-finite Forms == : '''''Non-finite verb forms''''' are ::* not conjugated for person or number ::* cannot form a predicate ::* and do not have a subject. : There are three kinds of non-finite verb forms in Mirad: ::* '''''infinitives''''': the dictionary lookup form of a verb, ending in '''-er''' :::* '''der'''....''to say'', '''tixayer'''....''to have studied'', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' ::* '''''gerunds''''': verbal nouns, ending in '''-en''' :::* '''byasen'''....''(the act of) standing'' ::* '''''participles''''': verbal adjectives, ending in '''-a''' :::* '''tejea'''....''living (alive)'', '''twa'''....''known'', '''piya'''....''departed'' === Infinitives === : Verbs are listed in the dictionary under the '''''active voice simple aspect infinitive''''' form, which always ends in '''er''' and means ''to X'', or rarely the passive voice simple aspect infinitive form, which ends in '''wer''' and means ''to be Xed''. The part of the verb form minus the '''-er''' or '''-wer''' is the '''''verb stem'''''. Very rarely at verb can be expressed as a past active or past passive infinitive in '''ayer''' and '''awer''', respectively. (For example: '''Tejayer boy ifawer naze glo.'''....''To have lived without having loved counts little.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em" |+ Infinitive Stems |- ! Infinitivw || Stem !! Ending |- | '''agser'''....''to grow'' || '''ags-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''igxer'''....''to quicken'' || '''igx-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''per'''....''to go'' || '''p-''' || '''-er''' |- | '''xwer'''....''to happen, be done'' || '''x-''' || '''-wer''' |- | '''tejayer'''....''to have lived'' || '''tej-''' || '''-ayer''' |- | '''ifawer'''....''to have loved'' || '''if-''' || '''-awer''' |} : The infinitive in Mirad is used very much as its counterpart in English. The infinitive can be marked for two aspects (simple, perfect) and two voices (active, passive), as shown in the chart below, where the verb stems are underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Active and Passive Infinitive Stems |- ! Aspect !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple | '''<u>igx</u>er'''....''to quicken'' || '''<u>igx</u>wer'''....''to be quickened'' |- !row=1| Perfect | '''<u>igx</u>ayer'''....''to have quickened'' || '''<u>igx</u>awer'''....''to have been quickened'' |} : In the above chart, ::* the verb stem is '''igx-''' and ::* the infinitive marker is '''-er'''; ::* the simple aspect active voice marker is zero; ::* the simple aspect passive voice marker is '''w'''; ::* the perfect aspect active voice marker is '''-ay-'''; ::* the past aspect passive voice marker is '''-aw-'''. The passive voice infinitive of a verb will not appear in the dictionary unless it has a special meaning, such as '''xwer''' ''to happen (= to be done)''. The perfect infinitives are never listed in the dictionary. === Gerunds === : The gerund is a verbal noun like English ''playing'' in ''playing ball.'' : The gerund has two possible '''''aspects''''' (simple and perfect) and two possible '''''voices''''' (active and passive): {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em; " |+ Gerund Formation |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Ending !! Example |- !row=1| Simple !! Active | '''-en''' || '''agax<u>en</u>'''....''magnifiying, magnification'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Passive | '''-wen''' || '''agax<u>wen</u>'''....''being magnified'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Active | '''-ayen''' || '''byek<u>ayen</u>'''....''having cured'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Passive | '''-awen''' || '''byek<u>awen</u>'''....''having been cured'' |} : Note: Intransitive verbs like '''per''' ''to go'' do not have a passive gerund form. : Lexicalized gerunds, such as '''sanxen''' ''formation, forming'' generally appear in the dictionary in the active voice. : Some examples of gerund usage: ::* ('''sanxer'''....''to form'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ha <u>sanxen</u> bi hia mar efxa amroni bi jabi.'''....''The <u>forming</u> (or: <u>formation</u>) of this star took millions of years.'' ::* ('''deuzer'''....''to sing'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Iyta <u>deuzen</u> sa gla via.'''....''Her <u>singing</u> was very beautiful.'' ::* ('''poper'''....''to travel'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Popen</u> se yika yex.'''....''<u>Traveling</u> is hard work.'' ::* ('''teeter'''....''to hear'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teetwen</u> fiay se teskyia av dezuti.'''....''<u>Being heard</u> well is important for actors.'' ::* ('''teater'''....''to see'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<u>Teaten</u> se <u>vyatexen</u>.'''.....''<u>Seeing</u> is <u>believing</u>.'' ::* ('''uper'''....''to come'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''His se ha jeb bi <u>Upen</u>.'''....''This is the season of <u>Advent</u> (coming).'' ::* ('''tadier'''....''to get married'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''Ata <u>tadiayen</u> ewa jodi bixa tepzex.'''....''My <u>having married</u> twice drew attention.'' ::* ('''aker'''....''to win'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''At voy ta ita <u>akawen</u> hua nuz.'''....''I did not know about his <u>having won</u> that prize.'' : Gerunds, being verb forms, can take direct and indirect objects: ::* '''At ifxwe bey eta buayen at hua nas.'''....''I am pleased by your having given me that money.'' ::* '''Tojben eut voy se kexbiyaf.'''....''Killing yourself is not an option.'' : The special gerundive ending '''-eyn''' gives a nuance emphasizing the action as a single act, much like the English endings ''-ment'' or ''-tion''. Here are a few examples showing the difference between '''-en''' and '''-eyn'''. ::* '''yanlaxen'''....''combining''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yanlaxeyn'''....''combination'' ::* '''xen'''....''doing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''xeyn'''....''action, deed'' ::* '''zayben'''....''advancing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zaybeyn'''....''advancement'' : Another special gerundive (but lexical) ending is '''-un''', which expresses the result of an action, eg.: ::* '''zyegxer'''....''to puncture''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyegxun'''....''a puncture'' ::* '''zyeuber'''....''to transmit''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyeubun'''....''a broadcast'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>≠<</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''deuzun'''....''a song'' === Participles === : Participles are verbal adjectives and can modify nouns and pronouns. Since they act as adjectives, they have the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Participles are marked by '''''aspect''''' (simple, progressive, perfect, imminent, potential) and '''''voice''''' (active, passive). : The aspect markers per voice are: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:1.6em;" |+ Aspect Markers |- ! Aspect !! Voice !! Form !! Example |- ! rowspan=2| Progressive ! rowspan=1 | Active | '''-ea-''' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- ! rowsspan=1 | Passive | '''wea''' || '''xwea'''....''happening, being done'' |- ! rowspan=2| Perfect ! rowspan=1 |Active | '''-ya''' || '''pya'''....''gone'' (< '''pyaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wa''' || '''xwa'''....''done'' (< '''xwaa'''¹) |- ! rowspan=2| Imminent ! Active | '''-oa''' || '''tojoa'''....''about to die'' |- ! rowspan=1 | Passive | '''-woa''' || '''dodelwoa'''....''about to be announced'' |- ! rowspan=2| Potential ! Active | '''-ua''' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- ! rowspan=1| Passive | '''-wua''' || '''opoxwua'''....''unstoppable'' |} : <small>¹: The double '''aa''' in the perfect endings is reduced to '''a'''.</small> : '''''Note 1:''''' The perfect active particple ending in '''-ya''' is used only for intransitive verbs like '''per''' (''to go''). '''He is <u>gone</u>.''' is expressed by '''Wit se <u>pya</u>'''. : '''''Note 2:''''' The potential aspect, represented by the vowel '''u''' is much like the conditional in English, but is not considered a tense in Mirad. For example, '''tojbu''' means ''would kill'' and the participle '''tojbua''' means ''lethal'' (referring to something that ''would/has the potential to kill''). More about this in a later section. : '''''Note 3:''''' There is another form of the progressive participle that falls in the lexical, rather than morphological category, in that such forms are listed in the dictionary as adjectives. For example, in the phrase ''The animals <u>bothering</u> our bird feeder...'', the participle ''bothering'' would be '''oboxea''' in Mirad. By inserting the letter '''y''' between the verb stem and the participial ending, the participle becomes an adjective denoting a propensity or habit, as in ''bothersome'' ('''obox<u>y</u>ea'''). Such participles are invariably in the active voice. Most such adjectives in English end in ''-ive'' as in ''repulsive'' or ''-ly'' as in ''wiggly'' or ''-ous'' as in ''circuitous.'' Such adjectives in Mirad are listed in the dictionary and end in '''-yea'''. : Adverbial participles can be made from the above adjectival participles, by suffixing the letter '''y'''. Examples: ::* '''Iyt yepa ha tim <u>deuzeay</u>.'''....''She entered the room <u>singing</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Ujbaway</u> ha dodal, it pia.'''....''The speech <u>having been finished</u>, he left.'' : Also, the above participles can be converted into abstract nouns by suffixing '''n'''. Examples: ::* '''tiluwa'''....''drinkable'' <big>→</big> '''tiluwan'''....''potability'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuan'''....''lethality'' ::* '''mansea'''....''shining'' <big>→</big> '''he <u>mansean</u> bi iyta deuzen'''....''the <u>brilliance</u> of her singing'' ::* '''aakaxyea'''....''inventive'' <big>→</big> '''aakaxyean'''....''inventiveness'' : Furthermore, these participles can sometimes be pronominalized with '''s''' for things and '''t''' for people or living things. These forms can, in turn, be pluralized: ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwas'''....''what is done, a happening'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' <big>→</big> '''xwasi'''....''happenings, deeds'' ::* '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>→</big> '''otwas'''....''what is not known, a mystery'' ::* '''osexea'''....''destroying'' <big>→</big> '''osexeas'''....''a destroyer'' ::* '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' <big>→</big> '''tojbuas'''....''something lethal, a lethal thing'' ::* '''tojboa'''....''moribund'' <big>→</big> '''tojboati'''....''people about to die, fatal cases'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeat'''....''a living person'' ::* '''tejea'''....''living'' <big>→</big> '''tejeasi'''....''living things'' : There is a special tenseless, nominalized, animate participle used for '''''agent''''' nouns (English ''one who does something, Xer'', ''Xant'', ''Xist''), which refers to a person who habitually does some action, perhaps as a profession or trade. These agent nouns end in '''-ut'''. ::* '''sexut'''....''builder'' ::* '''nuut'''....''supplier'' ::* '''tojbut'''....''killer'' ::* '''ifut'''....''lover'' ::* '''akuti'''....''winners'' : Note: There is a slight difference of meaning between the tensed participial pronoun '''ha akeat'''....''the one winning'' and the non-tensed agent noun '''ha akut'''....''the winner''. : Similarly, there is a special tenseless, nominalized, <u>in</u>animate participle used for a thing that performs the action denoted by the verb stem. These agent nouns end in '''-us'''. ::* '''yuxus'''....''aid (a thing that helps)'' ::* '''byuxwus'''....''button (a thing that gets touched on the keyboard)'' ::* '''paxus'''....''motive (a thing that moves one)'' ::* '''jaupus'''....''precedent (a thing that comes before)'' : The above '''-us''' ending contrasts with the endings '''-ar''' (''instrument''), '''-ir''' (''machine''), '''-ur''' (''motor, engine''), which are physical objects and not always suffixed to a verbal root. == Finite Forms == [[File:Auxiliary verbs tree 3.png|thumb|]] : In Mirad, finite verb forms are those that can take a person subject, serve as a predicate, and be conjugated. Finite verb forms are conjugated by using suffixes indicating, through their presence or absence, the following categories: <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* TENSES :::# '''''present''''' :::# '''''past''''' :::# '''''future''''' :::# '''''atemporal''''' ::* MOODS :::# '''''indicative''''' :::# '''''hypothetical''''' ::* ASPECTS :::# '''''simple''''' :::# '''''progressive''''' :::# '''''perfect''''' :::# '''''imminent''''' :::# '''''potential''''' ::* VOICES :::# '''''active''''' :::# '''''passive''''' :::# '''''reflexive''''' :::# '''''reciprocal''''' </div> : Person and number are not marked on the verb form itself. For example, ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', which change according to the person subject in English, are all expressed with the same verb form in Mirad: '''se'''. Thus, '''at se'''....''I am'', '''et se'''....''you are'', '''it se'''....''he/she/it is'', etc. === Moods === : There are two moods in Mirad: ::* '''''indicative''''' ::* '''''hypothetical'''''. ===== Indicative Mood ===== : The '''''indicative''''' form of the verb indicates an action or state that occurs in actual time, such as ''he went'', ''he is going'', ''he will go.'' : The indicative mood has three tenses, '''''present''''', '''''past''''', '''''future''''', indicated by the suffixes '''-e''', '''-a''', and '''-o''', respectively. ===== Hypothetical Mood ===== : Wheras the indicative verb forms expresses actuality in time, the '''''hypothetical mood''''' expresses one of the non-actuality situations below and uses the vowel '''u'''. ::* a command , i.e. the '''''imperative''''' (''Go!'') ::* a wish or suggestion, i.e. the '''''hortative''''' or '''''jussive''''' (''May the king live long!'', ''Let's celebrate!'') ::* an unrealized situation, i.e. the '''''subjunctive''''' (''It is important that you <u>be</u> early.'') ::* an imagined if-then-situation, i.e. the '''''conditional''''' (''If I <u>were</u> rich, I <u>would be</u> happy.'') === Aspects === : There are five aspects in the Mirad verb system. <div style="background: lightyellow"> ::* the '''''simple''''' aspect (default), i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. ::* the '''''progressive''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state on-going in the particular tense, using '''ey''' ::* the '''''perfective''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state anterior or already completed, using '''ay''' ::* the '''''imminent''''' aspect, i.e. an action or state about to happen, using '''oy''' ::* the '''''potential''''' aspect, i.e. an action potentially happening, using '''uy''' </div> ===== The Simple Aspect ===== :: Unless specifically marked, the default aspect is '''''simple''''', i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-conditional. Three indicative tenses can be expressed in the simple aspect: ::* Present with '''e''' ::* Past with '''a''' ::* Future with '''o'''. :: An atemporal verb ending in '''u''' in the simple aspect is considered hypothetical and expresses three things, depending on how it is used in the sentence: ::* a conditional like ''I would go (if...)'' ::* an imperative like ''Go!'' ::* a hortative like ''Let's go!'' ::* a subjunctive like ''(It is important that) we go.'' :: Here is a chart showing the simple, active voice instantiations of the Mirad verb '''per''' (''to go'') with the endings underlined: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em;" |+ Simple Active Conjugation of '''Per''' |- ! Mood !! Tense !! Aspect !! Voice !! Instantiation !! Verb '''per''' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Present !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>e</u>'''....''I go'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Past !! Simple !! Active !! | '''At p<u>a</u>'''....''I went'' |- !row=1| Indicative !! Future !! Simple !! Active !! |'''At p<u>o</u>'''....''I will go'' |- !row=1 rowspan=4 | Hypothetical !rowspan=4| Atemporal !rowspan=4| Simple !rowspan=4| Active ! Conditional |'''At p<u>u</u>'''....''I would go'' |- ! Hortative/Optative/Jussive |'''Van yat p<u>u</u>!'''....''Let's go!'' |- ! Imperative |'''P<u>u</u> tam!'''....''Go home!'' |- ! Subjunctive |'''Se efwa van et p<u>u</u>.'''....''It is necessary that you go.'' |} : Note that the last four instantiations are the same tense, but differ in syntax. For example, if the verb form is hypothetical, atemporal, simple, active and has no subject, it operates as an imperative. ==== The Simple Indicative Present Active Tense ==== :: The simple indicative present instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''e''' and has a non-progressive ('''''habitual''''') aspect as in English ''I work'' or ''I live''. Progressive aspect forms like ''I am studying'' are explained later. :: Examples: :::* '''At <u>yexe</u> be tam.''' ....''I <u>work</u> at home''. :::* '''Hia tom <u>se</u> nam.''' ....''This building <u>is</u> a store.'' :::* '''Ha amur <u>yuzpe</u> ha imer.'''....''The moon <u>goes around</u> the earth.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Past Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative past tense instantiation is marked with the vowel suffix '''a''' and has a non-progressive (punctual) meaning as in English ''I did something at some particular point in time''. The simple past contrasts in aspect with the past progressive (''I was doing something'') or the present perfect (''I have done something''), or past potential (''I would have done something''). The simple past is punctual, that is, it describes an event that occurred at a particular point in time. : Examples: ::* '''Iyt <u>iba</u> ha nyuf zojub.''' ....''She <u>received</u> the package yesterday.'' ::* '''At <u>ujba</u> ha dyes ji iwa jwobi.''' ....''I <u>finished</u> the book three hours ago.'' ::* '''His <u>kyesa</u> exag hijub.'''....''This <u>happened</u> twice today.'' ==== The Simple Indicative Future Active Tense ==== : The simple indicative future tense is marked with the vowel suffix '''o''' and has the same meaning as in English ''I will do something at some particular point in the future''. : Examples: ::* '''Yit <u>tadso</u> zajab.'''....''They <u>are going to get married</u> next year.'' ::* '''Hua kaxon <u>ujako</u>.''' ....''That solution <u>will work</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>so</u> him hoj et <u>upo</u>.'''....''I <u>will be</u> here when you <u>(will) come.</u>¹'' :: Note 1: Unlike in English, Mirad does not use the present tense for a real future. There is also no sequence of tenses in Mirad (such as, ''He said he was coming.''. In Mirad, this would be expressed as ''He said he <u>will</u> come.''). ==== The Simple Hypothetical Atemporal Active Tense ==== : A verb form ending in '''u''' like '''pu''' has no time value and is used to express unreal actions or states, such as the '''''imperative''''', '''''hortative''''', '''''conditional''''', or '''''subjunctive'''''. : Examples: ::* '''<u>Upu</u> him!'''....''<u>Come</u> here!'' ('''''imperative''''') ::* '''<u>Von upu</u>!''' ....''<u>Don't come</u>!'' ('''''negative imperative''''') ::* '''Ha edeb <u>fu</u> teater et.''' ....''The king <u>would like</u> to see you.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Ven at <u>su</u> et, at <u>dolu</u>.''' ....''If I <u>were</u> you, I <u>would be</u> quiet.'' ('''''conditional''''') ::* '''Van yeyt <u>ujaku</u> be yeyta yexneadi.''' ....''May all you (women) <u>succeed</u> in your careers.'' ('''''hortative''''') ::* '''Van yat <u>ijbu</u> bay fyadil.''' ....''Let's <u>begin</u> with a prayer.'' ('''''jussive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>van et puu</u> jwa.''' ....''It's important <u>that you arrive</u> early.'' ('''''subjunctive''''') ::* '''Se kyitesa <u>von et puu</u> jwo.'''....''It's important <u>that you not arrive</u> late.'' ('''''negative subjunctive''''') : Hypothetical verb forms ending in '''-u''' can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the following syntactical patterns in the sentence: ::* Generally, if a verb form ending in '''-u''' begins a sentence and has no subject, then it is an IMPERATIVE (a command). For example, '''Ipu!''', ''Go away!''. ::* If the verb form has a subject not preceded by the complementizers '''van''', '''ven''', or '''von''', then it is probably a conditional predicate like '''At fu per.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to go.''. ::* If the subject of the verb is preceded by '''ven'''....''if'', then it is a conditional clause as in '''Ven at <u>su</u> nasikat...'''....''If I <u>were</u> a rich man.''. ::* If the subject is preceded by '''Van'''....''that/let/may'' or '''von'''....''don't'', then it is a hortative wish like '''Van et yagteju.'''....''May you live long.'' or a jussive suggestion like '''Van yat fyadilu.'''....''Let us pray.'' or a prohibition like '''Von tiliu his!'''....''Don't drink this!''. === Voices === : Mirad has four voices: ::* Active ::* Passive ::* Reflexive ::* Reciprocal. ==== Active Voice ==== : The default voice is active, i.e. the subject of the verb is doing the action. ::* '''At teata ha kyes.'''....''I saw the event.'' ==== Passive Voice ==== : A verb form is converted from active to passive by inserting a '''w''' just after the stem of the verb form. The past passive particle ending '''-waa''' is usually abbreviated to '''-wa''' (''done'' is '''xwa'''). : The following chart shows the distinction between active and passive voice of various verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Contrasting Active and Passive Voice ! Verb Form !! Active !! Active<br>Example !! Passive !! Passive<br>Example |- !row=1| Infinitive | '''xer'''<br>''to do'' || '''At fe xer fi.'''<br>''I want to do well.'' || '''xwer'''<br>''to be done'' || '''Ese hyos xwer.'''<br>''There is nothing to be done.'' |- !row=1| Present Participle | '''sexea'''<br>''constructing'' || '''Ha nunxob sexea hia tom...'''<br>''The firm constructing this building...''|| '''sexewa'''<br>''being constructed'' || '''His se sexewa.'''<br>''This is under construction.'' |- !row=1| Present | '''xe'''<br>''do/does'' ||'''At xe fi be tixam.'''<br>''I do well in school.'' || '''xwe'''<br>''is done'' || '''Huyenasi hoj xwe.'''<br>''Such things are never done.'' |- !row=1| Past Participle | '''xaa'''<br>''having done'' || '''Iyt, xaa hya iyta yex,...'''<br>''She, having done all her work,...'' ||'''xwa'''<br>''done'' || '''Hyas se xwa.'''<br>''Everything is done.'' |- !row=1| Past | '''tojba'''<br>''killed'' || '''Duhot tojba hwut?'''<br>''Who killed that guy?'' || '''tojbwa'''<br>''was killed'' || '''Duhoj wit tojbwa?'''<br>''When was he killed?'' |- !row=1| Hypothetical | '''bakxu'''<br>''heal'' || '''Bakxu at!'''<br>''Heal me!'' || '''bakxwu'''<br>''be healed'' || '''Van iyt bakxwu.'''<br>''May she be healed.'' |} : Intransitive verbs cannot be made passive. For example, '''tajer'''....''to be born'' is intransitive (takes no object) and has no passive voice form. However, the transitive verb '''tajber'''....''to bear, give birth'' can be passive, as in '''Ha tudet <u>tajbwa</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was delivered</u> yesterday'' (as opposed to '''Ha tudet <u>taja</u> zajub.'''....''The child <u>was born</u> yesterday.)'' Notice how this works with '''yijer''' (''to open''): ::* '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened (by itself).'' (medio-passive) ::* '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' (dynamic medio-passive) ::* '''Yijbu ha mes.'''....''Open the door.'' (transitive active) ::* '''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened (by someone).'' (passive) : Impassive verbs form their past particple with the ending '''ya''', but these forms are somewhat rare. Here are some examples: ::* '''per'''....''to go'' -> '''pya'''....''gone'' ::* '''tajer'''....''to be born'' -> '''tajya'''....''born'' (ex.'''Jesus tajya bi Marya.''''....''Jesus, born of Mary'') ::* '''tojer'''....''to die'' -> '''tojya'''....''dead'' ::* '''loteaser'''....''to disappear'' -> '''loteasya'''....''disappeared'' (ex. '''Ha loteasya tobi be Arogem.'''....''the disappeared persons in Argentina.'') ==== Reflexive Voice ==== : A verb is made reflexive by prefixing the reflexive pronoun '''ut''' (''self''), for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''to kill oneself'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''utvyilxer'''....''to wash up'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''utteater'''....''to see oneself'' ::* '''yabler'''....''to lift'' <big>→</big> '''utyabler'''....''to lift oneself'' → '''Utyablu!'''....''Lift yourself up!'' ::* '''trer'''....''to know'' <big>→</big> '''uttrer'''....''to know oneself'' → '''Uttru!'''....''Know thyself!'' ==== Reciprocal Voice ==== : A verb is made reciprocal by prefixing the reciprocal pronoun '''hyuit'''....''one another'', for example: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' <big>→</big> '''hyuittojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''vyilxer'''....''to wash'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitvyilxer'''....''to wash one another'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' <big>→</big> '''hyuitteater'''....''to see one another'' : Both the reflexive pronoun and reciprocal pronoun can be used as standalone objects. However, the plural form '''yut''' is used if the subject is plural, for example: ::* '''Yit vyilxa <u>yut</u>.'''....''They (f.) washed up. (= washed <u>selves</u>).'' ::* '''Ha twobeti dizeuda <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''The boys laughed at <u>one another</u>.'' : The word '''hyuit''' is a hybrid of '''hyit'''....''the same one'' combined with '''hyut'''....''the other one''. ==== Aspects Revisited ==== : Mirad verbs have the following aspects: ::* '''''Simple''''' -- this is the default aspect, shown above, i.e. non-progressive, non-perfect, non-imminent, and non-potential. ::* '''''Progressive''''' -- this is an aspect where the verb describes an on-going action or state spread over time. ::* '''''Perfect''''' -- this presents the action or state as anterior, or completed prior to another action or state. ::* '''''Immininent''''' -- this describes an action or state ''about to happen.'' ::* '''''Potential''''' -- this refers to an action or state where something is ''possible''. ==== The Simple Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Simple aspect. In the active voice, the tense vowels '''a''', '''e''', '''o''', and '''u''' are affixed to the stem. In the passive voice, the passive marker consonant '''w''' is inserted between the stem and the final tense vowels. The simple present tense refers to actions or states that are habitual (''I regularly go to school.''), regular (''The earth revolves around the sun.''), or permanent (''Blue is a color.''). The simple past refers to actions or states that occurred at a fixed point in time (''I did my homework last night.''). The simple future refers to actions or states that will occur at some particular point in the future (''The sun will rise tomorrow at dawn.''). The simple atemporal hypothetical ( = conditional) refers to an imagined action or state that has not be realized (''You would make a good president.''). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow ;font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Simple !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>e</u>'''....''I do'' || '''Has x<u>we</u>'''....''It is done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>a</u>'''....''I did'' || '''Has x<u>wa</u>'''....''It was done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Future !! Indicative | '''At x<u>o</u>'''....''I will do'' || '''Has x<u>wo</u>'''....''It will be done'' |- !row=1| Simple !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>u</u>'''....''I would do''¹ || '''Has x<u>wu</u>'''....''It would be done'' |} : 1: Absence of tense (Atemporal) + Hypothetical mood = '''''conditional'''''. ==== The Progressive Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Progressive aspect. The present tense vowel '''e''' followed by a buffer consonant, are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller; " |+ Progressive Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Progressive !! Present !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eye</u>'''....''I am doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewe</u>'''....''it is being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Past !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eya</u>'''....''I was doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewa</u>'''....''it was being done'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Future !! Indicative | '''at x<u>eyo</u>'''....''I am going to be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewo</u>'''....''it will be happening'' |- !row=1| Progressive !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''at x<u>eyu</u>'''....''I would be doing'' || '''Has x<u>ewu</u>'''....''it would be happening'' |} ==== The Perfect Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Perfect aspect. The past tense vowel '''a''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Perfect Aspect |- ! Aspect !! Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Perfect !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aye</u>'''....''I have done'' || '''Has x<u>awe</u>'''....''It has been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>aya</u>'''....''I had done'' || '''Has x<u>awa</u>'''....''It had been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Future !! Indicative |'''At x<u>ayo</u>'''....''I will have done'' || '''Has x<u>awo</u>'''....''It will have been done'' |- !row=1| Perfect !! Atemporal !! Hypothetical | '''At x<u>ayu</u>'''....''I would have done'' || '''Has x<u>awu</u>'''....''It would have been done'' |} ==== The Imminent Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Imminent aspect (sometimes referred to as the Prospective aspect). The future tense vowel '''o''' following by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. Not that only indicative mood imminent tenses are ever used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Imminent Aspect |- ! Aspect || Tense !! Mood !! Active Voice !! Passive Voice |- !row=1| Imminent !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oye</u>'''....''I am about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owe</u>'''....''It is about to be done'' |- !row=1| Imminent !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>oya</u>'''....''I was about to do'' || '''Has x<u>owa</u>'''....''It was about to be done'' |} ==== The Potential Aspect ==== : The following chart presents Mirad verbs in the Potential aspect. The hypothetical vowel '''u''' followed by a buffer consonant are inserted between the stem and the final tense vowel. The buffer consonant is '''y''' in the active voice, or '''w''' in the passive voice. The future potential and hypothetical potential aspects are never used. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Potential Aspect |- ! ASPECT !! TENSE !! MOOD !! ACTIVE VOICE !! PASSIVE VOICE |- !row=1| Potential !! Present !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uye</u>'''....''I am to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwe</u>'''....''It is to be done, it is doable'' |- !row=1| Potential !! Past !! Indicative | '''At x<u>uya</u>'''....''I was to do'' || '''Has x<u>uwa</u>'''....''It was to be done, it was doable'' |} == Verb Conjugation Chart == : The following chart presents the totality of the Mirad affirmative verb conjugation system using the verb '''xer'''....''to do'' and its passive '''xwer'''....''to be done, happen''. The rows beginning with a light blue background are finite forms, while those beginning with light green are non-finite forms. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Conjugation Chart |- valign=top !rowspan=2| State !!rowspan=2| Mood !!rowspan=2| Aspect !!rowspan=2| Tense !! colspan=4|Voice |- ! Active!!Passive |- ! rowspan=16 style="background: lightblue"|Finite !!rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Simple !! Present | '''xe''' <br>''does''||'''xwe'''<br>''is done, happens'' |- ! Past | '''xa''' <br>''did''||'''xwa'''<br>''was done, happened'' |- ! Future | '''xo''' <br>''will do''||'''xwo'''<br>''will be done, will happen'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xu''' <br>''would do, do!''||'''xwu'''<br>''would be done, would happen, be done!'' |- !rowspan=3| Indicative !!rowspan=4| Progressive !! Present | '''xeye'''<br>''is doing''||'''xewe'''<br>''is being done, is happening'' |- ! Past | '''xeya''' <br>''was doing''||'''xewa'''<br>''was doing, was happening'' |- ! Future | '''xeyo'''<br>''will be doing''||'''xewo'''<br>''will be happening'' |- ! Hypothetical|| | '''xeyu''' <br>''would be doing''<br>''be doing!''||'''xewu'''<br>''would be happening'' |- !rowspan=3|Indicative !! rowspan=4| Perfect !! Present | '''xaye''' <br>''has done''||'''xawe''' <br>''has been done, has happened'' |- ! Past | '''xaya''' <br>''had done''||'''xawa'''<br>''had been done, had happened'' |- ! Future | '''xayo''' <br>''will have done''||'''xawo''' <br>''will have been done, will have happened'' |- ! Hypothetical !! | '''xayu''' <br>''would have done''||'''xawu'''<br>''would have been done, would have happened'' |- !rowspan=4| Indicative !! rowspan=2|Imminent !! Present | '''xoye''' <br>''is about to do''||'''xowe'''<br>''is about to be done, is about to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xoya'''<br>''was to be done'' ||'''xowa'''<br>''was to be done, was to happen'' |- ! rowspan=2|Potential !! Present | '''xuye'''<br>''is supposed to do'' ||'''xuwe''' <br>''is supposed to happen'' |- ! Past | '''xuya''' <br>''was supposed to do''||'''xuwa'''<br>''was supposed to be done, was supposed to happen'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen"|Infinitive !! !! Simple !! rowspan=8| | '''xer'''<br>''to do''||'''xwer'''<br>''to be done, to happen'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xayer'''<br>''to have done''||'''xawer'''<br>''to have been done, to have happend'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- ! rowspan=4 style="background: lightgreen"|Participle !! !! Progressive | '''xea'''<br>''doing'' ||'''xewa'''<br>''being done, happening'' |- ! !! Perfect | '''xya''' <br>''having done''||'''xwa'''<br>''done, happened'' |- ! !! Imminent | '''xoa''' <br>''about to do''||'''xowa'''<br>''about to happen'' |- ! !! Potential | '''xua'''<br>''bound to do'' ||'''xuwa'''<br>''doable'' |- ! colspan=6 style="background: black"| |- !rowspan=2 style="background: lightgreen" |Gerund ! !! Simple !! | '''xen''' <br>''doing''||'''xwen''' <br>''being done, happening, event'' |- ! !! Perfect !! | '''xayen'''<br>''having done''||'''xawen'''<br>''having happened'' |} : Note 1: Intransitive verbs such as '''per''' ''to go'' have no passive forms. An expression such as ''They are gone.'' would be translated as '''Yit se pya'''. == Negative Forms == : All of the above verb forms are affirmative. The indicative and conditional forms can be made negative by using the negative adverb '''voy''' (''not'', '' 'nt'', ''doesn't'', ''don't''). Those forms that are subjunctive, jussive, or imperative ending in '''-u''' use the negative subordinate conjunction '''von''' (''don't'', ''let not'', ''lest''). : '''voy'''....''not'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te.'''....''I <u>don</u>'t know.'' (indicative) ::* '''<u>Voy</u> mamilo.'''....''It will <u>not</u> rain.'' (indicative) ::* '''At <u>voy</u> xu hus.'''....''I would <u>not</u> do that.'' (conditional) : '''von'''....''Let's not, don't, let it not'' ::* '''<u>Von</u> mamilu.'''....''<u>Let it not</u> rain.'' (subjunctive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> yat fuyaku.'''....''<u>Let</u> us <u>not</u> despair.'' (jussive) ::* '''<u>Von</u> pu!'''....''<u>Don't</u> go.'' (imperative) : Participles, gerunds, and infinitives can be negated with the prefix '''o-''' (''un-, non-''). ::* '''tosea'''....''feeling'' -> '''otosea'''....''unfeeling'' ::* '''xwa'''....''done'' -> '''oxwa'''....''undone'' ::* '''teliwa'''....''eaten'' -> '''oteliwa'''....''uneaten'' ::* '''tejen'''....''living'' -> '''otejen'''....''not living'' ::* '''buen'''....''giving'' -> '''obuen'''....''not giving'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' -> '''obuer'''....''not to give'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' => '''oter'''....''not to know, i.e. to ignore'' : Partciples, gerunds, and infinitives can also be negated with the word '''voy'' (''not''), eg: ::* '''voy tea ha dud'''....''not knowing the answer'' ::* '''gel voy tejea'''....''like not living'' ::* '''av voy xen hes'''....''for not doing something'' == How to Express Certain English Tenses == : English speakers have some tenses that do not fit into the above schema, and so Mirad uses a combination of verbs to achieve the same sense: ::* The English tense ''I have been studying French for four years.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saye tixea Ferad ji uwa jabi.''' (Mirad present perfect of '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I had been studying'' is translated in Mirad by '''At saya tixer''', the past perfect of the verb '''ser''' (''to be'') + the present participle of the main verb, '''tixer'''. ::* The English tense ''I am going to be starring in that role.'' is translated in Mirad by '''At dezdebeyo be hua dezgon.''' (Mirad future progressive). ::* The modern Black English tense ''Don't you be doing that.'' is handled in Mirad by '''Von et xeyu hus.''' (Mirad imperative progressive). == Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs == : Transitive verbs, which can take a direct object, oppose themselves to intransitive verbs, which do not take a direct object. Some verbs are marked overtly for transitivity. : Verbs that end in '''xer''' (''to do, -ify, -ize'') are by nature transitive, and often have intransitive counterparts in '''ser''' (''to be, become, -ify, -ize''). Likewise, verbs ending in '''ber''' (''to put, take'') are transitive and have intransitive counterparts in '''per''' (''to go''). Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Transitive vs. Intransitive |- ! Transitive !! Intransitive |- | '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ser'''....''be'' |- | '''agxer'''....''grow (something)'' || '''agser'''....''grow (up)'' |- | '''amxer'''....''heat, make hot'' || '''amser'''....''become hot, heat up'' |- | '''puxer'''....''throw'' || '''puser'''....''jump'' |- | '''per'''....''go'' || '''ber'''....''put'' |- | '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''poxer'''....''stop (something)'' || '''poser'''....''(come to a) stop'' |- | '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |} ::* '''At <u>agxe</u> vobi.'''....''I <u>grow</u> [TRANSITIVE] plants.'' ::* '''Ha vobi <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''The plants <u>are growing</u> [INTRANSITIVE] fast.'' ::* '''<u>Poxu</u> ha pur!'''....''<u>Stop</u> [TRANSITIVE] the car!'' ::* '''Ha pur <u>posa</u>.'''....''The car <u>stopped</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' ::* '''At <u>yaba</u> ha mis.'''....''I <u>raised</u> [TRANSITIVE] the window.'' ::* '''Ha amar <u>yapaye</u>.'''....''The sun <u>has risen</u> [INTRANSITIVE].'' === Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity === : Note the following verbs, whose stems end in '''j''' are hard to pronounce with intransitive '''s''' and transitive '''x''', so these two endings are placed with '''p''' and '''b''', respectively, although the presence of the '''p''' is optional, i.e. it's presence or absence can slightly change the meaning from static to dynamic, eg. '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' vs. '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep''. The transitive forms can be either active or passive. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Marking -jer Verbs for Transitivity |- ! colspan=2|Intransitive !! colspan=2|Transitive |- ! Static !! Dynamic !! Active !! Passive |- | '''Ha mes <u>yija</u>'''<br>''The door <u>opened</u>.'' || '''Ha nasyef <u>yijpa</u>'''<br>''The purse <u>came open</u>.'' || '''At <u>yijba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>opened</u> the door.'' || '''Ha mes <u>yijbwa</u> bey yelput.'''<br>''The door <u>was opened</u> by an intruder'' |- | '''Ha mes <u>yuja</u>.'''<br>''The door <u>closed</u>.'' || '''Ha yanup <u>yujpa</u>.'''<br>''The meeting <u>adjourned</u>.'' || '''At <u>yujba</u> ha mes.'''<br>''I <u>closed</u> the door.''||'''Ha mes yeyfe <u>yujbwer</u> ja sumjob.'''<br>''The door should <u>be closed</u> by bedtime.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ijaye</u>.'''<br>''The play <u>has started</u>.''||'''Ha par <u>ijpa</u> boy poys.'''<br>''The car <u>started up</u> immediately.'' ||'''At <u>ijba</u> ata tyal.'''<br>''I <u>started</u> my meal.''||'''Ha tyal <u>ijbwa</u> jwa.'''<br>''The meal <u>was started</u> early.'' |- | '''Ha dezun <u>ujaye</u>.'''<br>''The play has <u>ended</u>.''||'''Ata yex <u>ujpaye</u>.'''<br>''My work <u>has come to an end</u>.'' || '''A <u>ujba</u> ha dyes.'''<br>''I <u>finished</u> the book.''||'''Ha dyes hyoj <u>ujbwa</u>.'''<br>''The book never <u>got finished</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tob <u>toja</u> zomoj.'''<br>''The man <u>died</u> yesterday evening.''||'''Ha tob <u>tojpa</u>.'''<br>''The man <u>dropped dead.</u>'' || '''Hot <u>tojba</u> ha twob?'''<br>''Who <u>killed</u> the man?''||'''Ha twob <u>tojbwa</u> bey ita tayd.'''<br>''The man <u>was killed</u> by his wife.'' |- | '''<u>Teju</u>.'''<br>''<u>Live!</u>.''||'''<u>Tejpu!</u>.'''<br>''<u>Come alive!</u>.'' || '''Yat efe <u>tejber</u> ha twob.'''<br>''We need to <u>revive</u> the man.''||'''Ha twob yofwa <u>tejbwer</u>.'''<br>''The man could not <u>be revived</u>.'' |- | '''Ha tobot <u>taja</u> zojub.'''<br>''The baby <u>was born</u> yesterday.'' || '''Hoj ha tobot <u>tajpo</u>?'''<br>''When <u>will</u> the baby <u>pop out</u>?'' || '''Iyt <u>tajba</u> awa twobot zojub.'''<br>''She <u>gave birth</u> to a baby boy yesterday.''||'''Ha twobot <u>tajbwa</u> jo eymoj.'''<br>''The baby boy was <u>birthed</u> after midnight.'' |- | '''At <u>tija</u> jwe.'''<br>''I <u>woke up</u> on time.''||'''It voy <u>tijpa</u>.'''<br>''He did not <u>come to.</u>.'' || '''At <u>tijbo</u> et jwa.'''<br>''I will <u>wake (you) up</u> early.''||'''At voy fe <u>tijbwo</u> gra jwa.'''<br>''I don't want to <u>be woken</u> too early.'' |- | '''At <u>tujeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>sleeping.</u>''||'''At <u>tujpeya</u>.'''<br>''I was <u>falling sleep</u>.'' || '''At <u>tujbo</u> it.'''<br>''I will <u>put (him) to sleep.</u>.''||'''Ha tobot <u>tujbwo</u> glojo.'''<br>''The baby <u>will be put to sleep</u> soon.'' |} == Reflexive Verbs == [[File:TWC Hokitika Gorge • Stewart Nimmo • MRD 1.jpg|thumb|]] : Reflexive verbs, where the object refers back to the subject, work just as in English, where the object is a reflexive pronoun, eg.: ::* '''At tujboye aut.'''....''I am going to kill myself.'' ::* '''Tru eut!'''....''Know thyself!'' ::* '''It gobla iut bey goblar.'''....''He cut himself with a knife.'' ::* '''Ot yefe yuxer out.'''....''One must help oneself.'' : Sometimes, verbs are reflexive lexically and incorporate the reflexivity in the actual verb form using '''ut''' as the prefix: ::* '''uttujber'''....''commit suicide (= self-kill)'' ::* '''utboler'''....''support oneself (= self-support)'' ::* '''utdider'''....''wonder (= self-ask)'' : Sometimes, verbs are used reflexively in Mirad even though they are used simply intransitively in English, eg.: ::* '''Et efe <u>vyilxer eut</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>wash yourself</u>].'' (or) ::* '''Et efe <u>utvyilxer</u>.'''....''You need to wash up [= <u>self-wash</u>].'' == Omission of Prepositions After Certain Verbs == :: Some verbs inherently incorporate a preposition and so it is not necessary to use that assumed preposition before what would normally be an indirect object. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Propositions |- ! Preposition-Incorporating Verb !! Example |- | '''per'''....''go (to)'' || '''Pu tam!''' (Not: '''Pu bu tam!''') ''Go home.''<br>'''It pa Paris.'''....''He went to Paris.'' |- | '''der'''....''say (to), tell'' || '''Du at eta dyun.'''....''Tell me your name.''<br>'''Du at has.'''....''Tell it to me.'' |- | '''peser'''....''wait (for)'' || '''Pesu at.'''....''Wait for me.'' |- | '''buer'''....''give (to)'' || '''Buu at hua dyes.'''....''Give me that book.'' |} :: As in English, in omitting the inherent preposition in a sentence with both a direct object and an indirect object, place the indirect object before the direct object. If the direct object comes first, then the preposition must be overtly specified before the indirect object, eg. '''Buu <u>at</u> hus.'''....''Give me that.'' or '''Buu hus <u>bu at</u>.'''....''Give that <u>to me</u>.'' See more about this in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Syntax|Syntax]]. == Causative vs. Inchoative Verbs == : A causative verb has the sense ''to make something have some quality'', whereas an inchoative verbs means ''to become or take on the quality of something.'' === Derived from Adjectives === : Adjectives can be converted into transitive/causative and intransitive/inchoative verbs. Causative verbs are always transitive (taking an object), while inchoative verbs are intransitive (not taking an object). English causative / inchoative verbs often end in ''-ify'' like ''magnify'', or ''-ate'', ''liberate'', or ''ize'', like ''sensitize''. : To derive a causative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''-xer'''....''to do'' to either the stem or the whole adjective (with the '''a''' ending). Whether you do the former or the latter depends on several factors, but the end result is slightly different in nuance. A verb with adjective stem + '''-xer''' is slightly more idiomatic or less literal than the adjective stem + '''axer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ -axer vs -xer in Transitive Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Causative/Transitive !! Causative/Transitive |- ! '''-xer''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to magnify'' || '''agxer'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anxer'''<br>''to unite'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to separate'' || '''yonxer'''<br>''to cut'' |- | '''yaga'''<br>''long'' || '''yag<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to lengthen'' || '''yagxer'''<br>''to stretch'' |- | '''yuga'''<br>''slow'' || '''yug<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to retard'' || '''yugxer''' <br>''to brake'' |- | '''sana'''<br>''formal'' || '''san<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to formalize'' || '''sanxer'''<br>''to form'' |- | '''gea'''<br>''equal'' || '''ge<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to equalize'' || '''gexer'''<br>''to copy, equate'' |- | '''jaa'''<br>''prior'' || '''ja<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to prioritize'' || '''jaxer'''<br>''to prepare'' |- | '''aota'''<br>''personal'' || '''aot<u>a</u>xer'''<br>''to personalize'' || '''aotxer'''<br>''to personify'' |} : To derive an inchoative verb from an adjective, add the suffix '''ser'''....''to be'' to either the stem or the whole adjective. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Creating Inchoative Verbs |- ! Adjective !! Inchoative/Intransitive !! Inchoative/Intransitive |- ! '''-ser''' !! Literal !! Idiomatic |- | '''aga'''<br>''big'' || '''ag<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to get bigger'' || '''agser'''<br>''to grow'' |- | '''ana'''<br>''one'' || '''an<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to unify'' || '''anser'''<br>''to unite, become united'' |- | '''yona'''<br>''apart'' || '''yon<u>a</u>ser'''<br>''to become separate'' || '''yonser'''<br>''to break'' |- |} : Be careful to use the transitive, causative verb form when you have a direct object, and the intransitive, inchoative verb form when no direct objects are present or possible, eg.: ::* '''<u>Ansu</u> ey yet golxwo.'''....''<u>Unite</u> or you will be divided.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''At <u>yontadsa</u> hoj at sa eta jag.'''....''I <u>got divorced</u> when I was your age.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hisi <u>agaxo</u> hos et teate.'''....''These <u>will magnify</u> what you see.'' [TRANSITIVE] ::* '''Hia tud <u>agseye</u> ig.'''....''This child <u>is growing up</u> fast.'' [INTRANSITIVE] ::* '''Ata tayd <u>agxe</u> vosi be oyebzom.'''....''My wife <u>grows</u> flowers out back.'' [TRANSITIVE] === Derived from Nouns === : Transitive/causative/active and intransitive/inchoative/passive verbs can also be formed from nouns. The sense of the former is ''to make be X'' and of the latter, ''to become X''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verbs Derived from Nouns |- ! Noun !! Transitive/Causative/Active !! Intransitive/Inchoative/Passive |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mogxer'''<br>''to incinerate'' || '''mogser'''<br>''to become ashes'' |- | '''yan'''....''collection'' || '''yanxer'''<br>''to collect'' || '''yanser'''<br>''to get together'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''tadxer'''<br>''to marry'' || '''tadser'''<br>''to get married'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomxer'''<br>''to freeze/make ice'' || '''yomser'''<br>''to freeze/become ice'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''magxer'''<br>''to burn, set fire to'' || '''magser'''<br>''to burn, get burned'' |- | '''uk'''....''void'' || '''ukxer'''<br>''to empty'' || '''ukser'''<br>''become empty, empty out'' |} === Intermediary Causative Verbs === : Intermediary verbal causatives like ''have/get my car washed'', ''make/force him go'', ''get one's hair cut'' are formed by suffixing the causative verb infix '''-ux-''' (active) or '''uxw''' (passive) to the stem of the verb signifying the action to be arranged or caused by someone other than the subject, eg.: ::* '''At gobl<u>ux</u>o ata tayeb zajub.'''....''I will get my hair cut tomorrow.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe p<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me go.'' ::* '''It tojb<u>ux</u>a yit.'''....''He had them killed.'' ::* '''At efe vyilx<u>ux</u>er ata pur.'''....''I need to have my car washed.'' ::* '''Et up<u>ux</u>wa him av hes.'''....''You were made to come here for some reason.'' ::* '''At bakamb<u>ux</u>o et.'''....''I will have you hospitalized.'' ::* '''Et voy yafe deuz<u>ux</u>er at.'''....''You cannot make me sing.'' ::* '''At hihid<u>ux</u>wa.'''....''I was tickled (= made to laugh).'' ::* '''Eta deuz hihid<u>ux</u>a yat.'''....''Your song tickled us. (= Made us laugh.)'' ::* '''Van het ivas<u>ux</u>u weti.'''....''May someone get you guys to be happy.'' ::* '''Hua enzyukpur uzp<u>ux</u>a yata pur.'''....''That motorcycle caused our car to veer.'' == Subject-directed vs. Patient-directed Verbs == : The directionality of some verbs can be distinguished by the verbal formant infix '''-i-''' for an action or motion toward the speaker and '''-u-''' for an action or motion away from the speaker toward some patient, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Directional Verbs |- ! Subject-directed !! Patient-directed |- | '''b<u>i</u>er'''....''to take'' || '''b<u>u</u>er'''....''to give'' |- | '''nier'''....''to consume'' || '''nuer'''....''to supply'' |- | '''nyier'''....''to order'' || '''nyuer'''....''to deliver'' |- | '''nazunier'''....''win a prize'' || '''nazunuer'''....''award a prize'' |- | '''noysier'''....''pay off'' || '''noysuer'''....''charge'' |- | '''ojbier'''....''borrow'' || '''ojbuer'''....''lend'' |- | '''tadier'''....''get married'' || '''taduer'''....''marry off'' |- | '''papier'''....''take flight'' || '''papuer'''....''send off flying'' |- | '''pipier'''....''set sail'' || '''pipuer'''....''dock'' |- | '''simbier'''....''take a seat'' || '''simbuer'''....''offer a seat'' |- | '''tampier'''....''leave home'' || '''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' |- | '''tamier'''....''settle in'' || '''tamuer'''....''shelter'' |- | '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''gonbier'''....''to participate'' || '''gonbuer'''....''to share'' |- | '''tilier'''....''to drink'' || '''tiluer'''....''to ply with drink'' |- | '''teubier'''....''to swallow'' || '''teubuer'''....''to spit out'' |- | '''teatier'''....''to observe, watch'' || '''teatuer'''....''to show'' |- | '''taxier'''....''to memorize'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''alier'''....''to breathe in'' || '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, expire'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour'' |- | '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''duer'''....''to suggest'' |- | '''tier'''....''to learn'' || '''tuer'''....''to inform'' |- | '''pier'''....''to depart'' || '''puer'''....''to arrive'' |- | '''kebier'''....''to choose'' || '''kebuer'''....''to distribute'' |- | '''byier'''....''to originate'' || '''byuer'''....''to target'' |- | '''mempier'''....''to take off'' || '''mempuer'''....''to land'' |- | '''sinier'''....''visualize'' || '''sinuer'''....''display'' |- | '''xier'''....''to result'' || '''xuer'''....''to cause'' |- | '''yifier'''....''to get up the courage'' || '''yifuer'''....''to encourage, challenge'' |- | '''yafonier'''....''to gain power'' || '''yafonuer'''....''to empower'' |- | '''trier'''....''to become acquainted with'' || '''truer'''....''to acquaint with, introduce to'' |- | '''tepzexier'''....''to draw attention'' || '''tepzexuer'''....''to focus attention on'' |- | '''yekier'''....''to undertake'' || '''yekuer'''....''to challenge'' |- | '''dyunier'''....''to assume the name of'' || '''dyunuer'''....''to bestow the name of'' |- | '''abfinier'''....''to take advantage of'' || '''abfinuer'''....''to favor'' |- | '''telier'''....''to eat'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed'' |- | '''ilier'''....''to absorb'' || '''iluer'''...''to pour'' |} : In some cases, the directionality can be both ways in a verb, in which case the verb formant infix '''-ui-''' (a hybrid form) is used, eg.: ::* '''nunier '''....''to purchase'' (subject-directed) ::* '''nunuer'''....''to sell'' (patient-directed) ::* '''nunuier'''....''to trade'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''tier'''....''to learn, realize'' (subject-directed) ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform, tip off'' (patient-directed) ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''alier'''....''to breathe in, inhale'' (subject-directed) ::* '''aluer'''....''to breathe out, exhale'' (patient-directed) ::* '''aluier'''....''to breathe, respire'' (subject & patient-directed) ::* '''bier '''....''to take'' (subject-directed) ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' (patient-directed) ::* '''buier'''....''to give and take, exchange'' (subject & patient-directed) == Bi-radical Verbs == : Some verbs are formed using two verb roots together. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Bi-radical Verbs |- ! Verb Root 1 !! Verb Root 2 !! Bi-radical Verb |- | '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' |- | '''nixer'''....''to earn'' || '''buer'''....''to give'' || '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''bier'''....''to take'' || '''kexbier'''....''to choose'' |- | '''uper'''....''to come'' || '''dier'''....''to ask'' || '''updier'''....''to invite'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''der'''....''to tell'' || '''teader'''....''to testify'' |- | '''teeter'''....''to hear'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''teadrer'''....''to report'' |- | '''teater'''....''to see'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''teaper'''....''to visit'' |- | '''texer'''....''to think'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''texder'''....''to mention'' |- | '''kexer'''....''to seek'' || '''pixer'''....''to catch'' || '''kexpixer'''....''to hunt'' |- | '''yeker'''....''to try'' || '''teexer'''....''to listen'' || '''yekteexer'''....''to try (in court)'' |} == Verbs with Vectorial Prefixes == : Prepositions and directional adverbs can be prefixed to verbs in order to change their vectorial semantics. A preposition ending in '''b''' will assimilate to '''p''' before the verb '''per'''....''to go'' and a preposition ending in '''b''' will lose the '''b''' before a verb beginning with '''b'''. If, however, this assimilation results in an ambiguity, the '''b''' of the prefix stays put. For example, '''ob''' (''off'') + '''bexer''' (''to hold'') = '''obbexer''' (''to hold off''), because '''obexer''' could be interpreted as ''to release''. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Prepositional Prefixes |- ! Preposition/Adverb !! Transitive Verb !! Intransitive Verb |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''get of, dismount'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebdrayefser'''....''to interleave'' || '''ebdrafxer'''....''to interleave'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring near'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''go far away'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert'' || '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yepuxer'''....''throw in'' || '''yepuser'''....''jump in'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyepuxer'''....''eject'' || '''oyepuser'''....''jump out'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''revolve'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''tour'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''avdaler'''....''plead'' || '''avper'''....''pursue'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovber'''....''oppose'' || '''ovper'''....''countervene'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''compose'' || '''yanper'''....''meet'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''separate'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''iz'''....''direct'' || '''izber'''....''lead'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''diverge'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''surround'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''transfer'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back, re-'' || '''zoyber'''....''return'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' |} == Other Semantics-altering Verb Prefixes == : As in English and many other languages, prefixes can be used on verbs to reverse, mitigate, or otherwise alter the semantics: === Expressing ''re-'' with '''zoy-''' or '''gaw-''' === : The prefix '''zoy-'''....''back'' or '''gaw-¹'''....''again'' are used like the English prefix ''re-'', eg.: ::* '''ember'''....''to position'' → '''<u>zoy</u>-ember'''....''to <u>re</u>position, <u>re</u>place'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buer'''....''to <u>re</u>turn (an object), give back'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to shape, form'' → '''<u>zoy</u>sanxer'''....''to <u>re</u>shape, <u>re</u>form, <u>trans</u>form'' ::* '''zyauber'''....''to broadcast'' → '''gawzyauber'''....''to re-broadcast'' ::* '''taja'''....''born'' → '''gawtaja'''....''reborn'' ::* '''aber'''....''to apply'' → '''gawaber'''....''to reapply'' ::* '''teaper'''....''to visit'' → '''<u>gaw</u>teaper'''....''to <u>re</u>visit'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>zoy</u>-uper'''....''to <u>re</u>turn, come <u>back</u>'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zoy</u>buxer'''....''to <u>re</u>pel, push <u>back</u>'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to <u>re</u>ject, throw <u>back</u>, jettison'' : Note 1: The prefix '''gaw-''' before a consonant is pronounced like the ''gaw'' in the English word ''gawk''. It is short for '''ga awa jod''' or '''gawa''' meaning ''one more time, again''. If the "re-" word means ''to do something again'', then '''gaw-''' is used, eg. ''To reconvene'' ( = ''meet again'')....'''gawyanuper''' If the sense of ''back'' is intended, than the prefix '''zoy-''' is used, eg. ''To return'' ( = ''come back'')....'''zoyuper'''. Both prefixes are used in the expression ''Come back again!''....'''Gawzoyupu!'''. :''Until we meet again'' or ''au revoir'' is expressed by '''Ju gawyanup.''' === Expressing ''de-, dis-, un-'' with '''lo-''' === : The prefix '''lo-''' reverses the semantics of a verb and is like English ''dis-'', ''de-'', or ''un-'', eg.: ::* '''sexer'''....''to build, construct'' → '''<u>lo</u>sexer'''....''to <u>de</u>stroy, <u>de</u>construct'' ::* '''anxer'''....''to unite'' → '''<u>lo</u>anxer'''....''to <u>dis</u>unite'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>lo</u>xer'''....''to <u>un</u>do'' : Note the difference between '''o-''' and '''lo-'''. ::* '''odoparuwa'''....''<u>un</u>armed'' (= ''not armed'') ::* '''lodoparuwa'''....''<u>dis</u>armed'' (= from the verb '''lodoparuer'''....''to disarm'') === Expressing ''co-'' with '''yan-''' === : The prefix '''yan-'''....''together'' is used as the English ''co-'', eg.: ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>yan</u>exer'''....''to <u>co</u>operate'' ::* '''tamer'''....''to dwell'' → '''<u>yan</u>tamer'''....''to <u>co</u>habit'' ::* '''napber'''....''to put in order'' → '''<u>yan</u>napber'''....''to <u>co</u>ordinate'' === Making Verbs Completive with '''ik-''' === : Verbs can be made completive or perfective by prefixing them with '''ik-''' (''fully''). Such verbs are comparable to phrasal verbs in English with ''up'' and other prepositions as in ''to eat up''. Here are some examples in Mirad: ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''iktojber'''....''to kill off, exterminate'' ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''iktelier'''....''to eat up'' ::* '''ujber'''....''to finish'' → '''ikujber'''....''to finish off/up'' ::* '''gofler'''....''to rip'' → '''ikgofler'''....''to rip up'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''ikdrer'''....''to write down'' ::* '''byexer'''....''to beat'' → '''ikbyexer'''....''to beat up'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' → '''ikagser'''....''to grow up'' === Making Verbs Continuative with '''je-''' === : Verbs can be given a continuative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''je-''': ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''jedalar'''....''to go on talking, to blabber'' ::* '''tejer'''....''to live'' → '''jetejer'''....''to go on living, to survive'' ::* '''yexer'''....''to work'' → '''jeyexer'''....''to go on working, to keep working'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch'' ::* '''teexer'''....''to listen'' → '''jeteexer'''....''to keep listening, to pay attention'' ::* '''duler'''....''to insist'' → '''jeduler'''....''to nag'' === Making Verbs Inchoative with '''ij-''' === : Verbs can be given an inchoative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''ij-''': ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''ijtexer'''....''to start to think'' ::* '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' → '''ijifier'''....''to start liking'' ::* '''tyer'''....''to know'' → '''ijtyer'''....''to get to know'' === Making Verbs Terminative with '''uj-''' === : Verbs can be given a terminative nuance with the addition of the prefix '''uj-''': ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''ujtelier'''....''to finish eating'' ::* '''dyeer'''....''to read'' → '''ujdyeer'''....''to finish reading'' ::* '''ufteuder'''....''to complain'' → '''ujufteuder'''....''to quit carping'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Pleasure with '''if-''' === ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''iftyoper'''....''to stroll'' ::* '''tuyuxer'''....''to finger'' → '''iftuyuxer'''....''to tickle'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''ifteaxer'''....''to ogle (voyeuristically)'' ::* '''piper'''....''to sail'' → '''ifpiper'''....''to go cruising'' ::* '''teuder'''....''to shout'' → '''ifteuder'''....''to laugh'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ifeker'''....''to have fun'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Displeasure with '''uf-''' === ::* '''tosier'''....''to feel'' → '''uftosier'''....''to get angry'' ::* '''eker'''....''to play'' → '''ufeker'''....''to fight'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''ufder'''....''to express displeasure'' ::* '''aluer'''....''to exhale'' → '''ufaluer'''....''to huff'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''ufdaler'''....''to rant'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Prohibition with '''of-''' === ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''ofbier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''ofdeler'''....''to ban'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''ofyeper'''....''to intrude, break in'' ::* '''zeyper'''....''to cross'' → '''ofzeyper'''....''to transgress, poach'' ::* '''gelxer'''....''to copy'' → '''ofgelxer'''....''to pirate, plagiarize'' ::* '''bekuluer'''....''to administer medicine'' → '''ofbekuluer'''....''to dope'' ::* '''nuxuer'''....''to pay'' → '''ofnuxuer'''....''to bribe, pay off, suborn'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Holiness with '''fya-''' === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''fyabexler'''....''to enshrine'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''fyabuer'''....''to sacrifice'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyader'''....''to bless'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''fyadaler'''....''to preach, sermonize'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyadiler'''....''to pray'' ::* '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' → '''fyadeuzer'''....''to chant'' ::* '''ifrer'''....''to love dearly'' → '''fyaifrer'''....''to worship, adore'' ::* '''jader'''....''to predict'' → '''fyajader'''....''to prophesy'' ::* '''miluer'''....''to sprinkle'' → '''fyamiluer'''....''to sprinkle with holy water'' ::* '''ojvader'''....''to promise'' → '''fyaojvader'''....''to swear'' ::* '''xeler'''....''to practice'' → '''fyaxeler'''....''to celebrate'' ::* '''koser'''....''to hide'' → '''fyakoser'''....''to go on a retreat, go into hermitage'' ::* '''teazer'''....''perform a show'' → '''fyateazer'''....''to perform a miracle'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Profanity with '''fyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fyoder'''....''to curse'' ::* '''diler'''....''to request'' → '''fyodiler'''....''to conjure'' ::* '''tyezer'''....''to perform magic'' → '''fyotezer'''....''to engage in black magic'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fyoxer'''....''to sin'' === Expressing Good Actions with '''fi-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fider'''....''to praise'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fifer'''....''to mean well'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''fixer'''....''to do well'' ::* '''yaker'''....''to expect'' → '''fiyaker'''....''to hope'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fiyuxer'''....''to benefit'' === Expressing Bad Actions with '''fu-''' === ::* '''yevder'''....''to judge'' → '''fuyevder'''....''to critique negatively'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''fufer'''....''to will ill'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''fuder'''....''to badmouth'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to arrange'' → '''funapxer'''....''to mess up'' ::* '''yuxer'''....''to help'' → '''fuyuxer'''....''to abuse'' === Expressing More Intense Actions with '''az-''' === ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>az</u>yujber'''....''to lock'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>az</u>der'''....''to emphasize'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>az</u>duer'''....''to urge'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>az</u>dizeuder'''....''to guffaw'' === Expressing Less Intense Actions with '''oz-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to utter'' → '''<u>oz</u>der'''....''to whisper'' ::* '''duer'''....''to suggest'' → '''<u>oz</u>duer'''....''to hint'' ::* '''dizeuder'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>oz</u>dizeuder'''....''to chuckle'' ::* '''uvteuder'''....''to moan'' → '''<u>oz</u>uvteuder'''....''to whimper'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>oz</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' === Expressing ''pre-, fore-'' with '''ja-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to tell'' → '''<u>ja</u>der'''....''to foretell, predict'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>ja</u>teater'''....''to foresee, preview'' ::* '''ter'''....''to know'' → '''<u>ja</u>ter'''....''to presage, have foreknowledge of'' ::* '''yever'''....''to judge'' → '''<u>ja</u>yever'''....''to prejudge'' ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>ja</u>juder'''....''to antedate'' === Expressing ''post-, after-'' with '''jo-''' === ::* '''juder'''....''to date'' → '''<u>jo</u>juder'''....''to postdate'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>jo</u>texer'''....''to reflect on, review'' ::* '''uvder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>jo</u>uvder'''....''to mourn, regret'' ::* '''ibler'''....''to obtain'' → '''<u>jo</u>ibler'''....''to inherit'' === Expressing ''excessively'' with '''gra-''' === ::* '''telier'''....''to eat'' → '''<u>gra</u>telier'''....''to overeat'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>gra</u>fer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>gra</u>der'''....''to exaggerate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>gra</u>daler'''....''to yammer'' === Expressing ''inadequately'' with '''gro-''' === ::* '''fyinder'''....''to value'' → '''<u>gro</u>fyinder'''....''to underestimate'' ::* '''mageler'''....''to cook'' → '''<u>gro</u>mageler'''....''to undercook'' ::* '''xaer'''....''to perform'' → '''<u>gro</u>xaer'''....''to underperform'' === Expressing ''counter-, contra-'' with '''ov-''' or '''oyv-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>ov</u>axler'''....''to counteract'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ov</u>apyexer'''....''to counterattack'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>ov</u>daler'''....''to oppose'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>oyv</u>der'''....''to contradict'' ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oyv</u>ber'''....''to reverse, overturn'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oyv</u>texer'''....''to contest, disagree'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>oyv</u>per'''....''to contravene'' === Expressing ''on behalf, for'' with '''av-''' === ::* '''axler'''....''to act'' → '''<u>av</u>axler'''....''to act on behalf of'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>av</u>daler'''....''to advocate, speak on behalf of'' ::* '''dyundrer'''....''to sign'' → '''<u>av</u>dyundrer'''....''to endorse'' === Making Verbs Reflexive with '''ut-''' (''self-, auto-'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>ut</u>tojber'''....''to commit suicide'' ::* '''vyovider'''....''to flatter'' → '''<u>ut</u>vyovider'''....''to flatter oneself'' ::* '''zaypuxwer'''....''to be propelled'' → '''<u>ut</u>zaypuxwer'''....''to be self-propelled'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' → '''<u>ut</u>fider'''....''to brag'' ::* '''gober'''....''to decrement'' → '''<u>ut</u>gober'''....''to autodecrement'' === Making Verbs Reciprocal with '''hyuit-''' (''one another'') === ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>tojber'''....''to kill one another'' ::* '''ifer'''....''to love'' → '''<u>hyuit</u>ifer'''....''to love one another'' === Expressing ''inter-, intra-'' with '''eb-''' (''between'') === ::* '''tadier'''....''to marry'' → '''<u>eb</u>tadier'''....''to intermarry'' ::* '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' → '''<u>eb</u>zyaber'''....''to intersperse'' ::* '''vyexer'''....''to relate'' → '''<u>eb</u>vyexer'''....''to interrelate'' === Expressing the Opposite of an Action with '''o-''' (''un-'') === ::* '''bexler'''....''to keep'' → '''<u>o</u>bexler'''....''to release, let go of'' ::* '''aynser'''....''to integrate'' → '''<u>o</u>aynser'''....''to disintegrate, to decay'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>o</u>beler'''....''to drop'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>o</u>bier'''....''to leave, relinquish'' ::* '''boser'''....''to be quiet'' → '''<u>o</u>boser'''....''to be upset'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>o</u>drer'''....''to erase'' ::<small>Note: If the base verb already begins with the negative prefix '''o-''', then the prefix is changed to '''ol-''', eg. '''obexler'''....''to release'' → '''<u>ol</u>obexwa'''....''to unrelease'' </small> === Expressing a Public or Official Action with '''do-''' === :: '''Do-''' is a stub for '''dot''' (''society''). ::* '''afder'''....''to allow'' → '''<u>do</u>afder'''....''to authorize'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>do</u>bier'''....''to conquer, take over, take control of'' ::* '''tojber'''....''to kill'' → '''<u>do</u>tojber'''....''to execute'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>do</u>buer'''....''to dedicate'' ::* '''daler'''....''to speak'' → '''<u>do</u>daler'''....''to orate, speak in public'' ::* '''deler'''....''to declare'' → '''<u>do</u>deler'''....''to announce'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>do</u>drer'''....''to publicize, report'' === Giving Verbs a Nuance of Truth with '''vya-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vya</u>der'''....''to avow, be frank'' ::* '''ber'''....''to set, put'' → '''<u>vya</u>ber'''....''to control'' ::* '''napxer'''...''to arrange, order'' → '''<u>vya</u>napxer'''....''to adjust'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>vya</u>kexer'''....''to investiage'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vya</u>tuer'''....''to advise'' === Giving Verbs of Nuance of Falseness with '''vyo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vyo</u>der'''....''to lie, to misstate'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tester'''....''to misunderstand'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>vyo</u>tuer'''....''to misinform, to deceive'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>vyo</u>xer'''....''to do wrong, fail, misdo'' ::* '''yuxler'''....''to serve'' → '''<u>vyo</u>yuxler'''....''to betray, to serve unfaithfully'' === Making Verbs Positive with '''va-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>va</u>der'''....''to affirm'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>va</u>texer'''....''to believe'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>va</u>yeker'''....''to presume'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>va</u>bier'''....''to accept'' === Making Verbs Negative with '''vo-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vo</u>der'''....''to deny'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vo</u>texer'''....''to doubt'' ::* '''yeker'''....''to expect'' → '''<u>vo</u>yeker'''....''to rule out'' ::* '''bier'''.....''to take'' → '''<u>vo</u>bier'''....''to reject'' === Making Verbs Suppositional with '''ve-''' === ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ve</u>der'''....''to conjecture'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>ve</u>texer'''....''to suppose, hypothesize'' ::* '''yovder'''....''to blame'' → '''<u>ve</u>yovder'''....''to indict, accuse'' === Speeding up Verbs with '''ig-''' === ::* '''pier'''....''to leave'' → '''<u>ig</u>pier'''....''to flee'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to drop'' → '''<u>ig</u>pyoser'''....''to plummet'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ig</u>tyoper'''....''to run'' ::* '''yeper'''....''to enter'' → '''<u>ig</u>yeper'''....''to rush in'' === Slowing up Verbs with '''ug-''' === ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>ug</u>paser'''....''to amble'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ug</u>teaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''ilper'''....''to flow'' → '''<u>ug</u>ilper'''....''to trickle'' ::* '''tilier'''....''to drink'' → '''<u>ug</u>tilier'''....''to sip'' === Expressing the Nuance of Suddenness with '''yok-''' === ::* '''baxer'''....''to stir'' → '''<u>yok</u>baxer'''....''to startle'' ::* '''hihider'''....''to laugh'' → '''<u>yok</u>hihider'''....''to burst out laughing'' ::* '''teaser'''....''to appear'' → '''<u>yok</u>teaser'''....''to suddenly appear'' ::* '''yoktojer'''....''to die'' → '''<u>yok</u>tojer'''....''to drop dead'' === Expressing the Notion of Fixedness with '''kyo-''' === ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>kyo</u>byaser'''....''to stand still'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>kyo</u>kexer'''....''to hound, stalk'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>kyo</u>teaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>kyo</u>texer'''....''to obsess with, fixate on'' === Expression the Notion of Randomness with '''kye-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>kye</u>der'''....''to guess, divine'' ::* '''per'''....''to per'' → '''<u>kye</u>per'''....''to fluctuate'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>kye</u>poper'''....''to wander'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kye</u>napxer'''....''to scramble'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>kye</u>bier'''....''to select'' === Expressing the Notion of Change with '''kya-''' === ::* '''baser'''....''to make a move'' → '''<u>kya</u>baser'''....''to shift'' ::* '''sanxer'''....''to form'' → '''<u>kya</u>sanxer'''....''to transform'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do/make'' → '''<u>kya</u>xer'''....''to change'' ::* '''napxer'''....''to order'' → '''<u>kya</u>napxer'''....''to shuffle'' ::* '''dyanxer'''....''to phrase'' → '''<u>kya</u>dyanxer'''....''to paraphrase'' === Expressing Covert Actions with '''ko-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ko</u>ber'''....''to hide'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ko</u>beler'''....''to smuggle'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ko</u>bier'''....''to steal'' ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' → '''<u>ko</u>ebkyaxer'''....''to traffic'' ::* '''exer'''....''to operate'' → '''<u>ko</u>exer'''....''to spy, operate under cover'' ::* '''fler'''....''to wish for'' → '''<u>ko</u>fler'''....''to covet, be jealous of'' ::* '''apyexer'''....''to attack'' → '''<u>ko</u>apyexer'''....''to ambush, to sneak-attack'' ::* '''loexer'''....''to destroy'' → '''<u>ko</u>loexer'''....''to sabotage'' === Expressing Actions with Intentionality with '''ke-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ke</u>teaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''vyaxer'''....''to prove'' → '''<u>ke</u>vyaxer'''....''to experiment'' ::* '''tier'''....''to learn'' → '''<u>ke</u>tier'''....''to be interested in'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>ke</u>bier'''....''to choose'' ::* '''pexer'''....''to catch'' → '''<u>ke</u>pexer'''....''to hunt'' === Expressing Lateral Actions with '''ku-''' === ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>ku</u>buxer'''....''to rebuff, shun'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ku</u>der'''....''to comment, remark'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to step'' → '''<u>ku</u>tyoper'''....''to step aside'' === Expressing Diagonal Actions with '''ki-''' === ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>ki</u>teaxer'''....''to look askance at'' ::* '''tuxer'''....''to teach'' → '''<u>ki</u>tuxer'''....''to brainwash'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>ki</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ki</u>pyoser'''....''to slip and fall'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ki</u>per'''....''to slide'' === Expressing Near Actions with '''yub-'''=== ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>yub</u>der'''....''to intimate, hint'' ::* '''gexer'''....''to equate'' → '''<u>yub</u>gexer'''....''to approximate'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yu(b)</u>bixer'''....''to attract, draw near'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yub</u>teaxer'''....''to scrutinize, examine'' === Expressing Distance Actions with '''yib-''' (''far, tele-'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yib</u>drer'''....''to wire, telegraph'' ::* '''bixer'''....''to pull'' → '''<u>yi(b)</u>bixer'''....''to distract'' ::* '''tuier'''....''to communicate'' → '''<u>yib</u>tuier'''....''to telecommunicate'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' → '''<u>yib</u>nyuxer'''....''to mail, post'' === Expressing ''up-, super-'' with '''yab-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>ber'''....''to raise, to put up'' ::* '''bixler'''....''to drag'' → '''<u>ya(b)</u>bixler'''....''to dredge up'' ::* '''uper'''....''to come'' → '''<u>yab</u>uper'''....''to come up'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yab</u>nogyanxer'''....''to scale up, escalate'' === Expressing ''down-, sub-'' with '''yob-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yo(b)</u>ber'''....''to lower, put down'' ::* '''kyaber'''....''to shift'' → '''<u>yob</u>kyaxer'''....''to downshift'' ::* '''musper'''....''to climb'' → '''<u>yob</u>musper'''....''to climb down'' ::* '''nogyanxer'''....''to scale'' → '''<u>yob</u>nogyanxer'''....''to downscale'' === Expressing ''in-'' with '''yeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>ber'''....''to insert, put in'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>ye(b)</u>beler'''....''to import'' ::* '''uzber'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>yeb</u>uzber'''....''to inflect'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>yeb</u>yujber'''....''to enclose, include'' === Expressing ''out-, ex-, extra-'' with '''oyeb-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oye</u>ber'''....''to put out, expose'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>oye</u>beler'''....''to export'' ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>uber'''....''to emit, send out'' ::* '''yujber'''....''to close'' → '''<u>oyeb</u>yujber'''....''to exclude'' === Expressing ''pro-, forward'' with '''zay-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zay</u>ber'''....''to advance, put forward'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zay</u>kexer'''....''to scout out'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zay</u>puxer'''....''to propel, thrust'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>zay</u>tyoper'''....''to progress, to walk forward'' === Expressing ''back-, retro-, re-'' with '''zoy-''' === ::* '''uber'''....''to send'' → '''<u>zoy</u>ber'''....''to send back'' ::* '''kixer'''....''to bend'' → '''<u>zoy</u>kixer'''....''to reflect'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zoy</u>puxer'''....''to repel'' ::* '''neadper'''....''to track'' → '''<u>zoy</u>neadper'''....''to backtrack'' === Expressing ''across, trans-, over-, cross-'' with '''zey-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zey</u>per'''....''to cross, transit'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>zey</u>beler'''....''to transport, convey'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zey</u>drer'''....''to transcribe'' ::* '''kyober'''....''to fix'' → '''<u>zey</u>kyober'''....''to transfix, transplant'' ::* '''vyayeker'''....''to check'' → '''<u>zey</u>vyayeker'''....''to crosscheck'' === Expressing ''through, per-'' with '''zye-''' === ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zye</u>per'''....''to permeate, get through'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>zye</u>kexer'''....''to rummage, sift through'' ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>zye</u>drer'''....''to cross out, draw a line through'' ::* '''iluer'''....''to pour'' → '''<u>zye</u>iluer'''....''to soak'' ::* '''koper'''....''to sneak'' → '''<u>zye</u>koper'''....''to sneak through'' === Expressing ''all over, widely, all about'' with '''zya-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>zya</u>ber'''....''to spread'' ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>zya</u>buer'''....''to distribute'' ::* '''ijber'''....''to open'' → '''<u>zya</u>ijber'''....''to open wide'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>zya</u>nuxer'''....''to disburse'' ::* '''puxer'''....''to throw'' → '''<u>zya</u>puxer'''....''to scatter, cast about'' === Expressing ''mid-, center'' with '''ze-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ze</u>ber'''....''to balance'' ::* '''byaser'''....''to stand'' → '''<u>ze</u>byaser'''....''to straddle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>ze</u>der'''....''to interject'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>ze</u>pyoser'''....''to sag'' ::* '''poxer'''....''to stop'' → '''<u>ze</u>poxer'''....''to interrupt'' === Expressing ''futurity'' with '''oj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>oj</u>ber'''....''to put off, postpone'' ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' → '''<u>oj</u>bier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>oj</u>fer'''....''to wish, aspire'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>oj</u>texer'''....''to plan'' ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' → '''<u>oj</u>teater'''....''to envision'' ::* '''vader'''....''to affirm'' → '''<u>oj</u>vader'''....''to promise'' === Expressing ''past'' with '''aj-''' === ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aj</u>ber'''....''to pass, relegate to the past'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>aj</u>der'''....''to evoke, hearken, recount'' ::* '''embier'''....''to occupy'' → '''<u>aj</u>embier'''....''to haunt'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>aj</u>texer'''....''to reminisce, to reflect'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>aj</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to store'' → '''<u>aj</u>nexer'''....''to archive'' === Expressing ''present'' with '''ej-''' === ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' → '''<u>ej</u>buer'''....''to present'' ::* '''eser'''....''to exist'' → '''<u>ej</u>eser'''....''to attend, to be present'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' → '''<u>ej</u>nuxer'''....''to pay cash'' ::* '''tuer'''....''to inform'' → '''<u>ej</u>tuer'''....''to update'' ::* '''uvtosder'''....''to express sadness'' → '''<u>ej</u>uvtosder'''....''to apologize'' === Expressing a stretched out action with '''yag-''' (''long'') === ::* '''beser'''....''to stay'' → '''<u>yag</u>beser'''....''to linger'' ::* '''bexer'''....''to hold'' → '''<u>yag</u>bexer'''....''to conserve, preserve'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>yag</u>daler'''....''to ramble'' ::* '''dodaler'''....''to orate'' → '''<u>yag</u>dodaler'''....''to harangue'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yag</u>teaxer'''....''to stare'' ::* '''fer'''....''to want'' → '''<u>yag</u>fer'''....''to yearn, pine'' === Expressing a brief action with '''yog-''' (''short'') === ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>yog</u>drer'''....''to abbreviate'' ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look'' → '''<u>yog</u>teaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' → '''<u>yog</u>tujer'''....''to snooze, nap'' ::* '''gobler'''....''to cut'' → '''<u>yog</u>gobler'''....''to cut short, truncate'' === Some Hybrid Prefixes === The prefix '''kui-''' is a hybrid of '''ku-''' (''lateral'') and '''ki-''' (''diagonal'') ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>kui</u>per'''....''to wobble'' ::* '''tyoper'''....''to walk'' → '''<u>kui</u>tyoper'''....''to limp'' The prefix '''zao-''' is a truncated hybrid of '''zay-''' (''forward'') and '''zoy-''' (''backwards''), eg: ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zao</u>baser'''....''to rock'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zao</u>per'''....''to alternate'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>kui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''pyoser'''....''to fall'' → '''<u>kui</u>pyoser'''....''to pendulate'' The prefix '''yaob-''' is a hybrid of '''yab-''' (''up'') and '''yob-''' (''down''). The final '''b-''' is assimilated or dropped before a '''b''' or '''p'''. ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>yao</u>baser'''....''to bob'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>yao</u>per'''....''to heave'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>yao</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''peper'''....''to ride'' → '''<u>yao</u>peper'''....''to jounce'' ::* '''puser'''....''to jump'' → '''<u>yao</u>puser'''....''to hop, bounce'' The prefix '''bui-''' is a hybrid of '''bu-''' (''to'') and '''bi-''' (''from''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>bui</u>drer'''....''to correspond'' ::* '''-er'''....''to x'' → '''<u>bui</u>er'''....''to trade'' ::* '''beler'''....''to carry'' → '''<u>bui</u>beler'''....''to shuttle, ferry'' ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' → '''<u>bui</u>xer'''....''to push and pull, spring'' ::* '''poper'''....''to travel'' → '''<u>bui</u>poper'''....''to travel to and fro, travel round trip'' The prefix '''uiz-''' is a hybrid of '''uz-''' (''crooked'') and '''iz-''' (''straight''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>uiz</u>der'''....''to equivocate'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>baser'''....''to wiggle, to squirm'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>uiz</u>per'''....''to careen, reel'' ::* '''paser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>uiz</u>paser'''....''to swerve, yaw'' The prefix '''zui-''' is a hybrid of '''zu-''' (''left'') and '''zi-''' (''right''), eg: ::* '''drer'''....''to write'' → '''<u>uiz</u>drer'''....''to squiggle'' ::* '''buxer'''....''to push'' → '''<u>zui</u>buxer'''....''to push around'' ::* '''baser'''....''to move'' → '''<u>zui</u>baser'''....''to sway, totter'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>zui</u>per'''....''to zigzag'' ::* '''pasler'''....''to shake'' → '''<u>zui</u>pasler'''....''to wobble'' The prefix '''aoyeb-''' is a hybrid of '''(a)yeb-''' (''in'') and '''oyeb-''' (''out''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>aoye</u>ber'''....''to insert and extract'' ::* '''tiexer'''....''to breathe'' → '''<u>aoye</u>tiexer'''....''to breath in and out'' ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>aoye</u>paper'''....''to fly in and out'' The prefix '''aob-''' is a hybrid of '''ab-''' (''on'') and '''ob-''' (''off''), eg: ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>ao</u>ber'''....''to put on and off'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>ao</u>per'''....''to get on and off, embark and disembark'' The prefix '''vao-''' is a hybrid of '''va-''' (''yes'') and '''vo-''' (''no''), eg: ::* '''der'''....''to say'' → '''<u>vao</u>der'''....''to decide'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>vao</u>daler'''....''to waffle'' ::* '''duder'''....''to answer'' → '''<u>vao</u>duder'''....''to answer yes or no'' ::* '''kyaxer'''....''to change'' → '''<u>vao</u>kyaxer'''....''to redact'' ::* '''texer'''....''to think'' → '''<u>vao</u>texer'''....''to deliberate, vacillate'' The prefix '''uij''' is a hybrid of '''uj-''' (''end'') and '''ij-''' (''begin'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>uij</u>ber'''....''to switch off and on'' ::* '''daler'''....''to talk'' → '''<u>uij</u>daler'''....''to stutter'' The prefix '''yuij''' is a hybrid of '''yuj-''' (''close'') and '''yij-''' (''open'') ::* '''ber'''....''to put'' → '''<u>yuij</u>ber'''....''to open and close, blink'' The prefix '''huim''' is a hybrid of '''hum''' (''there'') and '''him''' (''there'') ::* '''paper'''....''to fly'' → '''<u>huim</u>paper'''....''to fly here and yon'' ::* '''per'''....''to go'' → '''<u>huim</u>per'''....''to wander'' ::* '''kexer'''....''to seek'' → '''<u>huim</u>kexer'''....''to search high and low'' === Different Nuances of '''teaxer''' with Prefixes === <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''teaxer'''....''to look, behold, regard'' ::* '''aybteaxer'''....''to supervise, look over'' ::* '''ajteaxer'''....''to look back on (retrospect)'' ::* '''eynteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''fizteaxer'''....''to respect'' ::* '''fuzteaxer'''....''to disrespect'' ::* '''gawteaxer'''....''to review, re-look'' ::* '''hyuitteaxer'''....''to look at one another'' ::* '''ibteaxer'''....''to ignore'' ::* '''igteaxer'''....''to glance, glimpse'' ::* '''ifteaxer'''....''to marvel at'' ::* '''izteaxer'''....''to view directly, confront, aim'' ::* '''jateaxer'''....''to preview'' ::* '''jeteaxer'''....''to watch, observe'' ::* '''joteaxer'''....''to review'' ::* '''kateaxer'''....''to look for'' ::* '''keteaxer'''....''to scan'' ::* '''kiteaxer'''....''to look askance'' ::* '''koteaxer'''....''to peek, spy'' ::* '''kozyeteaxer'''....''to peep'' ::* '''kozyoteaxer'''....''to peer'' ::* '''kuteaxer'''....''to observe'' ::* '''kyeteaxer'''....''to browse'' ::* '''kyoteaxer'''....''to stare, glare'' ::* '''oteaxer'''....''to ignore, overlook'' ::* '''ufteaxer'''....''to glare, leer'' ::* '''ugteaxer'''....''to gaze'' ::* '''yagteaxer'''....''to gape, gawk'' ::* '''yebteaxer'''....''to inspect'' ::* '''yibteaxer'''....''to view from afar'' ::* '''yogteaxer'''....''to glance at'' ::* '''yokteaxer'''....''to get a glimpse of'' ::* '''yubteaxer'''....''to examine'' ::* '''yuibteaxer'''....''to look near and far'' ::* '''yuzteaxer'''....''to look around, circumspect'' ::* '''yanteaxer'''....''to view together'' ::* '''yizteaxer'''....''to look beyond, overlook'' ::* '''vyateaxer'''....''to investigate, check out'' ::* '''vyoteaxer'''....''to view wrongly'' ::* '''zateaxer'''....''to face, confront'' ::* '''zayteaxer'''....''to look ahead, expect'' ::* '''zoyteaxer'''....''to look back'' ::* '''zeyteaxer'''....''to look across'' ::* '''ziteaxer'''....''to look to the right'' ::* '''zuteaxer'''....''to look to the left'' ::* '''zuiteaxer'''....''to look right and left'' ::* '''zyateaxer'''....''to look all over, survey'' ::* '''zyeteaxer'''....''to look through, peruse'' ::* '''zyoteaxer'''....''to squint'' ::* '''yobteaxer'''....''to look down'' ::* '''yaobteaxer'''....''to look up and down'' ::* '''zaoteaxer'''....''to look back and forth'' ::* '''yabteaxer'''....''to look up'' ::* '''yubketeaxer'''....''to pry'' ::* '''uzteaxer'''....''to look indirectly at'' ::* '''oyebteaxer'''....''to look out'' ::* '''ojteaxer'''....''to peer into the future'' ::* '''marteaxer'''....''to star-gaze'' ::* '''tabteaxer'''....''to autopsy'' </div> == Modal Verbs == : Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are usually followed by the main verb in the infinitive or a subjunctive dependent clause and have to do with wanting, permitting, prohibiting, being able, being unable, needing, being obliged to do something, etc. ==== Principal Modal Auxiliary Verbs ==== [[File:Ladies Should Listen poster.jpg|thumb|]] : Mirad has a set of modal auxiliary verbs that can be followed by a main verb in the infinitive mode. This is very much like Enlish modal auxiliary verbs in the following examples: ::* ''I <u>want</u> to go.'' ::* ''You <u>must</u> wait.'' ::* ''You <u>may</u> stay.'' ::* ''I <u>dare</u> say.'' : Here is a chart showing the main modal auxiliary verbs in Mirad: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Principle Modal Auxiliary Verbs |- ! Type !! Positive !! Negative |- ! Permission | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''ayfer'''....''might'' || '''ofer'''....''may not''<br>'''oyfer'''....''might not'' |- ! Ability | '''yafer'''....''can''||'''yofer'''....''cannot'' |- ! Need | '''efer'''....''need to'' || |- ! Obligation | '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yeyfer'''....''should'' ||'''oyefer'''....''must not''<br>'''oyeyfer'''....''should not'' |- ! Desire | '''fer'''....''want to'' || |- ! Enjoyment | '''ifer'''....''love to, enjoy''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like to'' || '''ufer'''....''hate to''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike to'' |- ! Courage |'''yifer'''....''dare to'' || '''yufer'''....''be afraid to, fear'' |- ! Liberty | '''yiver'''....''have a right to, be free to'' || '''yuver'''....''be bound to, be supposed to'' |- ! Expectation | '''yaker'''....''expect to'' || '''yoker'''....''be surprised to'' |- ! Conation | '''yeker'''....''try to'' || |- ! Difficulty | '''yiker'''....''to find it hard to'' || '''yuker'''....''to find it easy to'' |} : These modal auxiliary verbs are often followed by a verbal infinitive, as in the following examples: ::* '''At fe <u>ter</u>.'''....''I want <u>to know</u>.'' ::* '''Wit yifa <u>yeper</u>.'''....''He dared <u>to enter</u>.'' ::* '''Yat yafe <u>teater</u> yet.'''....''We can <u>see</u> you.'' ::* '''Duven et yaka <u>aker</u>?'''....''Did you expect <u>to win</u>?'' ::* '''Diwe yeku <u>xer</u> ga fi.'''....''Please try <u>to do</u> better.'' : If the modal verb is in the hypothetical aspect (conditional), then the sense is somewhat mitigated, as in these examples: :* '''At <u>fe</u> per.'''....''I <u>want</u> to go.'' :* '''At <u>fu</u> per.'''....''I <u>would</u> like to go.'' :* '''Et <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''You <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Et <u>yafu</u> aker.'''....''You <u>could</u> win.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Yet <u>yefu</u> iper.'''....''You <u>ought</u> to leave.'' : Post-y-gliding the stem vowel of the modal verb also reduces the strength, for example: :* '''At <u>ife</u> et.''' ....''I <u>love</u> you.'' :* '''At <u>iyfe</u> et.''' ....''I <u>like</u> you.'' :* '''Et <u>yefe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>must</u> leave.'' :* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> iper.'''....''You <u>should</u> leave.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yafe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>can</u> win.'' :* '''Iyt <u>yayfe</u> aker.'''....''She <u>might</u> win.'' :* '''At <u>ufa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>hated</u> that art.'' :* '''At <u>uyfa</u> uda tuz.'''....''I <u>disliked</u> that art.'' : The use of '''l''' and '''r''' intensify the meaning of the auxiliary verbs, eg: :* '''Et <u>yuve</u> puer jwe.'''....''You <u>are supposed</u> to arrive on time.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvle</u> tepzexer.'''....''You <u>have</u> to pay attention.'' :* '''Et <u>yuvre</u> buer nas.'''....''You <u>absolutely must</u> give money.'' :* '''At <u>yeka</u> ser yeva.'''....''I <u>tried</u> to be fair.'' :* '''At <u>yekla</u> ujber jwa.'''....''I <u>strove</u> to finish early.'' :* '''At <u>yekra</u> nixer ga nas.'''....''I <u>struggled (= worked hard))</u> to earn more money.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ife</u> eker zyun.'''....''She <u>loves</u> to play ball.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifla</u> teater et.'''....''She <u>was delighted</u> to see you.'' :* '''Iyt <u>ifre</u> teaper him.'''....''She <u>adores</u> visiting here.'' : Here are some examples showing how these modal verbs are used as auxiliaries: ::* '''Et <u>afe</u> oyeper ay ifeker.'''....''You <u>may</u> go out and play.'' ::* '''Yat <u>efa</u> tujer.'''....''We <u>needed</u> to sleep.'' ::* '''Ot <u>ofe</u> mavier him.'''....''One <u>is prohibited</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''Mavier him <u>ofwe</u>.'''....''Smoking here is prohibited.'' ::* '''At <u>ife</u> dyeer.'''....''I <u>love</u> to read.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> yeper?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to come in?'' ::* '''At <u>fu</u> teaper et edjub.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to visit you some day.'' ::* '''It <u>ufaye hyaj</u> teaxwer.'''....''He <u>has always hated</u> being looked at.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>iyfe</u> per tilami?'''....''Do you <u>like</u> going to bars?'' ::* '''At <u>uyfe</u> tijer gra jwa.'''....''I <u>dislike</u> waking up too early.'' ::* '''Et <u>yafe</u> xer hyehos et fu.'''....''You <u>can</u> do whatever you like.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefer</u> xer ad vyaas.'''....''You <u>must</u> do the right thing.'' ::* '''Et <u>yeyfe</u> voy daler huuyen azay.'''....''You <u>should</u> not talk so loud.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> ter ga fi.'''....''I <u>should have</u> known better.'' ::* '''At <u>voy yifu</u> der hyea fuas.'''....''I <u>would not dare</u> say anything bad.'' ::* '''<u>Von yufu</u> der hos et tesde.'''....''<u>Don't be afraid</u> to say what you mean.'' ::* '''Et <u>yive</u> dier yevanavdut.'''....''You <u>have a right</u> to ask for a lawyer.'' ::* '''Yat <u>voy yuvle</u> kyoejer.'''....''We <u>are not bound</u> to stick around.'' === Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms === :: All of these modal verbs can be passive, in which case they are "patient-oriented" rather than "subject-oriented." The participial adjective '''yafa'''....''able'' is subject-oriented and refers to a person, whereas the passived adjective '''yafwa'''....''possible'' is patient-oriented and refers to a thing or event. Here is a chart of the principal modal verbs and corresponding participial adjectives with this subject/object-orientation distinction shown: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Subject-oriented vs. Patient-oriented Modal Verb Forms |- ! Modal Type || Subject-oriented !! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- ! !! Verb !! Adjective !! Verb !! Adjective |- !row=1| Permission | '''afer'''<br>''may'' || '''afa'''<br>''allowed'' || '''afwer'''<br>''be permitted'' || '''afwa'''<br>''permissable'' |- !row=1| Necessity | '''efer'''<br>''need'' || '''efa'''<br>''needful'' || '''efwer'''<br>''be necessary'' || '''efwa'''<br>''necessary, required'' |- !row=1| Prohibition | '''ofer'''<br>''be unallowed'' || '''ofa'''<br>''prohibited'' || '''ofwer'''<br>''be prohibited'' || '''ofwa'''<br>''banned'' |- !row=1| Possibility | '''yafer'''<br>''be able'' || '''yafa'''<br>''able'' || '''yafwer'''<br>''be possible'' || '''yafwa'''<br>''possible'' |- !row=1| Obligation | '''yefer'''<br>''must'' || '''yefa'''<br>''obliged'' || '''yefwer'''<br>''be obligatory'' || '''yefwa'''<br>''obligatory'' |- !row=1| Duty | '''yeyfer'''<br>''should'' || '''yeyfa'''<br>''supposed, duty-bound'' || '''yeyfwer'''<br>''be supposed'' || '''yeyfwa'''<br>''due'' |- !row=1| Impossibility | '''yofer'''<br>''be unable'' || '''yofa'''<br>''unable'' || '''yofwer'''<br>''be impossible'' || '''yofwa'''<br>''impossible'' |- !row=1| Volition | '''fer'''<br>''want'' || '''fa'''<br>''desirous'' || '''fwer'''<br>''be desirable'' || '''fwa'''<br>''desirable, wanted'' |- !row=1| Love | '''ifer'''<br>''love''<br>'''iyfer'''<br>''like'' || '''ifa'''<br>''enamored''<br>'''iyfa'''<br>''fond'' || '''ifwer'''<br>''be loved''<br>'''iyfwer'''<br>''be liked'' || '''ifwa'''<br>''lovable''<br>'''iyfwa'''<br>''likeable'' |- !row=1| Hate | '''ufer'''<br>''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''<br>''dislike'' || '''ufa'''<br>''averse''<br>'''uyfa'''<br>''displeased''|| '''ufwer'''<br>''be hated''<br>'''uyfwer'''<br>''be disliked'' || '''ufwa'''<br>''odious''<br>''unliked'' |- !row=1| Courage | '''yifer'''<br>''dare'' || '''yifa'''<br>''daring, brave'' || '''yifwer'''<br>''be safe'' || '''yifwa'''<br>''safe'' |- !row=1| Fear | '''yufer'''<br>''be afraid'' || '''yufa'''<br>''afraid'' || '''yufwer'''<br>''be a danger'' || '''yufwa'''<br>''frightening'' |- !row=1| Joy | '''iver'''<br>''enjoy'' || '''iva'''<br>''glad'' || '''ivwer'''<br>''be a joy'' || '''ivwa'''<br>''enjoyable'' |- !row=1| Sorrow | '''uver'''<br>''be sorry'' || '''uva'''<br>''sorry, sad'' || '''uvwer'''<br>''be a shame'' || '''uvwa'''<br>''regrettable'' |} : Examples of subject-oriented forms: ::* '''At se <u>yafa</u> xer hes.'''....''I <u>am capable of</u> doing anything.'' ::* '''Et <u>ofe</u> teater hia dyezun.'''....''You <u>are not allowed/are prohibited</u> to see this film.'' ::* '''Duven at <u>afe</u> per hum?'''....''Am I <u>allowed</u> to go there?'' ::* '''Yat <u>fu</u> ter eta dyun.'''....''We <u>would like</u> to know your name.'' ::* '''Piti <u>ufe</u> beser be mel.'''....''Fish <u>hate</u> to remain on dry land.'' ::* '''At ajay <u>ifa</u> dazer.'''....''I once <u>loved</u> to dance.'' ::* '''Et se iva, at <u>yife</u> der.'''....''You are beautiful, I <u>dare</u> say.'' ::* '''At <u>yeyfa</u> xer has ga ig.'''....''I <u>should</u> have done it sooner.'' ::* '''Von <u>yufu</u>; At yupeye.'''....''<u>Fear</u> not; I am coming.'' ::* '''Et <u>yefe</u> puer ja eymaj.'''....''You <u>must</u> arrive before noon.'' ::* '''Yet <u>yofe</u> daler je ha dezun.'''....''You people <u>must not</u> talk during the performance.'' ::* '''Yat <u>yeyfe</u> (= se <u>yeyfa</u>) aker.'''....''We should (= are <u>bound/supposed/due</u>) to win.'' ::* '''At <u>ive</u> teater et bakser.'''....''I<u>'m glad</u> to see you get better.'' ::* '''Su <u>iva</u>.'''....''Be <u>happy</u>.'' ::* '''At <u>uvu (= su uva)</u> teater et iper.'''....''I <u>would be sad</u> to see you leave.'' : Examples of patient-oriented forms: ::* '''<u>Afwe</u> (= se afwa) mavier him.'''....''<u>It is permissible</u> to smoke here.'' ::* '''<u>Ofwe</u> (= se ofwa*) puxer fyumul him.'''....''<u>It is prohibited</u> to throw litter here.'' ::* '''<u>Fwe</u> (= se fwa) van yet dolu.'''....''<u>It is desired</u> that you stop talking.'' ::* '''<u>Voy yafwe</u> beser him gajob.'''....''<u>It is not possible</u> to remain here any longer.'' ::* '''<u>Yofwa</u> av at ivteuder.'''....''<u>It was not possible</u> for me to laugh.'' ::* '''<u>Yefwe</u> van et piu ig.'''....''<u>It is essential</u> that you leave quickly.'' ::* '''He <u>yeyfwe</u> ober ata tyoyafi?'''....''Is <u>it obligatory</u> to remove my shoes?'' ::* '''Ga yux <u>efwo</u>.'''....''More help <u>will be needed</u>.'' ::* '''Yuxren se <u>ufwa</u> xetyen.'''....''Slavery is an <u>odious</u> practice.'' ::* '''<u>Uvwe</u> van wit oka.'''....''<u>It's a shame</u> that he lost.'' :: *<small>'''lofwa''' is used for ''unwanted'' for disambiguation purposes.</small> === Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems === : Various causative verbs can be formed from modal stems, as shown in the chart below: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Deriving Causatives from Modal Stems |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''afxer'''....''allow'' (someone to do sthg.) || '''afwaxer'''....''permit'' (something to be done) |- | '''efxer'''....''require'' || '''efwaxer'''....''necessitate'' |- | '''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' || '''ofwaxer'''....''prohibit'' |- | '''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yafwaxer'''....''make possible'' |- | '''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yefwaxer'''....''make obligatory'' |- | '''yofxer'''....''cripple'' || '''yofwaxer'''....''disable'' |- | '''yifxer'''....''embolden'' || '''yifwaxer'''....''make safe'' |- | '''yufxer'''....''intimidate'' || '''yufwaxer'''....''make frightening'' |- | '''ifxer'''....''please'' || '''ifwaxer'''....''make pleasant'' |} === Creating Modal Verbs and Adjectives with Modal Stem Suffixes === : Verb stems can be suffixed with modal participles to produce related modal verbs and adjectives. The first chart shows the modal participles themselves that can be suffixed to verb stems. Subject-oriented forms refer only to people, while patient-oriented forms (ending in '''-wa''') refer only to things. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modal Suffixes |- ! Subject-oriented !! Patient-oriented |- | '''-yafa'''....''able to X, -able'' || '''-yafwa'''....''possible to X'' |- | '''-yofa'''....''unable to X'' || '''-yofwa'''....''impossible to X'' |- | '''-ifa'''....''fond of Xing, Xophile'' || '''-ifwa'''....''enjoyable to X'' |- | '''-ufa'''....''averse to Xing, Xophobic'' ||'''-ufwa'''....''unenjoyable to X'' |- | '''-yika'''....''hard of Xing'' || '''-yikwa'''....''hard to X'' |- | '''-yuka'''....''comfortable/easy Xing'' || '''-yukwa'''....''easy to X'' |- | '''-yaka'''....''expecting to X'' || '''yakwa'''....''expected/likely to X'' |- | '''-efa'''....''in need of Xing'' || '''-efwa'''....''necessary to X'' |- | '''-yefa'''....''obliged to X'' || '''-yefwa'''....''obligatory/due to X'' |- | '''-yufa'''....''afraid of Xing'' || '''-yufwa'''....''frightening to X'' |} : This table shows some of these modal suffixes applied to actual verb and noun stems: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Modals and Orientation |- ! Orientation !! Positive Adjective !! Positive Verb !! Negative Adjective !! Negative Verb |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teatyafa'''<br>''able to see, sighted'' || '''teatyafer'''<br>''be able to see'' || '''teatyofa'''<br>''blind'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teatyafwa'''<br>''visible'' || '''teatyafwer'''<br>''be visible'' || '''teatyofwa'''<br>''invisible'' || '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''teetyafa'''<br>''able to hear, hearing'' || '''teetyafer'''<br>''be able to hear'' || '''teetyofa'''<br>''deaf'' || '''teatyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''teetyafwa'''<br>''audible'' || '''teetyafwer'''<br>''be audible'' || '''teeyofwa'''<br>''inaudible'' || '''teeyofwer'''<br>''be inaudiable'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dalyafa'''<br>''able to speak'' || '''dalyafer'''<br>''be able to speak'' || '''dalyofa'''<br>''mute, dumb'' || '''dalyofer'''<br>''be mute, dumb'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''doabifa'''<br>''patriotic'' || '''doabifer'''<br>''be patriotic'' || '''doabufa'''<br>''rebellious'' || '''doabufer'''<br>''rebel'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tosyafa'''<br>''sensitive'' || '''tosyafer'''<br>''be able to feel'' || '''tosyofa'''<br>''insensitive'' || '''tosyofer'''<br>''be numbed'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tayotyafwa'''<br>''palpable'' || '''tayotyafwer'''<br>''be palpable'' || '''tayotyofwa'''<br>''numb'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be impalbable, numb'' |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''testyukwa'''<br>''easy to understand'' || '''testyukwaxer'''<br>''make easily understood'' || '''testyikwa'''<br>''hard to understand'' || '''testyikwaxer'''<br>''make hard to understand'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tudyaka'''<br>''pregnant, expecting'' || '''tudyaker'''<br>''be expecting''|| || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' |'''mamilyakwa'''<br>''likely to rain'' || '''mamilyakwer'''<br>''to be expected to rain''|| '''mamilyokwa'''<br>''unlikely to rain''|| '''mamilyokwer'''<br>''to be unlikely to rain'' |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tilefa'''<br>''thirsty'' || '''tilefer'''<br>''be thirsty'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''telefa'''<br>''hungry'' || '''telefer'''<br>''be hungry'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''tejefwa'''<br>''vital'' || '''tejefwer'''<br>''be vital'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''tujefa'''<br>''sleepy'' || '''tujefer'''<br>''be sleepy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''nasefa'''<br>''poor, needy'' || '''nasefer'''<br>''be needy'' || || |- !row=1| '''Subject''' | '''dudyefa'''<br>''accountable, responsible'' || '''dudyefer'''<br>''be responsible'' || || |- !row=1| '''Patient''' | '''texiyefwa'''<br>''noteworthy'' || '''texiyefwer'''<br>''be noteworthy'' || || |} == Sensing Verbs == : Verbs involving the senses, such as sight or hearing, follow a similar pattern, as the following chart shows: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Sensing Verbs |- valign=top ! TYPE !! '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teata'''....''visual'' !! '''teeb'''....''ear''<br>'''teeta'''....''acoustic'' !! '''teib'''....''nose''<br>'''teita'''....''olfactory'' !! '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teuta'''....''gustatory'' !! '''tayob'''....''skin''<br>'''tayota'''....''tactile'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Active | '''teater'''<br>''see'' || '''teeter'''<br>''hear'' || '''teiter'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuter'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoter'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Receptive<br>Passive | '''teatwer'''<br>''be seen'' || '''teetwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitwer'''<br>''be smelled'' || '''teutwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Stative | '''teaser'''<br>''seem'' || '''teeser'''<br>''sound'' || '''teiser'''<br>''smell'' || '''teuser'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoser'''<br>''feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Active | '''teaxer'''<br>''look at'' || '''teexer'''<br>''listen'' || '''teixer'''<br>''sniff'' || '''teuxer'''<br>''taste'' || '''tayoxer'''<br>''touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Dynamic<br>Passive | '''teaxwer'''<br>''be looked at'' || '''teexwer'''<br>''be listened to'' || '''teixwer'''<br>''be sniffed'' || '''teuxwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayoxwer'''<br>''be touched'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Active | '''teatuer'''<br>''show'' || '''teetuer'''<br>''make hear'' || '''teixuer'''<br>''make smell'' || '''teuxuer'''<br>''offer a taste'' || '''tayoxuer'''<br>''make feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Causative<br>Passive | '''teatuwer'''<br>''be shown'' || '''teetuwer'''<br>''be made to hear'' || '''teituwer'''<br>''be made to smell'' || '''teutuwer'''<br>''be given a taste'' || '''tayotuwer'''<br>''be made to feel'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Active | '''teatier'''<br>''perceive,''<br>''catch sight of'' || '''teetier'''<br>''catch the<br>sound of'' || '''teitier'''<br>''get a whiff of'' || '''teutuer'''<br>''get a taste of'' || '''tayotier'''<br>''get the sensation of'' |- valign=top !row=1| Inchoative<br>Passive | '''teatiwer'''<br>''be perceived'' || '''teetiwer'''<br>''be heard'' || '''teitiwer'''<br>''be whiffed'' || '''teutiwer'''<br>''be tasted'' || '''tayotiwer'''<br>''be felt'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofer'''<br>''be blind'' || '''teetyofer'''<br>''be deaf'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to smell'' || '''teityofer'''<br>''be unable to taste'' || '''tayotyofer'''<br>''be insensitive'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Stative | '''teatyofwer'''<br>''be invisible'' || '''teetyofwer'''<br>''be inaudible'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>odorwise'' || '''teityofwer'''<br>''be insipid'' || '''tayotyofwer'''<br>''be undetectable<br>by touch'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofxer'''<br>''blind'' || '''teetyofxer'''<br>''deafen'' || '''teityofxer'''<br>''desensitize<br>to smell'' || '''teutyofxer'''<br>''desensitize to<br>taste'' || '''tayotyofxer'''<br>''desensitize'' |- valign=top !row=1| Negative-Modal<br>Patient-oriented<br>Causative | '''teatyofwaxer'''<br>''make invisible'' || '''teetyofwaxer'''<br>''make inaudible'' || '''teityofwaxer'''<br>''make odorless'' || '''teutyofwaxer'''<br>''render tasteless'' || '''tayotyofwaxer'''<br>''numb'' |} : Examples of usage: :* '''At <u>teatyofxwa</u> bey ha mani.'''....''I <u>was blinded</u> by the lights.'' :* '''Ha xeus sa <u>teetyofxyea</u>.'''....''The noise was <u>deafening</u>.'' :* '''Hia tit se gla <u>teatiyafa</u>.'''....''This pupil is very <u>perceptive</u>.'' :* '''Hua bekil se <u>teityofwa</u>.'''....''That medicine is <u>odorless</u> (impossible to smell).'' :* '''<u>Teatyofwaxu</u> ha vyuni.'''....''<u>Make</u> the spots <u>invisible</u>.'' :* '''Ha magmemyaz yonpyexlun <u>tayotyafwa</u> zya ha mir.'''....''The volcano eruption <u>could be felt</u> throughout the world.'' == Frequentative Verbs == :Frequentative verbs or repetitive action verbs can be formed with the prefix '''je-'''. This prefix gives the verb the meaning ''to keep on doing something''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Verbs |- ! Normal !! Frequentative |- | '''teaxer'''....''to look''||'''<u>je</u>teaxer'''....''to watch'' |- | '''bexer'''....''to hold''||'''<u>je</u>bexer'''....''to conserve'' |- | '''byexer'''....''to hit''||'''<u>je</u>byexer'''....''to batter'' |- | '''zoigper'''....''to pursue''||'''<u>je</u>zoigper'''....''to stalk'' |- | '''duler'''....''to urge'' || '''<u>je</u>duler'''....''to nag'' |} == Hybridized Verbs == : Verbs that involve motion directions that change back and forth can be formed by hybridizing the stem vowel or the vowel of the vectorial prefix. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hybridized Verbs |- ! First Verb !! Second Verb !! Hybridized Verb |- | '''py<u>a</u>ser'''....''jump up''|| '''py<u>o</u>ser'''....''fall down'' || '''py<u>ao</u>ser'''....''bounce, undulate'' |- | '''buer'''....''give'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' |- | '''nuer'''....''furnish'' || '''nier'''....''consume'' || '''nuier'''....''trade'' |- | '''tuer'''....''inform'' || '''tier'''....''learn'' || '''tuier'''....''communicate'' |- | '''yaper'''....''ascend'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' || '''yaoper'''....''go up and down'' |- | '''zayper'''....''go forward'' || '''zoyper'''....''go back'' || '''zaoper'''....''vacillate'' |- | '''vader'''....''affirm'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yijber'''....''open'' || '''yujber'''....''close'' || '''uijber'''....''valve'' |- | '''baser'''....''stir'' || '''boser'''....''be still'' || '''baoser'''....''vibrate'' |} == Expressing Habitual Actions and States == : Mirad uses the term '''gel jubyen''' (''as a habit'') to express a verb reflecting habitual action, eg: ::* '''At tijeya be yiwa jwobi gel jubyen.'''....''I used to wake up at 9 o'clock.'' (Lit. ''I was waking up at 9 o'clock as a habit.''). : The term '''hyujod'''....''one another occasion'' (or '''be aj'''....''in the past'') is use to express ''once (upon a time)'', eg: ::* '''At sa tuxut hyujod (~ be aj) sa tuxut.''' ....''I once was a teacher.'' : The term '''vyabxelay''' (''routinely'') can also be used, eg: ::* '''Yat eke duz yuz bi ha doym vyabxelay.'''....''We play music around town routinely.'' == Expressing an Immediate Past == : To express an immediate past, such as in the sentence ''"We have just gotten married."'', Mirad uses the adverb '''ejnay''' (''newly'') much like the word ''just'' in English: ::* '''Yat tadsaye <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''We have <u>just</u> gotten married.'' ::* '''<u>Ejnay</u> tadxwa.'''....''<u>Just</u> married.'' ::* '''Wit dokebiwa <u>ejnay</u>.'''....''He was <u>just</u> elected.'' ::* '''At ujbaya yex <u>ejnay</u> hoj iyt yebupa.'''....''I had <u>just</u> finished work when she came in.'' == Verb Predicate Types == : Mirad verb predicates can be classified as follows: :* '''''Voice''''' ::* Active (The subject is the doer of the action) ::* Passive (The subject is the receiver of the action) ::* Middle (The subject is both the agent and patient) ::* Reflexive (The subject is also the patient.) ::* Reciprocal (Plural subjects interact.) :* '''''Stativity''''' ::* Stative (Does not involve action) ::* Dynamic (Action is involved) :* '''''Valency''''' ::* Impersonal (There is no subject) ::* Transitive (There is an object) ::* Intransitive (There is no object) ::* Auto-transitive (The subject is a patient and there is no agent) ::* Anti-transitive (There is the patient but an agent is assumed) ::* Causative (Subject causes an action to be performed) ::* Copula (X is Y) :* '''''Other''''' ::* Modal (''can, must, should, wants to''...) ::* Auxiliary (''help to, hope to, prepare to'' + verb) ::* Motion (''run, go, ride''...) ::* Communication (''say, answer, claim that...'') ::* Gesture (''put, shake, hit...'') ::* State/Stative (''be, become, live, be born...'') ::* Action/Dynamic (''do, act, make'') {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightYellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Verb Predicate Types |- ! Voice !! Stativity!! Valency !! Example |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, -object || '''Mamilo zajub.'''....''It will rain tomorrow.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, -agent, +complement || '''Sa gla oma.'''....''It was very cold.'' |- | active || stative || impersonal, +subject || '''Ese het be ha mes.'''....''There is someone at the door.'' |- | active || stative || copula, subject + noun/adjective complement || '''Et se ata twud.'''....''You are my son.''<br>'''At aseye ebbyextipa.'''....''I am becoming angry.'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient -agent -object || '''Iyt toja.'''....''She died'' |- | middle || stative || auto-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Et bokso.'''....''You will get sick.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, sense, +subject +object || '''At teate et.'''....''I see you.'' |- | active || stative || transitive, modal, +subject +verb complement || '''At fe per.'''....''I want to go.'' |- | active || stative || intransitive, subject-oriented modal, -subject +verb complement || '''Yofwe teater.'''....''It is impossible to see.'' |- | passive || stative || patient-oriented modal, +subject || '''Mamil yakwe.'''....''Rain is expected.'' |- | middle || dynamic || anti-transitive, +subject=patient +agent -object || '''Ha mes yijpa.'''....''The door came open.'' |- | active || dynamic || intransitive, +subject -object|| '''Ha fab pyosa.'''....''The tree fell.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject +-object || '''Yit pyoxa ha fab.'''....''They felled the tree.'' |- | passive || dynamic || intransitive, +subject, -object || '''Ha fabi pyoxwa.'''....''The trees were felled.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, +subject, +object|| '''Obu eta tef.'''....''Take your hat off.'' |- | active || dynamic || ditransitive, +subject, +object +object || '''Von et buu iyt ha nas.'''....''Don't give her the money.'' |- | active || dynamic || transitive, motion, +subject, +destination/origin || '''Yupu ha seem.'''....''Approach the bench.''<br>'''Pu tam!'''....''Go home!'' (''you'' implied) |- | active || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxo Jon.'''....''I will get my hair cut by John.'' |- | passive || dynamic || causative, +subject +object, +agent || '''At tayegobluxwo.'''....''I will get my hair cut.'' |- | active || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''Yuxu at xer his.'''....''Help me do this.'' |- | passive || dynamic || auxiliary, ditransitive, +patient +verb object || '''At tuxwa eker duz.'''....''I was taught to play music.'' |- | middle || dynamic || reflexive, +subject = patient, -object || '''Iyt uttojba.'''....''She killed herself.'' |- | active || dynamic || reciprocal, +subjects = patients || '''Yit voy hyuitdale gaj.'''....''They don't talk to one another anymore.'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Pronouns|Prepositions}}</noinclude> 55zl9boyby9rbjmdam5z9rdcpvnc3xy 0 417650 4635033 4623364 2026-05-09T21:56:24Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Single-word Prepositions */ 4635033 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : Prepositions are words that connect and show a relationship between a noun or noun phrase and the rest of the sentence. In Mirad, prepositions are simple monosyllables or phrases. Prepositions, as in English, are positioned before the noun or noun phrase they connect. == Single-word Prepositions == [[File:Prepositions of place.svg|thumb|]] : In Mirad, there are '''''single-word prepositions''''' and '''''compound prepositions'''''. : Here is a chart of single-word prepositions. Most are spatial, but some are temporal, relational, or mathematical. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Prepositions |- ! Positive !! Neutral !! Negative |- ! colspan="3" | Spatial |- | '''ab'''....''on, upon'' || '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ob'''....''off, off of'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over, above'' || '''eyb'''....''among, amid'' || '''oyb'''....''under, below'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''be'''....''at'' || '''bi'''....''from, of'' |- | '''byu'''....''as far as, up to'' || || '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bey'''....''by, via'' || '''boy'''....''without'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || || '''ib'''....''away from'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yeb'''....''in, inside''<br>'''oyeb'''....''outside''|| '''yib'''....''far from'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' |- | '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''at the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''behind, in back of'' |- | '''zya'''....''throughout'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || |- | || '''zey'''....''across'' || |- ! colspan="3" | Temporal |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during, while'' || '''jo'''....''after'' |- | '''ju'''....''until'' || || '''ji'''....''since'' |- ! colspan="3" | Relational |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''....''neither for nor against''<br>'''vyel'''....''than, as, compared to, about'' || '''ov'''....''against'' |- | '''ayv'''....''about'' || || '''oyv'''....''despite'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or''<br>'''oey'''....''nor'' || '''oy'''....''but, except'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bey'''....''by, via, with'' || '''boy'''....''without'' |- | || '''gel'''....''like''<br>'''ogel'''....''unlike'' || |- ! colspan="3" | Mathematical |- | || '''ge'''....''equal to''<br>'''oge'''....''unequal to'' || |- | '''gab'''....''plus, <big>+</big>'' || '''gaob'''....''plus or minus'' || '''gob'''....''minus, <big>-</big>'' |- | '''gal'''....''times, <big>×</big>'' || || '''gol'''....''divided by, <big>÷</big>'' |- | '''gar'''....''to the power of, <big>&circ;</big>'' || || '''gor'''....''to the root of, <big>√</big>'' |} : Some of the above prepositions can be negated by prefixing '''lo'''. For example: ::* '''jo'''....''after'' --> '''lojo'''....''no later than, by'' ::* '''ji'''....''since'' --> '''loji'''....''not since'' : The most versatile and useful single-word preposition is '''be''', which means ''at'' as a general locative when used literally, but is used before many nouns and noun phrases when the meaning is idiomatic. Some examples follow: ::* '''Yat se <u>be tam</u>.'''....''We are <u>at home</u>.'' (literal, general locative) ::* '''Yat se <u>be dropek</u>.'''....''We are <u>at war</u>.'' (idiomatic) ::* '''At teata et <u>be yibsin</u>.'''....''I saw you <u>on television</u>.'' (idiomatic) ::* '''<u>Be Ejna York</u> ese mamyabtomi.'''....''<u>In New York</u>, there are skyscrapers.'' (general locative) ::* '''At se <u>on the way</u>.'''....''I am <u>on the way</u>.'' : The preposition '''bi''' can mean ''of'' or ''from''. It is used for possessive constructions. Here are some examples: ::* '''Hus se tam <u>bi</u> ifron.'''....''That is a house <u>of</u> worship.'' ::* '''At tyopa <u>bi</u> ha nam bu ata pur.'''....''I walked <u>from</u> the store to my car.'' ::* '''<u>Bi</u> him bu jobuj.'''....''<u>From</u> here to eternity.'' ::* '''Ha tajem <u>bi Tom</u> se him.'''....''<u>Tom's</u> birthplace is here.'' ::* '''His sa ha gwaifwa tuzun <u>bi eta teyd</u>.'''....''This was <u>your mother's</u> favorite piece of art.'' === Simple Preposition Examples === ::* '''Ha dyes se <u>ab</u> ha sem.'''....''The book is <u>on</u> the table.'' ::* '''Von pyosu <u>ob</u> ha abtamas!'''....''Don't fall <u>off</u> the roof!'' ::* '''Ha pati papa <u>ayb</u> ata tam.'''....''The birds flew <u>over</u> my house.'' ::* '''It kosa <u>oyb</u> ha yagsim.'''....''He hid <u>under</u> the bench.'' ::* '''Simbiu <u>eb</u> hut ay at.'''....''Take a seat <u>between</u> that person and me.'' ::* '''Yat teje <u>eyb</u> fiati.'''....''We live <u>among</u> good people.'' ::* '''Duhos se nax <u>bi</u> pop <u>bu</u> ay <u>bi</u> Boston?'''....''What is the cost <u>of</u> a trip <u>to</u> and <u>from</u> Boston?'' ::* '''His se ifek <u>bi</u> kyen.'''....''This is a game <u>of</u> luck.'' ::* '''Duven et sa <u>be</u> hua duzun zomoj?'''....''Were you <u>at</u> that concert last night?'' ::* '''Yit se embwa <u>be</u> ha zenod bi ha mapil.'''....''We are positioned <u>at</u> the hub of this storm.'' ::* '''Iyt tyopa <u>byu</u> ha mes.'''....''She walked <u>up to/as far as</u> the door.'' ::* '''Ha twob tojbwa <u>bey</u> goblar.'''....''The man was killed <u>with/by</u> a knife.'' ::* '''Et xu ga fiay ser <u>bay</u> at vyel <u>boy</u> at.'''....''You would do better to be <u>with</u> me than <u>without</u> me.'' ::* '''Teaxu <u>ib</u> ha amar.'''....''Look <u>away</u> from the sun.'' ::* '''Von teaxu iz <u>ub</u> ha man.'''....''Don't look directly <u>toward</u> the light.'' ::* '''Yibdaliru <u>ub</u> ha uj bi eta pop.'''....''Call me <u>toward</u> the end of your trip.'' ::* '''Emkyoxu eta pur <u>yub</u> ha tam.'''....''Park the car <u>near</u> the house.'' ::* '''At voy se <u>yib</u> et.'''....''I'm not <u>far from</u> you.'' ::* '''Iyt simpa <u>za</u> at.''' ....''She sat <u>in front of</u> me.'' ::* '''Et yeyfe simbier <u>zo</u> hua toyb.'''....''You should sit <u>in back of</u> that woman.'' ::* '''Embu has <u>zu</u> ha mis.'''....''Put it <u>to the left of</u> the door.'' ::* '''At simpo <u>zi</u> et.'''....''I will sit <u>to the right of</u> you.'' ::* '''Ha pat besa <u>ze</u> ha tim.'''....''The bird stayed <u>in the middle of</u> the room.'' ::* '''Mil upeye <u>zye</u> ha yijun.'''....''Water is coming <u>through</u> the opening.'' ::* '''Bikiu je pen <u>zey</u> ha domep.'''.....''Take care when going <u>across</u> the street.'' ::* '''Eso ivan <u>zya</u> ha mir.'''....''There will be happiness <u>throughout</u> the world.'' ::* '''His xwo <u>ja</u> zajub.''' ....''This will happen <u>before</u> tomorrow.'' ::* '''Esa mapil <u>je</u> ha moj.'''....''There was a storm <u>during</u> the night.'' ::* '''<u>Ju</u> zamaj.'''....''<u>Until</u> tomorrow morning.'' ::* '''At voy teataye et <u>ji</u> zoyejub.'''....''I have not seen you <u>since</u> last week.'' ::* '''Diwe xu hes <u>av</u> at.'''....''Please do something <u>for</u> me.'' ::* '''Hia dyes se <u>ayv</u> dalzeyntun.'''....''This book is <u>about</u> linguistics.'' ::* '''Hia dyen se din <u>vyel</u> ewa fiuti.'''....''This book is a story <u>about</u> two lovers.'' ::* '''Datan se ga fia <u>vyel</u> nas.'''....''Friendship is better <u>than</u> money.'' ::* '''Hos se ge fua <u>vyel</u> has hu yat xola zojab.'''....''Nothing is as bad <u>as</u> what we underwent last year.'' ::* '''Yit yexeya <u>ov</u> yat.'''....''They were working <u>against</u> us.'' ::* '''Ha vakdibut dopoxa at <u>oyv</u> ata azovdeyni.'''....''The police officer arrested me <u>despite</u> my protests.'' ::* '''At se <u>ev</u> hua doyafkexut.'''....''I am <u>neither for nor against/neutral toward</u> that candidate.'' ::* '''Et <u>ay</u> Bob yeyfe ser dati.'''....''You <u>and</u> Bob should be friends.'' ::* '''Duhot ako, et <u>ey</u> at?'''....''Who will win, you <u>or</u> I?'' ::* '''Hyat <u>oy</u> hwut ta ha dud.'''....''Everyone <u>but</u> that guy knew the answer.'' ::* '''Esa mag <u>yub</u> at.'''....''There was a fire <u>near</u> me.'':: ::* '''Voy ese fabi <u>yuz</u> ata tam.'''....''There are no trees <u>around</u> my house.'' ::* '''Et yafo tyoper <u>yez</u> ha kunad.'''....''You'll have to walk <u>along</u> the edge.'' ::* '''Ese gla mari <u>yiz</u> yata amar.'''....''There are many stars <u>beyond</u> our sun.'' ::* '''Ha fepet tyopa iz <u>zye</u> hia mes.'''....''The cat walked right <u>through</u> this door.'' ::* '''<u>Boy</u> yombiel, tej voy se fia.'''....''<u>Without</u> ice cream, life is not good.'' ::* '''Et voy se <u>gel</u> at.'''....''You are not <u>like</u> me.'' ::* '''Et se hyagla <u>ogel</u> at.'''....''You are totally <u>unlike</u> me.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Uwa <u>gob</u> ewa gese ewa.'''....''Four <u>minus</u> two equals two.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gol</u> ewa gese awa.'''....''Two <u>divided by</u> two equals one.'' ::* '''Uwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese asya.'''....''Four squared (4²) equals sixteen. (Lit: Four <u>to the power of</u> two...)'' ::* '''Alya <u>gor</u> e gese u.'''....''The square root (√16) of sixteen is four. (Lit: Sixteen <u>to the minus power of</u> two...)'' === Hybridized Prepositions === :: Some of the above prepositions can be hybridized: ::* '''<u>bui</u> taam'''....''<u>to and fro</u> home'' ::* '''<u>zui</u> ha dodalut'''....''<u>to the left and right of</u> the speaker'' ::* '''<u>gaob</u> glos'''....''<u>plus or minus</u> a bit'' ::* '''<u>aov</u> at'''....''<u>for or against</u> me'' ::* '''<u>aoyeb</u> ha tim'''....''<u>in and out of</u> the room'' ::* '''<u>aob</u> ha seem'''....''<u>on and off</u> the counter'' == Compound Prepositions == : '''''Compound prepositions''''' require the use of multiple morphemes, including prepositions, adverbs, and nouns. === Compound Prepositions Using Adverbs === : There are certain directional adverbs that can play a part in forming prepositional phrases, but cannot act as prepositions in and of themselves: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Adverbs Used in Compound Prepositions |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''uz'''....''indirectly, roundabout'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward, ahead'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |} : The next chart lists some compound prepositions using the above adverbs or other combinations. Note that when combining two words, if the first word ends in '''b''' and the second begins with '''b''', one of the '''b''' 's is dropped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Compound Prepositions Using Adverbs and Other Prepositions |- ! Compound Preposition !! Example |- | '''yabu'''....''up to'' (< '''yab + bu''')|| '''It fu paper <u>yabu</u> ha mam.'''....''He would like to fly <u>up to</u> the sky.'' |- | '''yabi'''....''up from'' (< '''yab + bi''') || '''Su <u>yabi</u> ha sum.'''....''Get <u>up from</u> the bed.'' |- | '''yabey'''....''up (by way of)'' (< '''yab + bey''') || '''Yat tyoyapo <u>yabey</u> ha memyayz.'''....''We will walk <u>up</u> the hill.'' |- | '''yabe'''....''up at'' (< '''yab + be''')|| '''Ha kapet kaxwa <u>yabe</u> ha tam.'''....''The dog was found <u>up at</u> the house.'' |- | '''yabab'''....''up on, upon'' || '''Ha fepet se <u>yabab</u> ha abtamas.'''....''The cat is <u>up o</u>n the roof.'' |- | '''yobu'''....''down to'' (< '''yab + bu''') || '''Igpu <u>yobu</u> ha obmos.'''....''Run <u>down to</u> the cellar.'' |- | '''yobi'''....''down from'' (< '''yab + bi''') || '''Ha tat upa <u>yobi</u> ha mam.'''....''The angel came <u>down from</u> the sky.'' |- | '''yobey'''....''down (by way of)'' || '''Iyt igtyoyapa <u>yobey</u> ha meab.'''....''She ran <u>down</u> the hill.'' |- | '''yobe'''....''down at'' || '''Ha dyes kaxwa <u>yobe</u> ha obem.'''....''The book was found <u>down at</u> the bottom.'' |- | '''yobab'''....''down on'' || '''Has kaxwa <u>yobab</u> eta oybmos.'''....''It was found <u>down on</u> your floor.'' |- | '''yebu'''....''into'' || '''It pusa <u>yebu</u> ha mip.'''....''He jumped <u>into</u> the river.'' |- | '''yebi'''....''in from'' || '''Upu <u>yebi</u> ha oma oyebem.'''....''Come <u>in from</u> the cold outdoors.'' |- | '''oyebe'''....''out in/at'' || '''Ha tudi sa <u>oyebe</u> ha zodeym.'''....''The children were <u>out in</u> the backyard.'' |- | '''oyebi'''....''out from'' || '''Yepu <u>oyebi</u> ha om.'''....''Come in <u>out from</u> the cold.'' |- | '''oyebu'''....''out to'' || '''Yat fu peper <u>oyebu</u> ha meim.'''....''We'd like to ride <u>out to</u> the countryside.'' |- | '''izbu'''....''straight to'' || '''Pu <u>izbu</u> fyomir!''' ....''Go <u>straight to</u> hell!'' |- | '''izoybi'''....''right back from'' || '''It upu <u>izoybi</u> ha yexim.'''....''He came <u>right back from</u> the office.'' |- | '''zaybu'''....''on to, forth to, ahead to'' || '''Ha bixpur popa <u>zaybu</u> zona doym.'''....''The train traveled <u>on to</u> the next town.'' |- | '''zeybi'''....''across from'' || '''At simbeseya <u>zeybi</u> et.'''....''I was sitting <u>across from</u> you.'' |- | '''zoybi'''....''back from'' || '''At se <u>zoybi</u> ha yextim.'''....''I am <u>back from</u> the office.'' |- | '''zoybu'''....''back to'' || '''Pu <u>zoy bu</u> ha nam.'''....''Go <u>back to</u> the store.'' |- | '''zoybe'''....''back at'' || '''Duven et se <u>zoybe</u> tam?'''....''Are you <u>back at</u> home?'' |- | '''zubi'''....''to the left of'' || '''Ata tam se <u>zubi</u> hut.'''....''My house is <u>to the right of</u> that guy's.'' |- | '''zibi'''....''to the right of'' || '''Huta tam se <u>zibi</u> atas.'''....''That guy's house is <u>to the right of</u> mine.'' |} === Prepositional Phrases Using Spatial Nouns === : The following chart shows how prepositions and directional adverbs can be joined with the spatial ending '''-(e)m''' meaning ''place'' (or others) to be form spatial nouns, which, in turn, can be used in idiomatic prepositional phrases: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Spatial Nouns Built on Prepositions or Adverbs |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abem'''....''top''<br>'''abned'''....''upper surface''<br>'''abmas'''....''roof'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebem'''....''interstice''<br>'''ebjob'''....''interval''<br>'''ebnod'''....''intersection''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''obned'''....''lower surface''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation'' |- | '''ayb'''....''above'' || '''aybem'''....''area above''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''oyb'''....''below'' || '''oybem'''....''area below''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor'' |- | '''eyb'''....''among'' || '''eybem'''....''midst'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yabem'''....''upstairs, upper area''<br>'''yabneg'''....''top level'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobem'''....''downstairs, lower area''<br>'''yobneg'''....''bottom level'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yebem'''....''inside, interior, indoors''<br>'''yebnig'''....''inner space'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyebem'''....''outside, exterior, outdoors'' |- | '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''zam'''....''front, foreground''<br>'''zan'''....''face'' |- | '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zem'''....''middle''<br>'''zenod'''....''center, hub''<br>'''zen'''....''center''<br>'''zenad'''....''median'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zom'''....''back, rear, background'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zim'''....''right area''<br>'''zikum'''....''left side''<br>'''ziizon'''....''right direction''<br>'''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zum'''....''left area''<br>'''zukum'''....''left side''<br>'''zuizon'''....''left direction''<br>'''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izmep'''....''direct route''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector''<br>'''izon'''....''direction'' |- | '''uz'''....''indirectly'' || '''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uzon'''....''deviation'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yubem'''....''vicinity''<br>'''yubkum'''....''near side''<br>'''yubaj'''....''recent past'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yibem'''....''distance''<br>'''yibkum'''....''far side''<br>'''yibnod'''....''pole''<br>'''yiboj'''....''distant future'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzem'''....''perifery''<br>'''yuznad'''....''perimeter''<br>'''yuznig'''....''environment'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizem'''....''area beyond''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity'' |} : The following chart shows phrasal prepositions that can be created with the use of the spatial nouns in the previous section or other nouns. These phrases are considered idiomatic, because they are abbreviated by the omission of the definite article '''ha''' in front of the noun: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Idiomatic Phrasal Prepositions ! At Somewhere !! To Somewhere !! From Somewhere |- | '''be abem bi'''....''at the top of'' || '''bu abem bi'''....''to the top of'' || '''bi abem bi'''....''from the top of'' |- | '''be obem bi'''....''at the bottom of'' || '''bu obem bi'''....''to the bottom of'' || '''bi obem bi'''....''from the top of'' |- | '''be ebem bi'''....''in the area between'' || '''bu ebem bi'''....''to the area between'' || '''bi ebem bi'''....''from the area between'' |- | '''be aybem bi'''....''above, over'' || '''bu aybem bi'''....''to the area above'' || '''bi aybem bi'''....''from the area above'' |- | '''be oybem bi'''....''below, under'' || '''bu oybem bi'''....''to the area below'' || '''bi oybem bi'''....''from the area below'' |- | '''be eybem bi'''....''amid'' || '''zye eybem bi'''....''through the midst of'' || '''bi eybem bi'''....''from the midst of'' |- | '''be zam bi'''....''at the front of'' || '''bu zam bi'''....''to the front of'' || '''bi zam bi'''....''from the front of'' |- | '''be zem bi'''....''at the middle of'' || '''bu zem bi'''....''to the middle of'' || '''bi zem bi'''....''from the middle of'' |- | '''be zom bi'''....''at the back of'' || '''bu zom bi'''....''to the back of'' || '''bi zom bi'''....''from the back of'' |- | '''be zim bi'''....''at the right of'' || '''bu zim bi'''....''to the right of'' || '''bi zim bi'''....''from the right of'' |- | '''be zum bi'''....''at the left of'' || '''bu zum bi'''....''to the left of'' || '''bi zum bi'''....''from the left of'' |- | '''be yubem bi'''....''in the vicinity of'' || '''bu yubem bi'''....''to the vicinity of'' || '''bi yubem bi'''....''from the vicinity of'' |- | '''be yibem bi'''....''at a distance from'' || '''bey azon bi'''....''by dint of'' || '''be avon bi'''....''in favor of'' |- | '''be ubem bi'''....''in the direction of'' || '''bay ux bi'''....''with assistance from'' || '''be byux bay'''....''in touch with'' |- | '''be yabem bi'''....''in the upper reaches of'' || '''be vyen bu'''....''in relation to'' || '''doytaxwa bay'''....''associated with'' |- | '''be yobem bi'''....''in the bottom area of'' || '''be ned bi'''....''on the level of'' || '''be mep bu'''....''on the way to, en route'' |- | '''be yebem bi'''....''on the inside of, inside'' || '''be oyebem bi'''....''on the outside of, outside'' || '''bu oyebem bi'''....''to the exterior of'' |- | '''bey mep bi'''....''by way of, via'' || '''be kum bi'''....''beside, at the side of'' || '''be ij bi'''....''at the start of'' |- | '''be uj bi'''....''at the end of'' || '''bey uxun bi'''....''by means of'' || '''be kunad bi'''....''at the edge of'' |- | '''be nod bi'''....''at the point of'' || '''be yebem bi'''....''at the interior of, inside'' || '''be oyebem bi'''....''at the exterior of, outside'' |- | '''be nad bay'''....''in line with'' || '''be uznod bi'''....''alongside'' || '''be tes bi'''....''in the sense of'' |- | '''be teas bi'''....''in the guise of'' || '''be san bi'''....''in the form of'' || '''be yanx bi'''....''in conjunction with'' |- | '''be bol bi'''....''in support of'' || '''be gab bu'''....''in addition to'' || '''be dyun bi'''....''in the name of'' |- | '''be avson bi'''....''on behalf of'' || '''be vyeson bi'''....''on the subject of'' || '''bay yux bi'''....''with the aid of'' |} == Adjectivized Prepositions == : Simple prepositions can be converted into adjectives by suffixing the adjectival ending '''-a'''. Here are some examples: ::* '''aba'''....''superior'' (ex. '''aba doyevam'''....''superior court'') ::* '''oba'''....''inferior'' ::* '''ayba'''....''upper'' ::* '''oyba'''....''lower'' ::* '''yaba'''....''high'' ::* '''yoba'''....''low'' ::* '''eba'''....''in-between'' ::* '''gaba'''....''additional'' ::* '''goba'''....''subtractive'' ::* '''gala'''....''multiple'' ::* '''gaza'''....''logarithmic'' ::* '''gea'''....''equal'' ::* '''gela'''....''same'' ::* '''iba'''....''away'' ::* '''ogea'''....''unequal'' ::* '''jaa'''....''anterior, prior'' ::* '''jea'''....''present'' ::* '''joa'''....''posterior'' ::* '''ava'''....''in favor, favorable, pro'' ::* '''eva'''....''neutral'' ::* '''ova'''....''against, unfavorable, counter'' ::* '''oyva'''....''opposite, inverse'' ::* '''yeba'''....''inner'' ::* '''oyeba'''....''outer'' ::* '''yeza'''....''flush'' ::* '''yuba'''....''near'' ::* '''yiba'''....''far, distant'' ::* '''yiza'''....''extreme, yonder'' ::* '''yuza'''....''circular'' ::* '''zaa'''....''front, anterior'' ::* '''zea'''....''medial, middle'' ::* '''zoa'''....''rear, back, posterior'' ::* '''zia'''....''left'' ::* '''zua'''....''right'' : A slight nuanced meaning can be achieved by suffixing '''-na''' instead of '''-a'''. ::* '''jana'''....''previous'' ::* '''jona'''....''next'' ::* '''zana'''....''next, anterior'' ::* '''zona'''....''last, posterior'' ::* '''ovna'''....''antithetical'' ::* '''yebna'''....''interior, internal'' ::* '''oyebna'''....''exterior, external'' ::* '''zena'''....''central'' ::* '''ebna'''....''intermediate'' ::* '''yizna'''....''ulterior, extreme'' ::* '''yuzna'''....''peripheral'' ::* '''yubna'''....''proximate'' == Prepositions and Adverbs as Verb Prefixes == : Prepositions and adverbs can be prefixed to verbs to alter their directionality. If such a prefix ends in '''-b''' and the verb begins with '''b''' or '''p''', the final '''b''' of the prefix is dropped. : Let take the verb '''per'''....''to go'' as an example: ::* '''ab'''....''on'' + '''per''' = '''aper'''....''to get on, to board'' ::* '''ob'''....''off'' + '''per''' = '''oper'''....''to get off, to dismount'' ::* '''eb'''....''between'' + '''per''' = '''eper'''....''to intervene'' ::* '''ib'''....''away'' + '''per''' = '''iper'''....''to go away'' ::* '''ub'''....''toward'' + '''per''' = '''uper'''....''to come'' ::* '''yab'''....''up'' + '''per''' = '''yaper'''....''to get up, to rise, to ascend'' ::* '''yob'''....''down'' + '''per''' = '''yoper'''....''to get down, to descend'' ::* '''yeb'''....''in'' + '''per''' = '''yeper'''....''to get in, to enter'' ::* '''oyeb'''....''out'' + '''per''' = '''oyeper'''....''to get out, to exit'' ::* '''yub'''....''near'' + '''per''' = '''yuper'''....''to get near, to approach'' ::* '''yib'''....''far'' + '''per''' = '''yiper'''....''to retreat, to distance oneself'' ::* '''yiz'''....''beyond'' + '''per''' = '''yizper'''....''to pass, exceed'' ::* '''yuz'''....''around'' + '''per''' = '''yuzper'''....''to go around, to circulate'' ::* '''yez'''....''along'' + '''per''' = '''yezper'''....''to go along'' ::* '''yan'''....''together'' + '''per''' = '''yanper'''....''to get together, to meet'' ::* '''yon'''....''apart'' + '''per''' = '''yonper'''....''to go apart, to separate'' ::* '''ja'''....''before'' + '''per''' = '''japer'''....''to go before, to precede'' ::* '''jo'''....''after'' + '''per''' = '''joper'''....''to go after, to follow'' ::* '''za'''....''front'' + '''per''' = '''zaper'''....''to lead, to go in front'' ::* '''zo'''....''back'' + '''per''' = '''zoper'''....''to lag, to go in back'' ::* '''zay'''....''forward'' + '''per''' = '''zayper'''....''to go forward, to advance'' ::* '''zoy'''....''backward'' + '''per''' = '''zoyper'''....''to go back, to return'' ::* '''zey'''....''across'' + '''per''' = '''zeyper'''....''to go across, to transit'' == Separable Verb Prefixes == : Verbal prefixes that are formed from prepositions and adverbs can usually be "unpacked", that is, treated as separate words. This works like separable verbs in German. The following table demonstrates this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Separable Verb Prefixes |- ! Verb-bound !! Unpacked !! English |- | '''Mapuzlun <u>yuzpa</u> yata tam.''' || '''Mapuzlun <u>pa yuz</u> yata tam.'''||''A tornado circled/went around our house. (= went around)'' |- | '''Ha yux bi calk yeyfe <u>yobnogxwer</u>.''' || '''Ha yux bi cal yeyfe <u>nogxwer yob</u>.'''||''The use of carbon should be downscaled. (= scaled down)'' |- | '''Yat <u>zaybuxo</u> hia dovyabdren.''' || '''Yat <u>buxo</u> hia dovyabdren <u>zay</u>.'''||''We shall advance this legislation. (= push forward)'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Verbs|Conjunctions}}</noinclude> 1xtuivfy8rmtb3hphuif1tepf73kuit 0 418376 4635087 4285934 2026-05-10T08:36:17Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635087 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow |+ |- | style="text-align:center"|<span font-fmaily:'Arial, Sans MS'; color:blue;font-size:xxx-large; " ><b> The <br>Kitchen <br>Brigade </b></span> <p></p> || [[File:Ribot Theodule The Cook And The Cat-1.jpg|frame|660px|Ribot Theodule The Cook And The Cat-1]] <br> <small><small> The Cook And The Cat, Ribot Theodule </small></small> |} ===The Kitchen Brigade=== Brigade de cuisine (French: [bʁiɡad də kɥizin], kitchen brigade) is a system of hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, commonly referred to as &quot;kitchen staff&quot; in English-speaking countries. The concept was developed by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846-1935).[1][2] This structured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals who specialize in certain tasks in the kitchen. ====List of positions==== [[This is a comprehensive list of the different members of the kitchen brigade. Only the largest of establishments would have an extensive staff of this size. As noted under some titles, certain positions are combined into other positions when such a large staff is unnecessary. Note: Despite the use of chef in English as the title for a cook, the word actually means &quot;chief&quot; or "head" in French. Similarly, cuisine means "kitchen", but also refers to food or cooking generally, or a type of food or cooking.]] Chef de cuisine (kitchen chef; &quot;chief of the kitchen&quot; is responsible for overall management of kitchen; supervises staff, creates menus and new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, makes purchases of raw food items, trains apprentices, and maintains a sanitary and hygienic environment for the preparation of food.[3] Sous-chef de cuisine (deputy/second kitchen chef; &quot;under chief&quot;) receives orders directly from the chef de cuisine for the management of the kitchen, and often serves as the representative when the chef de cuisine is not present.[3] Saucier (saucemaker/sauté cook) prepares sauces and warm hors d'oeuvres, completes meat dishes, and in smaller restaurants, may work on fish dishes and prepare sautéed items. This is one of the most respected positions in the kitchen brigade.[3] Chef de partie (senior chef; &quot;chief of the group&quot;) is responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen, specializing in preparing particular dishes there. Those who work in a lesser station are commonly referred to as a demi-chef.[3] Cuisinier (cook) is an independent position, usually preparing specific dishes in a station; may also be referred to as a cuisinier de partie.[3] Commis (junior cook) also works in a specific station, but reports directly to the chef de partie and takes care of the tools for the station.[3] Apprenti(e) (apprentice) are often students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work experience in the kitchen. They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work.[3] Plongeur (dishwasher or kitchen porter) cleans dishes and utensils, and may be entrusted with basic preparatory jobs.[3] Marmiton (pot and pan washer, also known as kitchen porter) in larger restaurants, takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the plongeur.[4] Rôtisseur (roast cook) manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils, and deep fries dishes.[3] Grillardin (grill cook) in larger kitchens, prepares grilled foods instead of the rôtisseur.[5] Friturier (fry cook) in larger kitchens, prepares fried foods instead of the rôtisseur.[5] Poissonnier (fish cook) prepares fish and seafood dishes.[4] Entremetier (entrée preparer) prepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish, including vegetable dishes and egg dishes.[3] Potager (soup cook) in larger kitchens, reports to the entremetier and prepares the soups.[5] Legumier (vegetable cook) in larger kitchens, also reports to the entremetier and prepares the vegetable dishes.[5] Garde manger (pantry supervisor; &quot;food keeper&quot;) is responsible for preparation of cold hors d'oeuvres, pâtés, terrines and aspics; prepares salads; organizes large buffet displays; and prepares charcuterie items.[3]]] Tournant (spare hand/roundsman) moves throughout the kitchen, assisting other positions in kitchen. Pâtissier (pastry cook) prepares desserts and other meal-end sweets, and for locations without a boulanger, also prepares breads and other baked items; may also prepare pasta for the restaurant. Confiseur in larger restaurants, prepares candies and petit fours instead of the pâtissier.[5] Glacier in larger restaurants, prepares frozen and cold desserts instead of the pâtissier.[5] Décorateur in larger restaurants, prepares show pieces and specialty cakes instead of the pâtissier.[5] Boulanger (baker) in larger restaurants, prepares bread, cakes, and breakfast pastries instead of the pâtissier.[4] Boucher (butcher) butchers meats, poultry, and sometimes fish; may also be in charge of breading meat and fish items.[5] Aboyeur (announcer/expediter) takes orders from the dining room and distributes them to the various stations; may also be performed by the sous-chef de partie.[5] Communard prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.[5] Garçon de cuisine (&quot;kitchen boy&quot;) in larger restaurants, performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support.[4] [[w:Brigade de cuisine|wikipedia: Brigade de cuisine]] {{BookCat}} n1vq5zklpnt2tnzdidtqznw3pr6inf0 4635088 4635087 2026-05-10T08:36:44Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635088 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow |+ |- | style="text-align:center"|<span font-fmaily:'Arial, Sans MS'; color:blue;font-size:xxx-large; " ><b> The <br>Kitchen <br>Brigade </b></span> <p></p> || [[File:Ribot Theodule The Cook And The Cat-1.jpg|660px|Ribot Theodule The Cook And The Cat-1]] <br> <small><small> The Cook And The Cat, Ribot Theodule </small></small> |} ===The Kitchen Brigade=== Brigade de cuisine (French: [bʁiɡad də kɥizin], kitchen brigade) is a system of hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, commonly referred to as &quot;kitchen staff&quot; in English-speaking countries. The concept was developed by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846-1935).[1][2] This structured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals who specialize in certain tasks in the kitchen. ====List of positions==== [[This is a comprehensive list of the different members of the kitchen brigade. Only the largest of establishments would have an extensive staff of this size. As noted under some titles, certain positions are combined into other positions when such a large staff is unnecessary. Note: Despite the use of chef in English as the title for a cook, the word actually means &quot;chief&quot; or "head" in French. Similarly, cuisine means "kitchen", but also refers to food or cooking generally, or a type of food or cooking.]] Chef de cuisine (kitchen chef; &quot;chief of the kitchen&quot; is responsible for overall management of kitchen; supervises staff, creates menus and new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, makes purchases of raw food items, trains apprentices, and maintains a sanitary and hygienic environment for the preparation of food.[3] Sous-chef de cuisine (deputy/second kitchen chef; &quot;under chief&quot;) receives orders directly from the chef de cuisine for the management of the kitchen, and often serves as the representative when the chef de cuisine is not present.[3] Saucier (saucemaker/sauté cook) prepares sauces and warm hors d'oeuvres, completes meat dishes, and in smaller restaurants, may work on fish dishes and prepare sautéed items. This is one of the most respected positions in the kitchen brigade.[3] Chef de partie (senior chef; &quot;chief of the group&quot;) is responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen, specializing in preparing particular dishes there. Those who work in a lesser station are commonly referred to as a demi-chef.[3] Cuisinier (cook) is an independent position, usually preparing specific dishes in a station; may also be referred to as a cuisinier de partie.[3] Commis (junior cook) also works in a specific station, but reports directly to the chef de partie and takes care of the tools for the station.[3] Apprenti(e) (apprentice) are often students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work experience in the kitchen. They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work.[3] Plongeur (dishwasher or kitchen porter) cleans dishes and utensils, and may be entrusted with basic preparatory jobs.[3] Marmiton (pot and pan washer, also known as kitchen porter) in larger restaurants, takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the plongeur.[4] Rôtisseur (roast cook) manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils, and deep fries dishes.[3] Grillardin (grill cook) in larger kitchens, prepares grilled foods instead of the rôtisseur.[5] Friturier (fry cook) in larger kitchens, prepares fried foods instead of the rôtisseur.[5] Poissonnier (fish cook) prepares fish and seafood dishes.[4] Entremetier (entrée preparer) prepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish, including vegetable dishes and egg dishes.[3] Potager (soup cook) in larger kitchens, reports to the entremetier and prepares the soups.[5] Legumier (vegetable cook) in larger kitchens, also reports to the entremetier and prepares the vegetable dishes.[5] Garde manger (pantry supervisor; &quot;food keeper&quot;) is responsible for preparation of cold hors d'oeuvres, pâtés, terrines and aspics; prepares salads; organizes large buffet displays; and prepares charcuterie items.[3]]] Tournant (spare hand/roundsman) moves throughout the kitchen, assisting other positions in kitchen. Pâtissier (pastry cook) prepares desserts and other meal-end sweets, and for locations without a boulanger, also prepares breads and other baked items; may also prepare pasta for the restaurant. Confiseur in larger restaurants, prepares candies and petit fours instead of the pâtissier.[5] Glacier in larger restaurants, prepares frozen and cold desserts instead of the pâtissier.[5] Décorateur in larger restaurants, prepares show pieces and specialty cakes instead of the pâtissier.[5] Boulanger (baker) in larger restaurants, prepares bread, cakes, and breakfast pastries instead of the pâtissier.[4] Boucher (butcher) butchers meats, poultry, and sometimes fish; may also be in charge of breading meat and fish items.[5] Aboyeur (announcer/expediter) takes orders from the dining room and distributes them to the various stations; may also be performed by the sous-chef de partie.[5] Communard prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.[5] Garçon de cuisine (&quot;kitchen boy&quot;) in larger restaurants, performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support.[4] [[w:Brigade de cuisine|wikipedia: Brigade de cuisine]] {{BookCat}} ls27ynyu2b0of4rpxnek8tj3w5myqnw 0 433323 4635103 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style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33CEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33CFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33D0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33D1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33D2x 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style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33D7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33D8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33D9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33DAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33DBx 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!style="background:#ffffff"|33E4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33E5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33E6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33E7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33E8x 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style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33EDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33EEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33EFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33F0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33F1x 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style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33F6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33F7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33F8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33F9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33FAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33FBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33FCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33FDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33FEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- align="center" style="background:#777777" !style="background:#ffffff"|33FFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} s0kjsmr6v1v16w4e2dsflqggdakkwxr 0 448086 4634967 4520802 2026-05-09T14:46:44Z Tyoyafud 6233 4634967 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> :: Although '''''stress''''' in Mirad is not marked and is not phonemic, i.e. not semantically distinctive, in all words of more than one syllable, the stress occurs on the '''''last, non-final vowel''''', including glided vowels. The following chart gives some examples: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller; margin-left:4.8em" |+ Stress |- ! Mirad Word !! With Stress and Syllabification Marked |- | '''tejna'''....''vital'' || '''tej'''-na |- | '''igay'''....''quickly'' || '''i'''-gay¹ |- | '''alayn'''....''eleventh'' || a-'''layn''' |- | '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' || Mi-'''rad''' |- | '''booka'''....''tired'' || bo-'''o'''-ka² |- | '''bookan'''....''fatigue'' || bo-o-'''kan''' |- | '''akea'''....''winning'' || a-'''ke'''-a |- | '''boyse'''....''lacks'' || '''oy'''-se |- | '''byoskyin'''....''pendulum'' || byos-'''kyin''' |- | '''pyaon'''....''wave'' || pya-'''on''' |- | '''tooyba'''....''female'' || to-'''oy'''-ba |- | '''yansauna'''....''common'' || yan-sa-'''u'''-na |} : ¹ <small>Here '''ay''' is a single post-y-glided vowel, and final, so it is not stressed. </small> : ² <small>Two vowels in a row are pronounced in two syllables.</small> : Here is a small passage where the stress of vowels in shown by boldfacing: :: Hya t'''o'''bi t'''a'''je y'''i'''va ay g'''e'''a be utf'''i'''z ay doy'''i'''vi. Yit b'''u'''lwe tex'''ya'''f ay vyao'''tyaf''' ay y'''ey'''fe hyuitaxl'''e'''r gel t'''i'''di. :: ''All men are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another as brothers.'' <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Syllabification|Phonotactics}}</noinclude> ktqzjdi4p222nlasnz5nxzlgawxx254 0 448478 4634971 4608802 2026-05-09T15:06:17Z Tyoyafud 6233 4634971 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : Mirad words can be categorized as: ::* Substantives (or Nouns and Pronouns) ::* Verbs ::* Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs) ::* Connectors (Prepositions and Conjunctions) ::* Particles : The chart below offers a more detailed breakdown: <div style="background: lightYellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|1}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}}";> '''<u>SUBSTANTIVES</u>''' * Nouns ( = '''sunduni''') :* Common Nouns ::* Countable Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tam'''....''house'') :::* Animate Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob'''....''person'') :::* Inanimate Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pur'''....''car'') :::* Gender-Neutral Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''nyem'''....''box'') :::* Male-Specific Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''twob'''....''man'') :::* Female-Specific Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''toyb'''....''woman'', '''tayf'''....''dress'') :::* Singular Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''sem'''....''table'') :::* Plural Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''semi'''....''tables'') :::* Abstract Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''xeyn'''....''deeds'') ::* Uncountable Nouns :::* Mass Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''miek'''....''sand'', '''gla miek'''....''a lot of sand'') :::* Deverbal Nouns ( ~ Gerunds/Infinitives/Abstractions)&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''melyexen'''....''farming'', '''melyexer'''....''to farm'', '''ifon'''....''love'') :::* Deadjectival Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''vian'''....''beauty'') :* Proper Nouns ::* Full names&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''Uyanmela Anx'''....''European Union'') ::* Acronyms&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''UA'''....''EU'') :* Abbreviations of Noun Expressions ('''i.m.'''....''d.c.'') * Pronouns ( = '''avduni''') :* Personal Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''iyt'''....''she'') :* Reflexive Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''aut'''....''myself'') :* Possessive Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''atas'''....''mine'') :* Deictic ( ~ Demonstrative) Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''hus'''....''that'') :* Quantitative Determiner Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''glati'''....''many of them'') :* Reciprocal Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''hyuit'''....''one another'') '''<u>VERBS</u>''' ( = '''erduni''') * Tenses :* Present&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pe'''....''goes'') :* Past&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pa'''....''went'') :* Future&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''po'''....''will go'') :* Atemporal&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pu!'''....''Go!'') * Aspects :* Progressive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''peye'''....''is going'', '''peya'''....''was going'') :* Perfect&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''paye'''....''has gone'', '''paya'''....''had gone'') :* Imminent&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''poye'''....''is about to go'', '''poya'''....''was to go'') :* Potential&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''puye'''....''is apt to go'', '''puya'''....''was apt to go'') * Moods :* Hypothetical&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pu'''....''would go'', '''[van has] pu'''....''[that it] go'') :* Indicative&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''po'''...''will go'', '''pe'''....''goes'') * Voices :* Active&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''It yijba ha mes.'''....''He opened the door.'') :* Passive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened.'') :* Medio-passive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'') * Transitivity :* Transitive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''besa'''....''stayed'') :* Intransitive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''bexa'''....''held'') * Dynamicity :* Static&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tujeye'''....''is sleeping'') :* Dynamic&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tujpa'''....''fell asleep'') * Focus :* Subject-oriented&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''yafe'''....''is able'') :* Patient-oriented&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''yafwe'''....''is possible'') '''<u>MODIFIERS</u>''' * Adjectives ( = '''aduni''') :* Deictic Adjectives ( ~ Determiners)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''duhoa?'''....''which?'', '''hyea'''....''any'') :* Descriptive Adjectives&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''via'''....''beautiful'') :* Denominal Adjectives&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''vensona'''....''conditional'') :* Pronominal ( ~ Possessive) Adjectives)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''yata'''....''our'') :* Deverbal Adjectives ( ~ Participles)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tejea'''....''living'', '''obwa'''....''removed'') :* Numeric Adjectives&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''awa'''....''one'', '''ewa'''....''two'') * Adverbs ( = '''ayduni''') :* Inherent adverbs&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''voy'''....''not'') :* Derived adverbs&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ikay'''....''fully'') '''<u>CONNECTORS</u>''' * Prepositions ( = '''ebduni''') :* Simple Prepositions&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''av'''....''for'') :* Complex Prepositions ('''be zam bi'''....''in front of'', '''yib bi'''....''far from'') * Conjunctions ( = '''yanxduni''') :* Coordinating&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ay'''....''and'', '''ey'''....''or'') :* Subordinating&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''van'''....''that'', '''ven'''....''if'') :* Correlative&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''hyaewa'''...'''ay'''....''both''...''and'') :* Adverbial&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''johus'''....''then'', '''avhus'''....''therefore'') '''<u>PARTICLES</u>''' ( = '''dunesi''') * Interjections&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( = '''tipduni''') ('''hay!'''....''hello!'', '''hway!'''....''bravo!'') * Cardinal Numbers&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''a'''....''one'', '''e'''....''two'') * Letter Names&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''a''', '''ba''', '''ca''') * Onomatopeia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pao!''', '''xux!''') * Abbreviations&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''a.g.'''....''etc.'', '''a.k.'''....''e.g.'') * Musical notes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''la''', '''ti''', '''do''') </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Phonotactics|Nouns}}</noinclude> i7fzg5iwbb6aioyjytc8u6hd2sr12jy 0 450432 4635017 4567160 2026-05-09T20:36:58Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple */ 4635017 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yoona'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yoon-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yoonxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yaona'''....''sextuple'' || '''yaonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yaon-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yaonxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>An extra ''o'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yoonat''' or '''yoot'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yoontajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yoonati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must keep the '''-on''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gona'''....''<u>quinti</u>partite''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yoonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yaonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yoongala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yaongala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to some of the above words to derive a noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yoonguna, yoongun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yaonguna, yaongun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yagekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icoahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunknnid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yoondeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yaondeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(on)-'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(on)-'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yoonyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yaonyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yoontid'''....''quintuplet'' ::* '''yaontid'''....''sextuplet'' ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yoon-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yaon-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' *....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : *Note: The '''-n''' or '''-on''' can sometimes be omitted in macro-prefixation, especially where there is no ambiguity. The '''-n''' (but NOT the '''-yn''') in the micro prefixes can also sometimes be omitted. : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar e''' (''squared'') and '''gar i''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajogat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha yazmeli.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTK?'') | '''Batokin''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has no ISO code, so it is arbitrarily translated into Mirad as '''Batokin (for BTK)'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batokin-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' :::* '''syagnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''syagnasuer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''ejnux'''....''debit, cash'' ::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' ::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' ::* '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' ::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' ::* '''nun'''....''merchandise, product'' ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' ::* '''nier'''....''to demand'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to save'' ::* '''nyexer'''....''to stock'' ::* '''noxer'''....''to spend'' ::* '''nyoxer'''....''to waste'' ::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' ::* '''nunuien'''....''trade'' ::* '''nunuiem'''....''market'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> nsoo2mf2c8opjw9jbwfiyu1mvbkjauj 4635018 4635017 2026-05-09T20:40:07Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes */ 4635018 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yoona'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yoon-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yoonxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yaona'''....''sextuple'' || '''yaonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yaon-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yaonxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>An extra ''o'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yoonat''' or '''yoot'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yoontajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yoonati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must keep the '''-on''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gona'''....''<u>quinti</u>partite''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yoonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yaonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yoongala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yaongala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to some of the above words to derive a noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yoonguna, yoongun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yaonguna, yaongun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yagekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunknnid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yoondeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yaondeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(on)-'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(on)-'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yoonyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yaonyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yoontid'''....''quintuplet'' ::* '''yaontid'''....''sextuplet'' ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yoon-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yaon-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' *....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : *Note: The '''-n''' or '''-on''' can sometimes be omitted in macro-prefixation, especially where there is no ambiguity. The '''-n''' (but NOT the '''-yn''') in the micro prefixes can also sometimes be omitted. : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar e''' (''squared'') and '''gar i''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajogat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha yazmeli.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTK?'') | '''Batokin''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has no ISO code, so it is arbitrarily translated into Mirad as '''Batokin (for BTK)'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batokin-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' :::* '''syagnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''syagnasuer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''ejnux'''....''debit, cash'' ::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' ::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' ::* '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' ::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' ::* '''nun'''....''merchandise, product'' ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' ::* '''nier'''....''to demand'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to save'' ::* '''nyexer'''....''to stock'' ::* '''noxer'''....''to spend'' ::* '''nyoxer'''....''to waste'' ::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' ::* '''nunuien'''....''trade'' ::* '''nunuiem'''....''market'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> s61cmszrpdz1os0gwvt1t6yplkbh3y2 4635020 4635018 2026-05-09T20:51:06Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Months of the Year */ 4635020 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yoona'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yoon-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yoonxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yaona'''....''sextuple'' || '''yaonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yaon-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yaonxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>An extra ''o'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yoonat''' or '''yoot'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yoontajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yoonati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must keep the '''-on''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gona'''....''<u>quinti</u>partite''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yoonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yaonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yoongala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yaongala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to some of the above words to derive a noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yoonguna, yoongun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yaonguna, yaongun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yagekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunknnid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yoondeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yaondeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(on)-'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(on)-'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yoonyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yaonyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yoontid'''....''quintuplet'' ::* '''yaontid'''....''sextuplet'' ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yoon-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yaon-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' *....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : *Note: The '''-n''' or '''-on''' can sometimes be omitted in macro-prefixation, especially where there is no ambiguity. The '''-n''' (but NOT the '''-yn''') in the micro prefixes can also sometimes be omitted. : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar e''' (''squared'') and '''gar i''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajogat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha yazmeli.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTK?'') | '''Batokin''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has no ISO code, so it is arbitrarily translated into Mirad as '''Batokin (for BTK)'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batokin-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' :::* '''syagnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''syagnasuer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''ejnux'''....''debit, cash'' ::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' ::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' ::* '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' ::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' ::* '''nun'''....''merchandise, product'' ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' ::* '''nier'''....''to demand'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to save'' ::* '''nyexer'''....''to stock'' ::* '''noxer'''....''to spend'' ::* '''nyoxer'''....''to waste'' ::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' ::* '''nunuien'''....''trade'' ::* '''nunuiem'''....''market'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> rd8kaj770l6fpiucxj72cphfn6y2poq 4635021 4635020 2026-05-09T20:59:08Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Expressing Age */ 4635021 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yoona'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yoon-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yoonxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yaona'''....''sextuple'' || '''yaonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yaon-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yaonxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>An extra ''o'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yoonat''' or '''yoot'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yoontajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yoonati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must keep the '''-on''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gona'''....''<u>quinti</u>partite''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yoonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yaonsuna'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yoongala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yaongala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to some of the above words to derive a noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yoonguna, yoongun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yaonguna, yaongun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yagekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunknnid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yoondeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yaondeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(on)-'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(on)-'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yoonyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yaonyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yoontid'''....''quintuplet'' ::* '''yaontid'''....''sextuplet'' ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yoon-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yaon-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' *....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : *Note: The '''-n''' or '''-on''' can sometimes be omitted in macro-prefixation, especially where there is no ambiguity. The '''-n''' (but NOT the '''-yn''') in the micro prefixes can also sometimes be omitted. : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar e''' (''squared'') and '''gar i''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTK?'') | '''Batokin''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has no ISO code, so it is arbitrarily translated into Mirad as '''Batokin (for BTK)'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batokin-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' :::* '''syagnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''syagnasuer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''ejnux'''....''debit, cash'' ::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' ::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' ::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' ::* '''nuxbier'''....''to buy'' ::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' ::* '''nun'''....''merchandise, product'' ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply'' ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver'' ::* '''nier'''....''to demand'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order'' ::* '''nexer'''....''to save'' ::* '''nyexer'''....''to stock'' ::* '''noxer'''....''to spend'' ::* '''nyoxer'''....''to waste'' ::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' ::* '''nunuien'''....''trade'' ::* '''nunuiem'''....''market'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> bzpq16liw2tznuxwuwhbpg3iltp1gva 0 450915 4635075 4413108 2026-05-10T08:03:39Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4635075 wikitext text/x-wiki Below is the table of numbers as written in the Bengali script. {| class="wikitable sortable" rules=all style="text-align: center; border: 1px solid darkgray;background-color:white; margin:auto;" |- ! Bengali | <span style="font-size:small">০</span> || <span style="font-size:small">১ </span>|| <span style="font-size:small">২</span> || <span style="font-size:small">৩</span> || <span style="font-size:small">৪</span> || <span style="font-size:small">৫</span> || <span style="font-size:small">৬</span> || <span style="font-size:small">৭</span> || <span style="font-size:small">৮</span> || <span style="font-size:small>৯</span> |- ! Indo–Arabic | 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |} Since the Bengali numerals are a base 10 system, they can translate directly to the Indo–Arabic numerals. For example, 123 is written as ১২৩. {{BookCat}} ==Exercise== <b>Exercise 1:Write the following in Cardinal Numbers.</b> # ৭০২ # ৮৯২ # ১৩০ # ২৮১ # ৮০৭ <B>Exercise 2: Write the following in Bengali Numbers.</b> # 576 # 175 # 946 # 749 # 131 ==Solutions== <b>Exercise 1:Write the following in Cardinal Numbers.</b> # 702 # 892 # 130 # 281 # 807 <B>Exercise 2: Write the following in Bengali Numbers.</b> # ৫৭৬ # ১৭৫ # ৯৪৬ # ৭৪৯ # ১৩১ l53y7m2hsu8wzdakz3f2kmz5fk48bp2 0 452048 4635090 4629931 2026-05-10T09:20:02Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Introduction */ 4635090 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Analytic Combinatorics uses techniques from complex analysis to find estimates for the coefficients of generating functions. It relates the discrete world of enumerative combinatorics to the continuous world of complex analysis. The term was coined by [[w:Philippe_Flajolet|Philippe Flajolet]] and [[w:Robert_Sedgewick_(computer_scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]], although its techniques can be traced back to at least the early 20th century to the works of [[w:Srinivasa_Ramanujan|Srinivasa Ramanujan]] and [[w:G._H._Hardy|G. H. Hardy]]. == Prerequisites == This book assumes you already have a reasonable understanding of generating functions. It assumes little to no understanding of complex analysis. It should explain any complex analysis that you need to know. The individual chapters will list their own prerequisites. == Chapters == * [[/Shape_of_Functions|Introduction: The shape of different generating functions]] * [[/Asymptotic_Analysis|Asymptotic Analysis]] * [[/Cauchy-Hadamard_theorem|Cauchy-Hadamard theorem]] * [[/Meromorphic Functions|Meromorphic Functions]] * [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions_with_Multiple_Dominant_Singularities|Meromorphic Functions with Multiple Dominant Singularities]] * [[/Tauberian_Theorem|Tauberian Theorem]] * [[/Cauchy's coefficient formula and Cauchy's inequality|Cauchy's coefficient formula and Cauchy's inequality]] * [[/Meromorphic_Functions_Residue_Method|Meromorphic Functions using the Residue Method]] * [[/Darboux_Method|Darboux Method]] * [[/Singularity_Analysis|Singularity Analysis]] * [[/Saddle-point_Method|Saddle-point Method]] {{Shelves|Discrete mathematics|Mathematical analysis|University level mathematics books}} {{status|75%}} 9yj5zqk5kvqa85j5gopdww96bdt9777 4635091 4635090 2026-05-10T09:20:36Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Prerequisites */ 4635091 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Analytic Combinatorics uses techniques from complex analysis to find estimates for the coefficients of generating functions. It relates the discrete world of enumerative combinatorics to the continuous world of complex analysis. The term was coined by [[w:Philippe_Flajolet|Philippe Flajolet]] and [[w:Robert_Sedgewick_(computer_scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]], although its techniques can be traced back to at least the early 20th century to the works of [[w:Srinivasa_Ramanujan|Srinivasa Ramanujan]] and [[w:G._H._Hardy|G. H. Hardy]]. == Prerequisites == This book assumes you already have a reasonable understanding of generating functions. It assumes little to no understanding of complex analysis. It should explain any complex analysis that you need to know. == Chapters == * [[/Shape_of_Functions|Introduction: The shape of different generating functions]] * [[/Asymptotic_Analysis|Asymptotic Analysis]] * [[/Cauchy-Hadamard_theorem|Cauchy-Hadamard theorem]] * [[/Meromorphic Functions|Meromorphic Functions]] * [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions_with_Multiple_Dominant_Singularities|Meromorphic Functions with Multiple Dominant Singularities]] * [[/Tauberian_Theorem|Tauberian Theorem]] * [[/Cauchy's coefficient formula and Cauchy's inequality|Cauchy's coefficient formula and Cauchy's inequality]] * [[/Meromorphic_Functions_Residue_Method|Meromorphic Functions using the Residue Method]] * [[/Darboux_Method|Darboux Method]] * [[/Singularity_Analysis|Singularity Analysis]] * [[/Saddle-point_Method|Saddle-point Method]] {{Shelves|Discrete mathematics|Mathematical analysis|University level mathematics books}} {{status|75%}} g4pp506849olrxl7wkuanqn46jlsupg 4635092 4635091 2026-05-10T09:20:59Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Introduction */ 4635092 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Analytic Combinatorics uses techniques from complex analysis to find estimates for the coefficients of generating functions. It relates the discrete world of enumerative combinatorics to the continuous world of complex analysis. The term was coined by [[w:Philippe_Flajolet|Philippe Flajolet]] and [[w:Robert_Sedgewick_(computer_scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]], although its techniques can be traced back to at least the early 20th century to the work of [[w:Srinivasa_Ramanujan|Srinivasa Ramanujan]] and [[w:G._H._Hardy|G. H. Hardy]]. == Prerequisites == This book assumes you already have a reasonable understanding of generating functions. It assumes little to no understanding of complex analysis. It should explain any complex analysis that you need to know. == Chapters == * [[/Shape_of_Functions|Introduction: The shape of different generating functions]] * [[/Asymptotic_Analysis|Asymptotic Analysis]] * [[/Cauchy-Hadamard_theorem|Cauchy-Hadamard theorem]] * [[/Meromorphic Functions|Meromorphic Functions]] * [[Analytic_Combinatorics/Meromorphic_Functions_with_Multiple_Dominant_Singularities|Meromorphic Functions with Multiple Dominant Singularities]] * [[/Tauberian_Theorem|Tauberian Theorem]] * [[/Cauchy's coefficient formula and Cauchy's inequality|Cauchy's coefficient formula and Cauchy's inequality]] * [[/Meromorphic_Functions_Residue_Method|Meromorphic Functions using the Residue Method]] * [[/Darboux_Method|Darboux Method]] * [[/Singularity_Analysis|Singularity Analysis]] * [[/Saddle-point_Method|Saddle-point Method]] {{Shelves|Discrete mathematics|Mathematical analysis|University level mathematics books}} {{status|75%}} 8odrzoo1q46nlbx6if10vfr7e7vr6n5 0 464410 4634969 4427803 2026-05-09T14:59:34Z JCrue 2226064 infobox, sample game. 4634969 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit accepted |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5|Spanish game]] → [[../|Jaenisch gambit]] }} == 4. exf5!? · Jaenisch gambit accepted == Accepting the "free" pawn is inaccurate, as Black can regain the pawn with extra tempi and space. After [[/4...e4|'''4...e4''']], White's knight is kicked and is low on squares: g5 and h4 are controlled by Black'[s queen, while Black's knight controls e4 and d5. (The addition of this knight is the key difference between the Jaenisch and Latvian gambits accepted, 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5?! 2. exf5!) Un-developing the knight to g1 would be a big concession to Black. To make room for the knight to go elsewhere, White has the manoeuvre 5. Qe2, pinning and attacking the e4 pawn, 5...Qe7 un-pins it, 6. Bxc6 with the idea of moving the knight to d4 where it defends the f5-pawn from Black's bishop. 6...dxc6 7. Nd4 {{chess/not|=}}. White may followed with Ne6 in some lines, such as after 7...Qe5. After 6...bxc6 7.Nd4, Black will likely play 7...Nf6, and eventually either Qe5 or c5 and then d5 to try to win the pawn back. 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nd5? {{chess/not|-}} allows 6...Bxf5 with the threat of ...Qd4. If 6. Qe2 the line can transpose if Black plays 6...Qe7, but better is 6...Bxf5 {{chess/not|-}}. === History === Though not now considered an accurate way to refute the gambit, giving Black an even game, 4. exf5!? has been seen occasionally. [[w:Jose Raul Capablanca|Capablanca]] lost in this line to William Pratt in an exhibition simul game in 1909.<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1801778 Capablanca v Pratt, 1909. Chessgames.com]</ref> == Sample game == '''Paul de Schloezer vs Mikhail Chigorin, 1878'''<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1036237 de Schloezer v Chigorin, 1878. Chessgames.com]</ref> {{clear}}{{chess/board|moves=1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5 3. exf5 Nc6 4. Bb5 Bc5 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 Bxf5 7. Qh5+ g6 8. Nxg6 hxg6 9. Qxh8 Qe7+ 10. Kd1 Bxf2 11. Qxg8+ Kd7|caption=After 11. Kd7, Black threatens ...Bg4#.|frame=1|float=right}} '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5 3. exf5 Nc6?! 4. Bb5?''' This position is arrived at by transposition from a [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]]. 4. d5 was better: allowing both bishops into the game, White would be able to answer 4...e4 with 5. Ng5! and the knight is defended. '''4...Bc5?!''' 4...e5 is an improvement and the main move today. The text move allows 5. O-O, and due to the open e-file White at the minimum wins the pawn (e.g. 5. O-O, threatens Nxe5 as ...Nxe5 Re1! is a pin, 5...d6? 6. Re1 Nf6 7. d4 Bb6 8. dxe5 Ng4 9. exd6+ Kf8 {{Chess/not|--}}). '''5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 Bxf5''' 6...Bxf2+ 7. Kxf2 Qd4+ attacking the knight wins Black a pawn back '''7. Qh5+ g6 8. Nxg6??''' This appears to be winning material but in fact White's king is too weak. '''8...hxg6 9. Qxh8 Qe7+ 10. Kd1 Bxf2''' 10...Bg4+ would be mate were it not for 11. f3, so Black first eliminates the f-pawn. '''11. Qxg8+? Kd7 12. Qc4''' Black is down six points of material but has an overwhelming attack on White's king, who is stranded in the middle of the board, and White has only their queen developed. White attempts to stop the bishop from coming to g4. '''12...Re8 0-1''' Black threatens ...Qe1+ Rxe1 Rxe1#. == Theory table == {{ChessTable}} {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} === See also === {{ChessFooter}} bnmghnu4uvswfd6v93ai6qbrqmz8rs6 4634970 4634969 2026-05-09T15:05:09Z JCrue 2226064 /* Theory table */ 4634970 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Jaenisch gambit accepted |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C63]] |parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5|Spanish game]] → [[../|Jaenisch gambit]] }} == 4. exf5!? · Jaenisch gambit accepted == Accepting the "free" pawn is inaccurate, as Black can regain the pawn with extra tempi and space. After [[/4...e4|'''4...e4''']], White's knight is kicked and is low on squares: g5 and h4 are controlled by Black'[s queen, while Black's knight controls e4 and d5. (The addition of this knight is the key difference between the Jaenisch and Latvian gambits accepted, 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5?! 2. exf5!) Un-developing the knight to g1 would be a big concession to Black. To make room for the knight to go elsewhere, White has the manoeuvre 5. Qe2, pinning and attacking the e4 pawn, 5...Qe7 un-pins it, 6. Bxc6 with the idea of moving the knight to d4 where it defends the f5-pawn from Black's bishop. 6...dxc6 7. Nd4 {{chess/not|=}}. White may followed with Ne6 in some lines, such as after 7...Qe5. After 6...bxc6 7.Nd4, Black will likely play 7...Nf6, and eventually either Qe5 or c5 and then d5 to try to win the pawn back. 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nd5? {{chess/not|-}} allows 6...Bxf5 with the threat of ...Qd4. If 6. Qe2 the line can transpose if Black plays 6...Qe7, but better is 6...Bxf5 {{chess/not|-}}. === History === Though not now considered an accurate way to refute the gambit, giving Black an even game, 4. exf5!? has been seen occasionally. [[w:Jose Raul Capablanca|Capablanca]] lost in this line to William Pratt in an exhibition simul game in 1909.<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1801778 Capablanca v Pratt, 1909. Chessgames.com]</ref> == Sample game == '''Paul de Schloezer vs Mikhail Chigorin, 1878'''<ref>[https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1036237 de Schloezer v Chigorin, 1878. Chessgames.com]</ref> {{clear}}{{chess/board|moves=1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5 3. exf5 Nc6 4. Bb5 Bc5 5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 Bxf5 7. Qh5+ g6 8. Nxg6 hxg6 9. Qxh8 Qe7+ 10. Kd1 Bxf2 11. Qxg8+ Kd7|caption=After 11. Kd7, Black threatens ...Bg4#.|frame=1|float=right}} '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 f5 3. exf5 Nc6?! 4. Bb5?''' This position is arrived at by transposition from a [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...f5|Latvian gambit]]. 4. d5 was better: allowing both bishops into the game, White would be able to answer 4...e4 with 5. Ng5! and the knight is defended. '''4...Bc5?!''' 4...e5 is an improvement and the main move today. The text move allows 5. O-O, and due to the open e-file White at the minimum wins the pawn (e.g. 5. O-O, threatens Nxe5 as ...Nxe5 Re1! is a pin, 5...d6? 6. Re1 Nf6 7. d4 Bb6 8. dxe5 Ng4 9. exd6+ Kf8 {{Chess/not|--}}). '''5. Bxc6 dxc6 6. Nxe5 Bxf5''' 6...Bxf2+ 7. Kxf2 Qd4+ attacking the knight wins Black a pawn back '''7. Qh5+ g6 8. Nxg6??''' This appears to be winning material but in fact White's king is too weak. '''8...hxg6 9. Qxh8 Qe7+ 10. Kd1 Bxf2''' 10...Bg4+ would be mate were it not for 11. f3, so Black first eliminates the f-pawn. '''11. Qxg8+? Kd7 12. Qc4''' Black is down six points of material but has an overwhelming attack on White's king, who is stranded in the middle of the board, and White has only their queen developed. White attempts to stop the bishop from coming to g4. '''12...Re8 0-1''' Black threatens ...Qe1+ Rxe1 Rxe1#. == Theory table == {{ChessTable}} {{Chess/theory table|links=0 |line1=4. ... e4 5. Qe2 Qe7 6. Bxc6 dxc6 7. Nd4 |name1=Jaenisch gambit accepted |eval1={{chess/not|=}} |line2=4. ... ... 5. Bxc6?! dxc6 6. Qe2 Bxf5 7. d3 Qe7 8. dxe4 Qxe4 9. Qxe4+ Bxe4 10. O-O Bxf3 |eval2={{Chess/not|-}} }} {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} === See also === {{ChessFooter}} n6hnwlpxqh3ok1767lbyrif8zvbm7k9 0 470358 4634982 4632379 2026-05-09T16:47:05Z Conan 3188 fix ... 4634982 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{DISPLAYTITLE:Real-time Linux}} </noinclude> ==== RT preemption ==== [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start The Linux Foundation's Real-Time Linux (RTL) collaborative project] is focused on improving the real-time capabilities of Linux and advancing the adoption of real-time Linux in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, robotics, and telecommunications. Parameter {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_RT}} enables real-time preemption. ==== RT scheduling policies ==== Scheduling policies for RT: : {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_FIFO}}, {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_RR}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/rt.c}} : {{w|SCHED_DEADLINE}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/deadline.c}} API: : {{The Linux Kernel/man|1|chrt}} &ndash; manipulate the real-time attributes of a process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_rr_get_interval}} &ndash; get the SCHED_RR interval for the named process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_setscheduler}}, sched_getscheduler &ndash; set and get scheduling policy/parameters : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_get_priority_min}}, sched_get_priority_max &ndash; get static priority range ==== RT synchronization ==== ⚲ APIs : {{The Linux Kernel/id|migrate_disable}} + {{The Linux Kernel/id|spin_lock}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|local_lock}} calls migrate_disable(); {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}}({{The Linux Kernel/id|this_cpu_ptr}}((__lock))); 📖 References : [https://docs.kernel.org/locking/locktypes.html#:~:text=migrate_disable Usage of migrate_disable] : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|PREEMPT_RT caveats: spinlock_t, rwlock_t, migrate_disable and local_lock|locking/locktypes.html#spinlock-t-and-rwlock-t}} ⚙️ Internals Spinlock : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|spinlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}} ... :::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|__rt_spin_lock}} ... ::::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rtlock_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} RT Mutex : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rtmutex.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/mutex_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_api.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_common.h}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex.c}} rwbase_rt : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwbase_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwbase_rt}} &ndash; used to implement real-time read/write locks ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_read_trylock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rwbase_rt.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} ==== Testing RT capabilities ==== The testing process for Real-Time Linux typically involves several key aspects. First and foremost, it is crucial to verify the accuracy and stability of the system's timekeeping mechanisms. Precise time management is fundamental to real-time applications, and any inaccuracies can lead to timing errors and compromise the system's real-time capabilities. Another essential aspect of testing is evaluating the system's scheduling algorithms. Real-Time Linux employs advanced scheduling policies to prioritize critical tasks and ensure their timely execution. Testing the scheduler involves assessing its ability to allocate resources efficiently, handle task prioritization correctly, and prevent resource contention or priority inversion scenarios. Furthermore, latency measurement is a critical part of Real-Time Linux testing. Latency refers to the time delay between the occurrence of an event and the system's response to it. In real-time applications, minimizing latency is crucial to achieving timely and predictable behavior. Testing latency involves measuring the time it takes for the system to respond to various stimuli and identifying any sources of delay or unpredictability. Additionally, stress testing plays a significant role in assessing the system's robustness under heavy workloads. It involves subjecting the Real-Time Linux system to high levels of concurrent activities, intense computational loads, and input/output operations to evaluate its performance, responsiveness, and stability. Stress testing helps identify potential bottlenecks, resource limitations, or issues that might degrade the real-time behavior of the system. ===== RTLA ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rtla RTLA – The realtime Linux analysis tool]: :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla timerlat|tools/rtla/rtla-timerlat.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|timerlat tracer|trace/timerlat-tracer.html}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla osnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-osnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}}. ::: Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|run_osnoise}} measures time with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla hwnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-hwnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}} with interrupts disabled ::: Implementation: {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/rtla}} and {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_osnoise.c}} :: [https://bristot.me/linux-scheduling-latency-debug-and-analysis/ Linux scheduling latency debug and analysis] ===== RT-Tests ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rt-tests RT-Tests], [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/utils/rt-tests/rt-tests.git/tree/src/ source], [https://gitlab.com/linux-kernel/rt-tests @gitlab] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cyclictest/start cyclictest] : some RT-Tests man pages: :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/cyclictest.8.en cyclictest] &ndash; measures {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|clock_nanosleep}} or {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|nanosleep}} delay <!-- generated with grep -h ' \\- ' ./rt-tests/src/*/*.[0-9] | sed 's#^#:: #;s#\\f.##g;s#\([^ ]\+\) \\-#[https://man.archlinux.org/man/\1.8.en \1] \–#' --> :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hwlatdetect.8.en hwlatdetect] &ndash; CLI for {{The Linux Kernel/doc|/sys/kernel/tracing/hwlat_detector|trace/hwlat_detector.html}} / {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_hwlat.c}}. Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|kthread_fn}} measures time delays with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/oslat.8.en oslat] &ndash; measures delay with {{w|Time_Stamp_Counter|RDTSC}} in busy loop :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hackbench.8.en hackbench] &ndash; scheduler benchmark/stress test ===== ftrace ===== Testing latencies with the ftrace - Function Tracer. : [https://docs.kernel.org/trace/ftrace.html#:~:text=tracing_max_latency tracing_max_latency] : the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|irqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#irqsoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptirqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptirqsoff}} tracers : {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/latency}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_IRQSOFF_TRACER}} &ndash; interrupts-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_TRACER}} &ndash; preemption-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_SCHED_TRACER}} &ndash; scheduling latency tracer ===== Other tests ===== : [https://github.com/xzpeter/rt-trace-bpf RT Tracing Tools with eBPF] : {{The Linux Kernel/ltp||realtime}} : https://www.latencytop.org/, {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/latencytop.c}} ==== ... ==== 📚 Further reading: : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-rt-users/ : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-trace-kernel/ 📖 References : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|Real-time preemption|core-api/real-time/index.html}} : https://realtime-linux.org/ :: [https://realtime-linux.org/getting-started-with-preempt_rt-guide/ Getting Started with PREEMPT_RT Guide] :: [https://realtime-linux.org/a-checklist-for-real-time-applications-in-linux/ A Checklist for Real-Time Applications in Linux] : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start the Real-Time Linux wiki] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cpu-partitioning/start CPU partitioning and isolation] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-stable-rt.git linux-stable-rt.git] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-rt-devel.git/log/?h=for-kbuild-bot/current-stable linux-rt-devel.git] 📚 Further reading about real-time Linux: : https://deepwiki.com/torvalds/linux/2.1-process-scheduler : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6g15nRGpAM Introduction to Real-Time Linux: Unleashing Deterministic Computing] : [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0fKordpLTjKsBOUcZqnzlHShri4YBL1H Power Management and Scheduling in the Linux Kernel (OSPM)] : [https://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/#Realtime Realtime@LWN] : [https://wiki.archlinux.org/title/Realtime_kernel_patchset Realtime kernel patchset, Arch Linux] : https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/projects/rt/ - RT patches for upstream kernel : {{w|High Precision Event Timer}} (HPET) : [https://bristot.me/demystifying-the-real-time-linux-latency/ Demystifying the Real-Time Linux Scheduling Latency] : [https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-us/red_hat_enterprise_linux_for_real_time/ RHEL for RT] : Linux subsystems related to real-time :: {{w|Linux kernel#Scheduling and preemption|Linux kernel scheduling and preemption}} :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Interrupts|Interrupts]] :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Deferred_works|Deferred works]] :: [https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Interrupts/linux-interrupts-6.html Non-maskable interrupt handler] (NMI) :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/debugging/smi-latency/smi System management interrupt] (SMI) :: {{The Linux Kernel/man|7|sched}} : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=latency latency @ LKML] : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=PREEMPT_RT PREEMPT_RT @ LKML] : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1dzeGJUvvU QA about PREEMPT_RT, LPC'23], [https://lpc.events/event/17/contributions/1483/attachments/1261/2554/state-of-the-onion.pdf State of the onion, pdf] 💾 Historical The {{w|PREEMPT_RT}} patch has been fully merged into the mainline Linux kernel, starting from version 6.12. {{BookCat}} gtr2oyhfql4cbs9nwtoewddfisbgn6u 4634984 4634982 2026-05-09T16:51:14Z Conan 3188 CONFIG_PSI_DEFAULT_DISABLED 4634984 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{DISPLAYTITLE:Real-time Linux}} </noinclude> ==== RT preemption ==== [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start The Linux Foundation's Real-Time Linux (RTL) collaborative project] is focused on improving the real-time capabilities of Linux and advancing the adoption of real-time Linux in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, robotics, and telecommunications. Parameter {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_RT}} enables real-time preemption. ==== RT scheduling policies ==== Scheduling policies for RT: : {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_FIFO}}, {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_RR}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/rt.c}} : {{w|SCHED_DEADLINE}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/deadline.c}} API: : {{The Linux Kernel/man|1|chrt}} &ndash; manipulate the real-time attributes of a process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_rr_get_interval}} &ndash; get the SCHED_RR interval for the named process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_setscheduler}}, sched_getscheduler &ndash; set and get scheduling policy/parameters : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_get_priority_min}}, sched_get_priority_max &ndash; get static priority range ==== RT synchronization ==== ⚲ APIs : {{The Linux Kernel/id|migrate_disable}} + {{The Linux Kernel/id|spin_lock}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|local_lock}} calls migrate_disable(); {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}}({{The Linux Kernel/id|this_cpu_ptr}}((__lock))); 📖 References : [https://docs.kernel.org/locking/locktypes.html#:~:text=migrate_disable Usage of migrate_disable] : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|PREEMPT_RT caveats: spinlock_t, rwlock_t, migrate_disable and local_lock|locking/locktypes.html#spinlock-t-and-rwlock-t}} ⚙️ Internals Spinlock : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|spinlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}} ... :::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|__rt_spin_lock}} ... ::::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rtlock_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} RT Mutex : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rtmutex.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/mutex_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_api.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_common.h}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex.c}} rwbase_rt : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwbase_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwbase_rt}} &ndash; used to implement real-time read/write locks ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_read_trylock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rwbase_rt.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} ==== Testing RT capabilities ==== The testing process for Real-Time Linux typically involves several key aspects. First and foremost, it is crucial to verify the accuracy and stability of the system's timekeeping mechanisms. Precise time management is fundamental to real-time applications, and any inaccuracies can lead to timing errors and compromise the system's real-time capabilities. Another essential aspect of testing is evaluating the system's scheduling algorithms. Real-Time Linux employs advanced scheduling policies to prioritize critical tasks and ensure their timely execution. Testing the scheduler involves assessing its ability to allocate resources efficiently, handle task prioritization correctly, and prevent resource contention or priority inversion scenarios. Furthermore, latency measurement is a critical part of Real-Time Linux testing. Latency refers to the time delay between the occurrence of an event and the system's response to it. In real-time applications, minimizing latency is crucial to achieving timely and predictable behavior. Testing latency involves measuring the time it takes for the system to respond to various stimuli and identifying any sources of delay or unpredictability. Additionally, stress testing plays a significant role in assessing the system's robustness under heavy workloads. It involves subjecting the Real-Time Linux system to high levels of concurrent activities, intense computational loads, and input/output operations to evaluate its performance, responsiveness, and stability. Stress testing helps identify potential bottlenecks, resource limitations, or issues that might degrade the real-time behavior of the system. ===== RTLA ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rtla RTLA – The realtime Linux analysis tool]: :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla timerlat|tools/rtla/rtla-timerlat.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|timerlat tracer|trace/timerlat-tracer.html}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla osnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-osnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}}. ::: Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|run_osnoise}} measures time with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla hwnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-hwnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}} with interrupts disabled ::: Implementation: {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/rtla}} and {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_osnoise.c}} :: [https://bristot.me/linux-scheduling-latency-debug-and-analysis/ Linux scheduling latency debug and analysis] ===== RT-Tests ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rt-tests RT-Tests], [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/utils/rt-tests/rt-tests.git/tree/src/ source], [https://gitlab.com/linux-kernel/rt-tests @gitlab] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cyclictest/start cyclictest] : some RT-Tests man pages: :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/cyclictest.8.en cyclictest] &ndash; measures {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|clock_nanosleep}} or {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|nanosleep}} delay <!-- generated with grep -h ' \\- ' ./rt-tests/src/*/*.[0-9] | sed 's#^#:: #;s#\\f.##g;s#\([^ ]\+\) \\-#[https://man.archlinux.org/man/\1.8.en \1] \–#' --> :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hwlatdetect.8.en hwlatdetect] &ndash; CLI for {{The Linux Kernel/doc|/sys/kernel/tracing/hwlat_detector|trace/hwlat_detector.html}} / {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_hwlat.c}}. Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|kthread_fn}} measures time delays with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/oslat.8.en oslat] &ndash; measures delay with {{w|Time_Stamp_Counter|RDTSC}} in busy loop :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hackbench.8.en hackbench] &ndash; scheduler benchmark/stress test ===== ftrace ===== Testing latencies with the ftrace - Function Tracer. : [https://docs.kernel.org/trace/ftrace.html#:~:text=tracing_max_latency tracing_max_latency] : the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|irqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#irqsoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptirqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptirqsoff}} tracers : {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/latency}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_IRQSOFF_TRACER}} &ndash; interrupts-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_TRACER}} &ndash; preemption-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_SCHED_TRACER}} &ndash; scheduling latency tracer ===== Other tests ===== : [https://github.com/xzpeter/rt-trace-bpf RT Tracing Tools with eBPF] : {{The Linux Kernel/ltp||realtime}} : https://www.latencytop.org/, {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/latencytop.c}} ==== RT optimizations ==== : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PSI_DEFAULT_DISABLED}} &ndash; disable {{The Linux Kernel/doc|PSI|accounting/psi.html}} ==== ... ==== 📚 Further reading: : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-rt-users/ : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-trace-kernel/ 📖 References : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|Real-time preemption|core-api/real-time/index.html}} : https://realtime-linux.org/ :: [https://realtime-linux.org/getting-started-with-preempt_rt-guide/ Getting Started with PREEMPT_RT Guide] :: [https://realtime-linux.org/a-checklist-for-real-time-applications-in-linux/ A Checklist for Real-Time Applications in Linux] : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start the Real-Time Linux wiki] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cpu-partitioning/start CPU partitioning and isolation] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-stable-rt.git linux-stable-rt.git] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-rt-devel.git/log/?h=for-kbuild-bot/current-stable linux-rt-devel.git] 📚 Further reading about real-time Linux: : https://deepwiki.com/torvalds/linux/2.1-process-scheduler : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6g15nRGpAM Introduction to Real-Time Linux: Unleashing Deterministic Computing] : [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0fKordpLTjKsBOUcZqnzlHShri4YBL1H Power Management and Scheduling in the Linux Kernel (OSPM)] : [https://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/#Realtime Realtime@LWN] : [https://wiki.archlinux.org/title/Realtime_kernel_patchset Realtime kernel patchset, Arch Linux] : https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/projects/rt/ - RT patches for upstream kernel : {{w|High Precision Event Timer}} (HPET) : [https://bristot.me/demystifying-the-real-time-linux-latency/ Demystifying the Real-Time Linux Scheduling Latency] : [https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-us/red_hat_enterprise_linux_for_real_time/ RHEL for RT] : Linux subsystems related to real-time :: {{w|Linux kernel#Scheduling and preemption|Linux kernel scheduling and preemption}} :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Interrupts|Interrupts]] :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Deferred_works|Deferred works]] :: [https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Interrupts/linux-interrupts-6.html Non-maskable interrupt handler] (NMI) :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/debugging/smi-latency/smi System management interrupt] (SMI) :: {{The Linux Kernel/man|7|sched}} : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=latency latency @ LKML] : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=PREEMPT_RT PREEMPT_RT @ LKML] : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1dzeGJUvvU QA about PREEMPT_RT, LPC'23], [https://lpc.events/event/17/contributions/1483/attachments/1261/2554/state-of-the-onion.pdf State of the onion, pdf] 💾 Historical The {{w|PREEMPT_RT}} patch has been fully merged into the mainline Linux kernel, starting from version 6.12. {{BookCat}} k8kzxu2lnywg7njkdtirh3mva0rdpr9 4634986 4634984 2026-05-09T17:02:24Z Conan 3188 fix ... 4634986 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{DISPLAYTITLE:Real-time Linux}} </noinclude> ==== RT preemption ==== [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start The Linux Foundation's Real-Time Linux (RTL) collaborative project] is focused on improving the real-time capabilities of Linux and advancing the adoption of real-time Linux in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, robotics, and telecommunications. Parameter {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_RT}} enables real-time preemption. ==== RT scheduling policies ==== Scheduling policies for RT: : {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_FIFO}}, {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_RR}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/rt.c}} : {{w|SCHED_DEADLINE}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/deadline.c}} API: : {{The Linux Kernel/man|1|chrt}} &ndash; manipulate the real-time attributes of a process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_rr_get_interval}} &ndash; get the SCHED_RR interval for the named process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_setscheduler}}, sched_getscheduler &ndash; set and get scheduling policy/parameters : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_get_priority_min}}, sched_get_priority_max &ndash; get static priority range ==== RT synchronization ==== ⚲ APIs : {{The Linux Kernel/id|migrate_disable}} + {{The Linux Kernel/id|spin_lock}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|local_lock}} calls migrate_disable(); {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}}({{The Linux Kernel/id|this_cpu_ptr}}((__lock))); 📖 References : [https://docs.kernel.org/locking/locktypes.html#:~:text=migrate_disable Usage of migrate_disable] : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|PREEMPT_RT caveats: spinlock_t, rwlock_t, migrate_disable and local_lock|locking/locktypes.html#spinlock-t-and-rwlock-t}} ⚙️ Internals Spinlock : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|spinlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}} ... :::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|__rt_spin_lock}} ... ::::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rtlock_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} RT Mutex : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rtmutex.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/mutex_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_api.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_common.h}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex.c}} rwbase_rt : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwbase_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwbase_rt}} &ndash; used to implement real-time read/write locks ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_read_trylock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rwbase_rt.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} ==== Testing RT capabilities ==== The testing process for Real-Time Linux typically involves several key aspects. First and foremost, it is crucial to verify the accuracy and stability of the system's timekeeping mechanisms. Precise time management is fundamental to real-time applications, and any inaccuracies can lead to timing errors and compromise the system's real-time capabilities. Another essential aspect of testing is evaluating the system's scheduling algorithms. Real-Time Linux employs advanced scheduling policies to prioritize critical tasks and ensure their timely execution. Testing the scheduler involves assessing its ability to allocate resources efficiently, handle task prioritization correctly, and prevent resource contention or priority inversion scenarios. Furthermore, latency measurement is a critical part of Real-Time Linux testing. Latency refers to the time delay between the occurrence of an event and the system's response to it. In real-time applications, minimizing latency is crucial to achieving timely and predictable behavior. Testing latency involves measuring the time it takes for the system to respond to various stimuli and identifying any sources of delay or unpredictability. Additionally, stress testing plays a significant role in assessing the system's robustness under heavy workloads. It involves subjecting the Real-Time Linux system to high levels of concurrent activities, intense computational loads, and input/output operations to evaluate its performance, responsiveness, and stability. Stress testing helps identify potential bottlenecks, resource limitations, or issues that might degrade the real-time behavior of the system. ===== RTLA ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rtla RTLA – The realtime Linux analysis tool]: :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla timerlat|tools/rtla/rtla-timerlat.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|timerlat tracer|trace/timerlat-tracer.html}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla osnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-osnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}}. ::: Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|run_osnoise}} measures time with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla hwnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-hwnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}} with interrupts disabled ::: Implementation: {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/rtla}} and {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_osnoise.c}} :: [https://bristot.me/linux-scheduling-latency-debug-and-analysis/ Linux scheduling latency debug and analysis] ===== RT-Tests ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rt-tests RT-Tests], [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/utils/rt-tests/rt-tests.git/tree/src/ source], [https://gitlab.com/linux-kernel/rt-tests @gitlab] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cyclictest/start cyclictest] : some RT-Tests man pages: :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/cyclictest.8.en cyclictest] &ndash; measures {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|clock_nanosleep}} or {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|nanosleep}} delay <!-- generated with grep -h ' \\- ' ./rt-tests/src/*/*.[0-9] | sed 's#^#:: #;s#\\f.##g;s#\([^ ]\+\) \\-#[https://man.archlinux.org/man/\1.8.en \1] \–#' --> :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hwlatdetect.8.en hwlatdetect] &ndash; CLI for {{The Linux Kernel/doc|/sys/kernel/tracing/hwlat_detector|trace/hwlat_detector.html}} / {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_hwlat.c}}. Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|kthread_fn}} measures time delays with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/oslat.8.en oslat] &ndash; measures delay with {{w|Time_Stamp_Counter|RDTSC}} in busy loop :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hackbench.8.en hackbench] &ndash; scheduler benchmark/stress test ===== ftrace ===== Testing latencies with the ftrace - Function Tracer. : [https://docs.kernel.org/trace/ftrace.html#:~:text=tracing_max_latency tracing_max_latency] : the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|irqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#irqsoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptirqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptirqsoff}} tracers : {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/latency}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_IRQSOFF_TRACER}} &ndash; interrupts-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_TRACER}} &ndash; preemption-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_SCHED_TRACER}} &ndash; scheduling latency tracer ===== Other tests ===== : [https://github.com/xzpeter/rt-trace-bpf RT Tracing Tools with eBPF] : {{The Linux Kernel/ltp||realtime}} : https://www.latencytop.org/, {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/latencytop.c}} ==== ... ==== 📚 Further reading: : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-rt-users/ : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-trace-kernel/ 📖 References : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|Real-time preemption|core-api/real-time/index.html}} : https://realtime-linux.org/ :: [https://realtime-linux.org/getting-started-with-preempt_rt-guide/ Getting Started with PREEMPT_RT Guide] :: [https://realtime-linux.org/a-checklist-for-real-time-applications-in-linux/ A Checklist for Real-Time Applications in Linux] : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start the Real-Time Linux wiki] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cpu-partitioning/start CPU partitioning and isolation] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-stable-rt.git linux-stable-rt.git] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-rt-devel.git/log/?h=for-kbuild-bot/current-stable linux-rt-devel.git] 📚 Further reading about real-time Linux: : https://deepwiki.com/torvalds/linux/2.1-process-scheduler : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6g15nRGpAM Introduction to Real-Time Linux: Unleashing Deterministic Computing] : [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0fKordpLTjKsBOUcZqnzlHShri4YBL1H Power Management and Scheduling in the Linux Kernel (OSPM)] : [https://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/#Realtime Realtime@LWN] : [https://wiki.archlinux.org/title/Realtime_kernel_patchset Realtime kernel patchset, Arch Linux] : https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/projects/rt/ - RT patches for upstream kernel : {{w|High Precision Event Timer}} (HPET) : [https://bristot.me/demystifying-the-real-time-linux-latency/ Demystifying the Real-Time Linux Scheduling Latency] : [https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-us/red_hat_enterprise_linux_for_real_time/ RHEL for RT] : Linux subsystems related to real-time :: {{w|Linux kernel#Scheduling and preemption|Linux kernel scheduling and preemption}} :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Interrupts|Interrupts]] :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Deferred_works|Deferred works]] :: [https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Interrupts/linux-interrupts-6.html Non-maskable interrupt handler] (NMI) :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/debugging/smi-latency/smi System management interrupt] (SMI) :: {{The Linux Kernel/man|7|sched}} : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=latency latency @ LKML] : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=PREEMPT_RT PREEMPT_RT @ LKML] : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1dzeGJUvvU QA about PREEMPT_RT, LPC'23], [https://lpc.events/event/17/contributions/1483/attachments/1261/2554/state-of-the-onion.pdf State of the onion, pdf] 💾 Historical The {{w|PREEMPT_RT}} patch has been fully merged into the mainline Linux kernel, starting from version 6.12. {{BookCat}} gtr2oyhfql4cbs9nwtoewddfisbgn6u 4634987 4634986 2026-05-09T17:02:25Z Conan 3188 CONFIG_PSI_DEFAULT_DISABLED 4634987 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{DISPLAYTITLE:Real-time Linux}} </noinclude> ==== RT preemption ==== [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start The Linux Foundation's Real-Time Linux (RTL) collaborative project] is focused on improving the real-time capabilities of Linux and advancing the adoption of real-time Linux in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, robotics, and telecommunications. Parameter {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_RT}} enables real-time preemption. ==== RT scheduling policies ==== Scheduling policies for RT: : {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_FIFO}}, {{The Linux Kernel/id|SCHED_RR}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/rt.c}} : {{w|SCHED_DEADLINE}} :: implemented in {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/sched/deadline.c}} API: : {{The Linux Kernel/man|1|chrt}} &ndash; manipulate the real-time attributes of a process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_rr_get_interval}} &ndash; get the SCHED_RR interval for the named process : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_setscheduler}}, sched_getscheduler &ndash; set and get scheduling policy/parameters : {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|sched_get_priority_min}}, sched_get_priority_max &ndash; get static priority range ==== RT synchronization ==== ⚲ APIs : {{The Linux Kernel/id|migrate_disable}} + {{The Linux Kernel/id|spin_lock}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|local_lock}} calls migrate_disable(); {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}}({{The Linux Kernel/id|this_cpu_ptr}}((__lock))); 📖 References : [https://docs.kernel.org/locking/locktypes.html#:~:text=migrate_disable Usage of migrate_disable] : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|PREEMPT_RT caveats: spinlock_t, rwlock_t, migrate_disable and local_lock|locking/locktypes.html#spinlock-t-and-rwlock-t}} ⚙️ Internals Spinlock : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/spinlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|spinlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_spin_lock}} ... :::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|__rt_spin_lock}} ... ::::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rtlock_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} RT Mutex : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rtmutex.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/mutex_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_base}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_mutex_lock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_api.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex_common.h}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rtmutex.c}} rwbase_rt : {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwbase_rt.h}} used via {{The Linux Kernel/include|linux/rwlock_types.h}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwlock_t}} ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rwbase_rt}} &ndash; used to implement real-time read/write locks ::: {{The Linux Kernel/id|rt_read_trylock}} ... : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/rwbase_rt.c}} : {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/locking/spinlock_rt.c}} ==== Testing RT capabilities ==== The testing process for Real-Time Linux typically involves several key aspects. First and foremost, it is crucial to verify the accuracy and stability of the system's timekeeping mechanisms. Precise time management is fundamental to real-time applications, and any inaccuracies can lead to timing errors and compromise the system's real-time capabilities. Another essential aspect of testing is evaluating the system's scheduling algorithms. Real-Time Linux employs advanced scheduling policies to prioritize critical tasks and ensure their timely execution. Testing the scheduler involves assessing its ability to allocate resources efficiently, handle task prioritization correctly, and prevent resource contention or priority inversion scenarios. Furthermore, latency measurement is a critical part of Real-Time Linux testing. Latency refers to the time delay between the occurrence of an event and the system's response to it. In real-time applications, minimizing latency is crucial to achieving timely and predictable behavior. Testing latency involves measuring the time it takes for the system to respond to various stimuli and identifying any sources of delay or unpredictability. Additionally, stress testing plays a significant role in assessing the system's robustness under heavy workloads. It involves subjecting the Real-Time Linux system to high levels of concurrent activities, intense computational loads, and input/output operations to evaluate its performance, responsiveness, and stability. Stress testing helps identify potential bottlenecks, resource limitations, or issues that might degrade the real-time behavior of the system. ===== RTLA ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rtla RTLA – The realtime Linux analysis tool]: :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla timerlat|tools/rtla/rtla-timerlat.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|timerlat tracer|trace/timerlat-tracer.html}} :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla osnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-osnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the kernel's {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}}. ::: Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|run_osnoise}} measures time with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: {{The Linux Kernel/doc|rtla hwnoise|tools/rtla/rtla-hwnoise.html}} &ndash; CLI for the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|osnoise tracer|trace/osnoise-tracer.html}} with interrupts disabled ::: Implementation: {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/rtla}} and {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_osnoise.c}} :: [https://bristot.me/linux-scheduling-latency-debug-and-analysis/ Linux scheduling latency debug and analysis] ===== RT-Tests ===== : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/rt-tests RT-Tests], [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/utils/rt-tests/rt-tests.git/tree/src/ source], [https://gitlab.com/linux-kernel/rt-tests @gitlab] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cyclictest/start cyclictest] : some RT-Tests man pages: :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/cyclictest.8.en cyclictest] &ndash; measures {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|clock_nanosleep}} or {{The Linux Kernel/man|2|nanosleep}} delay <!-- generated with grep -h ' \\- ' ./rt-tests/src/*/*.[0-9] | sed 's#^#:: #;s#\\f.##g;s#\([^ ]\+\) \\-#[https://man.archlinux.org/man/\1.8.en \1] \–#' --> :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hwlatdetect.8.en hwlatdetect] &ndash; CLI for {{The Linux Kernel/doc|/sys/kernel/tracing/hwlat_detector|trace/hwlat_detector.html}} / {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/trace/trace_hwlat.c}}. Kernel function {{The Linux Kernel/id|kthread_fn}} measures time delays with function {{The Linux Kernel/id|trace_clock_local}} in loop. :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/oslat.8.en oslat] &ndash; measures delay with {{w|Time_Stamp_Counter|RDTSC}} in busy loop :: [https://man.archlinux.org/man/hackbench.8.en hackbench] &ndash; scheduler benchmark/stress test ===== ftrace ===== Testing latencies with the ftrace - Function Tracer. : [https://docs.kernel.org/trace/ftrace.html#:~:text=tracing_max_latency tracing_max_latency] : the {{The Linux Kernel/doc|irqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#irqsoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptoff}}, {{The Linux Kernel/doc|preemptirqsoff|trace/ftrace.html#preemptirqsoff}} tracers : {{The Linux Kernel/source|tools/tracing/latency}} : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_IRQSOFF_TRACER}} &ndash; interrupts-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PREEMPT_TRACER}} &ndash; preemption-off latency tracer : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_SCHED_TRACER}} &ndash; scheduling latency tracer ===== Other tests ===== : [https://github.com/xzpeter/rt-trace-bpf RT Tracing Tools with eBPF] : {{The Linux Kernel/ltp||realtime}} : https://www.latencytop.org/, {{The Linux Kernel/source|kernel/latencytop.c}} ==== RT optimizations ==== : {{The Linux Kernel/id|CONFIG_PSI_DEFAULT_DISABLED}} &ndash; disable {{The Linux Kernel/doc|PSI|accounting/psi.html}} :: Check: <code>ls /proc/pressure/</code> should fail ==== ... ==== 📚 Further reading: : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-rt-users/ : https://lore.kernel.org/linux-trace-kernel/ 📖 References : {{The Linux Kernel/doc|Real-time preemption|core-api/real-time/index.html}} : https://realtime-linux.org/ :: [https://realtime-linux.org/getting-started-with-preempt_rt-guide/ Getting Started with PREEMPT_RT Guide] :: [https://realtime-linux.org/a-checklist-for-real-time-applications-in-linux/ A Checklist for Real-Time Applications in Linux] : [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/start the Real-Time Linux wiki] :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/tools/cpu-partitioning/start CPU partitioning and isolation] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-stable-rt.git linux-stable-rt.git] : [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/rt/linux-rt-devel.git/log/?h=for-kbuild-bot/current-stable linux-rt-devel.git] 📚 Further reading about real-time Linux: : https://deepwiki.com/torvalds/linux/2.1-process-scheduler : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6g15nRGpAM Introduction to Real-Time Linux: Unleashing Deterministic Computing] : [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0fKordpLTjKsBOUcZqnzlHShri4YBL1H Power Management and Scheduling in the Linux Kernel (OSPM)] : [https://lwn.net/Kernel/Index/#Realtime Realtime@LWN] : [https://wiki.archlinux.org/title/Realtime_kernel_patchset Realtime kernel patchset, Arch Linux] : https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/projects/rt/ - RT patches for upstream kernel : {{w|High Precision Event Timer}} (HPET) : [https://bristot.me/demystifying-the-real-time-linux-latency/ Demystifying the Real-Time Linux Scheduling Latency] : [https://access.redhat.com/documentation/en-us/red_hat_enterprise_linux_for_real_time/ RHEL for RT] : Linux subsystems related to real-time :: {{w|Linux kernel#Scheduling and preemption|Linux kernel scheduling and preemption}} :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Interrupts|Interrupts]] :: [[The_Linux_Kernel/Multitasking#Deferred_works|Deferred works]] :: [https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Interrupts/linux-interrupts-6.html Non-maskable interrupt handler] (NMI) :: [https://wiki.linuxfoundation.org/realtime/documentation/howto/debugging/smi-latency/smi System management interrupt] (SMI) :: {{The Linux Kernel/man|7|sched}} : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=latency latency @ LKML] : [https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/?q=PREEMPT_RT PREEMPT_RT @ LKML] : [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1dzeGJUvvU QA about PREEMPT_RT, LPC'23], [https://lpc.events/event/17/contributions/1483/attachments/1261/2554/state-of-the-onion.pdf State of the onion, pdf] 💾 Historical The {{w|PREEMPT_RT}} patch has been fully merged into the mainline Linux kernel, starting from version 6.12. {{BookCat}} 8i090eobn0tbzbai6856a4llok8e3c0 0 481968 4635056 4634838 2026-05-10T04:25:16Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 11, Production Plant: */ 4635056 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * WP0 - Porsche passenger car * WP1 - Porsche SUV ===Position 4, Body Style:=== '''924:''' * A = Coupe '''944:''' * A = Coupe * B = Cabriolet (1989 only) * C = Cabriolet (1990-1991) '''968/Boxster/Cayman/718:''' * A = Coupe * C = Cabriolet '''928:''' * J = Coupe (1981-1990) * A = Coupe (1991-1995) '''911:''' * A = Coupe (Except Type 930 Turbo coupe) * B = Targa (911 - Type 964/996/997/991/992) * C = Cabriolet (911 - Type 964/993/996/997/991/992) or Speedster (Type 964/997/991) or Roadster (Type 964) * D = Targa (911 - Type 993) * E = Targa or Cabriolet (911 [1981-1989] or 911 Turbo - Type 930 [1987-1989]) or Speedster (911 - 1989) * J = Turbo Coupe (911 - Type 930 [US: 1986-1989, Canada: 1981-1989]) '''Carrera GT / 918 Spyder:''' * C = Cabriolet '''Panamera / Taycan:''' * A = sedan (SWB) * B = LWB sedan (Panamera Executive) or Cross Turismo (Taycan) * C = Sport Turismo '''Macan / Cayenne:''' * A = SUV (wagon) * B = Coupe-styled SUV (Cayenne Coupe or Cayenne Electric Coupe) ===Position 5, Engine:=== '''924:''' Type 924: *A = 2.0L SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 110 hp (924 '81-'82) Type 931: *A = 2.0L turbo SOHC 8-valve Audi EA831 I4, 154 hp (924 Turbo '81-'82) Type 924: *A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (924S '87) *A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (924S '88) '''944:''' Type 944: *A = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 143 hp (944 [base model] '83-'86) *B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 147 hp (944 [base model] '87) *B = 2.5L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 158 hp (944 [base model] '88) *A = 2.5L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 188 hp (944S '87-'88) *A = 2.7L SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44 I4, 163 hp (944 [base model] '89) *B = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [coupe only], '90-'91 [coupe & cabriolet]) *A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 208 hp (944 S2 '89 [cabriolet only]) Type 951: *A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.51 I4, 217 hp (944 Turbo '86-'88) *A = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo S '88, Turbo '89) *C = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 8-valve Porsche M44.52 I4, 247 hp (944 Turbo '90 [Canada only]) '''968:''' *A = 3.0L DOHC 16-valve Porsche M44 I4, 236 hp ('92-'95) '''928:''' *A = 4.5L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 220 hp (928 '81-'82) *B = 4.7L SOHC 16-valve Porsche M28 V8, 234 hp (928 S '83-'84) *B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 288 hp (928 S '85-'86) *B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '87-'90) *B = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '89-'90) *A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 316 hp (928 S4 '91) *A = 5.0L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 326 hp (928 GT '91) *A = 5.4L DOHC 32-valve Porsche M28 V8, 345 hp (928 GTS '93-'95) '''Boxster/Cayman:''' Type 986: *A = 2.5L flat-6, 201 hp (Boxster '97-'99) *A = 2.7L flat-6, 217 hp (Boxster '00-'02) *A = 2.7L flat-6, 225 hp (Boxster '03-'04) *B = 3.2L flat-6, 250 hp (Boxster S '00-'02) *B = 3.2L flat-6, 258 hp (Boxster S '03-'04) *B = 3.2L flat-6, 264 hp (Boxster S 50 Years of the 550 Spyder Anniversary Edition '04) Type 987: *A = 2.7L flat-6, 240 hp (Boxster '05-'06) *A = 2.7L flat-6, 245 hp (Boxster '07-'08, Limited Edition '08), 245 hp (Cayman '07-'08) *A = 2.9L flat-6, 255 hp (Boxster '09-'12), 265 hp (Cayman '09-'12) *B = 3.2L flat-6, 280 hp (Boxster S '05-'06) *B = 3.4L flat-6, 295 hp (Boxster S '07-'08, S Limited Edition '08), 295 hp (Cayman S '06-'08) *B = 3.4L flat-6, 310 hp (Boxster S '09-'12), 320 hp (Cayman S '09-'12) *B = 3.4L flat-6, 303 hp (Boxster S Porsche Design Edition 2 '08, RS 60 Spyder '08), 303 hp (Cayman S Sport '08) *B = 3.4L flat-6, 320 hp (Boxster S Black Edition '12, Spyder '11-'12), 330 hp (Cayman S Black Edition '12, Cayman R '12) Type 981: *A = 2.7L flat-6, 265 hp (Boxster '13-'16, Boxster Black Edition '16), 275 hp (Cayman '14-'16) *B = 3.4L flat-6, 315 hp (Boxster S '13-'16), 325 hp (Cayman S '14-'16) *B = 3.4L flat-6, 330 hp (Boxster GTS '15-'16), 340 hp (Cayman GTS '15-'16) *C = 3.8L flat-6, 375 hp (Boxster Spyder '16), 385 hp (Cayman GT4 '16) '''718 Boxster/Cayman:''' Type 982: *A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 300 hp <br> (718 Boxster '17-'25, 718 Boxster T '20-'23, 718 Boxster Style Edition '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'25, 718 Cayman T '20-'23, 718 Cayman Style Edition '24-'25) *B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 350 hp (718 Boxster S, 718 Cayman S '17-'25) *B = 2.5L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-4, 365 hp (718 Boxster GTS, 718 Cayman GTS '18-'19) *D = 4.0L flat-6, 394 hp (718 Boxster GTS 4.0 '21-'25, 718 Boxster 25 Years '21, 718 Cayman GTS 4.0 '21-'25) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 414 hp (718 Spyder, 718 Cayman GT4 '20-'23) *E = 4.0L flat-6, 493 hp (718 Spyder RS '24-'25, 718 Cayman GT4 RS '23-'25) '''911:''' Type 911: (G-Series body) *B = 3.0L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/16), 172 hp (911 SC Coupe/Targa '81-'83, Cabriolet '83) *B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/21), 200 hp (911 Carrera '84-'86) *B = 3.2L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/25), 214 hp (911 Carrera '87-'89, Club Sport '88-'89, Speedster '89) Type 930: (G-Series body) *A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/60 ['81-'82], 930/66 ['83-'87]), 296 hp (911 Turbo Canada: '81-'87)<br> (Coupe: '81-'87, Targa/Cabriolet: '87) regular or slant-nose ('87 coupe & cabriolet) *B = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled flat-6 (Engine ID: 930/68), 282 hp (911 Turbo US: '86-'89, Canada '88-'89) (Coupe: '86-'89, Targa/Cabriolet: '87-'89) regular or slant-nose Type 964: *B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 247 hp (911 Carrera 2 '90-'94, Targa '90-'94, 911 America Roadster '92-'93, RS America '93-'94, Speedster '94,<br> Carrera 4 '89-'94, Carrera 4 Widebody Coupe '94, Carrera 4 Targa '90-'93) *B = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 256 hp (911 Carrera Cup USA Edition '92) coupe *A = 3.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M30 flat-6, 315 hp (911 Turbo '91-'92) coupe *C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 355 hp (911 Turbo 3.6 '94) coupe *C = 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 380 hp (911 Turbo S 3.6 '94) coupe, flat-nose (slant-nose) coupe Type 993: *A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 270 hp (911 Carrera '95, Carrera 4 '95) *A = 3.6L SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 282 hp (911 Carrera '96-'98, Targa '96-'98, Carrera S '97-'98, Carrera 4 '96-'98, Carrera 4S '96-'98) *C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 400 hp (911 Turbo '96-'97) coupe *C = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] SOHC 12-valve air-cooled M64 flat-6, 424 hp (911 Turbo S '97) coupe Type 996: *A = 3.4L DOHC 24-valve water-cooled flat-6, 296 hp (911 Carrera '99, Carrera 4 '99) *A = 3.4L flat-6, 300 hp (911 Carrera '00-'01, Carrera 4 '00-'01) *A = 3.6L flat-6, 320 hp (911 Carrera '02-'04, Carrera Cabriolet '05, Targa '02-'05, Carrera 4 '02-'04, Carrera 4S '03-'05) *A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera 40th Anniversary Edition '04) coupe *B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 415 hp (911 Turbo '01-'05) (Coupe: '01-'05, Cabriolet: '04-'05) *B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 444 hp (911 Turbo S '05) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *C = 3.6L flat-6, 381 hp (911 GT3 '04-'05) coupe *B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 456 hp (911 GT2 '02-'03) coupe *B = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 477 hp (911 GT2 '04) coupe Type 997: *A = 3.6L flat-6, 325 hp (911 Carrera '05-'08, Carrera 4 '06-'08, Targa 4 '07-'08) *A = 3.6L flat-6, 345 hp (911 Carrera '09-'12, Carrera Black Edition coupe/cabriolet '12, Carrera 4 '09-'12, Targa 4 '09-'12) *B = 3.8L flat-6, 355 hp (911 Carrera S '05-'08, Carrera 4S '06-'08, Targa 4S '07-'08) *B = 3.8L flat-6, 385 hp (911 Carrera S '09-'12, Carrera 4S '09-'12, Targa 4S '09-'12) *B = 3.8L flat-6, 381 hp (911 Carrera S Club Coupe '06) *B = 3.8L flat-6, 408 hp (911 Carrera GTS '11-'12, Carrera 4 GTS '12, Speedster '11) *D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 480 hp (911 Turbo '07-'09) (Coupe: '07-'09, Cabriolet: '08-'09) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 500 hp (911 Turbo '10-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 Turbo S '11-'13) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo S Cabriolet Edition 918 Spyder '12) *C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 '07-'08) coupe *C = 3.8L flat-6, 435 hp (911 GT3 '10-'11) coupe *C = 3.6L flat-6, 415 hp (911 GT3 RS '07-'08) coupe *C = 3.8L flat-6, 450 hp (911 GT3 RS '10-'11) coupe *F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS 4.0 '11) coupe *D = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 530 hp (911 GT2 '08-'09) coupe *E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 620 hp (911 GT2 RS '11) coupe Type 991.1: *A = 3.4L flat-6, 350 hp (911 Carrera '12-'16, Carrera 4 '13-'16, Targa 4 '14-'16) *B = 3.8L flat-6, 400 hp (911 Carrera S '12-'16, Carrera 4S '13-'16, Targa 4S '14-'16, 911 50th Anniversary Edition coupe '14) *B = 3.8L flat-6, 430 hp (911 Carrera GTS '15-'16, Carrera 4 GTS '15-'16, Targa 4 GTS '16) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 520 hp (911 Turbo '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 560 hp (911 Turbo S '14-'16) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *C = 3.8L flat-6, 475 hp (911 GT3 '14-'15) coupe *F = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3 RS '16, 911 R '16) coupe Type 991.2: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 370 hp (911 Carrera '17-'19, Carrera T '18-'19, Carrera 4 '17-'19, Targa 4 '17-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 420 hp (911 Carrera S '17-'19, Carrera 4S '17-'19, Targa 4S '17-'19) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 450 hp (911 Carrera GTS '17-'19, Carrera 4 GTS '17-'19, Targa 4 GTS '17-'19) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 540 hp (911 Turbo '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 580 hp (911 Turbo S '17-'19) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *D = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 607 hp (911 Turbo S Exclusive Series - Coupe '18, Cabriolet '19) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 500 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '18-'19) coupe *F = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 Speedster '19) *F = 4.0L flat-6, 520 hp (911 GT3 RS '19) coupe *E = 3.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 690 hp (911 GT2 RS '18-'19) coupe Type 992: *A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 379 hp (911 Carrera '20-'24, Carrera T '23-'24, Carrera 4 '20-'24, Targa 4 '21-'24) *A = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 388 hp (911 Carrera, Carrera T '25-, Carrera T Club Coupe '26) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 443 hp (911 Carrera S '20-'24, Carrera 4S '20-'24, Targa 4S '21-'24) *H = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera S '26-, Carrera 4S '26-, Targa 4S '26-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 473 hp (911 Carrera GTS '22-'24, Carrera 4 GTS '22-'24, Targa 4 GTS '22-'24, Dakar coupe '23-'24) *B = Hybrid: 3.6L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 532 hp (911 Carrera GTS, Carrera 4 GTS, Targa 4 GTS '25-, 911 Spirit 70 cabriolet '26) *G = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 543 hp (911 Sport Classic '23) coupe *D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 572 hp (911 Turbo '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *D = 3.7L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6, 640 hp (911 Turbo S '21-'25) (Coupe/Cabriolet), (911 Turbo 50 Years coupe '25) *D = Hybrid: 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] flat-6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 701 hp (911 Turbo S '26-) (Coupe/Cabriolet) *C = 4.0L flat-6, 502 hp (911 GT3, GT3 Touring '22-'26) coupe *F = 4.0L flat-6, 518 hp (911 GT3 RS '23-'25, 911 S/T '24) coupe '''Carrera GT:''' *A = 5.7L Porsche M80.01 68° V10, 605 hp (Carrera GT '04-'05) '''918 Spyder:''' *A = PHEV: 4.6L Porsche M18 flat-plane crank V8 + 2 electric motors (1 front, 1 rear), Lithium-ion battery, 887 total system hp (918 Spyder '15) '''Panamera:''' Type 970: *A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 300 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '11-'13) *A = 3.6L Porsche M46.20 (2wd)/M46.40 (4wd) 90° V6, 310 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '14-'16) *D = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Panamera S Hybrid '12-'13) *D = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Panamera S E-Hybrid '14-'16) *B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Panamera S, 4S '10-'13) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.60 90° V6, 420 hp (Panamera S, 4S '14-'16) *F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 430 hp (Panamera GTS '13) *F = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 440 hp (Panamera GTS '14-'16) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Panamera Turbo '10-'13) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Panamera Turbo '14-'16) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo S '12-'13) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Panamera Turbo S '15-'16) Type 971 & 976: *A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 330 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '17-'20) *J = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 325 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '21-'23) *A = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 348 hp (Panamera, Panamera 4 '24-) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '18-'23) *E = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Panamera 4 E-Hybrid '25-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 440 hp (Panamera 4S '17-'20) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 443 hp (Panamera 4S '21-'23) *K = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 552 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *C = PHEV: 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 536 hp (Panamera 4S E-Hybrid '25-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Panamera GTS '19-'20) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 473 hp (Panamera GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Panamera GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 550 hp (Panamera Turbo '17-'20) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 620 hp (Panamera Turbo S '21-'23) *F = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Panamera Turbo E-Hybrid '25-) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 680 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '18-'20) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 690 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '21-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 771 hp (Panamera Turbo S E-Hybrid '25-) '''Taycan:''' *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 469 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan '21-'24) *A = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 429 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4 '25-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 522 hp (71 Kwh battery) or 562 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '20-'24) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 536 hp (82.3 Kwh battery) or 590 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan 4S '25-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 590 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '22-'24) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 690 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan GTS '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 670 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 750 hp (83.7 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '20-'24) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 871 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo '25-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 938 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1019 hp (97 Kwh battery) (Taycan Turbo GT '25-) '''Macan:''' *A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 248 hp (Macan '17-'21) *A = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA888T I4, 261 hp (Macan '22-, Macan T '23-) *B = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 340 hp (Macan S '15-'18) *B = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Macan S '19-'21) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan S '22-) *G = 3.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.30 90° V6, 360 hp (Macan GTS '17-'18) *G = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 375 hp (Macan GTS '20-'21) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan GTS '22-) *F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 400 hp (Macan Turbo '15-'18) *F = 3.6L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Macan Turbo w/Performance Package '17-'18) *F = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Macan Turbo '20-'21) '''Macan Electric:''' *D = battery-electric, 1 rear motor, Rwd, 355 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric '25-) *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 402 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4 '24-) *B = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 509 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric 4S '25-) *E = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 563 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric GTS '26-) *C = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 630 hp (95 Kwh battery) (Macan Electric Turbo '24-) '''Cayenne:''' 955/957 or 9PA: *A = 3.2L (3189cc) VW EA390 15° VR6, 247 hp (Cayenne '04-'06) *A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° FSI VR6, 290 hp (Cayenne '08-'10) *B = 4.5L Porsche M48 V8, 340 hp (Cayenne S '03-'06, S Titanium Edition '06) *B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 385 hp (Cayenne S '08-'10) *D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 405 hp (Cayenne GTS '08-'10, S Transsyberia '10) *C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 450 hp (Cayenne Turbo '03-'06) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '08-'10) *C = 4.5L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '06) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '09-'10) 958 or 92A: *A = 3.6L (3598cc) VW EA390 10.6° VR6, 300 hp (Cayenne '11-'14, '16-'18) *B = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 400 hp (Cayenne S '11-'14) *B = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 420 hp (Cayenne S '15-'18) *E = HEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Nickel-metal hydride battery, 380 hp (Cayenne S Hybrid '11-'14) *E = PHEV: 3.0L supercharged [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA837 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 416 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '15-'18) *D = 4.8L Porsche M48 V8, 420 hp (Cayenne GTS '13-'14) *D = 3.6L (3604cc) twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M46.35 90° V6, 440 hp (Cayenne GTS '16-'18) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 500 hp (Cayenne Turbo '11-'14) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 520 hp (Cayenne Turbo '15-'18) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 550 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '14) *C = 4.8L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche M48 V8, 570 hp (Cayenne Turbo S '16-'18) *F = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi EA897 90° Diesel V6, 240 hp (Cayenne Diesel '13-'16) 9YA/9YB: *A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 335 hp (Cayenne '19-'23) *A = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6, 348 hp (Cayenne '24-) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 455 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '19-'23) *E = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 463 hp (Cayenne E-Hybrid '24-) *B = 2.9L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839TT 90° V6, 434 hp (Cayenne S '19-'23) *L = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 468 hp (Cayenne S '24-) *N = PHEV: 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Audi-Porsche EA839T 90° V6 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 512 hp (Cayenne S E-Hybrid '24-) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 453 hp (Cayenne GTS '21-'23) *G = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 493 hp (Cayenne GTS '25-) *F = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 541 hp (Cayenne Turbo '19-'23) *H = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 670 hp (Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid '20-'23) *M = PHEV: 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8 + electric motor, Lithium-ion battery, 729 hp (Cayenne Turbo E-Hybrid '24-) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 631 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '22-'23) *K = 4.0L twin-turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Porsche-Audi EA825TT V8, 650 hp (Cayenne Coupe Turbo GT '24-) '''Cayenne Electric:''' *A = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 435 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric '26-) *D = battery-electric, 2 motors, 4wd, 1139 hp (108 Kwh battery) (Cayenne Electric Turbo '26-) ===Position 6, Restraint Systems:=== *1 = Seat Belts only *2 = Passive Restraint System - Airbags (Driver and Passenger Front Airbags) ===Position 7-8, Vehicle Type Code=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 7 !VIN Pos. 7-8 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |92 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |93 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |92 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |94 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |95 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |96 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |92 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |98 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |98 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |A8 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |A8 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |A8 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |91 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |93 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |96 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |99 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |99 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |99 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |A9 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |A9 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |A9 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |98 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |A1 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |A7 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |A7 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |YA | |Panamera (2024-) |976 |- |Y1 |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |A5 |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |XA | |Macan Electric (2024-) |XAB |- |9P |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |AP |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A2 |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |AY |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |- |X1 | |Cayenne Electric (2026-) |E4 |} ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * S: Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen, Germany (All 911, 968, 928, 918 Spyder, and Taycan. Boxster '97-'06, '09-'16, 718 Boxster '17-'24, Cayman '12, 718 Cayman '17-'24)<br> (Also: Type 937 - 924 Carrera GTS/GTR [N/A in US/Canada], a few late '91 944 S2 coupe & cabriolet [RoW-spec]), 959 [N/A in US/Canada] * L: Leipzig, Germany (Cayenne '03-'18, Carrera GT '04-'05, Panamera '10-, Macan '15-'26, Macan Electric '24-) * D: Bratislava, Slovakia (VW plant - Cayenne '19-, Cayenne Electric '26-) * K: Osnabrueck, Germany (ex-Karmann VW plant - Cayenne '16-'18, Boxster '13-15, Cayman '14-'16, 718 Boxster '24-'25, 718 Cayman '17-'18, '20-'21, '23-'25) * N: Neckarsulm, Germany (Audi plant - 924, 944) (includes Type 937 - 924 Carrera GT [N/A in US/Canada]) * U: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - Boxster '98-'11, Cayman '06-'12) Note: RoW=Rest of World (non-US/Canada markets) ===Position 12, 3rd Digit of Vehicle Type Code=== Note: Only applies to models with a 3-digit Vehicle Type Code. Models with a 2-digit Vehicle Type Code use pos. 12 for the serial number. {| class="wikitable" |+Position 12 !VIN Pos. 12 !Complete Vehicle Type Code !Model !Type |- |4 |924 |924 (1981-1982 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |1 |931 |924 Turbo (1981-1982) |931 |- |4 |924 |924S (1987-1988 w/normally aspirated engine) |924 |- |4 |944 |944 (1983-1991 w/normally aspirated engine) |944 |- |1 |951 |944 Turbo (1986-1989 & 1990 in Canada) |951 |- |8 |968 |968 (1992-1995) |968 |- |8 |928 |928 (1981-1995) |928 |- |6 |986 |Boxster (1997-2004) |986 |- |7 |987 |Boxster (2005-2009)/Cayman (2006-2009) |987 |- |7 |A87 |Boxster (2010-2012)/Cayman (2010-2012) |987 |- |1 |A81 |Boxster (2013-2016)/Cayman (2014-2016) |981 |- |2 |A82 |718 Boxster/Cayman (2017-2025) |982 |- |1 |911 |911 (1981-1989 2wd w/normally aspirated engine) |911 |- |0 |930 |911 (1986-1989 911 Turbo) |930 |- |4 |964 |911 (1989-1994 Carrera 4, 1990-1994 Carrera 2, 1991-1994 Turbo) |964 |- |3 |993 |911 (1995-1998) |993 |- |6 |996 |911 (1999-2004) |996 |- |7 |997 |911 (2005-2009) |997 |- |7 |A97 |911 (2010-2012) |997 |- |1 |A91 |911 (2013-2019) |991 |- |2 |A92 |911 (2020-) |992 |- |0 |980 |Carrera GT (2004-2005) |980 |- |8 |A18 |918 Spyder (2015) |918 |- |0 |A70 |Panamera (2010-2016) |970 |- |1 |A71 |Panamera (2017-2023) |971 |- |A |Y1A |Taycan (2020-) |9J1 or <br> Y1A (sedan)/Y1B (Cross Turismo)/Y1C (Sport Turismo) |- |B |A5B |Macan (2015-) |95B |- |A |9PA |Cayenne (2003-2009) |9PA |- |A |APA |Cayenne (2010) |9PA |- |A |A2A |Cayenne (2011-2018) |92A |- |A |AYA |Cayenne (wagon: 2019-, coupe: 2020-) |9YA (wagon)/9YB (coupe) |} '''Positions 12–17 or 13–17, Serial Number''' '''Select Porsche equipment codes:''' *C02 - Made for USA market (49 states thru 1990, all of USA from 1991) *C03 - Made for California market *C04 - Made for Puerto Rico market *C36 - Made for Canada market *M505 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930]) *M506 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo [Type 930]) *X85 - US market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964]) *X83 - Japan market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964]) *X84 - Rest of World (RoW)-market Slant-nose (911 Turbo S [Type 964]) *498 - Delete Model Designation-Rear {{BookCat}} mtfhzidk91z7qctpwzbuykqrjgog51s 0 482484 4635044 4633537 2026-05-10T00:37:11Z SHB2000 3332924 no longer applies 4635044 wikitext text/x-wiki <u><big>'''Introduction'''</big></u> [[File:United States Public Transport Ridership 1890-1975.png|thumb|Graph representing American Public Transport Association historical ridership data between 1890 and 1975.]] Public transportation moved many Americans throughout cities in the early part of the 20th century. Ridership of these systems declined sharply in the period following World War 2, when the automobile became the primary method of transport throughout the United States. This chapter explains some of the background and historical context of public transit in the U.S., investigates several social groups that participated in this decline, and shows the effects of their efforts as shown in Baltimore, MD. The graph shows ridership numbers through 1975, but ridership since that time has remained fairly steadily between 8 and 10 billion trips per year. '''<u><big>Background</big></u>''' Large-scale public transport in the United States traces its roots to omnibus systems in New York City in the later half of the 19th century. The implementation of these systems throughout the country was greatly accelerated after the first electrified streetcar system was proven successful in Richmond, VA in 1888 <ref>{{cite report|title=1975–1976 Transit Fact Book|author=American Public Transportation Association|publisher=American Public Transportation Association|year=1976|url=https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/APTA_1975-1976_Transit_Fact_Book.pdf}}</ref>. Intra-city rail systems and streetcars moved the majority of riders until 1947, when the bus became the primary mode of public transit. These transport systems were entirely owned and funded by private companies until 1964, when the federal government passed the Urban Mass Transit Act. This piece of legislation set aside federal funds to help build new transit infrastructure that would be run by state or local governments <ref>{{Cite web |date=1964-07-09 |title=Text - S.6 - 88th Congress (1963-1964): Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/88th-congress/senate-bill/6/text |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref>. Federal involvement increased in 1974 when federal dollars were apportioned to help subsidize operating costs of these transit systems through the National Mass Transportation Assistance Act <ref>{{Cite web |last=Sen. Williams |first=Harrison A. |date=1974-11-26 |title=All Info - S.386 - 93rd Congress (1973-1974): National Mass Transportation Assistance Act of 1974 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/senate-bill/386/all-info |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.congress.gov}}</ref>. <u>'''<big>Why Did Public Transit Decline?</big>'''</u> * <u>Industry influence and market control:</u> One cause of the decline of public transit was the influence of private industry, including automakers, oil companies, and tire manufacturers. Companies like General Motors, Standard Oil, and Firestone Tire and Rubber had big interest in increasing car usage. The more that people relied on cars as their form of transportation, the more profit these industries made, and not just by selling vehicles, but also fuel, tires, and road construction. They helped promote highway expansion and car-based infrastructure by aligning with government priorities and suburban development patterns. So instead of public transit being improved, the system was slowly shaped to favor automobiles, making car ownership more necessary for everyday life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=St. Clair |first=David J. |date=1981-09 |title=The Motorization and Decline of Urban Public Transit, 1935–1950 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/s002205070004434x |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=579–600 |doi=10.1017/s002205070004434x |issn=0022-0507}}</ref> An example of industry influence is the case United States v. National City Lines (NCL), which happened in 1951. NCL was a holding company with funding from General Motors, Standard Oil of California, Firestone Tire and Rubber, and a few other companies that operated transit systems in many cities. They were found guilty of conspiring to monopolize the sale of buses, tires, and fuel to these systems, but they were not convicted of directly destroying streetcar systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=United States v. National City Lines, Inc., et al, 186 F.2d 562 (7th Cir. 1951) |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/186/562/162881/ |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=Justia Law |language=en}}</ref> This case shows that the market was shaped in ways that benefited automobiles and increased car dependency over other forms of transportation. This industry influence led to a gradual decline in public transit. [[File:Highway_vs_transit_spending_1945-1975.png|thumb|Highway vs. Transit Spending 1945-1975<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Office of Management and Budget |first=Executive Office of the President |date=2024-03-11 |title=Budget FY 2025 - Table 6.1 - Composition of Outlays: 1940-2029 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/BUDGET-2025-TAB/BUDGET-2025-TAB-7-1/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govinfo.gov%2Fapp%2Fdetails%2FBUDGET-2025-TAB%2FBUDGET-2025-TAB-7-1 |access-date=2026-05-02 |website=govinfo.gov}}</ref>]] * <u>Government policy and highway funding:</u> Another major cause of the decline of public transit was the role of federal, state, and local governments in prioritizing highway construction over transit investment. After World War II, the federal government invested heavily in highway development to build the nation's road infrastructure, particularly through the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, which created the Interstate Highway System.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-29 |title=National Interstate and Defense Highways Act (1956) |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/national-interstate-and-defense-highways-act |access-date=2026-05-02 |website=National Archives |language=en}}</ref> Federal spending data shows that from 1945-1975, $71.9 billion was spent on highway infrastructure, compared to only $2.4 billion on urban mass transit systems.<ref name=":1" /> City and state governments also made urban planning decisions that further disadvantaged transit in favor of the automobile. Local streets were turned into high-speed routes, with timed stoplights and one-way traffic, and parking was heavily expanded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Nicholas Dagen |title=The Great American Transit Disaster |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=May 3, 2023 |isbn=978-0226824413 |pages=70-71}}</ref> Before 1965, public transit was provided solely by privately owned companies. Transit ridership declined as investments in highways surged and American automobile ownership rose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=St. Clair |first=David J. |date=1981 |title=The Motorization and Decline of Urban Public Transit, 1935-1950 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2119941 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=579–600 |issn=0022-0507}}</ref> Without government assistance, transit companies relied solely on rider fares, which decreased as transit ridership declined, resulting in a feedback loop. From 1945-1964, public transit received $0 in federal grants; the federal government did not invest in public transit until 1965, after the Urban Mass Transit Act was passed, which created the federal transit program.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 21, 2014 |title=The Federal Transit Program: 60 Years of Improving Communities |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/about/news/federal-transit-program-60-years-improving-communities}}</ref> * <u>Suburbanization:</u> The rapid growth of American suburbs after World War II further weakened public transit, as populations spread across low-density areas that were better served by highways. Suburban development boomed as soldiers returned home from Word War II, and started families. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 and funding to the Federal Housing Administration subsidized mortgages for veterans, allowing them to buy homes in the suburbs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Browner |first=Seth |title=The Post-World War II Suburb in the United States |url=https://jstor.org/stable/community.38593817 |series=Trinity Student Scholarship. Trinity College Digital Repository}}</ref> Suburban developments such as Levittown (in New York, and later in Pennsylvania and New Jersey) built mass-produced, low-priced, single-family homes, that not only served as homes, but as a community image of the ideal American life. The lifestyle of single generation nuclear families in private suburban homes was a dream that American aspired to, and suburban life provided that life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=KCI Technologies |date=November 1999 |title=Suburbanization Historic Context and Survey Methodology |url=https://www.roads.maryland.gov/OPPEN/1999_Suburbanization_Historic_Context_and_Survey_Methodology.pdf |journal=}}</ref> Suburban residents voted for politicians who would advance their interests, which led to the large government subsidies for highway development, which was crucial for connecting suburban areas. Public transit would not receive similar political support until seats in the House of Representatives began to shift towards urban representation as a result of ''Wesberry v. Sanders'' in 1964, which ruled that congressional districts must be drawn to evenly distribute population. Afterwards, federal aid for public transit was able to be passed, but the trend towards suburbanization and automobile dominance had already been well established. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-01 |title=How the House Went from Anti-Urban to Pro-Urban in 8 Years |url=https://enotrans.org/article/how-the-house-went-from-anti-urban-to-pro-urban-in-8-years/ |access-date=2026-05-02 |website=The Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref> '''<big><u>Baltimore Case Study</u></big>''' Baltimore is an example of how each of these four factors played out. Before World War II, Baltimore had a strong streetcar system with high ridership and low fares. Public transit was widely used and a popular form of transportation across the city, which supported suburban development. After the war, government policies and planning decisions began to prioritize highway expansion and suburban growth. Streetcar systems were replaced with buses, and roads were redesigned to move cars more efficiently, like adding one-way streets.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bloom |first=Nicholas Dagen |date=2024-08-09 |title=A packed Baltimore trolley illustrates the ups and downs of US public transit |url=https://theconversation.com/a-packed-baltimore-trolley-illustrates-the-ups-and-downs-of-us-public-transit-234627 |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> However, buses were less reliable, slower, and the service quality declined. People began to stop using transit as fares increased and the quality of service declined. This led to even more cuts to public transit, and the Baltimore Transit Company started to financially struggle. These factors created a downward spiral that made public transit less viable over time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Gale |first=Dennis E. |date=2023-09-19 |title=<i>The great American transit disaster</i>, by Nicholas Dagen Bloom |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2023.2245307 |journal=Journal of Urban Affairs |volume=46 |issue=9 |pages=1947–1950 |doi=10.1080/07352166.2023.2245307 |issn=0735-2166}}</ref> Entire neighborhoods in Baltimore were destroyed by highway construction projects, especially in Black communities. 971 homes and 62 businesses were demolished, reinforcing racial segregation. At the same time, suburban residents gained more political influence, which further shifted priorities away from public transit. There was resistance, including a group called the Movement Against Destruction (MAD), which successfully stopped some highway projects, like the "Highway to Nowhere."<ref name=":0" /> The "Highway to Nowhere" is a 1.39 mile stretch of U.S. Route 40 in West Baltimore that was meant to connect I-70 to I-95 and I-83 to speed up car travel, but instead it divided a primarily Black community.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-24 |title=Baltimore's notorious "Highway to Nowhere" could soon be history - CBS Baltimore |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/baltimore/news/baltimores-notorious-highway-to-nowhere-could-soon-be-history/ |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Overall, Baltimore shows how industry influence, government decisions, and suburban priorities combined to weaken public transit and increase inequality.<ref name=":0" /> '''<u><big>Conclusion</big></u>''' The trends and agendas represented in this chapter resulted in a feedback loop where a decreasing number of riders utilized existing transit systems, causing fares to rise for those who still used them. The increase in fares was not enough to cover the lost revenue from lower ridership, so these companies were operating in a deficit and could not improve or maintain existing infrastructure. This further drove riders away from these systems, compounding the effects of the feedback loop. This makes sense when looking at the high value Americans place on independence and personal space, felt especially in the reinforcement of the nuclear family. These values manifested themselves in the idea that the car provided individualized transport, especially for wealthier suburbanites. Automobile manufacturers and related companies then moved to protect their material interests by lobbying for federal funding of highways instead of alternative means of transportation. '''<big><u>Future Research</u></big>''' This chapter primarily investigated trends at a national scale. Because public transport was primarily managed by local independent organizations, future research looking deeper into multiple cities to compare the relative strengths and weaknesses of their transport during this time frame would be helpful reaching a fuller understanding of the public transportation during this time frame. '''<u><big>References</big></u>''' <references /> hw8f8tas7jy6htu4cbhya34oeefm0we 4 482705 4635079 4634912 2026-05-10T08:10:30Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 2 threads from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance]] 4635079 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk archive}} == Edit request for protected page == Hi, could an admin edit [[Template:Cite map]] and change ''<nowiki>ISBN {{{isbn}}}</nowiki>'' into ''<nowiki>{{#isbn:{{{isbn}}}}}</nowiki>'' ? The old magic links are deprecated and will one day be removed from the software. [[User:Jcb|Jcb]] ([[User talk:Jcb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jcb|contribs]]) 11:56, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Are there active admins at this project? [[User:Jcb|Jcb]] ([[User talk:Jcb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jcb|contribs]]) 12:54, 5 April 2026 (UTC) :: {{done|Implemented}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:37, 5 April 2026 (UTC) :::Thank you! [[User:Jcb|Jcb]] ([[User talk:Jcb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jcb|contribs]]) 13:52, 5 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-20986-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-20986-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-20986-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:54, 6 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Ternera (GS). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:14, 7 April 2026 (UTC) == Blackoutcurtains01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Blackoutcurtains01}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311444]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Blackoutcurtains01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 7 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-21289-66 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-21289-66}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-21289-66/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:45, 7 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|All pages nuked}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:04, 7 April 2026 (UTC) == 沒反應 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|沒反應}} Long-term abuse: [[Special:CentralAuth/沒反應]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/沒反應/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:14, 7 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:13, 8 April 2026 (UTC) == ProductSiddha reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|ProductSiddha}} spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311479]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/ProductSiddha/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:30, 9 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 April 2026 (UTC) == 白衣甘道夫 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|白衣甘道夫}} impersonation of bot account by User:Mike Peel <!-- USERREPORTED:/白衣甘道夫/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 00:48, 11 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:31, 11 April 2026 (UTC) == Roosevelt707 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roosevelt707}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311522]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roosevelt707/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == Prodoo1 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prodoo1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prodoo1/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:05, 13 April 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-22960-74 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|~2026-22960-74}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-22960-74/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:45, 14 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done|Blocked}} for three months, and page protected for one month. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:37, 14 April 2026 (UTC) == Heathhenry44 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Heathhenry44}} Spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311614]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Heathhenry44/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:14, 17 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:04, 17 April 2026 (UTC) == Jhon12345154321 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Jhon12345154321}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/311699]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Jhon12345154321/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 22 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:21, 23 April 2026 (UTC) == Amuckgoads reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amuckgoads}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amuckgoads/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:25, 22 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. The account has been blocked indefinitely, and the talk page has been salted under autoconfirmed protection indefinitely. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:50, 22 April 2026 (UTC) == Adetoro muiz4 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Adetoro muiz4}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Adetoro muiz4/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:45, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Owolabi Habeeb ola reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Owolabi Habeeb ola}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Owolabi Habeeb ola/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 24 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:46, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Toni Tagiam reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Toni Tagiam}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Toni Tagiam/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:00, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:37, 24 April 2026 (UTC) == Kianpatterson53 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Kianpatterson53}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Kianpatterson53/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:06, 25 April 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by WikiBayer (GS); it's an LTA. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 14:41, 25 April 2026 (UTC) == Mirko Privitera reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mirko Privitera}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mirko Privitera/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:57, 26 April 2026 (UTC) 04rvv4uw0u9th0b0m4zzgzssg689bx0 0 482748 4634994 4634850 2026-05-09T18:03:07Z Idavidmiller 3577687 Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4634994 wikitext text/x-wiki == Getting Started Using Maxima - Some Essentials == This section is intended for those that are new to Maxima. It may or may not be of value or interest to those having prior experience. === The Maxima Way of doing Mathematics === Imagine that you want to create a computer application to perform some general mathematical tasks - not merely numerical calculations or "number crunching" as it is sometimes referred to somewhat pejoratively. It seems likely that it would be realized early on that, unlike humans that can interpret concepts and notation using context, computers and programming software generally are intolerant of any sort of ambiguity. Progress is being made in providing programming software with the ability to interpret based on context, but not here in Maxima. The Maxima expression syntax was created to be logical as well as unambiguous and precise in meaning and intention. Another realization likely would be that mathematical expressions are the essential object on which mathematical concepts hinge, and that these concepts are conveyed using a conventional (if not entirely standard) system of notation. So, the means to compose mathematical expressions using some syntax for interpreting mathematical notation that your program could read and process as input would be essential. So Maxima is not a programming language in the conventional sense. With the foregoing in mind, before starting to see examples of Maxima in action, keep the following in mind while learning and using Maxima: * Expressions of various types (especially mathematical expressions) are the input to Maxima * Every expression returns a value which is displayed as output unless the display is suppressed by some means * Expressions as input are entered using an expression syntax that Maxima can read and process ==== Maxima expressions are of three types: ==== # Mathematical expressions # Object expressions # Programming expressions ==== Maxima expressions are comprised of two "ingredients" so to speak: ==== # Atoms # Operators ==== Atoms: ==== These are one type of the built-in basic expression ingredients of Maxima. They are: # Literal numerals for numbers - integer, fraction, and floating point literals # Identifiers - names used alone or to identify other expressions by name # Strings - quoted strings of one or more characters ==== Operators: ==== These are the second type of the built-in expression ingredients of Maxima. Including: # Mathematical operators such as + , - , * , /, ^ , ! for addition, subtraction, negation, multiplication, division, exponentiation, factorial and the like. Internally to Maxima these are short-hand symbols for operators. Maxima operators also include "functions" such as sin(x), log(x), etc. # Operators that are used to accomplish something other than for mathematical purposes '''Note:''' It is important to point out that there is a difference between operators, functions as used in the context of programming, and the mathematical concept of functions. In this book all Maxima functions in the programming sense of the word that are built-in to Maxima (that is "out-of-the-box" so to speak) will be referred to as operators, including those from loaded packages that are included with the Maxima distribution. Maxima functions in the programming sense of the word created by the user will be referred to as functions. The context should make it clear when the mathematical concept of a function is being referred to. It is unfortunately the case that the Maxima documentation refers to operators as functions. Like so much else, the word "function" has become overloaded. === A Brief Introduction to Expressions - Atoms, Identifiers and Operators === Below follows a brief introduction to Maxima expressions. All Maxima expressions are composed of '''''atoms''''' (including identifiers) and '''''operators''''', and every expression has a value. With the foregoing information in mind, Maxima can be used to provide some examples of these various aspects of working with Maxima. This will be accomplished in the spirit of providing some insight and clarity for how to interact with Maxima, and how to compose expressions for input and how to interpret the values of expressions as output. === <u>Atoms</u> === There are three types of atoms used as "ingredients" for composing Maxima expressions for input: # Identifiers # Numerical literals for representing numbers # Strings An elaboration of the technical details of each of these three types will follow in subsequent sections. In this section is a brief introduction, and examples of each of these types presented to gain a basic level of familiarity with each type of atom. ==== <u>Identifiers</u> ==== Try the following using Python: <code>m + n</code><syntaxhighlight lang="python3"> >>> m + n Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> NameError: name 'm' is not defined >>> </syntaxhighlight>or using R:<syntaxhighlight lang="r"> > m + n Error: object 'm' not found > </syntaxhighlight>or using Octave:<syntaxhighlight lang="octave"> octave:1> m + n error: 'm' undefined near line 1, column 1 octave:2> </syntaxhighlight>Now, try this using Maxima:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> Maxima 5.49.0 https://maxima.sourceforge.io using Lisp SBCL 2.0.1.debian Distributed under the GNU Public License. See the file COPYING. Dedicated to the memory of William Schelter. The function bug_report() provides bug reporting information. (%i1) m + n; (%o1) n + m </syntaxhighlight>Take it on faith that the identifiers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code> are in the Maxima namespace as a consequence of this expression, and that each has a value assigned by Maxima merely as a consequence of being used in the <code>m + n</code> input expression – <code>m</code> is <code>m</code> and <code>n</code> is <code>n</code> in this case.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i2) m; (%o2) m (%i3) n; (%o3) n </syntaxhighlight>A value for any identifier (other than itself) may never be assigned while using Maxima no matter how many times it is referenced. That is perfectly okay. Maxima doesn't care. But sometimes a value is assigned to an identifier – either the first time it is referenced or after it is first referenced:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i4) m : n; (m) n (%i5) m; (%o5) n (%i6) remvalue(m); (%o6) [m] (%i7) m; (%o7) m </syntaxhighlight>In the above expressions, the identifier <code>m</code> is assigned, using the <code>:</code> assignment operator, the value of identifier <code>n</code> (which is in this case <code>n</code>), and then the value of <code>m</code> is removed using the <code>remvalue()</code> operator. Thus, the value of <code>m</code> reverts to itself – <code>m</code>. These expressions, while trivial in a sense, provide some insight into an important way Maxima behaves. When identifiers are first referenced as input, they are assigned a value – either a value through some sort of assignment or merely the identifier name itself as a value. Identifiers can be assigned values by different means as part of expressions as input. Identifiers are one type of what are termed '''''atoms''''' as used in the context of Maxima expressions, but they are unique in that they are the only type of atom that can be assigned a value other than their literal value. ==== <u>Numerical literals for representing numbers</u> ==== There are four types of numerical literal atoms used to compose Maxima expressions: # Integers # Fractions (for rational numbers) # Floating Point # Bigfloat (variable-precision floating point) <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i8) 1234; /* This is an integer type. */ (%o8) 1234 (%i9) 5/9; /* This is a fraction for a rational number type. */ (%o9) 5/9 (%i10) 3.14159; /* This is a floating point type. */ (%o10) 3.14159 (%i11) 5.532051841609784b-1; /* This is a bigfloat type. */ (%o11) 5.532051841609784b-1 </syntaxhighlight> ==== <u>Strings</u> ==== Strings are simply a quoted sequence of characters: <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i12) "a string atom"; /* This is a string atom. */ (%o12) "a string atom" (%i13) "Hello World!"; /* This is another string atom. */ (%o13) "Hello World!" (%i14) "Supercalifagilisticexpialidocious"; /* This is a longer string atom. */ (%o14) "Supercalifagilisticexpialidocious" (%i15) "C"; /* There is no Maxima character type. */ (%o15) "C" </syntaxhighlight> === <u>Operators</u> === {{BookCat}} 2l0px43kvs6h9y3ikh4k34rbzgm5rmp 4635035 4634994 2026-05-09T22:21:42Z Idavidmiller 3577687 /* Identifiers */ 4635035 wikitext text/x-wiki == Getting Started Using Maxima - Some Essentials == This section is intended for those that are new to Maxima. It may or may not be of value or interest to those having prior experience. === The Maxima Way of doing Mathematics === Imagine that you want to create a computer application to perform some general mathematical tasks - not merely numerical calculations or "number crunching" as it is sometimes referred to somewhat pejoratively. It seems likely that it would be realized early on that, unlike humans that can interpret concepts and notation using context, computers and programming software generally are intolerant of any sort of ambiguity. Progress is being made in providing programming software with the ability to interpret based on context, but not here in Maxima. The Maxima expression syntax was created to be logical as well as unambiguous and precise in meaning and intention. Another realization likely would be that mathematical expressions are the essential object on which mathematical concepts hinge, and that these concepts are conveyed using a conventional (if not entirely standard) system of notation. So, the means to compose mathematical expressions using some syntax for interpreting mathematical notation that your program could read and process as input would be essential. So Maxima is not a programming language in the conventional sense. With the foregoing in mind, before starting to see examples of Maxima in action, keep the following in mind while learning and using Maxima: * Expressions of various types (especially mathematical expressions) are the input to Maxima * Every expression returns a value which is displayed as output unless the display is suppressed by some means * Expressions as input are entered using an expression syntax that Maxima can read and process ==== Maxima expressions are of three types: ==== # Mathematical expressions # Object expressions # Programming expressions ==== Maxima expressions are comprised of two "ingredients" so to speak: ==== # Atoms # Operators ==== Atoms: ==== These are one type of the built-in basic expression ingredients of Maxima. They are: # Literal numerals for numbers - integer, fraction, and floating point literals # Identifiers - names used alone or to identify other expressions by name # Strings - quoted strings of one or more characters ==== Operators: ==== These are the second type of the built-in expression ingredients of Maxima. Including: # Mathematical operators such as + , - , * , /, ^ , ! for addition, subtraction, negation, multiplication, division, exponentiation, factorial and the like. Internally to Maxima these are short-hand symbols for operators. Maxima operators also include "functions" such as sin(x), log(x), etc. # Operators that are used to accomplish something other than for mathematical purposes '''Note:''' It is important to point out that there is a difference between operators, functions as used in the context of programming, and the mathematical concept of functions. In this book all Maxima functions in the programming sense of the word that are built-in to Maxima (that is "out-of-the-box" so to speak) will be referred to as operators, including those from loaded packages that are included with the Maxima distribution. Maxima functions in the programming sense of the word created by the user will be referred to as functions. The context should make it clear when the mathematical concept of a function is being referred to. It is unfortunately the case that the Maxima documentation refers to operators as functions. Like so much else, the word "function" has become overloaded. === A Brief Introduction to Expressions - Atoms, Identifiers and Operators === Below follows a brief introduction to Maxima expressions. All Maxima expressions are composed of '''''atoms''''' (including identifiers) and '''''operators''''', and every expression has a value. With the foregoing information in mind, Maxima can be used to provide some examples of these various aspects of working with Maxima. This will be accomplished in the spirit of providing some insight and clarity for how to interact with Maxima, and how to compose expressions for input and how to interpret the values of expressions as output. === <u>Atoms</u> === There are three types of atoms used as "ingredients" for composing Maxima expressions for input: # Identifiers # Numerical literals for representing numbers # Strings An elaboration of the technical details of each of these three types will follow in subsequent sections. In this section is a brief introduction, and examples of each of these types presented to gain a basic level of familiarity with each type of atom. ==== <u>Identifiers</u> ==== Identifiers are one type of what are termed '''''atoms''''' as used in the context of Maxima expressions, but they are unique in that they are the only type of atom that can be assigned an expression other than their literal name. Identifiers as atoms are used in Maxima expressions for two main purposes: # To be unassigned an expression, and serve as a named variable # To name an expression by way of an assignment operator Try the following using Python: <code>m + n</code><syntaxhighlight lang="python3"> >>> m + n Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> NameError: name 'm' is not defined >>> </syntaxhighlight>or using R:<syntaxhighlight lang="r"> > m + n Error: object 'm' not found > </syntaxhighlight>or using Octave:<syntaxhighlight lang="octave"> octave:1> m + n error: 'm' undefined near line 1, column 1 octave:2> </syntaxhighlight>Now, try this using Maxima:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> Maxima 5.49.0 https://maxima.sourceforge.io using Lisp SBCL 2.0.1.debian Distributed under the GNU Public License. See the file COPYING. Dedicated to the memory of William Schelter. The function bug_report() provides bug reporting information. (%i1) m + n; (%o1) n + m </syntaxhighlight>Take it on faith that the identifiers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code> are in the Maxima namespace as a consequence of this expression, and that each has a value assigned by Maxima merely as a consequence of being used in the <code>m + n</code> input expression – <code>m</code> is <code>m</code> and <code>n</code> is <code>n</code> in this case.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i2) m; (%o2) m (%i3) n; (%o3) n </syntaxhighlight>A value for any identifier (other than itself) may never be assigned while using Maxima no matter how many times it is referenced. That is perfectly okay. Maxima doesn't care. But sometimes a value is assigned to an identifier – either the first time it is referenced or after it is first referenced:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i4) m : n; (m) n (%i5) m; (%o5) n (%i6) remvalue(m); (%o6) [m] (%i7) m; (%o7) m </syntaxhighlight>In the above expressions, the identifier <code>m</code> is assigned, using the <code>:</code> assignment operator, the value of identifier <code>n</code> (which is in this case <code>n</code>), and then the value of <code>m</code> is removed using the <code>remvalue()</code> operator. Thus, the value of <code>m</code> reverts to itself – <code>m</code>. These expressions, while trivial in a sense, provide some insight into an important way Maxima behaves. When identifiers are first referenced as input, they are assigned a value – either a value through some sort of assignment or merely the identifier name itself as a value. Identifiers can be assigned values by different means as part of expressions as input. ==== <u>Numerical literals for representing numbers</u> ==== There are four types of numerical literal atoms used to compose Maxima expressions: # Integers # Fractions (for rational numbers) # Floating Point # Bigfloat (variable-precision floating point) <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i8) 1234; /* This is an integer type. */ (%o8) 1234 (%i9) 5/9; /* This is a fraction for a rational number type. */ (%o9) 5/9 (%i10) 3.14159; /* This is a floating point type. */ (%o10) 3.14159 (%i11) 5.532051841609784b-1; /* This is a bigfloat type. */ (%o11) 5.532051841609784b-1 </syntaxhighlight> ==== <u>Strings</u> ==== Strings are simply a quoted sequence of characters: <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i12) "a string atom"; /* This is a string atom. */ (%o12) "a string atom" (%i13) "Hello World!"; /* This is another string atom. */ (%o13) "Hello World!" (%i14) "Supercalifagilisticexpialidocious"; /* This is a longer string atom. */ (%o14) "Supercalifagilisticexpialidocious" (%i15) "C"; /* There is no Maxima character type. */ (%o15) "C" </syntaxhighlight> === <u>Operators</u> === {{BookCat}} ftticc4hs7m8ldk8z0z5362k0gocaor 4635036 4635035 2026-05-09T22:22:24Z Idavidmiller 3577687 /* Identifiers */ 4635036 wikitext text/x-wiki == Getting Started Using Maxima - Some Essentials == This section is intended for those that are new to Maxima. It may or may not be of value or interest to those having prior experience. === The Maxima Way of doing Mathematics === Imagine that you want to create a computer application to perform some general mathematical tasks - not merely numerical calculations or "number crunching" as it is sometimes referred to somewhat pejoratively. It seems likely that it would be realized early on that, unlike humans that can interpret concepts and notation using context, computers and programming software generally are intolerant of any sort of ambiguity. Progress is being made in providing programming software with the ability to interpret based on context, but not here in Maxima. The Maxima expression syntax was created to be logical as well as unambiguous and precise in meaning and intention. Another realization likely would be that mathematical expressions are the essential object on which mathematical concepts hinge, and that these concepts are conveyed using a conventional (if not entirely standard) system of notation. So, the means to compose mathematical expressions using some syntax for interpreting mathematical notation that your program could read and process as input would be essential. So Maxima is not a programming language in the conventional sense. With the foregoing in mind, before starting to see examples of Maxima in action, keep the following in mind while learning and using Maxima: * Expressions of various types (especially mathematical expressions) are the input to Maxima * Every expression returns a value which is displayed as output unless the display is suppressed by some means * Expressions as input are entered using an expression syntax that Maxima can read and process ==== Maxima expressions are of three types: ==== # Mathematical expressions # Object expressions # Programming expressions ==== Maxima expressions are comprised of two "ingredients" so to speak: ==== # Atoms # Operators ==== Atoms: ==== These are one type of the built-in basic expression ingredients of Maxima. They are: # Literal numerals for numbers - integer, fraction, and floating point literals # Identifiers - names used alone or to identify other expressions by name # Strings - quoted strings of one or more characters ==== Operators: ==== These are the second type of the built-in expression ingredients of Maxima. Including: # Mathematical operators such as + , - , * , /, ^ , ! for addition, subtraction, negation, multiplication, division, exponentiation, factorial and the like. Internally to Maxima these are short-hand symbols for operators. Maxima operators also include "functions" such as sin(x), log(x), etc. # Operators that are used to accomplish something other than for mathematical purposes '''Note:''' It is important to point out that there is a difference between operators, functions as used in the context of programming, and the mathematical concept of functions. In this book all Maxima functions in the programming sense of the word that are built-in to Maxima (that is "out-of-the-box" so to speak) will be referred to as operators, including those from loaded packages that are included with the Maxima distribution. Maxima functions in the programming sense of the word created by the user will be referred to as functions. The context should make it clear when the mathematical concept of a function is being referred to. It is unfortunately the case that the Maxima documentation refers to operators as functions. Like so much else, the word "function" has become overloaded. === A Brief Introduction to Expressions - Atoms, Identifiers and Operators === Below follows a brief introduction to Maxima expressions. All Maxima expressions are composed of '''''atoms''''' (including identifiers) and '''''operators''''', and every expression has a value. With the foregoing information in mind, Maxima can be used to provide some examples of these various aspects of working with Maxima. This will be accomplished in the spirit of providing some insight and clarity for how to interact with Maxima, and how to compose expressions for input and how to interpret the values of expressions as output. === <u>Atoms</u> === There are three types of atoms used as "ingredients" for composing Maxima expressions for input: # Identifiers # Numerical literals for representing numbers # Strings An elaboration of the technical details of each of these three types will follow in subsequent sections. In this section is a brief introduction, and examples of each of these types presented to gain a basic level of familiarity with each type of atom. ==== <u>Identifiers</u> ==== Identifiers are one type of what are termed '''''atoms''''' as used in the context of Maxima expressions, but they are unique in that they are the only type of atom that can be assigned an expression other than their literal value. Identifiers as atoms are used in Maxima expressions for two main purposes: # To be unassigned an expression, and serve as a named variable # To name an expression by way of an assignment operator Try the following using Python: <code>m + n</code><syntaxhighlight lang="python3"> >>> m + n Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> NameError: name 'm' is not defined >>> </syntaxhighlight>or using R:<syntaxhighlight lang="r"> > m + n Error: object 'm' not found > </syntaxhighlight>or using Octave:<syntaxhighlight lang="octave"> octave:1> m + n error: 'm' undefined near line 1, column 1 octave:2> </syntaxhighlight>Now, try this using Maxima:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> Maxima 5.49.0 https://maxima.sourceforge.io using Lisp SBCL 2.0.1.debian Distributed under the GNU Public License. See the file COPYING. Dedicated to the memory of William Schelter. The function bug_report() provides bug reporting information. (%i1) m + n; (%o1) n + m </syntaxhighlight>Take it on faith that the identifiers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code> are in the Maxima namespace as a consequence of this expression, and that each has a value assigned by Maxima merely as a consequence of being used in the <code>m + n</code> input expression – <code>m</code> is <code>m</code> and <code>n</code> is <code>n</code> in this case.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i2) m; (%o2) m (%i3) n; (%o3) n </syntaxhighlight>A value for any identifier (other than itself) may never be assigned while using Maxima no matter how many times it is referenced. That is perfectly okay. Maxima doesn't care. But sometimes a value is assigned to an identifier – either the first time it is referenced or after it is first referenced:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i4) m : n; (m) n (%i5) m; (%o5) n (%i6) remvalue(m); (%o6) [m] (%i7) m; (%o7) m </syntaxhighlight>In the above expressions, the identifier <code>m</code> is assigned, using the <code>:</code> assignment operator, the value of identifier <code>n</code> (which is in this case <code>n</code>), and then the value of <code>m</code> is removed using the <code>remvalue()</code> operator. Thus, the value of <code>m</code> reverts to itself – <code>m</code>. These expressions, while trivial in a sense, provide some insight into an important way Maxima behaves. When identifiers are first referenced as input, they are assigned a value – either a value through some sort of assignment or merely the identifier name itself as a value. Identifiers can be assigned values by different means as part of expressions as input. ==== <u>Numerical literals for representing numbers</u> ==== There are four types of numerical literal atoms used to compose Maxima expressions: # Integers # Fractions (for rational numbers) # Floating Point # Bigfloat (variable-precision floating point) <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i8) 1234; /* This is an integer type. */ (%o8) 1234 (%i9) 5/9; /* This is a fraction for a rational number type. */ (%o9) 5/9 (%i10) 3.14159; /* This is a floating point type. */ (%o10) 3.14159 (%i11) 5.532051841609784b-1; /* This is a bigfloat type. */ (%o11) 5.532051841609784b-1 </syntaxhighlight> ==== <u>Strings</u> ==== Strings are simply a quoted sequence of characters: <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i12) "a string atom"; /* This is a string atom. */ (%o12) "a string atom" (%i13) "Hello World!"; /* This is another string atom. */ (%o13) "Hello World!" (%i14) "Supercalifagilisticexpialidocious"; /* This is a longer string atom. */ (%o14) "Supercalifagilisticexpialidocious" (%i15) "C"; /* There is no Maxima character type. */ (%o15) "C" </syntaxhighlight> === <u>Operators</u> === {{BookCat}} l7ahavmqrgbuwbixlcollii4t1kga8y 0 482927 4634996 4634212 2026-05-09T18:26:23Z ~2026-28057-00 3582448 4634996 wikitext text/x-wiki == Background == === The City of Ahmedabad === As the largest city in the Indian state of Gujarat, Ahmedabad boasts a bustling urban population of roughly 9.5 million but grapples with severe traffic congestion and a mounting road safety crisis<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-01 |title=Ahmedabad Population 2026 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/cities/india/ahmedabad |access-date=2026-05-03 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref>. With a heavy daily ridership dominated by buses and private vehicles, the city’s dense roadways have become increasingly hazardous for pedestrians. In 2023 alone, Ahmedabad recorded 535 fatal crashes, with speeding identified as the primary culprit<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamdar |first=Vatsal |date=2025-04-04 |title=Public Transportation & Traffic Congestion in Ahmedabad |url=https://kautilyadevelopers.in/public-transportation-usage-and-traffic-congestion-challenges-in-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-05-03 |website=Kautilya Group |language=en-US}}</ref>. Traditional infrastructural attempts to alleviate these issues, such as the construction of new bridges and flyovers, have proven largely unsuccessful. This unchecked vehicular speed and disregard for traffic regulations pose a severe threat in school zones and pedestrian-heavy areas, reflecting a broader crisis where an estimated 16 children lose their lives on Indian roads every day<ref>{{Cite journal |last=R |first=Palanisamy |last2=Kumar |first2=PLS Sai |last3=Kiran |first3=Mekala Paavan |last4=Mahto |first4=Ashutosh |last5=Irfan |first5=Md |last6=Bhowmick |first6=Maharishi |date=2020-03-01 |title=ARDUINO based accident prevention and auto intimation system |url=https://ijeecs.iaescore.com/index.php/IJEECS/article/view/20443 |journal=Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=1275–1280 |doi=10.11591/ijeecs.v17.i3.pp1275-1280 |issn=2502-4760}}</ref>. == Infrastructure == To understand Ahmedabad’s plans to reduce traffic casualties and improve traffic circulation, Ahmedabad’s existing infrastructure as well as its plans for developing infrastructure must be examined. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act of 1949. The AMC is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad <ref>{{Cite web |title=AMDAVAD MUNICIPAL CORPORATION |url=https://mybharat.gov.in/Gov/Urban-Local-Body/amdavad-municipal-corporation?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=MyBharat}}</ref>. Other entities, such as the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) <ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-20 |title=NHAI to hand over SG Road to AMC |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/nhai-to-hand-over-sg-road-to-amc/articleshow/113532142.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> and the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (Auda), manage roadways in Ahmedabad <ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. According to a budget report from the AMC, only 731.43 km of the 2,634 km road network has sidewalks, which is less than 28% of the total road network <ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2026-04-04 |title=A city that forgot its pedestrians: Footpaths missing from 72% of Ahmedabad roads |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/a-city-that-forgot-its-pedestrians-footpaths-missing-from-72-of-ahmedabad-roads/articleshow/130008165.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. The 2,634 km reported road length may not represent the total road length within Ahmedabad, since the report may not have accounted for roads under the management of the NHAI and Auda. Ahmedabad’s major roads, often referenced as arterial roads in ''The Times of India'', have four to six lanes, but some sections of these roads have even more lanes because they include service and bus lanes. Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) runs the public bus service in the city of Ahmedabad. The responsibility for the administration of AMTS comes under the AMC <ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=About Us {{!}} Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services |url=https://www.amts.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.amts.co.in}}</ref>. The AMC has incorporated what it refers to as a “Special Purpose Vehicle,” called Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd., in order to run and operate Ahmedabad’s Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS). Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd. is registered under the Companies Act, 1956, and is a 100% subsidiary of the AMC. In order to provide faster, reliable, eco-friendly, and advanced public transportation, Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd. is committed to operating and running BRTS services <ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited |url=https://www.ahmedabadbrts.org/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ahmedabadbrts.org}}</ref>. Alternatively, the people of Ahmedabad can take the metro. Railway transportation in Ahmedabad began in 1863, when the first train from Ahmedabad to Surat was flagged off from the newly built Kalupur railway station <ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-01-20 |title=First train chugged out of Ahmedabad 154 years ago |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-train-chugged-out-of-ahmedabad-154-years-ago/articleshow/56674248.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. However, the first section of the metro opened in 2019, and the second section opened in 2026 <ref>{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}</ref>. The city of Ahmedabad has implemented several types of transportation infrastructure, such as vehicle bridges, including flyovers and railway overbridges; pedestrian bridges; roundabouts, locally known as “circles”; underpasses; speed bumps; and ring roads, which circle the city and allow vehicles passing through Ahmedabad to avoid getting stuck in city traffic. In 2006, Auda developed the 76 km SP Ring Road <ref name=":0" />. Between 2000 and 2026, 61 bridges, underpasses, and culverts were built, with 46 of them being constructed in the last 16 years. During that time, the city built five pedestrian overbridges, as well as an underpass in Mithakali <ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=2026-04-11 |title=46 flyovers in 16 years, yet Ahmedabad’s traffic jams haven’t moved |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/46-flyovers-in-16-years-yet-ahmedabads-traffic-jams-havent-moved/articleshow/130179536.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-01 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Ahmedabad’s future plans to develop infrastructure are consistent with its previous infrastructure projects. The AMC plans to take up flyover construction at the city’s six most congested junctions as part of a decade-long program to build flyovers at the 25 most congested junctions <ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-31 |title=Six most-congested junctions in Ahmedabad flagged for priority flyovers |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/six-most-congested-junctions-in-ahmedabad-flagged-for-priority-flyovers/articleshow/129910368.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-01 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Auda approved the upgrade of the SP Ring Road to six lanes and requested that the AMC make provisions for service roads on the 76 km ring road. There is no uniformity in the width of the road, which varies from 60 meters to 96 meters in different sections. Auda approved two tenders worth Rs 2,200 crore to upgrade the 76 km SP Ring Road to six lanes. Rs 2,200 crore, or ₹22,000,000,000, is approximately $232,000,000 USD. In Phase 1, the 37 km eastern stretch will be upgraded, and in Phase 2, the 39.2 km western stretch will be revamped. Additionally, service roads will be developed, with existing two-lane service roads being expanded to four lanes over 34 km, and three-lane service roads over 15 km being expanded to four lanes. The service roads of the AMC will also be included in this development. At the same time, Auda plans to construct two new three-lane bridges next to the existing bridges over the Sabarmati River at Bhat and Kamod. Additionally, three six-lane underpasses will be constructed at Bhat Circle, Chiloda Circle, and Aslali Circle on the SP Ring Road. To create pedestrian crossings, six new foot overbridges will be built on the SP Ring Road <ref name=":0" />. The state government gave the green signal to Auda to redesignate about 36 square kilometers of land under the agriculture zone, facilitating its conversion into residential and commercial use in fast-developing areas along the periphery of Ahmedabad city. At the same time, the state government has taken an in-principle decision to initiate the process of land acquisition for the proposed third ring road of Ahmedabad city<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-17 |title=Auda to denotify 36 sq km agri land for general use |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/auda-to-denotify-36-sq-km-agri-land-for-general-use/articleshow/130316956.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-02 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Perhaps the most innovative project is the existing yet not operational high-speed railroad network <ref name=":0" />. India’s first bullet train project will begin commercial operations in Gujarat by December 2027. The entire Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor of the project will be operational by December 2029. The cost of this infrastructure project is about ₹1.08 lakh crore, or approximately $11.4 billion USD<ref name=":0" />. The currency conversion between rupees and USD is a reasonable approximation as of 5/2/2026. == Participant Groups == Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways<ref name=":0" />. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}</ref>. Thakkar was contacted by IL&FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway<ref>{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}</ref>. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}</ref>. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}</ref>. == Existing Solutions == Efforts to improve road safety and pedestrian conditions in Ahmedabad span three broad categories: traffic calming measures, pedestrian infrastructure, and traffic flow optimization. Each approach addresses a distinct dimension of the city's road safety crisis, and together they reflect both the progress made and the gaps that remain. === Traffic Calming === Traffic calming encompasses physical and visual measures designed to reduce vehicle speeds without requiring large-scale infrastructure investment. The most prominent local innovation is the 3D zebra crossing, pioneered in Ahmedabad by artists Saumya Pandya Thakkar and Shakuntala Pandya. By painting optical illusions directly onto the asphalt, the crossings create the appearance of a raised blockade, prompting drivers to slow down. Research by the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) confirmed speed reductions of 1.6% to 20.3%, with the greatest effect observed among heavy commercial vehicles due to their elevated vantage points<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Betts |first=Jordan |date=2019-06-26 |title="How is the metro's first 3D crosswalk working? Neighbors say it helps some" |url=https://www.kshb.com/news/local-news/kcks-3d-crosswalk-credited-for-reducing-traffic |access-date=2026-05-04 |website=KSHB 41 Kansas City News |language=}}</ref>. The concept has since been adopted in cities around the world, with results broadly consistent with those observed in Ahmedabad. In New Delhi, authorities reported that average vehicle speeds at 3D crosswalk locations dropped from 50 km/h to 30 km/h following installation<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2016-09-18 |title="The First 3D Zebra Crossing Was a Rousing Success & Now There Are Plans For 40 More!" |url=https://so.city/delhi/article/the-first-3d-zebra-crossing-was-a-rousing-success-now-there-are-plans-for-40-more |access-date=2026-05-04 |website=So City |language=}}</ref>. In Europe, the fishing town of Ísafjörður, Iceland became the first to deploy the design in 2017, after its environmental commissioner sought alternatives to traditional speed bumps, which studies had linked to increased air pollution and driver complaints about vehicle damage<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2021-09-30 |title=Managing urban traffic: 3D zebra crossings spread across Europe - Eurocities |url=https://eurocities.eu/stories/managing-urban-traffic-3d-zebra-crossings-spread-across-europe/ |access-date=2026-05-04 |website=eurocities.eu |language=}}</ref>. In Kansas City, Kansas, a 3D crosswalk was installed near a school in a residential neighborhood prone to speeding, and residents reported that the design helped slow drivers, though they noted that additional traffic calming measures were still needed<ref name=":7" />. A broader academic evaluation of decorative pavement markings at pedestrian crosswalks found that speed reductions ranged from 1.89 km/h to 4.41 km/h across twelve study sites, with vehicle-pedestrian crashes reduced by approximately 25%<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rebelo |first=Francisco |title=Evaluation of 3D Crosswalks Design |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325961246_Evaluation_of_3D_Crosswalks_Design |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref>. One recurring limitation noted across deployments is durability: the Kansas City crosswalk faded significantly within two years, and the city indicated it would only repaint if the design proved effective at slowing traffic<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kansas City, KS - 3D Crosswalk (Gone) |url=https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/64102 |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=RoadsideAmerica.com |language=en}}</ref>. This echoes the broader concern that the novelty effect of optical illusion markings may diminish as local drivers habituate to them over time. Complementing painted interventions, Ahmedabad installed 339 speed humps across the city in just 17 months, a rapid and low-cost deployment that reflects the city's broader prioritization of accessible safety measures. However, speed humps carry their own drawbacks: they can impede emergency vehicles, damage low-clearance vehicles if poorly designed, and face political resistance when proposed on high-capacity arterial roads. === Pedestrian Infrastructure === Ahmedabad's pedestrian infrastructure reveals a stark gap between need and provision. As of 2026, only 731 of the city's 2,634 km of roads have sidewalks, leaving 72% of the network without footpaths<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |title=Medians and Pedestrian Refuge Islands in Urban and Suburban Areas |work=U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration |url=https://highways.dot.gov/safety/proven-safety-countermeasures/medians-and-pedestrian-refuge-islands-urban-and-suburban-areas}}</ref>. In response, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) allocated Rs. 20 crore to repair over 100 traffic intersections<ref name=":6" />. Five foot overbridges (FOBs) currently exist, providing grade-separated crossings that fully eliminate pedestrian-vehicle conflict on high-speed corridors. An additional six FOBs are planned as part of the SP Ring Road upgrade<ref name=":0" />. For wide arterial roads where full-grade separation is not feasible, pedestrian refuge islands offer a proven middle-ground solution. Research by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration found that installing raised refuge islands at marked crosswalks reduced pedestrian crashes by 46%, and by 39% at unmarked locations<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-01-01 |title=Safety Benefits of Raised Medians and Pedestrian Refuge Areas |url=https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/ |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=rosap.ntl.bts.gov |language=English}}</ref>. By allowing pedestrians to cross one direction of traffic at a time, refuge islands are especially well-suited to Ahmedabad's four-to-six lane arterials, where crossing the full road width in a single phase poses significant risk<ref name=":8" />. === Traffic Flow Optimization === Beyond speed reduction, managing how traffic moves through and around Ahmedabad is critical to reducing conflict points between vehicles and pedestrians. Signal coordination, commonly referred to as a green wave, times traffic lights so that drivers traveling at the posted speed limit encounter a cascade of green signals along a corridor. Studies show this approach reduces CO2, NOx, and PM10 emissions while cutting unnecessary stops that contribute to erratic and aggressive driving behavior<ref>{{Citation |title=Green wave |date=2026-03-23 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Green_wave&oldid=1344984912 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2026-05-05 |language=en}}</ref>. Crucially, it requires no new construction, only signal reprogramming. At a larger scale, Ahmedabad has pursued traffic separation through flyovers, underpasses, and ring roads to divert through-traffic away from dense urban areas. Between 2010 and 2026, 46 such structures were built, with 25 more planned over the next decade<ref name=":0" />. The 76 km Sardar Patel Ring Road, currently being upgraded to six lanes, is designed to reduce the volume of vehicles cutting through the city core<ref name=":0" />. While these infrastructure investments address congestion on major corridors, their impact on local pedestrian safety on the side streets and arterials that feed into them remains dependent on complementary measures such as sidewalk expansion and safer crossing design. == References == <references responsive="" /> bymzyym6h69n0lz0lbdu8jg8oc07mxx 4635049 4634996 2026-05-10T01:51:55Z SHB2000 3332924 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-28057-00|~2026-28057-00]] ([[User talk:~2026-28057-00|talk]]) to last version by ~2026-27120-19 4634212 wikitext text/x-wiki == Background == === The City of Ahmedabad === As the largest city in the Indian state of Gujarat, Ahmedabad boasts a bustling urban population of roughly 9.5 million but grapples with severe traffic congestion and a mounting road safety crisis<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-05-01 |title=Ahmedabad Population 2026 |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/cities/india/ahmedabad |access-date=2026-05-03 |website=World Population Review |language=en}}</ref>. With a heavy daily ridership dominated by buses and private vehicles, the city’s dense roadways have become increasingly hazardous for pedestrians. In 2023 alone, Ahmedabad recorded 535 fatal crashes, with speeding identified as the primary culprit<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamdar |first=Vatsal |date=2025-04-04 |title=Public Transportation & Traffic Congestion in Ahmedabad |url=https://kautilyadevelopers.in/public-transportation-usage-and-traffic-congestion-challenges-in-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-05-03 |website=Kautilya Group |language=en-US}}</ref>. Traditional infrastructural attempts to alleviate these issues, such as the construction of new bridges and flyovers, have proven largely unsuccessful. This unchecked vehicular speed and disregard for traffic regulations pose a severe threat in school zones and pedestrian-heavy areas, reflecting a broader crisis where an estimated 16 children lose their lives on Indian roads every day<ref>{{Cite journal |last=R |first=Palanisamy |last2=Kumar |first2=PLS Sai |last3=Kiran |first3=Mekala Paavan |last4=Mahto |first4=Ashutosh |last5=Irfan |first5=Md |last6=Bhowmick |first6=Maharishi |date=2020-03-01 |title=ARDUINO based accident prevention and auto intimation system |url=https://ijeecs.iaescore.com/index.php/IJEECS/article/view/20443 |journal=Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=1275–1280 |doi=10.11591/ijeecs.v17.i3.pp1275-1280 |issn=2502-4760}}</ref>. == Infrastructure == To understand Ahmedabad’s plans to reduce traffic casualties and improve traffic circulation, Ahmedabad’s existing infrastructure as well as its plans for developing infrastructure must be examined. The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act of 1949. The AMC is responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Ahmedabad <ref>{{Cite web |title=AMDAVAD MUNICIPAL CORPORATION |url=https://mybharat.gov.in/Gov/Urban-Local-Body/amdavad-municipal-corporation?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=MyBharat}}</ref>. Other entities, such as the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) <ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-20 |title=NHAI to hand over SG Road to AMC |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/nhai-to-hand-over-sg-road-to-amc/articleshow/113532142.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> and the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (Auda), manage roadways in Ahmedabad <ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. According to a budget report from the AMC, only 731.43 km of the 2,634 km road network has sidewalks, which is less than 28% of the total road network <ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2026-04-04 |title=A city that forgot its pedestrians: Footpaths missing from 72% of Ahmedabad roads |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/a-city-that-forgot-its-pedestrians-footpaths-missing-from-72-of-ahmedabad-roads/articleshow/130008165.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. The 2,634 km reported road length may not represent the total road length within Ahmedabad, since the report may not have accounted for roads under the management of the NHAI and Auda. Ahmedabad’s major roads, often referenced as arterial roads in ''The Times of India'', have four to six lanes, but some sections of these roads have even more lanes because they include service and bus lanes. Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service (AMTS) runs the public bus service in the city of Ahmedabad. The responsibility for the administration of AMTS comes under the AMC <ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=About Us {{!}} Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services |url=https://www.amts.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.amts.co.in}}</ref>. The AMC has incorporated what it refers to as a “Special Purpose Vehicle,” called Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd., in order to run and operate Ahmedabad’s Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS). Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd. is registered under the Companies Act, 1956, and is a 100% subsidiary of the AMC. In order to provide faster, reliable, eco-friendly, and advanced public transportation, Ahmedabad Janmarg Ltd. is committed to operating and running BRTS services <ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited |url=https://www.ahmedabadbrts.org/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.ahmedabadbrts.org}}</ref>. Alternatively, the people of Ahmedabad can take the metro. Railway transportation in Ahmedabad began in 1863, when the first train from Ahmedabad to Surat was flagged off from the newly built Kalupur railway station <ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-01-20 |title=First train chugged out of Ahmedabad 154 years ago |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/first-train-chugged-out-of-ahmedabad-154-years-ago/articleshow/56674248.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. However, the first section of the metro opened in 2019, and the second section opened in 2026 <ref>{{Cite web |title=Project Overview |url=https://www.gujaratmetrorail.com/project-overview2/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Gujarat Metro Rail Corporation (GMRC) Limited |language=en-US}}</ref>. The city of Ahmedabad has implemented several types of transportation infrastructure, such as vehicle bridges, including flyovers and railway overbridges; pedestrian bridges; roundabouts, locally known as “circles”; underpasses; speed bumps; and ring roads, which circle the city and allow vehicles passing through Ahmedabad to avoid getting stuck in city traffic. In 2006, Auda developed the 76 km SP Ring Road <ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-02 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Between 2000 and 2026, 61 bridges, underpasses, and culverts were built, with 46 of them being constructed in the last 16 years. During that time, the city built five pedestrian overbridges, as well as an underpass in Mithakali <ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=2026-04-11 |title=46 flyovers in 16 years, yet Ahmedabad’s traffic jams haven’t moved |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/46-flyovers-in-16-years-yet-ahmedabads-traffic-jams-havent-moved/articleshow/130179536.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-01 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Ahmedabad’s future plans to develop infrastructure are consistent with its previous infrastructure projects. The AMC plans to take up flyover construction at the city’s six most congested junctions as part of a decade-long program to build flyovers at the 25 most congested junctions <ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-31 |title=Six most-congested junctions in Ahmedabad flagged for priority flyovers |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/six-most-congested-junctions-in-ahmedabad-flagged-for-priority-flyovers/articleshow/129910368.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-01 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Auda approved the upgrade of the SP Ring Road to six lanes and requested that the AMC make provisions for service roads on the 76 km ring road. There is no uniformity in the width of the road, which varies from 60 meters to 96 meters in different sections. Auda approved two tenders worth Rs 2,200 crore to upgrade the 76 km SP Ring Road to six lanes. Rs 2,200 crore, or ₹22,000,000,000, is approximately $232,000,000 USD. In Phase 1, the 37 km eastern stretch will be upgraded, and in Phase 2, the 39.2 km western stretch will be revamped. Additionally, service roads will be developed, with existing two-lane service roads being expanded to four lanes over 34 km, and three-lane service roads over 15 km being expanded to four lanes. The service roads of the AMC will also be included in this development. At the same time, Auda plans to construct two new three-lane bridges next to the existing bridges over the Sabarmati River at Bhat and Kamod. Additionally, three six-lane underpasses will be constructed at Bhat Circle, Chiloda Circle, and Aslali Circle on the SP Ring Road. To create pedestrian crossings, six new foot overbridges will be built on the SP Ring Road <ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=2026-02-22 |title=Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority’s plan to add service roads to SP Ring Road faces 5km hurdle |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/ahmedabad-urban-development-authoritys-plan-to-add-service-roads-to-sp-ring-road-faces-5km-hurdle/articleshow/128653810.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-02 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. The state government gave the green signal to Auda to redesignate about 36 square kilometers of land under the agriculture zone, facilitating its conversion into residential and commercial use in fast-developing areas along the periphery of Ahmedabad city. At the same time, the state government has taken an in-principle decision to initiate the process of land acquisition for the proposed third ring road of Ahmedabad city<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-17 |title=Auda to denotify 36 sq km agri land for general use |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/auda-to-denotify-36-sq-km-agri-land-for-general-use/articleshow/130316956.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-05-02 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Perhaps the most innovative project is the existing yet not operational high-speed railroad network <ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-04-28 |title=Gujarat: All 8 piers ready for bullet train bridge across Sabarmati |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gujarat-all-8-piers-ready-for-bullet-train-bridge-across-sabarmati/articleshow/130563689.cms?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2026-04-30 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. India’s first bullet train project will begin commercial operations in Gujarat by December 2027. The entire Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor of the project will be operational by December 2029. The cost of this infrastructure project is about ₹1.08 lakh crore, or approximately $11.4 billion USD<ref>{{Cite web |last=TA |first=API |date=2025-07-28 |title=India’s First Bullet Train Project to Launch by 2027 |url=https://www.transportadvancement.com/news/indias-first-bullet-train-project-to-launch-by-2027/ |access-date=2026-05-02 |language=en-GB}}</ref>. The currency conversion between rupees and USD is a reasonable approximation as of 5/2/2026. == Participant Groups == Pedestrians are arguably the group that benefits the most from the implementation of these paintings. Online sentiment shows that many citizens are concerned about the lack of safe crossing areas in Ahmedabad, particularly on larger highways<ref>{{Cite web |title=No pedestrian crossing on SG highway |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/ahmedabad/comments/1d6y9m0/no_pedestrian_crossing_on_sg_highway/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=www.reddit.com}}</ref>. Reduced driver speeds helps ensure that drivers are more aware of pedestrian crossings and gives pedestrians a visually-designated zone to cross as opposed to jaywalking. The paintings were done near schools and accident-prone areas to help slow down drivers in the area, showing a deliberate implementation of the technique<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=Think Change |title=Two women artists design 3D zebra crossing for pedestrian friendly roads |url=https://yourstory.com/2016/05/3d-zebra-crossing |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=yourstory.com |language=en}}</ref>. Thakkar was contacted by IL&FS, a private infrastructure company, to implement the crosswalks on an accident-prone stretch of the Ahmedabad-Mehsana highway<ref>{{Cite web |last=Misra |first=Tanvi |date=March 30, 2016 |title=Meet the Women Behind India's 3D 'Zebra' Crossings |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-30/meet-the-mother-daughter-duo-who-designed-india-s-3d-zebra-crossings |url-status=live |website=Bloomberg}}</ref>. Other than a vague acknowledgement from the Ahmedabadi government, there has not been a substantial effort by the Ahmedabad Municipal Transports Service to bolster the efforts of Pandya and Thakkar. They are further restricted in the implementation of these designs due to regulations by the roadworks authorities<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vijaykumar |first=Neeti |title=Mother-Daughter Duo Painted a 3D Zebra Crossing In Ahmedabad |url=https://thebetterindia.com/48968/mother-daughter-road-safety-3d-painted-zebra-crossing-ahmedabad/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=thebetterindia.com |language=en}}</ref>. However, the innovation drew national attention, with the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) conducting research on the effects of the paintings. They found that speed reductions ranged between 1.6% and 20.3%, with the larger reductions being that of trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles. This was primarily attributed to the higher vantage points of these larger vehicles, giving them a better view of the crosswalk and further enhancing the optical illusion. Combined with the larger breaking distance required for heavier vehicles, they are prone to slowing down more at these crosswalks<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-06-09 |title=Illusion that works: 3D way to curb accidents |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/illusion-that-works-3d-way-to-curb-accidents/articleshow/52662981.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. Additionally, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has allocated 20 crore rupees, or 2.1 million USD, to fixing over 100 traffic crossings, emphasizing an overall prioritization of making these crosswalks safer<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=2026-03-17 |title=Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation approves Rs 20 crore plan to fix 133 chaotic junctions |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/hmedabad-municipal-corporation-approves-rs-20-crore-plan-to-fix-133-chaotic-junctions/articleshow/129617560.cms? |access-date=2026-04-28 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>. There are very few firsthand accounts of driver sentiments regarding the crosswalks. However, given the results of the research conducted by the CRRI, it can be concluded that drivers have heightened awareness of the crosswalks and are responding relatively positively. Additionally, the design of the painting ensures that the illusion is functional from a distance, and dissipates as drivers approach the crosswalk, minimizing “panic braking” and ensuring that drivers are also kept safe<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stuart |date=2017-10-18 |title=3D advertising - magic eye zebra crossings |url=https://michoncreative.co.uk/articles/3d-advertising-magic-eye-zebra-crossings/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Michon Ltd |language=en-GB}}</ref>. == Existing Solutions == Efforts to improve road safety and pedestrian conditions in Ahmedabad span three broad categories: traffic calming measures, pedestrian infrastructure, and traffic flow optimization. Each approach addresses a distinct dimension of the city's road safety crisis, and together they reflect both the progress made and the gaps that remain. === Traffic Calming === Traffic calming encompasses physical and visual measures designed to reduce vehicle speeds without requiring large-scale infrastructure investment. The most prominent local innovation is the 3D zebra crossing, pioneered in Ahmedabad by artists Saumya Pandya Thakkar and Shakuntala Pandya. By painting optical illusions directly onto the asphalt, the crossings create the appearance of a raised blockade, prompting drivers to slow down. Research by the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) confirmed speed reductions of 1.6% to 20.3%, with the greatest effect observed among heavy commercial vehicles due to their elevated vantage points<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Betts |first=Jordan |date=2019-06-26 |title="How is the metro's first 3D crosswalk working? Neighbors say it helps some" |url=https://www.kshb.com/news/local-news/kcks-3d-crosswalk-credited-for-reducing-traffic |access-date=2026-05-04 |website=KSHB 41 Kansas City News |language=}}</ref>. The concept has since been adopted in cities around the world, with results broadly consistent with those observed in Ahmedabad. In New Delhi, authorities reported that average vehicle speeds at 3D crosswalk locations dropped from 50 km/h to 30 km/h following installation<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2016-09-18 |title="The First 3D Zebra Crossing Was a Rousing Success & Now There Are Plans For 40 More!" |url=https://so.city/delhi/article/the-first-3d-zebra-crossing-was-a-rousing-success-now-there-are-plans-for-40-more |access-date=2026-05-04 |website=So City |language=}}</ref>. In Europe, the fishing town of Ísafjörður, Iceland became the first to deploy the design in 2017, after its environmental commissioner sought alternatives to traditional speed bumps, which studies had linked to increased air pollution and driver complaints about vehicle damage<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2021-09-30 |title=Managing urban traffic: 3D zebra crossings spread across Europe - Eurocities |url=https://eurocities.eu/stories/managing-urban-traffic-3d-zebra-crossings-spread-across-europe/ |access-date=2026-05-04 |website=eurocities.eu |language=}}</ref>. In Kansas City, Kansas, a 3D crosswalk was installed near a school in a residential neighborhood prone to speeding, and residents reported that the design helped slow drivers, though they noted that additional traffic calming measures were still needed<ref name=":7" />. A broader academic evaluation of decorative pavement markings at pedestrian crosswalks found that speed reductions ranged from 1.89 km/h to 4.41 km/h across twelve study sites, with vehicle-pedestrian crashes reduced by approximately 25%<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rebelo |first=Francisco |title=Evaluation of 3D Crosswalks Design |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325961246_Evaluation_of_3D_Crosswalks_Design |journal=ResearchGate}}</ref>. One recurring limitation noted across deployments is durability: the Kansas City crosswalk faded significantly within two years, and the city indicated it would only repaint if the design proved effective at slowing traffic<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kansas City, KS - 3D Crosswalk (Gone) |url=https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/64102 |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=RoadsideAmerica.com |language=en}}</ref>. This echoes the broader concern that the novelty effect of optical illusion markings may diminish as local drivers habituate to them over time. Complementing painted interventions, Ahmedabad installed 339 speed humps across the city in just 17 months, a rapid and low-cost deployment that reflects the city's broader prioritization of accessible safety measures. However, speed humps carry their own drawbacks: they can impede emergency vehicles, damage low-clearance vehicles if poorly designed, and face political resistance when proposed on high-capacity arterial roads. === Pedestrian Infrastructure === Ahmedabad's pedestrian infrastructure reveals a stark gap between need and provision. As of 2026, only 731 of the city's 2,634 km of roads have sidewalks, leaving 72% of the network without footpaths<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |title=Medians and Pedestrian Refuge Islands in Urban and Suburban Areas |work=U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration |url=https://highways.dot.gov/safety/proven-safety-countermeasures/medians-and-pedestrian-refuge-islands-urban-and-suburban-areas}}</ref>. In response, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) allocated Rs. 20 crore to repair over 100 traffic intersections<ref name=":6" />. Five foot overbridges (FOBs) currently exist, providing grade-separated crossings that fully eliminate pedestrian-vehicle conflict on high-speed corridors. An additional six FOBs are planned as part of the SP Ring Road upgrade<ref name=":5" />. For wide arterial roads where full-grade separation is not feasible, pedestrian refuge islands offer a proven middle-ground solution. Research by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration found that installing raised refuge islands at marked crosswalks reduced pedestrian crashes by 46%, and by 39% at unmarked locations<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-01-01 |title=Safety Benefits of Raised Medians and Pedestrian Refuge Areas |url=https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/ |access-date=2026-05-05 |website=rosap.ntl.bts.gov |language=English}}</ref>. By allowing pedestrians to cross one direction of traffic at a time, refuge islands are especially well-suited to Ahmedabad's four-to-six lane arterials, where crossing the full road width in a single phase poses significant risk<ref name=":8" />. === Traffic Flow Optimization === Beyond speed reduction, managing how traffic moves through and around Ahmedabad is critical to reducing conflict points between vehicles and pedestrians. Signal coordination, commonly referred to as a green wave, times traffic lights so that drivers traveling at the posted speed limit encounter a cascade of green signals along a corridor. Studies show this approach reduces CO2, NOx, and PM10 emissions while cutting unnecessary stops that contribute to erratic and aggressive driving behavior<ref>{{Citation |title=Green wave |date=2026-03-23 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Green_wave&oldid=1344984912 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2026-05-05 |language=en}}</ref>. Crucially, it requires no new construction, only signal reprogramming. At a larger scale, Ahmedabad has pursued traffic separation through flyovers, underpasses, and ring roads to divert through-traffic away from dense urban areas. Between 2010 and 2026, 46 such structures were built, with 25 more planned over the next decade<ref name=":9" />. The 76 km Sardar Patel Ring Road, currently being upgraded to six lanes, is designed to reduce the volume of vehicles cutting through the city core<ref name=":5" />. While these infrastructure investments address congestion on major corridors, their impact on local pedestrian safety on the side streets and arterials that feed into them remains dependent on complementary measures such as sidewalk expansion and safer crossing design. == References == <references responsive="" /> d7z75y633tjsr1itihmy37cdq8s3jbe 102 483070 4635046 4633938 2026-05-10T01:44:06Z Royalesignature 3455025 Fix the image style 4635046 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Stew recipes | Image = [[File:Pounded yam with vegetable soup.jpg|300px]] | Difficulty = 3 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, missing quantities, stylistic adjustments needed}} {{Recipe}} '''Efo riro''' is a rich vegetable soup popular among the Yoruba people, made with leafy greens and assorted meats. ==Ingredients== *Fresh spinach or efo shoko *Palm oil *Pepper mix (tomatoes, tatashe, ata rodo) *Onions *Locust beans (iru) *Assorted meat *Stock fish *Crayfish *Salt and seasoning ==Procedure== #Blend pepper mix and set aside. #Heat palm oil, add iru and onions. #Add blended pepper and fry well. #Add meats and stock fish. #Stir in vegetables and cook briefly. #Serve with pounded yam or eba. [[Category:Yoruba recipes]] [[Category:Recipes for stew]] [[Category:Recipes using fish]] [[Category:Recipes using red bell pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using green bell pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using dehydrated broth]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:Recipes using habanero chile]] 997oezh8x98ckmk8mpr63q7dd6jloc5 4635047 4635046 2026-05-10T01:45:33Z Royalesignature 3455025 /* Ingredients */ wiki link onion 4635047 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Stew recipes | Image = [[File:Pounded yam with vegetable soup.jpg|300px]] | Difficulty = 3 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, missing quantities, stylistic adjustments needed}} {{Recipe}} '''Efo riro''' is a rich vegetable soup popular among the Yoruba people, made with leafy greens and assorted meats. ==Ingredients== *Fresh spinach or efo shoko *Palm oil *Pepper mix (tomatoes, tatashe, ata rodo) *[[Cookbook:Onion|Onions]] *Locust beans (iru) *Assorted meat *Stock fish *Crayfish *Salt and seasoning ==Procedure== #Blend pepper mix and set aside. #Heat palm oil, add iru and onions. #Add blended pepper and fry well. #Add meats and stock fish. #Stir in vegetables and cook briefly. #Serve with pounded yam or eba. [[Category:Yoruba recipes]] [[Category:Recipes for stew]] [[Category:Recipes using fish]] [[Category:Recipes using red bell pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using green bell pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using dehydrated broth]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:Recipes using habanero chile]] jeqce6xds65sljigsdrfzouduzbtt1o 4635048 4635047 2026-05-10T01:47:11Z Royalesignature 3455025 Remove the styling err template after fixing it 4635048 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Stew recipes | Image = [[File:Pounded yam with vegetable soup.jpg|300px]] | Difficulty = 3 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, missing quantities,}} {{Recipe}} '''Efo riro''' is a rich vegetable soup popular among the Yoruba people, made with leafy greens and assorted meats. ==Ingredients== *Fresh spinach or efo shoko *Palm oil *Pepper mix (tomatoes, tatashe, ata rodo) *[[Cookbook:Onion|Onions]] *Locust beans (iru) *Assorted meat *Stock fish *Crayfish *Salt and seasoning ==Procedure== #Blend pepper mix and set aside. #Heat palm oil, add iru and onions. #Add blended pepper and fry well. #Add meats and stock fish. #Stir in vegetables and cook briefly. #Serve with pounded yam or eba. [[Category:Yoruba recipes]] [[Category:Recipes for stew]] [[Category:Recipes using fish]] [[Category:Recipes using red bell pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using green bell pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using dehydrated broth]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:Recipes using habanero chile]] lgnl9y8j5w795ah7tkm6gghxv39ymrz 102 483089 4634958 4634303 2026-05-09T13:25:50Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Infobox formatting. 4634958 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing recipe templates, missing appropriate linking, missing categories, missing quantities, stylistic adjustments needed}} {{Recipe summary | Category = Dinner recipes | Cuisine = Nigerian | Servings = 4-6 | Time = 30 minutes | Difficulty = 4 | Image = [[File:Banga Soup.jpg|175px]] }} {{Recipe}} '''Banga soup''' is a rich, aromatic palm fruit soup widely prepared across Southern Nigeria, particularly among the Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, and Igbo peoples. Known as Ofe Akwu in Igbo and Izuwo Banga in Urhobo, it is distinct from other Nigerian soups due to its use of fresh palm fruit extract rather than palm oil, giving it a unique flavour no other soup replicates. == Ingredients == * Assorted meat (beef, shaki, ponmo, oxtail) * Stockfish (panla), soaked and cleaned * Smoked fish, deboned * Ground crayfish * Onion * Scotch bonnet pepper (rodo) * Beletete (dried banga herb) * Oburunbebe stick (banga spice) * Ataiko (alligator pepper) * Iru (locust bean) * Uziza leaves * Seasoning cubes == Procedures == # Boil palm fruits until soft, pound to loosen flesh, squeeze out extract through a sieve and set aside # Season and cook assorted meat with onion and seasoning. Reserve the stock. # Pour palm fruit extract into a pot and cook on medium heat until it thickens and oil rises to the surface # Add banga spices, beletete, ataiko, and iru. Stir well. # Add cooked meats, stockfish, and smoked fish. Pour in reserved meat stock. # Add ground crayfish, blended pepper, and remaining seasoning. Simmer on low heat until thick. # Stir in shredded uziza leaves and cook for 3–5 minutes only. # Serve hot with starch, pounded yam, eba, or fufu. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] bvlj0z0o2h32q1rkz41o6pxwzg6vqis 0 483182 4634985 4634538 2026-05-09T16:52:01Z JCrue 2226064 4634985 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Position |Tarrasch variation |parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6|French defence]] → [[../|Tarrasch variation]] |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C03]] }} == 3...dxe4 == Black trades pawns on e4, a sideline offering to transpose into the Rubinstein Variation. '''[[/4. Nxe4/]]''' is almost always played. White recaptures the pawn and transposes to the line which would normally be reached with [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. d4/2...d5/3. Nc3/3...dxe4/4. Nxe4|3. Nc3 dxe4 4. Nxe4]]. == Theory table == {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} {{Chess/theory table |line1=4. Nxe4 |name1=Rubinstein variation<br><small>(by transposition</small> }} {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{BookCat}} 2joir08ocmvbmbod09fni6oc283wrt9 4635034 4634985 2026-05-09T22:07:05Z JCrue 2226064 /* Theory table */ Typo 4635034 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Position |Tarrasch variation |parent=[[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6|French defence]] → [[../|Tarrasch variation]] |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C03]] }} == 3...dxe4 == Black trades pawns on e4, a sideline offering to transpose into the Rubinstein Variation. '''[[/4. Nxe4/]]''' is almost always played. White recaptures the pawn and transposes to the line which would normally be reached with [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e6/2. d4/2...d5/3. Nc3/3...dxe4/4. Nxe4|3. Nc3 dxe4 4. Nxe4]]. == Theory table == {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} {{Chess/theory table |line1=4. Nxe4 |name1=Rubinstein variation<br><small>(by transposition)</small> }} {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{BookCat}} j4dfw3odraqaax4m4bkr6pt9ueby1gb 102 483206 4634963 4634795 2026-05-09T14:19:48Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I corrected my categories 4634963 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Mkpafere Soup''' is a traditional soup popularly eaten among the Ibibio and Efik people of Southern Nigeria, especially in Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. The [[Cookbook:Soup|soup]] is known for its rich native. It is commonly eaten with [[Cookbook:Fufu|fufu]] ([[Cookbook:Swallow|Swallow]]), pounded yam, or garri. '''Ingredients''' Mkpafere leaves Waterleaf '''Other Ingredients''' Assorted meat Cow skin (kanda) Dry fish or smoked fish [[Cookbook:Stockfish|Stockfish]] [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Red palm oil Salt Seasoning cubes (like maggi) '''Procedure''' '''1. Cook the Meat''' Wash the assorted meat, cow skin, and stockfish properly. Season with onions, salt, and seasoning cubes. Add a little water and cook until tender. Add the smoked fish or dry fish during the last few minutes of cooking. '''2. Prepare the Leaves''' Wash the mkpafere leaves and waterleaf thoroughly to remove dirt and sand. Slice them into smaller pieces if necessary. '''3. Add Palm Oil''' Pour the red palm oil into the pot of cooked meat and allow it to boil for a few minutes. '''4. Add Waterleaf''' Add the waterleaf into the pot and allow it to cook for about 3–5 minutes until it softens. '''5. Add Crayfish and Pepper''' Add the ground crayfish and fresh pepper, add the smoked fish or dry fish. Stir properly and allow the soup to simmer for about 10–15 minutes. '''6. Add Mkpafere Leaves''' Add the mkpafere leaves and stir properly so they mix well with the stock. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, pounded yam, or semovita. '''Method 2''' '''Mkpafere Soup (with Ibaba)''' This version is prepared with ibaba, a yam-like tuber used as a thickener, together with mkpafere leaves, palm oil, meat, and fish. The soup is rich, filling, and commonly eaten with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. '''Ingredients''' Mkpafere leaves Ibaba Other Ingredients Assorted meat Cow skin (kanda) Smoked fish or dry fish Stockfish Onion Crayfish Fresh pepper Red palm oil Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Ibaba''' Peel, wash, and boil the ibaba until soft. Pound or mash it until smooth and set aside. '''2. Cook the Meat''' Wash the assorted meat, cow skin, and stockfish properly. Season with onions, salt, and seasoning cubes. Add a little water and cook until tender. '''3. Add Palm Oil''' Pour the red palm oil into the pot of cooked meat and stock. Allow it to boil for a few minutes. '''4. Add Crayfish and Pepper''' Add the ground crayfish and fresh pepper, add the smoked fish or dry fish. Stir properly and allow the soup to simmer for about 10–15 minutes. '''5. Add the Pounded Ibaba''' Add the pounded or mashed ibaba into the pot little by little while stirring to avoid lumps. Allow it to dissolve properly and thicken the soup. '''6. Add the Mkpafere Leaves''' Add the washed mkpafere leaves and stir thoroughly so everything combines well. '''7. Final Taste''' Taste the soup and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to cook for a few more minutes until thick and properly blended. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, pounded yam, or semovita [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 7acqj72yqpm6mckyjih5yfmg1ganb9a 102 483207 4634964 4634794 2026-05-09T14:25:34Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I corrected my categories 4634964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Yam and Beans Porridge''' is a delicious Nigerian meal made with yam and beans cooked together, it is a rich and filling meal commonly enjoyed in many parts of Nigeria. The combination of yam and beans gives the dish a soft, creamy texture and a satisfying Ingredients '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Yam|Yam]] [[Cookbook:Beans|Beans]] '''Vegetables''' Scent leaves or spinach '''Other Ingredients''' Palm oil Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] Onion [[Cookbook:Crawfish|Crayfish]] Smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] or dry fish Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Salt Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Beans''' Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and boil until it becomes soft. '''2. Prepare the Yam''' Peel the yam, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. '''3. Prepare the Fish''' Wash and clean the smoked fish or dry fish thoroughly. '''4. Cook the''' '''Yam and Beans''' Add the yam into the pot of cooked beans. Add onions, pepper, seasoning cubes, salt, and enough water if necessary. '''5. Add Crayfish and Fish''' Add the ground crayfish and smoked fish. Stir gently and carefully Allow everything to cook together until the yam becomes soft. '''6. Add Palm Oil''' Pour the palm oil into the pot and stir properly. '''Optional''' '''7. Mash Slightly''' Mash some pieces of yam lightly to thicken the porridge and give it a creamy texture. '''8. Add Vegetables''' Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for about 1–2minutes. '''9. Final Taste''' Taste the porridge and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 96w13b4vgf0a3o8d4wrkmbetyy0xi1w 4634998 4634964 2026-05-09T18:44:26Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I edited my first recipes 4634998 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Yam and Beans Porridge''' is a delicious meal made with yam and beans cooked together, it is a rich and filling meal commonly enjoyed in many parts of Nigeria. The combination of yam and beans gives the dish a soft, creamy texture and a satisfying Ingredients '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Yam|Yam]] [[Cookbook:Beans|Beans]] Scent leaves or spinach Palm oil Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] Onion [[Cookbook:Crawfish|Crayfish]] Smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] or dry fish Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Salt Water '''Procedure''' 1.Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and boil until it becomes soft. 2. Peel the yam, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. 4.Wash and clean the smoked fish or dry fish thoroughly. 4.Add the yam into the pot of cooked beans. Add onions, pepper, seasoning cubes, salt, and enough water if necessary. 5.Add the ground crayfish and smoked fish. Stir gently and carefully Allow everything to cook together until the yam becomes soft. 6.Pour the palm oil into the pot and stir properly. 7.Mash some pieces of yam lightly to thicken the porridge and give it a creamy texture. 8.Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for about 1–2minutes. 9.Taste the porridge and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] figk8zpkymfnhihc3wztvmjss7nvnov 4634999 4634998 2026-05-09T18:49:44Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I corrected my recipes 4634999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Yam and Beans Porridge''' is a delicious meal made with yam and beans cooked together, it is a rich and filling meal commonly enjoyed in many parts of Nigeria. The combination of yam and beans gives the dish a soft, creamy texture and a satisfying Ingredients '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Yam|Yam]] [[Cookbook:Beans|Beans]] Scent leaves or spinach Palm oil Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] Onion [[Cookbook:Crawfish|Crayfish]] Smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] or dry fish Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Salt Water '''Procedure''' 1.Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and boil until it becomes soft. 2.Peel the yam, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. 3.Wash and clean the smoked fish or dry fish thoroughly. 4.Add the yam into the pot of cooked beans. Add onions, pepper, seasoning cubes, salt, and enough water if necessary. 5.Add the ground crayfish and smoked fish. Stir gently and carefully Allow everything to cook together until the yam becomes soft. 6.Pour the palm oil into the pot and stir properly. 7.Mash some pieces of yam lightly to thicken the porridge and give it a creamy texture. 8.Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for about 1–2minutes. 9.Taste the porridge and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] f4hf3nugcx2gyrgzrsmrxmx80e1dywp 4635000 4634999 2026-05-09T18:51:00Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I added categories 4635000 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Yam and Beans Porridge''' is a delicious meal made with yam and beans cooked together, it is a rich and filling meal commonly enjoyed in many parts of Nigeria. The combination of yam and beans gives the dish a soft, creamy texture and a satisfying Ingredients '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Yam|Yam]] [[Cookbook:Beans|Beans]] Scent leaves or spinach Palm oil Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] Onion [[Cookbook:Crawfish|Crayfish]] Smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] or dry fish Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Salt Water '''Procedure''' 1.Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and boil until it becomes soft. 2.Peel the yam, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. 3.Wash and clean the smoked fish or dry fish thoroughly. 4.Add the yam into the pot of cooked beans. Add onions, pepper, seasoning cubes, salt, and enough water if necessary. 5.Add the ground crayfish and smoked fish. Stir gently and carefully Allow everything to cook together until the yam becomes soft. 6.Pour the palm oil into the pot and stir properly. 7.Mash some pieces of yam lightly to thicken the porridge and give it a creamy texture. 8.Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for about 1–2minutes. 9.Taste the porridge and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] sj756ty24yeeqywceig5ujmzl8bzo2a 4635003 4635000 2026-05-09T18:52:04Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I added categories 4635003 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Yam and Beans Porridge''' is a delicious meal made with yam and beans cooked together, it is a rich and filling meal commonly enjoyed in many parts of Nigeria. The combination of yam and beans gives the dish a soft, creamy texture and a satisfying Ingredients '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Yam|Yam]] [[Cookbook:Beans|Beans]] Scent leaves or spinach Palm oil Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] Onion [[Cookbook:Crawfish|Crayfish]] Smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] or dry fish Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Salt Water '''Procedure''' 1.Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and boil until it becomes soft. 2.Peel the yam, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. 3.Wash and clean the smoked fish or dry fish thoroughly. 4.Add the yam into the pot of cooked beans. Add onions, pepper, seasoning cubes, salt, and enough water if necessary. 5.Add the ground crayfish and smoked fish. Stir gently and carefully Allow everything to cook together until the yam becomes soft. 6.Pour the palm oil into the pot and stir properly. 7.Mash some pieces of yam lightly to thicken the porridge and give it a creamy texture. 8.Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for about 1–2minutes. 9.Taste the porridge and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Bean recipes]] ropa0mfzbh1jetsmaz2lgaaatoil7kk 4635005 4635003 2026-05-09T18:52:52Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I added recipes 4635005 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Yam and Beans Porridge''' is a delicious meal made with yam and beans cooked together, it is a rich and filling meal commonly enjoyed in many parts of Nigeria. The combination of yam and beans gives the dish a soft, creamy texture and a satisfying Ingredients '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Yam|Yam]] [[Cookbook:Beans|Beans]] Scent leaves or spinach Palm oil Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] Onion [[Cookbook:Crawfish|Crayfish]] Smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] or dry fish Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Salt Water '''Procedure''' 1.Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and boil until it becomes soft. 2.Peel the yam, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. 3.Wash and clean the smoked fish or dry fish thoroughly. 4.Add the yam into the pot of cooked beans. Add onions, pepper, seasoning cubes, salt, and enough water if necessary. 5.Add the ground crayfish and smoked fish. Stir gently and carefully Allow everything to cook together until the yam becomes soft. 6.Pour the palm oil into the pot and stir properly. 7.Mash some pieces of yam lightly to thicken the porridge and give it a creamy texture. 8.Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for about 1–2minutes. 9.Taste the porridge and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Bean recipes]] mz0y27kq7us12cms7e4zgnxsm2ws8mb 102 483208 4634965 4634793 2026-05-09T14:27:42Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I corrected my recipes 4634965 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Nyembwe Chicken''' is a traditional African meal popularly eaten in parts of Gabon, Congo and Cameroon. It is prepared with chicken, cooked in rich palm nut sauce together with local spices and seasonings. The dish is known for its rich flavor, deep color, and delicious aroma. '''Ingredient''' [[Cookbook:Chicken|Chicken]] '''Other Ingredients''' Palm nuts or palm nut paste [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]] [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]] [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Chicken''' Wash the chicken properly and season with onions, salt, garlic, ginger, and seasoning cubes. Cook until tender. '''2. Prepare the Palm Nut Sauce''' Boil the palm nuts until soft, then pound and extract the thick palm nut juice. Strain to remove chaff. '''3. Add the Palm Nut Sauce''' Pour the palm nut sauce into the cooked chicken and allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add Pepper and Seasoning''' Add fresh pepper and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Stir properly and allow it to cook together. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the sauce to simmer on low heat until the oil rises to the top and the sauce becomes rich and thick. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow it to cook for a few more minutes. Serve it hot with rice, plantain, fufu, or boiled yam [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] mrb97u8r0k9lzq7so0t1htoemoyp5vw 4634997 4634965 2026-05-09T18:38:31Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I edited my first recipes 4634997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Nyembwe Chicken''' is a traditional African meal commonly eaten in parts of Gabon, Republic of the Congo, and Cameroon. It is prepared with chicken cooked in rich palm nut sauce and local seasonings. The dish is known for its rich flavor and delicious aroma. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Chicken|Chicken]] Palm nuts or palm nut paste Onion Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]] [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' 1. Wash the chicken properly and season with onions, salt, garlic, ginger, and seasoning cubes. Cook until tender. 2. Boil the palm nuts until soft, then pound and extract the thick palm nut juice. Strain to remove chaff 3.Pour the palm nut sauce into the cooked chicken and allow it to cook together 4. Add fresh pepper and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Stir properly and allow it to cook together. 5.Allow the sauce to simmer until rich and thick. 6.Taste and adjust salt or seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with rice, plantain, fufu, or boiled yam. [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] q0vbgsximavnlh3gzgneg0lzthzazdt 3 483212 4634946 4634828 2026-05-09T13:10:56Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Welcome to the Cookbook */ Reply 4634946 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Cookbook == {{mbox | type = | image = [[File:Foodlogo2.svg|40px]] | imageright = | style = | textstyle = | text = Hello and thank you for your recent contribution to the [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Wikibooks Cookbook]]! When adding to the Cookbook, please make sure all content conforms to [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]], including the [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|manual of style]] and standard page templates. Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] I notice that you are rapidly adding many recipes, but so far they don't meet the cookbook requirements—could you please fix these recipes before adding any more? Let me know if you have questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:38, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::Please how do I know the right recipes, some are not showing [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 16:44, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::Unfortunately, I don't understand the question—what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Please, how do I fix the incomplete recipe? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:00, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]] have detailed information explaining how to create and format a recipe. For one example of a correctly formatted recipe, see [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]]. Please do not add new recipes until your previous ones are corrected. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:56, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] Please stop adding new recipes—failure to engage in productive editing will result in a temporary block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:10, 9 May 2026 (UTC) cc9mggfgy7vablw4gplivi2m3gfrvcw 4634959 4634946 2026-05-09T13:39:01Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 /* Welcome to the Cookbook */ Reply 4634959 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Cookbook == {{mbox | type = | image = [[File:Foodlogo2.svg|40px]] | imageright = | style = | textstyle = | text = Hello and thank you for your recent contribution to the [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Wikibooks Cookbook]]! When adding to the Cookbook, please make sure all content conforms to [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]], including the [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|manual of style]] and standard page templates. Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] I notice that you are rapidly adding many recipes, but so far they don't meet the cookbook requirements—could you please fix these recipes before adding any more? Let me know if you have questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:38, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::Please how do I know the right recipes, some are not showing [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 16:44, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::Unfortunately, I don't understand the question—what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Please, how do I fix the incomplete recipe? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:00, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]] have detailed information explaining how to create and format a recipe. For one example of a correctly formatted recipe, see [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]]. Please do not add new recipes until your previous ones are corrected. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:56, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] Please stop adding new recipes—failure to engage in productive editing will result in a temporary block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:10, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::Can I see the example of the recipe I’m being warned? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ldpn8wn4j0uwzehgty2jhj0z6ao1ltt 4634989 4634959 2026-05-09T17:28:46Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 /* Welcome to the Cookbook */ Reply 4634989 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Cookbook == {{mbox | type = | image = [[File:Foodlogo2.svg|40px]] | imageright = | style = | textstyle = | text = Hello and thank you for your recent contribution to the [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Wikibooks Cookbook]]! When adding to the Cookbook, please make sure all content conforms to [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]], including the [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|manual of style]] and standard page templates. Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] I notice that you are rapidly adding many recipes, but so far they don't meet the cookbook requirements—could you please fix these recipes before adding any more? Let me know if you have questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:38, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::Please how do I know the right recipes, some are not showing [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 16:44, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::Unfortunately, I don't understand the question—what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Please, how do I fix the incomplete recipe? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:00, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]] have detailed information explaining how to create and format a recipe. For one example of a correctly formatted recipe, see [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]]. Please do not add new recipes until your previous ones are corrected. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:56, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] Please stop adding new recipes—failure to engage in productive editing will result in a temporary block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:10, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::Can I see the example of the recipe I’m being warned? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::please assist me on how I can create a proper recipe. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:28, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ofn8j2e16787igo71ifuestbmw6urzs 4634990 4634989 2026-05-09T17:40:16Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 /* Welcome to the Cookbook */ Reply 4634990 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Cookbook == {{mbox | type = | image = [[File:Foodlogo2.svg|40px]] | imageright = | style = | textstyle = | text = Hello and thank you for your recent contribution to the [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Wikibooks Cookbook]]! When adding to the Cookbook, please make sure all content conforms to [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]], including the [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|manual of style]] and standard page templates. Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] I notice that you are rapidly adding many recipes, but so far they don't meet the cookbook requirements—could you please fix these recipes before adding any more? Let me know if you have questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:38, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::Please how do I know the right recipes, some are not showing [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 16:44, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::Unfortunately, I don't understand the question—what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Please, how do I fix the incomplete recipe? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:00, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]] have detailed information explaining how to create and format a recipe. For one example of a correctly formatted recipe, see [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]]. Please do not add new recipes until your previous ones are corrected. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:56, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] Please stop adding new recipes—failure to engage in productive editing will result in a temporary block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:10, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::Can I see the example of the recipe I’m being warned? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::please assist me on how I can create a proper recipe. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:28, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::::please assist me to fix the problem. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC) q4covu3i2bjpnq9q0z07q2tqmh8vyr2 4635008 4634990 2026-05-09T19:00:39Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 /* Welcome to the Cookbook */ Reply 4635008 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Cookbook == {{mbox | type = | image = [[File:Foodlogo2.svg|40px]] | imageright = | style = | textstyle = | text = Hello and thank you for your recent contribution to the [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Wikibooks Cookbook]]! When adding to the Cookbook, please make sure all content conforms to [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]], including the [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|manual of style]] and standard page templates. Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] I notice that you are rapidly adding many recipes, but so far they don't meet the cookbook requirements—could you please fix these recipes before adding any more? Let me know if you have questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:38, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::Please how do I know the right recipes, some are not showing [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 16:44, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::Unfortunately, I don't understand the question—what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Please, how do I fix the incomplete recipe? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:00, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]] have detailed information explaining how to create and format a recipe. For one example of a correctly formatted recipe, see [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]]. Please do not add new recipes until your previous ones are corrected. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:56, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] Please stop adding new recipes—failure to engage in productive editing will result in a temporary block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:10, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::Can I see the example of the recipe I’m being warned? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::please assist me on how I can create a proper recipe. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:28, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::::please assist me to fix the problem. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::::the recent edits are still showing incomplete recipes, how do I really fix this? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 19:00, 9 May 2026 (UTC) eywo9prq8py43hcq04y281hkcldhitf 4635009 4635008 2026-05-09T19:47:48Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Welcome to the Cookbook */ Reply 4635009 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Cookbook == {{mbox | type = | image = [[File:Foodlogo2.svg|40px]] | imageright = | style = | textstyle = | text = Hello and thank you for your recent contribution to the [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Wikibooks Cookbook]]! When adding to the Cookbook, please make sure all content conforms to [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]], including the [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|manual of style]] and standard page templates. Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] I notice that you are rapidly adding many recipes, but so far they don't meet the cookbook requirements—could you please fix these recipes before adding any more? Let me know if you have questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:38, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::Please how do I know the right recipes, some are not showing [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 16:44, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::Unfortunately, I don't understand the question—what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:59, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::Please, how do I fix the incomplete recipe? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:00, 8 May 2026 (UTC) :::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]] have detailed information explaining how to create and format a recipe. For one example of a correctly formatted recipe, see [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]]. Please do not add new recipes until your previous ones are corrected. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:56, 8 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] Please stop adding new recipes—failure to engage in productive editing will result in a temporary block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:10, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::Can I see the example of the recipe I’m being warned? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 13:39, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::please assist me on how I can create a proper recipe. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:28, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::::please assist me to fix the problem. [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 17:40, 9 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::::the recent edits are still showing incomplete recipes, how do I really fix this? [[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] ([[User talk:Deborah Akpan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Deborah Akpan|contribs]]) 19:00, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::::::@[[User:Deborah Akpan|Deborah Akpan]] :::::::::::* You need to use [[Template:Recipe summary]] and [[Template:Recipe]] at the top of each recipe page. :::::::::::* Lists should be formatted using bullet points (using <code>*</code> in the source editor). For your reference, this list right here is formatted using bullet points. :::::::::::* The procedure steps should be formatted using a numbered list (using <code>#</code> in the source editor) not just by typing a number at the beginning of each step. :::::::::::* You need to list the quantities of each ingredient. If you don't list a numerical quantity, you have to explain in a different way how the cook should know how much to add. :::::::::::* The ingredients need to be listed in the order in which they appear in the recipe. :::::::::::* You need to include all the existing ingredient-based categories for each recipe. :::::::::::Again, [[Cookbook:Dibi (Senegalese Grilled Meat)]] is properly formatted, and you can use that to see what I'm talking about, along with [[Cookbook:Manual of Style]] and [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:47, 9 May 2026 (UTC) pngh9uh2bex4chwkvf7f4o4qhdm0t2a 102 483233 4634956 4634916 2026-05-09T13:12:10Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634956 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Egg and Okra Soup''' is a simple and delicious soup commonly eaten in many parts of Nigeria, especially in the South-South region. The soup is known for its slimy (drawy) texture, rich taste, and easy preparation. '''Ingredients''' Fresh [[Cookbook:Eggs|Eggs]] Fresh [[Cookbook:Okra|okra]] [[Cookbook:Fish|Fish]] or [[Cookbook:Meat|meat]] Red palm oil and [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] Fresh pepper Onion [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Okra''' Wash the okra properly and slice into tiny pieces to help increase the drawy texture. '''2. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''3. Beat the Eggs''' Break the eggs into a bowl and whisk properly. Pour groundnut oil or palm oil into a pot or pan and fry the eggs. Turn the egg during the frying process so it breaks into small pieces. Remove it from the pot and set aside. '''4. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour the red palm oil into a pot and add sliced onions and pepper. Allow it to cook for 1minutes. '''5. Add the Okra''' Add the sliced okra and hold on for 2-3minutes, then add a little water. '''6. Add Fish or Meat''' Add the cooked fish or meat together with crayfish, salt, and seasoning cubes. Stir continuously and allow it to cook for 2-3minutes until the soup becomes slimy. '''7. Add the Eggs''' Pour the fried egg that was set aside after frying into the soup and allow it to cook gently for 1-2minutes. '''8. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with garri, fufu, or semovita. [[Category:Easy recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] nvux7jrgrftfljbfwuj59osscr2jjdv 102 483234 4634955 4634919 2026-05-09T13:12:03Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Plantain Porridge''' is a delicious meal commonly eaten in many parts of Nigeria, especially in the South-South region. It is prepared with ripe or unripe plantain. The meal is loved for its soft texture, rich taste, and easy preparation. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Plantain|Plantain]] Scent leaves or spinach Periwinkle (mfi) Red palm oil Fresh fish or smoked [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Plantain''' Peel the plantain, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized pieces. '''2. Prepare the Fish and Periwinkle''' Wash and clean the fish and periwinkle properly. Season the fish lightly and cook or fry slightly if desired. '''3. Cook the Plantain''' Place the plantain into a pot and add enough water. Add onions, pepper, salt, and seasoning cubes. Allow it to cook until the plantain begins to soften. '''4. Add Palm Oil''' Pour the red palm oil into the pot and stir properly. '''5. Add Fish, Periwinkle, and Crayfish''' Add the fish, periwinkle, and ground crayfish. Stir gently and allow everything to cook together. '''6. Mash Slightly''' Mash some pieces of plantain lightly to make the porridge thicker and creamier. '''7. Add the Vegetables''' Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''8. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy. [[Category:Easy recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] 6alzv1atzqe2y186yv329tt8lffeorg 102 483235 4634954 4634921 2026-05-09T13:11:57Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634954 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Beans and Plantain Porridge''' is a delicious and filling meal commonly eaten in many parts of Nigeria, especially in the South-South region. It is prepared with beans and plantain cooked together with palm oil, vegetables, fish, pepper, and local seasonings. The meal is loved for its soft texture, rich taste, and nutritious value. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Nigerian Bean Porridge|Beans]] [[Cookbook:Plantain|Plantain]] Scent leaves or spinach Red palm oil Fresh fish or smoked fish [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]](Optional) Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Beans''' Pick the beans to remove dirt and stones. Wash properly and cook until soft. '''2. Prepare the Plantain''' Peel the plantain, wash properly, and cut into medium-sized/very small pieces. '''3. Prepare the Fish''' Wash and clean the fish properly. Season lightly and cook or fry slightly if desired. '''4. Cook the Plantain''' Add the plantain into the pot of cooked beans. Add pepper, salt, and seasoning cubes. Allow it to cook until the plantain becomes soft. '''5. Add Palm Oil''' Pour the red palm oil into the pot and stir properly. '''6. Add Fish and Crayfish''' Add the fish and ground crayfish. Stir gently and allow everything to cook together. '''7. Mash Slightly (Optional)''' Mash some pieces of plantain lightly to make the porridge thicker and creamier. '''8. Add the Vegetables''' Add the scent leaves or spinach and stir properly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''9. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Allow it to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot and enjoy [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Easy recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] krs223vmadqgkvp3xjiknddzdrcirpl 102 483237 4634953 4634924 2026-05-09T13:11:49Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634953 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Editan Soup''' is a traditional soup popularly eaten among the Efik and Ibibio people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. The soup is prepared with editan leaves, palm oil, fish, meat, and local seasonings. It is known for its slightly bitter/no bitter taste, rich flavor, and delicious aroma. '''Ingredients''' Editan leaves Waterleaf Red palm oil Assorted [[Cookbook:Meat|meat]] Cow skin (kanda) Smoked fish or dry fish [[Cookbook:Stockfish|Stockfish]] [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Editan Leaves''' Wash the editan leaves thoroughly and squeeze repeatedly to reduce the bitter taste. Taste if there’s still little/no bitterness in it, then set aside. '''2. Cook the Meat''' Wash the assorted meat, cow skin, and stockfish properly. Season with onions, salt, and seasoning cubes. Cook until tender. '''3. Add Waterleaf''' Wash and slice the waterleaf, then add it into the pot. Allow it to cook until soft. Add the smoked fish during the last few minutes of cooking. '''4. Add Crayfish, Pepper, meat''' Add the ground crayfish, fresh pepper, and seasoning cubes together, hold on for 2-3minutes, then add smoked fish and allow it stir properly to cook '''4. Add Palm Oil''' Pour the red palm oil into the pot, allow it to boil for a few minutes. '''6. Add the Editan Leaves''' Add the sliced editan leaves and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for 1-2minutes. '''7. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the salt or seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, pounded yam, or semovita. [[Category:Easy recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] om379gjwgnyvz9ik36jy8jb24oplb7i 102 483238 4634952 4634927 2026-05-09T13:11:43Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634952 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Ayan Ekpang''' is a traditional South-South meal popularly eaten by the people of Akwa Ibom State. It is prepared mainly with cassava wrapped in leaves known as mfang aya/mfang ukom (plantain leaves) and cooked with water. The plantain leaves are usually sliced into desired sizes before wrapping the cassava. The meal is usually served with native mashed sauce made with crayfish, dry fish, pepper, and seasonings. It is known for its soft texture and traditional homemade taste. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Cassava|Cassava]] Leaves for wrapping Dry [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Cassava''' Peel, wash, and grate the cassava until smooth. '''2. Mold the Cassava''' Place small portions of the grated cassava on the leaves and mold into long shapes. Wrap properly with the leaves. '''3. Cook the Ayan Ekpang''' Arrange the wrapped cassava in a pot, add a little water, and cook until properly done. '''4. Prepare the Native Sauce''' Put the dry fish, crayfish, fresh pepper, salt, and seasoning cubes into a mortar. Mash everything together with a very small amount of water until well combined. '''5. Serve''' Remove the cooked ayan ekpang from the leaves and serve with the native mashed sauce. Serve hot and enjoy. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] jc51sq20lb162oz3icbr6tjbu6i2ggs 102 483239 4634951 4634932 2026-05-09T13:11:36Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete flag 4634951 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Melon and Bitterleaf Soup''' is a delicious soup commonly eaten in many parts of Nigeria, especially in the South-South and South-Eastern regions. It is prepared with melon, bitterleaf, fish or meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is loved for its rich taste, thick texture, and delicious traditional flavor. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Bitterleaf|Bitterleaf]] Ground melon (egusi) Red palm oil Assorted meat Cow skin (kanda) Smoked fish or dry fish [[Cookbook:Stockfish|Stockfish]] [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Bitterleaf''' Wash the bitterleaf thoroughly to reduce the bitter taste and set aside. '''2. Cook the Meat''' Wash the assorted meat, cow skin, and stockfish properly. Season with onions, salt, and seasoning cubes. Cook until tender. Add the smoked fish during the last few minutes of cooking. '''3. Prepare the Melon''' Mix the ground melon with a little water to form a smooth paste. '''4. Add Palm Oil and Melon''' Pour the red palm oil into the pot of cooked meat and stock. Add the melon paste gradually and allow it to cook properly. '''5. Add Crayfish and Pepper''' Add the ground crayfish and fresh pepper. Stir properly and allow the soup to cook together. '''6. Add the Bitterleaf''' Add the washed bitterleaf and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes until well combined. '''7. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the salt or seasoning if necessary. Allow the soup to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and thick. Serve hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 6f6l6ody4wlpfhm7mozjej01w7fo0jf 102 483240 4634950 4634935 2026-05-09T13:11:29Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634950 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Efere Nsana''' is a traditional South-South soup popularly eaten by the people of Akwa Ibom State. It is prepared mainly with nsana leaves, fish or meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. A little achi can also be added to give the soup a light thick texture. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, smooth texture, and delicious aroma. '''Ingredients''' Nsana leaves [[Cookbook:Achi|Achi]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper Onion [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Leaves''' Wash the nsana leaves properly and slice into small pieces. '''2. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour water into the pot of cooked fish or meat, add your pepper, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. Allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add Achi''' Mix a little achi with red palm oil and add into the soup. Stir properly and allow it to cook for a few minutes until the soup thickens lightly. '''5. Add the Nsana Leaves''' Add the sliced nsana leaves into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for 1-2minutes. '''6. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''7. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, pounded yam, or semovita. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 2immurkpmygqqnu46nr35pkkwzbdvaf 102 483241 4634949 4634937 2026-05-09T13:11:20Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634949 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Achi Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South and South-Eastern parts of Nigeria. It is prepared with achi as a thickener together with asusa leaves, fish or meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its smooth texture, rich taste, and delicious native flavor. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Achi|Achi]] Asusa leaves Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) Water '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Leaves''' Wash the asusa leaves properly and slice into small pieces. '''2. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour water into a pot and add the cooked fish or meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. Allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add the Achi''' Mix the achi with a little water and add into the soup gradually while stirring properly to avoid lumps. Allow it to cook until the soup thickens lightly. '''5. Add the Asusa Leaves''' Add the sliced asusa leaves into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''6. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''7. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 4h13ti5jaa9yxwbb1c51i1r2v589sxd 102 483242 4634938 2026-05-09T12:01:43Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I created this article 4634938 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Waterleaf Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South region, especially among the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. It is prepared with fresh waterleaf, fish or assorted meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its soft texture, rich native taste, and delicious flavor. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Waterleaf|Waterleaf]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Waterleaf''' Wash the waterleaf properly and slice into small pieces. Soak it in water and rinse properly to reduce the drawy or slimy texture. '''2. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour into pot the waterleaf and add the cooked fish or meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. After 1-minutes add a little quantity of water, allow it to boil properly. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. 2eflcqtf67agl6tt9t2zujx924jmdw3 4634939 4634938 2026-05-09T12:08:42Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I added categories 4634939 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Waterleaf Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South region, especially among the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. It is prepared with fresh waterleaf, fish or assorted meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its soft texture, rich native taste, and delicious flavor. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Waterleaf|Waterleaf]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Waterleaf''' Wash the waterleaf properly and slice into small pieces. Soak it in water and rinse properly to reduce the drawy or slimy texture. '''2. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour into pot the waterleaf and add the cooked fish or meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. After 1-minutes add a little quantity of water, allow it to boil properly. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] lpx808cfn9l75drtvgmw85wlrhys68a 4634948 4634939 2026-05-09T13:11:13Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Waterleaf Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South region, especially among the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. It is prepared with fresh waterleaf, fish or assorted meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its soft texture, rich native taste, and delicious flavor. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Waterleaf|Waterleaf]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Waterleaf''' Wash the waterleaf properly and slice into small pieces. Soak it in water and rinse properly to reduce the drawy or slimy texture. '''2. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour into pot the waterleaf and add the cooked fish or meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. After 1-minutes add a little quantity of water, allow it to boil properly. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 97t6ra4ukn0dy3szanqsjgfb8b0w1fw 102 483243 4634940 2026-05-09T12:32:11Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I created this article 4634940 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Atama and Okra Soup''' is a traditional South-South soup commonly eaten by the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. It is prepared with dry atama leaves, fresh okra, fish or meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, drawy texture, and delicious aroma. '''Ingredients''' Dry atama leaves Fresh [[Cookbook:Okra|okra]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Dry Atama''' Soak the dry atama leaves in lukewarm water for a few minutes, then sieve properly to remove dirt and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Okra''' Wash the okra properly and slice into tiny pieces to help increase the drawy texture. '''3. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''4. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour your sliced okra into the cooked fish/assorted meat, then add meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil, allow it to cook for 1-2minutes, then add very little water and allow it to boil properly for 2-3minutes. '''5. Add the Dry Atama''' Add the sieved dry atama leaves into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for 1-2minutes. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Allow the soup to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. dbkjno0bx0thbrh4fdk53d1da8bxruc 4634941 4634940 2026-05-09T12:32:54Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I added categories 4634941 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Atama and Okra Soup''' is a traditional South-South soup commonly eaten by the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. It is prepared with dry atama leaves, fresh okra, fish or meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, drawy texture, and delicious aroma. '''Ingredients''' Dry atama leaves Fresh [[Cookbook:Okra|okra]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Dry Atama''' Soak the dry atama leaves in lukewarm water for a few minutes, then sieve properly to remove dirt and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Okra''' Wash the okra properly and slice into tiny pieces to help increase the drawy texture. '''3. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''4. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour your sliced okra into the cooked fish/assorted meat, then add meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil, allow it to cook for 1-2minutes, then add very little water and allow it to boil properly for 2-3minutes. '''5. Add the Dry Atama''' Add the sieved dry atama leaves into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for 1-2minutes. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Allow the soup to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] j2splx9y670cn7davu9lzkdjud50mtj 4634947 4634941 2026-05-09T13:11:04Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634947 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Atama and Okra Soup''' is a traditional South-South soup commonly eaten by the people of Akwa Ibom State and Cross River State. It is prepared with dry atama leaves, fresh okra, fish or meat, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, drawy texture, and delicious aroma. '''Ingredients''' Dry atama leaves Fresh [[Cookbook:Okra|okra]] Red palm oil Fresh fish or assorted meat [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Dry Atama''' Soak the dry atama leaves in lukewarm water for a few minutes, then sieve properly to remove dirt and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Okra''' Wash the okra properly and slice into tiny pieces to help increase the drawy texture. '''3. Prepare the Fish or Meat''' Wash and clean the fish or meat properly. Season lightly and cook until tender. '''4. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour your sliced okra into the cooked fish/assorted meat, then add meat, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil, allow it to cook for 1-2minutes, then add very little water and allow it to boil properly for 2-3minutes. '''5. Add the Dry Atama''' Add the sieved dry atama leaves into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for 1-2minutes. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Allow the soup to simmer for a few more minutes until rich and well combined. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] 7urjebcq3i5sg2cff2opuoz8cfbq7lh 102 483244 4634942 2026-05-09T12:46:54Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I created this article 4634942 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Seafood Bitterleaf Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South region. It is prepared with bitterleaf, seafood, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, slightly bitter taste, and delicious seafood aroma. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Bitterleaf|Bitterleaf]] [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|Periwinkle]] (mfi) [[Cookbook:Prawn|Prawns]] Crab Fresh fish Dry fish or smoked fish Red palm oil [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Bitterleaf''' Wash the bitterleaf thoroughly to reduce the bitter taste and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Seafood''' Wash and clean the periwinkle, prawns, crab, and fish properly. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour water into a pot and add the seafood, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. Allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add the Bitterleaf''' Add the washed bitterleaf into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. 5tx44o7eqxgmen4bsjscfmkuejywd4r 4634943 4634942 2026-05-09T12:47:30Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I added categories 4634943 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Seafood Bitterleaf Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South region. It is prepared with bitterleaf, seafood, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, slightly bitter taste, and delicious seafood aroma. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Bitterleaf|Bitterleaf]] [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|Periwinkle]] (mfi) [[Cookbook:Prawn|Prawns]] Crab Fresh fish Dry fish or smoked fish Red palm oil [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Bitterleaf''' Wash the bitterleaf thoroughly to reduce the bitter taste and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Seafood''' Wash and clean the periwinkle, prawns, crab, and fish properly. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour water into a pot and add the seafood, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. Allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add the Bitterleaf''' Add the washed bitterleaf into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] cqr5bmvin0i7doc1ahpr29eebtycms1 4634944 4634943 2026-05-09T13:09:18Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 incomplete 4634944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Nigerian Seafood Bitterleaf Soup''' is a delicious traditional soup commonly eaten in the South-South region. It is prepared with bitterleaf, seafood, palm oil, and local seasonings. The soup is known for its rich native flavor, slightly bitter taste, and delicious seafood aroma. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Bitterleaf|Bitterleaf]] [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|Periwinkle]] (mfi) [[Cookbook:Prawn|Prawns]] Crab Fresh fish Dry fish or smoked fish Red palm oil [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Bitterleaf''' Wash the bitterleaf thoroughly to reduce the bitter taste and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Seafood''' Wash and clean the periwinkle, prawns, crab, and fish properly. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour water into a pot and add the seafood, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. Allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add the Bitterleaf''' Add the washed bitterleaf into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:African cuisines]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] dh4tx3bkcipe3lhuu29hwrrm6xnleax 4634962 4634944 2026-05-09T14:11:21Z Deborah Akpan 3581767 I corrected my categories. 4634962 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing cookbook templates, not formatted according to recipe template, missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, missing quantities}} '''Seafood Bitterleaf Soup''' is a traditional South-South Nigerian soup prepared, It is known for its rich native flavor and is commonly served with fufu or garri. '''Ingredients''' [[Cookbook:Bitterleaf|Bitterleaf]] [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|Periwinkle]] (mfi) Prawns [[Cookbook:Crab|Crab]] Fresh fish Dry fish or smoked fish Red palm oil [[Cookbook:Crayfish|Crayfish]] Fresh pepper [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] Salt Seasoning cubes (like Maggi) [[Cookbook:Water|Water]] '''Procedure''' '''1. Prepare the Bitterleaf''' Wash the bitterleaf thoroughly to reduce the bitter taste and keep aside. '''2. Prepare the Seafood''' Wash and clean the periwinkle, prawns, crab, and fish properly. '''3. Prepare the Soup Base''' Pour water into a pot and add the seafood, pepper, onions, crayfish, salt, seasoning cubes, and palm oil. Allow it to boil properly. '''4. Add the Bitterleaf''' Add the washed bitterleaf into the soup and stir thoroughly. Allow it to cook for a few minutes. '''5. Simmer the Soup''' Allow the soup to simmer on low heat until rich and well combined. '''6. Final Taste''' Taste and adjust the seasoning if necessary. Serve it hot with fufu, garri, or pounded yam. [[Category:Medium Difficulty recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 1tbaao1yjvw6c7whpb8wwtdxdwfo5q5 0 483245 4634957 2026-05-09T13:18:35Z Sammy2012 3074780 Created page with "{{Chess diagram | tright | |cd|Kd|ad|qd|Cd|ad|Kd|cd |Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl |cl|Kl|al|ql|Cl|al|Kl|cl | Starting position of cavalier chess }} == Introduction == '''Cavalier Chess''' is a variant themed around the knight, giving many of the pieces knight-like moves. == History == Cavalier chess was created in December 1998 by prolific chess va..." 4634957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess diagram | tright | |cd|Kd|ad|qd|Cd|ad|Kd|cd |Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl |cl|Kl|al|ql|Cl|al|Kl|cl | Starting position of cavalier chess }} == Introduction == '''Cavalier Chess''' is a variant themed around the knight, giving many of the pieces knight-like moves. == History == Cavalier chess was created in December 1998 by prolific chess variant creator Fergus Duniho, who created the game using the board game software Zillions of Games. As the name suggests, cavalier chess is chess on horseback, replacing all of the pieces (sans the queen) with new pieces which have knight-like moves. The following year Duniho created '''Grand Cavalier Chess''', a larger version of cavalier chess played on a 10 by 10 board. It features all of the pieces from standard cavalier chess plus two cannons, and draws inspiration from [[Chess Variants/Grand Chess|grand chess]], [[xiangqi]] and David Howe's variant xhess in its rules. == Rules == Cavalier chess is played using a standard 8 by 8 board. It can be played on a standard two-colour board, as seen at the diagram at right, but Duniho recommends using a three-colour board with the non-light squares interpolated between dark and a medium colour - this will aid in visualising the moves of certain pieces. All of the pieces sans the queen are replaced with new pieces, as follows: * The '''cavalier''' ([[File:Chess_Nlt45.svg|25x25px]]) is the counterpart of the pawn. It moves in the same L-shaped move as a standard knight - one square horizontally or vertically, followed by one square diagonally outwards. However, unlike the standard knight the cavalier cannot jump over other pieces - if a piece of either colour is horizontally or vertically adjacent to the cavalier, the cavalier cannot move past. Unlike the standard pawn, the cavalier does not get the option of a double-step on its first move (and therefore, there is no ''en passant''). {{Chess diagram | tleft | | |oo| |oo| | | | |oo| | | |oo| | | | | |Nl| | | | | |oo| | | |oo| | | | |oo| |oo| | | | | | | | |xo| |Nl| | | | | | | |Nd| | | | | |xo| | | | The white cavalier can move to all of the squares marked with a white dot. The black cavalier can move to either square marked with a black dot, but it cannot move up since the white cavalier blocks its path. }} {{-}} The cavaliers can promote like standard pawns when they reach the furthest rank from their starting position. The cavalier promotes to the piece whose starting square the cavalier landed on - so for example a white cavalier landing on b8 would promote to a nightrider. There is one exception - if a cavalier lands on the starting square of the enemy knight king, it is allowed to promote to the player's choice of marshall, nightrider, paladin or queen. * The '''marshall''' ([[File:Chess_clt45.svg|25x25px]]) is the counterpart of the rook. It combines the movement powers of the rook and the knight, so it can either slide horizonally or vertically like a rook or jump like a knight, but not both in one turn. {{Chess diagram | tleft | | | | | |xo| | | | | | |xx|xo|xx| | | | |xx| |xo| |xx| |xo|xo|xo|xo|cl|xo|xo|xo | | |xx| |xo| |xx| | | | |xx|xo|xx| | | | | | |xo| | | | | | | |xo| | | | The marshall may slide to any square marked with a dot, or jump to any square marked with a cross. }} {{-}} * The '''nightrider''' ([[File:Chess_Klt45.svg|25x25px]]) is the counterpart of the knight. It jumps in the same L-shape as the standard knight, but after it lands it may keep making consecutive knight jumps in the same direction, provided nothing gets in its way. {{Chess diagram | tleft | | | | |xx| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |xx| | | |xx| | | | | | | | | |xx| | |xx| |xx | | | | |xx| | | | | | | | | |Kl| | | | | |xx| | | | The nightrider may jump to any square marked with a cross. }} {{-}} * The '''paladin''' ([[File:Chess_alt45.svg|25x25px]]) is the counterpart of the bishop. It combines the movement powers of the bishop and the knight, so it can either slide diagonally like a bishop or jump like a knight, but not both in one turn. {{Chess diagram | tleft | |xo| | | | | | | | |xo| | | | | |xo | | |xo|xx| |xx|xo| | | |xx|xo| |xo|xx| | | | | |al| | | | | |xx|xo| |xo|xx| | | |xo|xx| |xx|xo| | |xo| | | | | |xo | Empty board }} {{-}} * The '''queen''' ([[File:Chess_qlt45.svg|25x25px]]) moves in the same manner as standard chess. * The '''knight king''' ([[File:Chess_Clt45.svg|25x25px]]), also known as the '''eques rex''', is the counterpart of the king. It combines the movement powers of the king and the knight, so it can either step one square in any direction like a king or jump like a knight, but not both in one turn. The knight king is royal and subject to the same check and checkmate rules as the standard king. Therefore it may not move into check, and must move out of check if attacked. There is no castling in cavalier chess. {{Chess diagram | tleft | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |xx| |xx| | | | |xx|xo|xo|xo|xx| | | | |xo|Cl|xo| | | | |xx|xo|xo|xo|xx| | | | |xx| |xx| | | | | | | | | | | | The knight king may step to any square marked with a dot or jump to any square marked with a cross. }} {{-}} === Grand Cavalier Chess === {{Chess diagram 10x10 | tright | | |cd|Kd|ad|qd|Cd|ad|Kd|cd| |md| | | | | | | | |md | |Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd|Nd| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl|Nl| |ml| | | | | | | | |ml | |cl|Kl|al|ql|Cl|al|Kl|cl| | Starting position of grand cavalier chess }} Grand cavalier chess is played on a 10 by 10 board, with all of the standard cavalier chess pieces plus two '''cannons'''. When moving passively, the cannon ([[File:Chess_mlt45.svg|25x25px]]) moves in the same manner as a standard rook. However, it has a unique method of capture - in order for a cannon to capture an enemy piece, there must be a third piece of either colour, called the ''screen'', in between the cannon and the target piece. When capturing the cannon jumps over the screen and captures the first enemy piece immediately beyond it. Note that a cannon may only jump when capturing, not when moving passively. It also cannot capture without jumping and cannot jump more than one piece in a single move. {{Chess diagram | tleft | | | |xo| | | | | | | |xo| | | | | | | |xo| | | | | |xo|xo|ml|xo|Nl| | |Nd | | |xo| | | | | | | |Ad| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The cannon may move to any square marked with a dot or it may capture the black cavalier on h5, using the white cavalier on e5 as its screen. }} {{-}} In addition, the promotion rules are different from standard cavalier chess - when a cavalier moves to the furthest rank from its starting position it may promote to any previously captured piece of the player's choosing. If no captured friendly pieces are available to promote to then the cavalier may not move to the last rank (but it can give check there). == Sub-variants == This chess variant does not not have any notable sub-variants.{{BookCat}} mucegbf0nlv92rm6rzjx50immbephig 5 483246 4634966 2026-05-09T14:41:54Z ~2026-28036-73 3582386 Created page with "active javascript ~~~~" 4634966 wikitext text/x-wiki active javascript [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28036-73|&#126;2026-28036-73]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28036-73|talk]]) 14:41, 9 May 2026 (UTC) spoix5vpunsuvdefxlkc5go0mef210j 4635053 4634966 2026-05-10T03:25:50Z MathXplore 3097823 Marking for speedy deletion: Test page 4635053 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Delete|example=false|Test page}}</noinclude> active javascript [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28036-73|&#126;2026-28036-73]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28036-73|talk]]) 14:41, 9 May 2026 (UTC) 6upscvogfa3jbkf75yuvs3xmiesymyh 3 483248 4634993 2026-05-09T18:00:27Z Omphalographer 3427146 /* Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories */ new section 4634993 wikitext text/x-wiki ==[[:Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]]== {{tmbox|type=delete|text='''LeventBulut, please [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories|share your thoughts]] about whether to [[WB:WIW|keep]] or [[WB:DP|delete]] "[[:Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories|Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]]".'''<br />You are being notified because you have contributed to this work. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:00, 9 May 2026 (UTC)}} 9bir7idm32gf62ifrxkrdfb41oqcp6h 0 483250 4635039 2026-05-10T00:21:53Z Y7at7Y 3582263 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Fianchetto gambit |eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B06]] |parent=[[Chess/Modern Defence|Modern Defence]] }} == 2...f5? · Fianchetto gambit == {{Chess/sideline}} A very bad gambit. Instead of developing their kingside bishop to g7, Black challenges White's center with f5, weakening the kingside significantly. '''3. exf5''' punishes this risky gambit. It turns out that the g-pawn doesn't defend f5 at all, as 3...gxf5?? 4. Qh5# is most embarassing. Ins..." 4635039 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Fianchetto gambit |eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B06]] |parent=[[Chess/Modern Defence|Modern Defence]] }} == 2...f5? · Fianchetto gambit == {{Chess/sideline}} A very bad gambit. Instead of developing their kingside bishop to g7, Black challenges White's center with f5, weakening the kingside significantly. '''3. exf5''' punishes this risky gambit. It turns out that the g-pawn doesn't defend f5 at all, as 3...gxf5?? 4. Qh5# is most embarassing. Instead, Black will have to settle for a weakened kingside after 3...d5 4. Bd3. This can also be reached from the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...f5/2. e4|Staunton Gambit]] through 1. d4 f5 2. e4 g6?. == Theory table == {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} {| |+ ! !3 !4 !5 ! |- !Fianchetto gambit |exf5 gxf5?? |Qh5# | |1-0 |- !Fianchetto gambit |exf5 d5 |Bd3 Qd6 |Nc3 gxf5 |± |- ! | | | | |} == References == {{Reflist}}{{ChessMid}}{{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{BookCat}} q9wghejtu9sy4j3pp71x5pil5603qoj 0 483251 4635041 2026-05-10T00:23:09Z Y7at7Y 3582263 Redirected page to [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...g6/2. d4/2...f5]] 4635041 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...g6/2. d4/2...f5]] 3ol3ue91xttd0stdr5819okf5djzdyy 0 483252 4635042 2026-05-10T00:26:05Z Y7at7Y 3582263 Redirected page to [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...g6/2. d4/2...Nf6]] 4635042 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...g6/2. d4/2...Nf6]] iuo7ei5fqxv0bjmln9spqb0wtuiyvw2 3 483253 4635051 2026-05-10T03:21:19Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4635051 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Spam</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[User talk:Omran Tokhi Nickname OT7|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 10 May 2026 (UTC) 5dx5x7txlhkg2ofa7g5xtixyrv47oai 3 483254 4635054 2026-05-10T03:25:50Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4635054 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:Wikibooks talk:EDIT]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Test page</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Wikibooks talk:EDIT|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:25, 10 May 2026 (UTC) 6scc0irsbiug2w1wls9rqvbh12ammrx 0 483255 4635064 2026-05-10T06:25:26Z ~2026-28218-14 3582543 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Vinogradov variation}} = Vinogradov Variation = Black develops their queen and defends e5 so Bxc6 leading to dxc6 Nxe5 isn't possible. However, this blocks the Bf8 and runs into a dangerous alignment with the rook after 4. O-O Nf6 5. Re1. == References == {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{bookcat}}" 4635064 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Vinogradov variation}} = Vinogradov Variation = Black develops their queen and defends e5 so Bxc6 leading to dxc6 Nxe5 isn't possible. However, this blocks the Bf8 and runs into a dangerous alignment with the rook after 4. O-O Nf6 5. Re1. == References == {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{bookcat}} kwdtwh9zu58tvqht3ltkn4vu77h6n6l 0 483256 4635065 2026-05-10T06:28:21Z ~2026-28218-14 3582543 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Fianchetto defence}} = Fianchetto Defence = Black allows their Bf8 to go to g7, which would place it on the long diagonal for activity. White can play a few moves, such as 4. Nc3 and 4. O-O as Black's quiet move doesn't interfere with White's development. == References == {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{bookcat}}" 4635065 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Fianchetto defence}} = Fianchetto Defence = Black allows their Bf8 to go to g7, which would place it on the long diagonal for activity. White can play a few moves, such as 4. Nc3 and 4. O-O as Black's quiet move doesn't interfere with White's development. == References == {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{bookcat}} egqqk8mlnm0ibrrk950mpznbodg161p 0 483257 4635066 2026-05-10T06:30:33Z ~2026-28218-14 3582543 Created page with "{{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Retreat variation}} = Retreat Variation = A poor, joke move which undevelops the Nc6. Black grants White a free lead in development uncontested, and this is rarely seen in serious play. Furthermore, the pawn on e5 is no longer defended by a piece. == References == {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{bookcat}}" 4635066 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|Retreat variation}} = Retreat Variation = A poor, joke move which undevelops the Nc6. Black grants White a free lead in development uncontested, and this is rarely seen in serious play. Furthermore, the pawn on e5 is no longer defended by a piece. == References == {{reflist}} {{NCO}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{bookcat}} 8plgsju0arhkelt7gzb26pl6lmbldqp 102 483258 4635095 2026-05-10T09:31:13Z Golgbachev 3581703 Article creation (AfroCuisine 2026) 4635095 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dounguouri Soko''' is a traditional Nigerien [[Dishwashing/Tools|dish]] widely appreciated in many rural communities across Niger. Simple, [[Nutrition|nutritious]], and flavorful, it reflects the authenticity of Sahelian cuisine. The dish is mainly prepared with local [[Cereal Grains Through History|cereals]], peanuts, and sometimes fresh vegetables, making it both affordable and highly nourishing. = Cultural Background = Dounguouri Soko originates from the culinary traditions of farming communities in Niger. In many villages, preparing the meal is considered a collective activity that strengthens social bonds. Women traditionally gather to cook large quantities during ceremonies, harvest periods, or important community events. The recipe may vary depending on the region and family customs. Some households include dried fish or smoked meat for additional flavor, while others prepare a vegetarian version enriched with leafy greens and local spices. == Ingredients == * '''2 cups''' white beans, ''soaked overnight'' * '''900 g''' lamb, ''cut into chunks'' * '''4 large''' onions, ''chopped'' * '''2 green bell peppers''' blended * '''2 red bell peppers''' blended * '''5 medium''' tomatoes, ''chopped'' * '''3 cloves''' garlic, ''minced'' * '''2 tbsp''' tomato paste * '''⅓ cup''' peanut oil * '''5 cups''' water or stock == Preparation == '''Prepare the Cereals''': wash the millet or sorghum thoroughly and allow it to drain. Bring water to a boil in a large cooking pot, then slowly add the cereals while stirring continuously.Simmer until just tender during '''50''' minutes. '''Brown lamb''': brown lamb in oil, then add onions and peppers and cook until softened, during '''15''' minutes. '''Simmer stew''': add tomatoes, tomato paste, garlic, cooked beans, and stock. Simmer until lamb and beans are tender during '''55''' minutes. '''Reduce''': simmer uncovered to thicken, then adjust salt and pepper, during '''10''' minutes. = Serving Suggestions = Dounguouri Soko is traditionally served hot and shared from a communal bowl, reflecting the spirit of hospitality and togetherness in Nigerien culture. It can be accompanied by fermented milk, spicy sauce, or grilled fish. For a more authentic flavor, freshly roasted peanuts and locally sourced millet are highly recommended. Some families also enrich the dish with smoked fish to increase its protein content. = Nutritional Benefits = This dish is highly nutritious and energy-rich. Millet and sorghum provide complex carbohydrates and fiber, while peanuts contribute healthy fats and plant-based proteins. When combined with leafy vegetables such as moringa, the meal also supplies essential vitamins and minerals. Because of its balanced nutritional profile, Dounguouri Soko is particularly suitable for people living in hot climates where sustained energy is important for daily agricultural activities. 0fzw1y2srqi1g3cwms7glj11n48pwb1 4635096 4635095 2026-05-10T09:36:53Z Golgbachev 3581703 Add infobox (AfroCuisine 2026) 4635096 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dounguouri Soko''' is a traditional Nigerien [[Dishwashing/Tools|dish]] widely appreciated in many rural communities across Niger. Simple, [[Nutrition|nutritious]], and flavorful, it reflects the authenticity of Sahelian cuisine. The dish is mainly prepared with local [[Cereal Grains Through History|cereals]], peanuts, and sometimes fresh vegetables, making it both affordable and highly nourishing. {{Recipe summary | Category = Cereal stew | Cuisine = Nigerien | Origin = Nigerien | Servings = 6 | Time = 150 min | Difficulty = 3 | Image = Dounguouri Soko | Energy = Calories: 560kJ, Protein: 39g, Carbs: 48g, Fat: 23g, Fiber: 14g. }} = Cultural Background = Dounguouri Soko originates from the culinary traditions of farming communities in Niger. In many villages, preparing the meal is considered a collective activity that strengthens social bonds. Women traditionally gather to cook large quantities during ceremonies, harvest periods, or important community events. The recipe may vary depending on the region and family customs. Some households include dried fish or smoked meat for additional flavor, while others prepare a vegetarian version enriched with leafy greens and local spices. == Ingredients == * '''2 cups''' white beans, ''soaked overnight'' * '''900 g''' lamb, ''cut into chunks'' * '''4 large''' onions, ''chopped'' * '''2 green bell peppers''' blended * '''2 red bell peppers''' blended * '''5 medium''' tomatoes, ''chopped'' * '''3 cloves''' garlic, ''minced'' * '''2 tbsp''' tomato paste * '''⅓ cup''' peanut oil * '''5 cups''' water or stock == Preparation == '''Prepare the Cereals''': wash the millet or sorghum thoroughly and allow it to drain. Bring water to a boil in a large cooking pot, then slowly add the cereals while stirring continuously.Simmer until just tender during '''50''' minutes. '''Brown lamb''': brown lamb in oil, then add onions and peppers and cook until softened, during '''15''' minutes. '''Simmer stew''': add tomatoes, tomato paste, garlic, cooked beans, and stock. Simmer until lamb and beans are tender during '''55''' minutes. '''Reduce''': simmer uncovered to thicken, then adjust salt and pepper, during '''10''' minutes. = Serving Suggestions = Dounguouri Soko is traditionally served hot and shared from a communal bowl, reflecting the spirit of hospitality and togetherness in Nigerien culture. It can be accompanied by fermented milk, spicy sauce, or grilled fish. For a more authentic flavor, freshly roasted peanuts and locally sourced millet are highly recommended. Some families also enrich the dish with smoked fish to increase its protein content. = Nutritional Benefits = This dish is highly nutritious and energy-rich. Millet and sorghum provide complex carbohydrates and fiber, while peanuts contribute healthy fats and plant-based proteins. When combined with leafy vegetables such as moringa, the meal also supplies essential vitamins and minerals. Because of its balanced nutritional profile, Dounguouri Soko is particularly suitable for people living in hot climates where sustained energy is important for daily agricultural activities. 17jggg289ef8yo6dygct24r8f8u96u2